-2

Class 12ᵗʰ
Term
-

Full
Chemistry
Cheat Notes

with **☒¥¥$
Panchal Sir
By -
Bharat

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Chemistry Gurujia.co
For CBSE / SEE / MEET
 AMINES Preparation of Amines :
-

Amines are considered amino as

of hydrocarbons or alkyl derivatives Am Reduction Of Alkyl Nitrite

" Al " "
of ammonia > R CH, NH
-

Aliphatic amino compounds ,

are called amino alkanes and arom -

R CEN
-

Na
-
atic amines are called amino > RCH NH
, ,
arches Ethanol
Cf CH NH,
, , Cztls MHz ,
-
NH
,
Rxn is used for ascent of amine

R NH ,
-
Primary Amines Csi )
Em Reduction of Nitro alkaline :

Raney Ni

R MH R -
Secondary amines (27 C- N°2 NH
fence
-

¥
, ,

R N R -

Tertiary Amines ( 3° Sn
th / Pt
ng,
/ HCl
-

' >
r
Reduction with Fe
/ HCl is preferred
STRUCTURE OF AMINES : Am Reduction of Amides :

R -
É
-
NH
" Al " "
> RCH,NH
,
+
H2O
,

µ Pyramidal
shape of Amine
Reduction of amides give amine
/ 1-
R µ
H with same number of carbons .

☒ Hofmann Ammonolysis Method :

NOMENCLATURE
" "3 RX
RX > rÑH > Rjnit
393K ,
CH -

CHECHEN H2 Protean -
1- amine
( i
-
)
,
(2.)
☒✗
CH CH CH }
RzÑ * ( Rant)
-

]
-

Protean ✗
-

2- amine y
AH,
-

(3)
CH
,
-

ctlz - N
,
-

CyHq N, N -

Diethyl
cans batan - 1- amine order of reactivity → RI > RBR > RU

NH Prob 2- en 1- amine
→ 1. amine is obtained as major
CH
,
= CH -

Ctