“EXAMININGiTHEiFEASIBILITYiOFiCOLLECTIVISEDiFARMINGiINiINDIA,iTOiIMPROVEiAGRICULT

URALiPRODUCTIVITY”

iiiiii

iiiii INiPARTIALiFULFILLMENTiOFiTHEiREQUIREMENTSiFOR
MasteriofiManagementiStudiesi(UniversityiofiMumbai)

2020-2022

ROLLiiNumber:i-iC20

SUBMITTEDiTO:
DR.iV.iN.iBEDEKARiINSTITUTEiOFiMANAGEMENTiSTUDIES,iTHANE.

1
 DECLARATIONiBYiTHEiCANDIDATE

Thisiisitoicertifyiprojectireportientitledi“EXAMININGiTHEiFEASIBILITYiOFiCOLLECTIVISEDiFARMINGiINiiiiINDIA
,iTOiIMPROVEiAGRICULTURALiPRODUCTIVITY”iwhichiisisubmittedibyimeiinipartialifulfillmentiofitheirequirem
entiforitheiawardiofiMasteriofiManagementiStudies,
(UniversityiofiMumbai)iDr.iV.N.iBedekariInstituteiofiManagementiStudies,icomprisesiofimyioriginaliworkiandid
ueiacknowledgmentihasibeenimadeiinitheitextitoialliotherimaterialiused.

Whereveriireferencesiihaveiibeeniimadeiitoiiintellectualipropertiesiofianyiindividuali/
iInstitutioni/

iGovernmenti/

iPrivatei/

iPubliciBodiesi/

iUniversities,iresearchipaper,itextibooks,ireferenceibooks,iresearchimonographs,iarchivesiofinewspapers,icorp

orate,iindividuals,iibusinessi/
iGovernmentiandianyiotherisourceiofiintellectualipropertiesiviz.,ispeeches,iquotations,iconferenceiproceedin

gs,iextractsifromitheiwebsite,iworkingipaper,iseminaliworkietial,iitheyiihaveibeeniiclearlyiiindicated,idulyiackno
wledgediandiiincludediiiniitheiiBibliography.

____________________________________
Datei&iSignatureiiiofiiiCandidate

2
 CERTIFICATEiBYiTHEiGUIDE

Thisiisitoicertifyithatiprojectireportientitledi“EXAMININGiTHEiFEASIBILITYiOFiCOLLECTIVISEDiFARMINGiINiiiiI
NDIA,iTOiIMPROVEiAGRICULTURALiPRODUCTIVITY”iwhichiisisubmittedibyiHARSHADiGORADKARiinipartialif
ulfillmentiofitheirequirementiforitheiawardiofiMasteriofiManagementiStudies,
(UniversityiofiMumbai)iDr.iV.N.iBedekariInstituteiofiManagementiStudies,iiisiairecordiofitheicandidate'siowniw
orkicarriedioutibyihimiunderimyiguidance.iTheimatteriembodiediinithisireportiisioriginaliandidueiacknowledg
mentihasibeenimadeiinitheitextitoialliotherimaterialiused.

Guide'siName:iPRAVINiNARANGi

AuthorizediSignatory:

Date:

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
i

Executioniofitheiprojectiofithisinatureiisiimpossibleiwithoutiactiveisupportifromifacultyiguideiandiprofessorsiof
itheiinstitution.iIiwouldilikeitoithankimyiprojectiguideiProf.iPRAVINiNARANGiforiheriactiveiguidanceithrou

ghoutitheiproject.

4
 INDEX

Sr.iNoi Contenti PageiNoi

1.i TitleiPageii 1i

2.i DeclarationibyitheiCandidateii 2i

3.i CertificateibyitheiGuideii 3i

4.i Acknowledgementii 4i

5.i TableiofiContentiiINDEX 5i

6.i Introductioni 6i

7.i Literatureireview 10

8.i ResearchiMethodologyi 13

ii9.1ResearchiDesign

ii9.2iCollectioniofidata

9.i ResultsiandiDiscussion i16

10.1)iPOTENTIALiGAINSiFROMiBOTTOM-UPiCOLLECTIVITIES
10.2)iGROUPiFARMING:iGROUNDiEXAMPLES

10.i Conclusion 20

11. BibliographyiandiReferencesi 23

Chapter 1 i

Introduction
5
7)INTRODUCTION
Grassrootsiactioniarounditheiworldidemonstratesithatipooripeople'sicollectivesicaniimproveitheiriwell-
beingiiniwaysithatiindividualiapproachesican't:iiticaniboostitheiriincomes,iself-
esteem,iabilityitoichallengeistructuraliinequalitiesiandioppressiveisocialinorms,iandibargainingipoweriinimarket
s,iatihome,iandiwithitheigovernment.iEmpowermentiisiparticularlyiessentialibecauseiitirecognisesitheipooriasia
gentsiratherithanijustiasiwelfareireceivers,iandiitiisimoreilikelyitoiresultiinilong-
termiadvantages.iRuraliareasiareihomeitoi2.1ibillionipeopleiwhoiliveionilessithani$2iperidayi(andi880imillioniw
hoiliveionilessithani$1).iTheimajorityiofithemiworkiiniagriculturei(WorldiBanki2008).iTheimajorityiareismallian
dimarginalifarmers,imanyiareilandlessiagriculturalilabourers,iandiwomenihaveibecomeiailargeripartiofitheipopu
lationiinirecentidecades.iWomenimakeiupianiestimatedi70%iofithoseilivingiiniabsoluteipovertyiworldwide,iandi
theinumberiofiruraliwomenilivingiiniabsoluteipovertyihasiincreasedibyi50%iinitheilastitwoidecades,icomparedit
oi30%iforiruralimeni(figuresicitediinitheiUNIFEMiwebisitei2008).i

Inimostiemergingiregions,itheiagriculturalitransitionihasibeeniextremelyigendered,iwithimalesimovingitoinon-
farmiemploymentiinisignificantlyigreaterinumbersithaniwomen.iAgriculture,iforiexample,iemploysi57ipercenti
ofiIndia'sipopulationiyetiaccountsiforionlyi18ipercentiofitheicountry'siGDP.iAgrarianitransitionihasibeenisluggis
hiandivisiblyigendered,iwithipooriagriculturaligrowthirates.iAsimalesileaveiagriculture,iwomeniareiincreasingly
ibeingileftibehindionifarms,iresultingiiniaifeminisationiofiagriculture.iIni2004-

05,iagricultureiemployedi49ipercentiofimaleiworkers,i65ipercentiofiallifemaleiworkers,iandi83ipercentiofiruralif
emaleiworkersi(NSSOi2004-
05),iandithisiratioiisiincreasing.iBecauseiofiwidowhood,imarriageidissolution,iorimaleioutmigration,ianiestimat
edi35%iofihouseholdsiareideifactoifemale-
headed.iTheiIndianifarmer'sidemographiciprofileitodayiisiailongicryifromitheiyoung,iarticulate,inew-
technology-
seekingiprofileipopularisedibyitheiKrishiiDarshaniTVishowiinithei1970s.iFarmisizeiisialsoidecreasing:i70%iofif
armsioperatedilessithani1ihectareiini2003,icompareditoi56%iini1982i(GoIi2008),iandilandlessnessiisionitheirisei
(Rawali2008).iWomenimakeiupitheimajorityiofitheilandless,ioftenihavinginoilandiofitheiriownidespiteibeingibor
niorimarriediintoiailandedifamilyi(Agarwali1994,i2003).iGiveniintra-
householdiresourceidistributioniinequities,ithereiareipooriwomeniininon-
poorihouseholdsiwhoseilabouricontributionsi(asiunpaidifamilyiworkers)iareiofteniinconspicuous,iandiwhoirem
ainiatomizediandiisolatediasiemployees.i

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TheiIndianifarmer'sidemographiciprofileitodayiisiailongicryifromitheiyoung,iarticulate,inew-technology-
seekingiprofileipopularisedibyitheiKrishiiDarshaniTVishowiinithei1970s.iFarmisizeiisialsoidecreasing:i70%iofif
armsioperatedilessithani1ihectareiini2003,icompareditoi56%iini1982i(GoIi2008),iandilandlessnessiisionitheirisei
(Rawali2008).iWomenimakeiupitheimajorityiofitheilandless,ioftenihavinginoilandiofitheiriownidespiteibeingibor
niorimarriediintoiailandedifamilyi(Agarwali1994,i2003).iGiveniintra-
householdiresourceidistributioniinequities,ithereiareipooriwomeniininon-
poorihouseholdsiwhoseilabouricontributionsi(asiunpaidifamilyiworkers)iareiofteniinconspicuous,iandiwhoirem
ainiatomizediandiisolatediasiemployees.

Inithisipaper,iwhichicouldibeidescribediasiaipolicyithinkipiece,iIisuggestithatiweineediainewiinstitutionaliapproa
chitoiruralidevelopmenti-iaigroupiapproachi–
itoialleviateiruralipoverty,iparticularlyiamongiwomen,ianditoienergiseiagriculturaligrowth.iForiaddressingidepri

vationiamongiruralipopulationsiandiboostingitheiriproductiveicapacity,isuchianiapproachicouldiproveitoibeifari
moreieffectiveithaniindividual-orientediinitiatives,iespeciallyiiniresource-
scarceisettings.iToiputiitianotheriway,iweineeditoilookiintoiotheriinstitutionaliarrangementsiforifarmingithanijust
isingle-

familyifarming,iwhichiisitheistandardiandifrequentlyithoughtitoibeiaimoreiefficientikindiofibusinessithaniaicolle
ctivity.iToiembraceiallisortsioficooperatives,iIiuseitheitermi"collectivity"iratherithani"collectives"iori"cooperati
ves."i

Aniagriculturalicollectivityicanitakeimanyidifferentiforms,iasicanitheilevelioficommunalieffort,irangingifromisi
mpleicollaborativeiinvestmentiinicapitaliinputsitoijointiproduction.iIidiscussitheipotentialibenefitsiofiagricultura
licollectivities,iparticularlyicooperativeifarming,iandihowitheyimightihelpitheiruralipoor,iparticularlyiwomen,ib
ecomeiagentsiofitheiriowniempowerment.i2iHowever,iIicontendithatitheiorganisationiofisuchicollectivitiesiwou
ldihaveitoidivergeisignificantlyifromiearlyihistoricaliexperiencesioficollectiveifarmingiinicommunistiandiotheri
contexts.iSignificantielementsiofiaihumanirights-
basediapproachitoidevelopment,isuchiasiequity,iaccountability,iparticipation,ianditheiempowermentiofidisadva
ntagedigroups,iwouldineeditoibeiincludediinitheinewicollectivities.

Iiuseitwoisortsiofiinstancesitoishowithatisuchicollectivitiesiareinotijustiaitheoreticaliconstructibutihaveiaibasisiini
modernireality.iOneiconcernsicountriesithatiunderwentifarmicollectivisationiandithenide-
collectivised,ibutiwhereimanyifamiliesielecteditoicreateinewiproductionicooperativesinotwithstandingitheichoic

7
eiofiindependentifamilyifarmingiafteridecollectivisation.iTheiotheriisiaboutiwomen'sicooperativeifarmingiiniso
utherniIndia.iAlthoughithereiareiotherisortsiofiproductionicollectivities,isuchiasithoseifoundediaroundifishifarm
ingioricommunityiforestry,igroupifarmingiisiofiparticularisignificanceibecauseiitiinvolvesiaimajoriresourcei-
iagriculturalilandi–

iandithereiareilargeinumbersiofipeopleiwhoirelyioniitiforiailiving.iAccessitoiland,iasiwelliasitheiabilityitoifarmiiti

productively,icanibeicritical.

Becauseigroupifarmingihasiailongiandimainlyiunsuccessfulihistory,iI'llistartibyilayingioutitheikeyicharacteristic
sithatihaveibeeniidentifiediasicontributingitoitheifailureiofipreviousiinitiativesioniaivarietyiofifronts.iTheniIigoio
veritheivariousitraitsithatiagriculturalicollectivitiesiareilikelyitoirequireiiniorderitoisucceed.iIinextigiveiinstances
iofieffectiveiagriculturaliproductionicollectivitiesifromibothioutsideiandiinsideiSouthiAsiaithaticontainisomeiori

alliofitheseiqualities.iFinally,iIilookiatihowiIndia'sisuccess,iparticularlyiwithiwomen'sicooperativeifarming,icoul
dibeireproducediandiitsigeographicireachiandiimpactiexpanded.iTheiexamplesiprovidediareifromispecificiregio
ns,ibutiaicooperativeiapproachitoiagricultureiinvestmentiandiproductioniwouldibeiapplicableiarounditheiglobe.

Itiisiworthinoting,ihowever,ithatithisistudyiisinotiwritteniwithinitheicontextiofiaibroaderilandireformiframework,
iwhichihasisparkedisignificanticonceptualiandipolicyidebateiinirecentiyears.i4iRather,imyimainifocusiisionitheip

ossibilityiofiaigroupistrategyiinieconomicallyiandisociallyistrengtheningidisadvantagedifarmingihouseholds,ire
gardlessiofitheisourceiofitheirilandi-
iinheritance,imarkets,ioristateitransfers.iStateitransfersiofilanditoitheipoor,iforiexample,icanioccurinotijustiinithei

contextiofiredistributiveilandireform,ibutialsoiiniothericircumstances,isuchiasiresettlingihouseholdsidisplacedib
yimassiveidamsiorinaturalicatastrophesi(eig,iaitsunami).iAicommunaliapproach,ionitheiotherihand,icanihelpitheii
mpoverishediacquireiaccessitoilandithroughitheimarketi(asielaboratedifurtheribelow).
Sincei1970-
71,itheiaverageiannualigrowthirateiiniIndianiagricultureihasibeeniaroundi3%,isomewhatihigherithanitheipopulat
ionibutisignificantlyilowerithanitheiwholeieconomy,iwhichiincludesiagriculture,iindustry,iandiservices.iAsiaires
ult,iwhileiper-
capitaiagriculturalioutputihasirisenisteadily,iagriculture'sipercentageiofiGDPihasidecreased.iTheiincreaseiiniper-
capitaiagriculturaliproductivityihasihelpeditoirelieveipressureionitheicountry'sifoodiandinutritionisecurity.iUnfo
rtunately,iagriculturaliproductionidevelopmentiisicharacterisedibyiswings;ieachitimeiofihighigrowthiisifollowed
ibyiaiperiodiofilowigrowth.iThisicyclicalipatterniisirepresentediiniannualigrowthiratesiofiroughlyi3%iinithei10thi

Plan,i4%iinithei11thiPlan,iandionlyi1.7ipercentiinitheifirstiPlan.i

8
MostiAsianicountriesifaceimajorichallengesiiniachievingifoodisecurityiforiaigrowingipopulationiandialleviating
ipovertyiwhileimaintainingiagriculturalisystemsiinitheicurrentiscenarioiofidepletinginaturaliresources,inegativei

impactsioficlimaticivariability,ispirallingiinputicosts,iandivolatileifoodiprices.iIniadditionitoitheseiissues,itheima
iniindicationsiofiagriculturalisysteminon-
sustainabilityiincludeisoilierosion,isoiliorganicimatteriloss,iandisalinization.iSoiliorganicimatteriloss,isoilistruct
uralidegradation,iwateriandiwindierosion,iloweriwateripenetrationirates,isurfaceisealingiandicrusting,isoilicomp
action,iIiinsufficientiorganicimaterialireturn,iandi(ii)imonocroppingiareitheimainicauses.iAsiairesult,ieliminatin
giunsustainableiaspectsioficonventionaliagriculturei(ploughing/
tillingitheisoil,idestroyingialliorganicimaterial,imonoculture)irequiresiaiparadigmishiftiinifarmingioperations.

7.1)iTheiadvantagesioficollectivization
Labourimanagement:iOneiofitheimostisignificantibenefitsiofitheicollectiveiisitheiopportunityitoisaveitime,iwhic
hiisiparticularlyiimportantiforiwomeniinitheicontextiofimaleioutmigration,iwhereitheiworkistressihasihadiailong-
termiandinegativeiinfluenceioniwomen'siwell-
being.iPlantationiandiharvestingichores,iforiexample,ihaveitraditionallyirequiredisomeihired-
inilabour,iandigettingiemployeesionitimeicanibeiaimajorichallenge.iPlantationithatiisipostponedicaniresultiinired
ucediproduction.iWithicollectiveiproduction,ihowever,iallidutiesiareicompletediasiaigroup,iandithisiisinoilongeri
aniissue.iMembersiofitheigroupialsoimentionedithatiinitheipast,ieachifarmeriwasiresponsibleiforifollowingiupion
iresponsibilitiesilikeigoingitoitheimarketitoibuyifertiliser.iIticaninowibeiassigneditoioneiperson.

Theioperationiofiaicontiguousiplotiandiimprovediirrigation:iToidealiwithilabouriconstraint,iaicollectiveiorganisa
tionicanimoreieasilyiraiseifundsiforiinvestmentsiiniagriculturaliequipmentisuchiasitractors,iand,imoreicrucially,i
irrigationiequipmentitoiimproveidroughtiresistance.iThisican,ioficourse,ibeiaccomplishedithroughitraditionalim
arketingioriinputisupplyicooperatives,iiniwhichiaisingleiinvestmentiisisharedibyiainumberiofihouseholds.iTheigr
oupiwouldihaveitheiadvantageiofioperatingiaicontiguousiplotiifitheyipooleditheirilandiasiwell.iFarmersiwouldib
eiableitoimakeibetteriuseiofitubeiwellsiandipumpisetsiasiairesultiofithis.iInitheifield,iinterviewsiandifocusigroupsi
foundithatirentediandiownedilandiparcelsiareicommonlyidispersedioverivariousiareas,iposingiaisignificantiimpe
dimentitoiirrigationiextensioniandimechanisation.
IrrigationibecomesiailotimoreiviableiiniBhagwatipurinowithatitheifarmersiareigrowingiaicontiguousiplotiofilandi
ratherithaniseparateirentediholdings,ianditheyicanishareitheiexpenditures.iMembersiofitheigroupistatedithatiinith
eipast,itheiquantityiofilandicultivatediduringitheiwinteridryiseasoniwasideterminedibyitheiamountiofileftoverimo
nsoonimoistureiremainingiinitheisoil.iLargeisectionsiwouldibeileftiemptyiafteritheiriceiwasiharvested,iawaitingi
nextiyear'sirains,idueitoitheihighiexpenseiofiirrigation,iwhichireliesioniexpensiveidieselipumpisets.iDuringitheiw

9
interiseason,ithough,itheigroupisharediaipumpisetiandiraniiticollectively.iTheyicultivatedipotatoes,iasiwelliasitra
ditionalistaplesilikeiasicorn,iafterireceivingitrainingiiniwaterimanagementiusingitheiridgeiandifurrowimethod.
Increasedibargainingipower:iTenantiproductionicooperativesialsoichangeitheihistoricallyiunevenirelationshipib
etweenitenantsiandilandowners.iLocalilandownersihaveialreadyiexpresseditheirisupportiforitheienhancediprodu
ctivity,iwhichiprovidesithemiwithianiincentiveitoiinvesticapitaliinitheirilandioripushitheiritenantsitoibetterilandiu
sageiorimanagement.iTenantsiareiincreasinglyimeetingiwithilandownersitoidiscussilandiinvestmentsiandicroppi
ngidecisions,iwhichiwereipreviouslyireporteditoibeiuncommon.
Initheilongirun,iitiisiintendedithatitenants'icollectiveibargainingipoweriwilliimproveiwheninegotiatingirentalicon
tracts,iresultingiiniaishiftiawayifromiexploitativeisharecroppingisystemsianditowardifixedicashirenticontracts.iT
heicollectiveimayialsoibeiableitoinegotiateiwithitheilandlordiforiotheriservices,isuchiasitheiproductioniofinecess
aryidocumentationiforispecificisubsidiesithatiareioftenioutiofireachiforitenantsiwhoidoinotihaveitheiassistanceiof
itheirilandlord.iInitheilongirun,iifiaicomprehensiveilandireformiprogrammeiisicompleted,iaicollectiveileaseimayi

makeiitieasieriforitenantsitoiassertitheirilegalirightsitoitenureisecurity.iIticouldialsoibeiaipreliminaryitoiaigroupia
cquiringiaiplotitogetheri(Agarwal,i2010).

10
 Chapter2
Literature review
i

11
8)iLiteratureireview
Academicsiandipolicymakersiareibothiinterestediinitheiadoptioniofinewitechnologyiiniagricultureibecauseiitiisid
irectlyitieditoitheiefficiencyiofianiagriculturaliresearchiandiextensionisystemi(Bozemani2000).iStrongeriadoptio
niassuresiaihigherireturnioniinvestmentiiniR&D,iasiwelliasiaicycleiofiproduction-
ledieconomiciandiruralilivelihoodiimpact.iUnfortunately,ithereiareimanyiexamplesiofipromisingitechnologyitha
tihaveibeenirejectedibyifarmers,iparticularlyismallholdersiiniunderdevelopedinations.iTheseitechnologiesifrequ
entlyidoinotifitiwelliintoiheterogeneousismallholderisystemsithatirequireiuniqueitechnologicalisolutions.iFarme
rs'iresponsesitoivariousitechnologiesiaimediatiboostingifarmiproductioniandinaturaliresourceimanagementiareif
requentlyiinfluencedibyithisiinherentiunpredictabilityi(Lalietial.i2001;iEmtageiandiSuhi2005).iTheiriunderrepre
sentation,iunderestimation,iandiomissionifromiofficialistatisticsiandipolicyiframeworki(Chambersietial.i1989).i
Historically,itheiclassiciGreeniRevolutionitechnologiesiandi'technologyitransfer'iparadigmihaveifaileditoimeetit
heineedsiofitheseidiversifiediresource-pooriagro-
ecosystemsiinidevelopingicountriesi(PenderiandiHazelli2001).iExtensioniprovidediblanketirecommendationsif
orihugeigeographiciareasiandiwasiprimarilyiutilisediasiaideterministici'darticannon,'ii.e.i'takeitheitechnologyian
ditransferiititoifarmers'i(Rolingi1988).iTheivariabilityiofifarmingisystems,iwhichinecessitatesivarieditechnologi
es,ihasibeenisadlyioverlooked.i

Asiairesult,ifarmitypologyiresearchiisiusefuliforideterminingipreciseiandisuccessfulitechnicalisolutions.iFarmer
siareinotiaihomogenousigroup,iaccordingitoifarmitypologyiresearch,ianditheyiconfrontivaryingiconstraintsiinith
eiriagriculturalidecisionsidependingionitheiresourcesiavailableitoithemianditheirilifestylei(Soulei2001).iSmallifa
rmers,iaccordingitoiEllisi(1993),iareialwaysiandieverywhereicharacterisedibyiinternalivariabilityialongiseveralil
ines.iDespiteitheifactithatieachifarmiandifarmeriisidistinctiininature,itheyicanibeigroupediintoibroadlyisimilarity
pes.iTheicreationiofiaitypologyiisiainecessaryistepiinianyirealisticiassessmentiofitheiconstraintsiandiopportunitie
sithatifarmersiface,iasiitiaidsiinitheidevelopmentiofiappropriateitechnologicalisolutions,ipolicyiinterventionsi(G
anpatiandiBekelei2001,iTimothyi1994;iVanclayi2005),iandiaicomprehensiveienvironmentaliassessmenti(Ander
senietial.i2009).

Initermsiofiagro-
ecologyiandiresourceiendowments,iIndianifarmersiareidiverse,ithereforeitransferringirelevantitechnologyirequi
resicarefulitargeting.iThisichallengeiisiworsenediinitheicountry'sicomplex-diverse-risk-proneicoastaliagro-
ecosystems,iwhichicoveriaroundi10imillionihectaresioficultivatedilandiandiareicharacterisedibyiaivarietyiofibio-
physicaliandisocio-

12
economicirestrictions,iasiwelliasiaidiversityiofilivelihoods.iAgriculturaliresearchiisicurrentlyifocusedioni15iagr
o-climaticizonesiandi127isub-
regionsibasedioniaicomprehensiveianalysisiofistateiresearchi(Khannai1989).iSuchicategoriesidoinotitakeiintoiac
countisocioeconomicioristructuraliissues.iFarmersiareiclassifiedibyieconomistsibasedionitheirilandholdings,iwh
ichiisiinsufficientiforidescribingicomplicatedifarmingisystems.iForiclassificationiofifarmingisystems,itheiIndian
iCounciliofiAgriculturaliResearchi(ICAR)iconsideredinumerousiparameters,ihoweveritheibasisiwereiprimarilyi

discussion-basediwithiinsufficientistatisticalidata.

Atitheimicroilevel,ifarmericategorisationicouldibeiusefuliforilocaliseditechnologyisolutionsiandiextendediassist
ance.iWhenitheifarmingisystemiwasiatiitsipeak,iiConceptualizationiofitheirecommendationidomain,iresearchian
diextensioniparadigmiiThisiisisomethingiI'diwantitoitalkiabout.iAirecommendationidomainiisiaigroupiofifarmers
ithatihaveiagreeditoiworkitogether.iiBecauseitheirisituationsiareisufficientlyisimilar,itheyiareibothieligibleiforithe

isameirecommendation.ii(1984,iHarringtoniandiTrip).iAsiairesult,ieducateditechnologyidecisionsiwereimade.iiS

mallholderisystemsihaveimoreimanagersiandiaihigherirateiofitechnologyiintegration.iClassificationiSomeiautho
rsi(Conroyiandiothers)ihaveiadvisedithatifarmersitakeicontroliofitheirifarmingicircumstances.iGoswamiietial.i20
12;iSutherlandi2004).

13
 Chapter3
Research Methodology
i

14
9)iResearchiMethodology

Historically,ithereiwereitwoisortsiofiagriculturalicollectivities:iproductionicollectivitiesithatiinvolvedisomeifor
mioficollectiveicultivation,iandiserviceicollectivitiesithatiprovidedicredit,iinputs,iorimarketing.iProductionicolle
ctivitiesiwereimainlyiunsuccessful,iparticularlyiinitheiearlyiperiodi(thoughitheilateritaleiisimoreicomplicated),i
whereasiserviceicooperativesiwereirelativelyisuccessful.

InisocialisticountriesilikeitheiUSSR,iEasterniEurope,iChina,iandiNorthiVietnam,ijointicultivationiwasiprimarily
iassociatediwithicollectivization,ibutiinithei1960siandi1970s,inon-

socialisticountriesilikeiEcuadoriandiNicaraguaiiniLatiniAmerica,iEthiopiaiandiTanzaniai(theiUjaamaipolicy)iini
Africa,iIsraeli(theikibbutz)iinitheiMiddleiEast,iandioniaismalleriscaleiiniIndiaialsoimadeisignificantiefforts.iAith
oroughiexaminationiofitheseiearlyiexperiences—inialliofitheirivariety,icomplexity,iandigeographicivariation—
requiresispecialistischolarlyiresearchithatiisibeyonditheiscopeiofithisipaper.iHowever,ianiemphasisioniseveralim
ajorielementsithatiareiknownitoihaveicontributeditoitheirifailure,iasiindicatedihereiinibroadibrushstrokes,iisiinte
ndeditoioffericontextiforitheicurrentidiscussion5ianditoidemarcateithoseiearlyistages.

Coerciveipoolingiofismallipeasantifarms,icompulsoryirequisitioningiofiproduce,ivastisizesiofiproductionienterp
rises,ifarmers'ilackiofivoiceiinimanagementidecisions,iandihiddeniasiwelliasiexplicitiformsiofisocio-
economiciinequality,iincludingigenderiinequality,iwereiallicharacteristicsiofisocialisticollectivization.i6iIniother
iwords,itheyidisobeyedialliofitheiaforementionediprinciplesiofiaihumanirightsiapproach.iInitheiearlyiyears,itheie

ffectsiofiextensiveiforcedicollectivizationioniproductivityiandihumaniwellbeingiwereimostlyinegative.i7iTheyi
wereilinkeditoifaminesianditheideathsiofimillionsiofihumansiandianimalsiinitheiSovietiUnioniandiChina.iSomei
EasterniEuropeanicountries,isuchiasiHungary,iavoidedithisidestinyibyichangingicourseishortlyiafteriinitiatingic
ollectivizationiandiabolishingicompulsoryilabour.iPersuasioniquicklyigaveiwayitoicompulsioniiniotheriplaces,is
uchiasiNorthiVietnam,iwhenipressureiforirapidicollectivizationiintensifiediandiproductioniandilivingicircumsta
ncesideterioratedi(Kerkvlieti2003).iLini(1990)iemphasisesitheirelevanceiofivoluntariness—
theifreedomitoileaveitheicollective—
inidecidingitheiinfluenceioniproductivityiiniChina,iblamingitheicollapseiofiChineseiagriculturaliproductioniini1
959–61ioni"theilossiofitheirightitoiwithdrawifromitheicollectiveiinitheifalliofi1958."

WestiBengaliisiIndia'sieasternmostistateiandioneiofitheicountry'simostiimportantiagriculturaliproducers.iItihasiai
highipopulationidensityi(976ipeopleiperisquareikilometre)iandiaiwideirangeiofifarmingisystems.iAgricultureiisit

15
heimainstayiofiruralilives,iwithismalliandimarginalifarmersiaccountingiforiroughlyi90%ioficultivatorsiandi84ipe
rcentiofitheistate'siagriculturaliareas.iAfteritheiStateiGovernmentienacteditheiOperationiBargaisystemi(landirefo
rmimovement),ianotheri3imillionilandlessifamiliesihaveiwonitheirightitoicultivateiandigrowicropsionitheiriownil
andi(GoWBi2005).iDueitoitheihighipopulationidensity,icultivableilandihasibeenifragmentediunabatedly,iandifar
misizesiareiinsufficientitoisustainilifestyles.iFurthermore,irisingiagriculturaliinputiprices,iuncertainipricesiforipe
rishableiagriculturalioutput,iinsufficientimarketiinfrastructure,iandidistressedisalesiofiproduceibyismalliandimar
ginalifarmersiareionlyiaifewiofitheiissuesithreateningitheistate'sifarmisector'silong-
termiviability.iInitheilackiofiproperitechnical,isocial,ifinancial,iandimarketireforms,itheifarmingicommunity'siso
cioeconomicisituationiisideterioratingi(NABCOMi2009).

WestiBengaliisidividediintoisixiagro-
climaticizonesibasedioniclimate,isoil,iandiphysiography.iSouthi24iParganasidistrictiisipartiofitheiCoastaliSalinei
Zonei(Figurei1)i(GajbhiyeiandiMandali2008),ioneiofitheilargestiZonesiwithihighicroppingiintensityi(143ipercen
t)ii.e.itheiratioiofigrossitoineticultivatedilandiinipercentageiterms,iandicoveringipartiorialliofisixiWestiBengalidist
ricts.iWithi1796.2immiofirainfalliandiaiwideirangeiofiairitemperaturesi(highi35.0°C,iminimumi15.6°C),itheicli
mateiisitropicalimoistisub-humid.iRiceiisitheiprimaryicropifarmedioveriaivarietyiofilanditypesiandiseasons.iPre-
kharifi(earlyiwetiseason)icropsiincludeiausi(springipaddy),isesame,iandigreenigramme,iasiwelliasijuteiandiaman
irice.

ii9.1ResearchiDesign

ThisiStudyiisibasedionisecondaryidata,ithusithisiresearchidesigniisidescriptiveiresearch.

ii9.2iCollectioniofidata

Thisistudyiisibasedionisecondaryidataithatiisiavailableionivariousiwebsitesiandiofficialiportals

16
 Chapter4
Results and Discussion
i i

17
10)iResultsiandiDiscussioni

Aisuccessfuliframeworkiforismallifarmeriagricultureithatialsoiadheresitoitheipreceptsiofiaihumanirights-
basediapproachitoidevelopmentinecessitatesiaiproductionicollectivityithatiisivastlyidifferentifromitheseiearlyihi
storicalimodels.iWeimightisuggestithaticollectivitiesishouldibeiframediaroundiatileastisixiprinciplesibasedionith
eilessonsilearned:

•iSocio-economicihomogeneity,ioripronouncedisocialiconnectionsiamongimembers
•iParticipatoryidecision-makingiiniproduction,imanagement,iandidistributioni
•iSmallisize,isayigroupsiofi10–12iori15–20ifarmers
•iGroupimanagementioveritheireturnsiandiaifairidistributioniofitheibenefits,iasichosenitransparentlyibyitheimem
bers,iandi
•iChecksiandipunishmentsiforipreventingifreeiridingiandienforcingiaccountability.

Asidiscussedibelow,itheisuccessfulicasesiofiagriculturaliproductionicollectivitiesitoday
haveimostiorialliofitheseifeatures.

10.1)iPOTENTIALiGAINSiFROMiBOTTOM-UPiCOLLECTIVITIES

Collectiveifarmiactivityicanivaryifromisimpleicooperativeiinvestmentiinilumpyi(physicallyiindivisible)iinputsili
keiagriculturalimachineryitoilandipoolingiandijointicultivationibyismallilandowners,iandievenijointilandiacquisi
tionithroughipurchaseiorilease.iIniareasiwhereismalliandimarginalifarmersipredominate,icooperatingitogetherira
therithaniindividuallyicouldiresultiiniincreasediproductivityiandibargainingistrength.iThisiisilikelyitoibeitheicase
ievenimoreisoiforifemaleifarmers.iIniIndia,iforiexample,idespiteitheifactithatifemaleifarmersiareibecomingimorei

common,ifewiwomenihaveidirectiaccessitoiagriculturaliland.iFamiliesitransmitilanditoimaleiheirsiinitheimajorit
yioficases,itheistateitransfersilanditoimaleihouseholdiheadsiinitheimajorityioficases,iandimarketsifavourimeniove
riwomenisinceitheyihaveimoreifinancialimeansi(Agarwali1994,i2003).iIniadditionitoimaleibiasiiniextensioniandi
creditiaccess,iwomenifarmersiconfrontisocialirestrictionsionitheirimovementiandiinteractionsiinitheimarketplac
e,iwhichiobstructiinputiprocurementiandiproductisale.i17iWomenimakeiupiaismallipercentageiofiserviceicooper
ativeimembers.iConsequently,iwhileipolicymakersiinidevelopingicountriesirecogniseithatiagricultureimustiprov
ideibothihigherioutputiandiviableilivelihoods,itheirecentiemphasisioniinfrastructurei(irrigation,iroads,ietc.)iandir
esearchiandiextensioniinicountriesisuchiasiIndiai(see,ie.g.,ithei11thiFiveiYeariPlan:iGOIi2008)ibegsitheiquestion

18
:ihowiwillismall,imarginal,iandiincreasinglyifemaleifarmersihaveiaccessitoitheseiresources?
iAimoreicollaborative,ibottom-upiapproachitoifarmingicouldibeitheianswer.

Aicollectiveiapproach,iatitheiveryileast,icouldiassistismalliandimarginalifarmersiinimakingilumpyiinvestmentsib
yipoolingifinancialiresources.iFarmersiwithioneioritwoihectaresiofiland,iespeciallyiififragmented,icannotiaffordi
toiinvestiinitubewells,imachineryisuchiasitractors,iorievenikeepiaipairiofibullocks.iWaterileasingiinvolvesiotheri
elements,isuchiasinegotiatingiairouteiforiwaterichannelsiandicontrollingiwateriflows,iwhichiareiallimoreidifficul
ti(ifiatiallipossible)itoiaccomplishithroughirentaliarrangements.iHere,iaisolutionicouldibeifoundiinitheiformiofiai
cooperativeiinvestmentibyismallifarmersiwithiadjacentiplots.iRainwateriharvestingiandisoiliconservationiareial
soimoreicost-effectiveiforigroupsithaniforiindividuals.

Furthermore,iaigroupistrategyicaniexpandimarketiaccessitoilandiforitheilandless.iWheniiticomesitoipurchasingio
rileasingiland,igroupsicanibeifarimoreieffectiveithaniindividualsibyicombiningifinancialiresourcesiandinegotiati
ngitogether.iThisiwouldibenefitiwomeniiniparticular,iasitheyioftenilackitheifinancialiresourcesitoiactieffectivelyi
inilandimarkets.iThisiprocedureicouldibeiaidedibyigovernment-
subsidizedifinanceiforigroupilandipurchasesiorileases.

Groupifarming,ionitheiotherihand,ientailsiaiconsiderablyihigherilevelioficollaborationithanijustipoolingiownedio
rijointlyileasediland,iandiisimoreidifficultitoiimplement,ibutiiticanialsoideliverilargeriproductivityiincreasesiandi
socialiempowermentithaniindividualiproductioniunits,iforiaivarietyiofireasons.iForistarters,iiticanihelpishareithei
riskiofifarmingiamongiaibroaderinumberiofipeopleiwhileialsoiincreasingioutputiprospects.iFarmersiwouldibeibe
tteripositioneditoiexperimentiwithihigher-
value,imoreiriskyicropsiwithilargeripayoffsiifitheyicultivatediasiaicollective.iBecauseiaicollectiveipooliofilandiis
imoreilikelyitoiincludeisoilivariability,iitiwouldialsoiexpandicropidiversificationioptions.

Second,ilandipoolingicaniimproveicultivableiareaibyieliminatingifieldiboundariesiandibundling,iallowingitheisa
vediareaitoibeicultivatedi(seeialsoiGangulii1953).iFragmentationiwouldibeilessenedibyiallowingiconsolidation.

Third,ijointicultivationifacilitatesilabourisharingiandiquickireplacementiforiaimemberiwhoiisitemporarilyiunabl
eitoiworkidueitoiillnessioriotheriunforeseenicircumstances.iThisicanibenefitimarginalifarmersiiniparticular,iwhoi
wouldiprofitifromilabouripoolingiforipeakiseasonineeds,iforiwhichitheyimayibeireliantimostlyionifamilyilabour.i
Thereiwouldibeilessiconflict/

19
competitionibetweenifarmersiforiextrailabouriatipeakiperiodsiinigeneral.iHistorically,ilabouriexchangeinetwork
simetitheseidemandsitoisomeiextent,ibutitheseiarrangementsihaveifadedioveritimeiandiareinowionlyiprevalentia
mongiwomeniinispecificiplacesi(Agarwali2000).iAicollectivityiwouldialsoibringitogetheriaiwiderirangeiofiskills
,italents,iandiknowledgeithaniaisingleipersoniorifamilyicould.iPoolingiyouriskillsicanihelpiyouiachieveigreateris
uccess.

Fourth,iaigroupiwouldibeiiniaistrongeripositionitoiengageiininon-
exploitativeicontractifarmingiagreements.iContractsiwithifarmersiareibecomingimoreifrequentiforicorporationsi
thatirequireiaiconsistentisupplyiofiagriculturalirawimaterialsiorioperateifoodiprocessingiandiretailinginetworks.i
Individuals,iratherithaniagriculturaligroups,iareiusuallyitheisubjectiofitheseiagreements.iExceptiinitheifewicircu
mstancesiwhereicontractsiareiwithiaigroupiofifarmersiandiprotectiveilawsiareiiniplace,ievidenceifromiLatiniAm
ericaiandiIndiaidemonstratesithatisuchiarrangementsirarelyiassistismalliandimarginalifarmers.i18iLargerifarmer
siareifrequentlyihiredibyicompaniesi(Singhi2000).i19iWhenismallifarmersigetiinvolved,itheyiareisubjecteditoiex
ploitativeiterms:ipricing.iareifrequentlyipoor,icapitaliandiinputitransfersiareiuncommon,iandifarmersiriskicropir
ejectionidueitoilackiofiknowledge.ivaryingilevelsiofiqualityiWomeniiniagriculturalihomesitypicallyiloseioutibec
auseicontractifarmingiincreasesitheirieffortiwhileimalesicontrolitheimoneyigeneratedi(Collinsi1993).iInisomeico
untries,iintra-
familyidisputesihaveialsoiriseni(BulowiandiSorenseni1993,icitediiniKumari2006).iWhenilandiisiconvertedifrom
ifooditoicommercialicrops,iyetitheimoneyiearnediisinotispentionifood,inutritionisuffers.

10.2)iGROUPiFARMING:iGROUNDiEXAMPLES
Thereiareitwoitypesiofigroupifarmingiinstancesithatideserveispecialiattention.
TheifirsticategoryiincludesiCentraliAsian,iEasterniEuropean,iandiLatiniAmericanicountriesithatiunderwentilarg
e-
scaleicollectivizationifromithei1950sithroughithei1970s,ibutithenidecollectivizediinithei1980siandi1990s,iallowi
ngifarmersitoireturnitoiindividualifamilyifarming.iMany,ionitheiotherihand,ielecteditoistartinewicooperativesioni
theireclaimediland,ioritoistayiiniconsiderablyismalleriandialterediexistingicooperatives.iTheisecondisortiofiexa
mple,iwhichicomesifromiIndia,ihasiaifewiuniqueicharacteristics,itheimostinotableiofiwhichiisithatitheiorganisati
onsiareimadeiupientirelyiofiwomeniratherithanicompleteihouseholdsipoolingilandiandiresources.iApartifromino
n-
economicibenefits,ibothitypesiofiinstancesishowitheipossibilityiofifarmersiwillinglyicooperatingiiniagriculturali
productionicollectivitiesiforitheioutputiandisecurityiincreasesitheyibring,iasiwelliasitheiresourceilimitsitheyihelp

20
iovercome.

Chapter5
Conclusion

21
11)iConclusion

Theipoor,iparticularlyiinimarketieconomies,irequireitheistrengthithaticollectivitiesiprovideiiniorderitoiexpandith
eirieconomic,isocial,iandipoliticalispace,iimproveitheirisocio-economiciwell-
beingiandivoice,iandisafeguardithemselvesiagainstifreeimarketiindividualism.
Itiisisuggestedithatiaicollectiveiapproachitoifarming,iparticularlyiinitheiformiofibottom-
upiagriculturaliproductionicollectivities,ihasisignificantipotentialiforipovertyireductioniandipooriempowerment
,iasiwelliasiincreasediagriculturaliproductivity.iHowever,iiniorderitoimaximiseithisipotential,itheigroupsimustibe
ivoluntary,ismalliininumber,iparticipativeiinidecision-

making,iandiequaliiniworkisharingiandibenefitidistribution.iInimanyicontexts,isuchiasitheitransitionieconomiesi
andiIndia,ithereiareinumerousifamousiexamplesiofisuchicollectivities.iTheyiareialliwitnessesitoitheipossibilityio
fisuccessfulicollaborationiundericertainicircumstances.iAnd,iwhileitheigenderiimpactiofifamilyicooperativesiini
transitionieconomiesiisiunknown,iIndianiinstancesiofiwomen-
onlyigroupifarmingishowithatitheyihaveiailotiofipotentialitoihelpiwomen.

However,itheiideationaliinfluenceiofiearlyicommunisticollectivization'siseverelyinegativeiwelfareioutcomesiha
sicreatediaipolicyiblindispotiinirespectitoitheivariegatedigroundireality,iiniwhichicollectivitiesicontinueitoithrivei
ininumerousisituationsiandicountries.iInidevelopingicountriesilikeiIndia,ithisiisiaiparticularlyimajoriimpediment
itoimovingipolicyitowardipromotingiagriculturaliproductionicollectivities.iMoreiinformationioniexistingicollect

iveiventuresishouldibeidisseminatediinipolicyicircles,41imoreiresearchionitheiconditionsiunderiwhichitheyiemer
geiandipersist,iandimoreiexperimentationiwithicollectiveienterprisesionitheiground,iparticularlyibyigrassrootsio
rganisations,iareiallineededitoiovercomeithisibarrier.iExperimentingiinithisiwayiwouldialsoiexposeihowisystemi
ciinequalitiesioficlass,icaste,iandigenderimightiplayioutiandibeiaddressediatitheilocalilevel.

Inipreparation,iweimayiaddressiaiskeptic'siquestion:iwhyishouldiweiexpectiagriculturaliproductionicollectivitie
sitoisucceedinowisinceimostihaveifailediinitheipast?
iOneipartiofitheianswericanibeifoundiinipreviousilessonsiaboutitheicharacteristicsithatipromoteitheiformationiofi

successfulicollectivities,isuchiasivoluntariness,igroupihomogeneityioriaffinity,ismallisize,iparticipatoryidecisio
n-making,ipeer-
implementedisanctionsiforiworkishirkingiandiotheriformsiofifreeiriding,iandiequitableibenefitisharing.iTheimus
hroomingioficivilisocietyigroups,iespeciallyifromitheilatei1970s,iisiaisecondipartiofitheiexplanation,iatileastifori
SouthiAsia.iWhileinotialligroupsiareidrivenibyiaidesireitoichangeitheiworld,imanyiare.iTheiexistenceiofiaiwideir

22
angeioficollectivities,iparticularlyiwomen'siself-
helpigroups,iisiaithirdielementiofitheiexplanation.iAlthoughitheimajorityihaveinotiattemptedicollaborativeiprod
uction,iaifewihave,iandimanyimoreihaveitheicapacityitoidoiso.iTheseithreeiprimaryipillars,iwhichididinotiexistii
nitheipreviousitime,imightibeiuseditoibuildinewiagriculturaliproductionicollectivities.

23
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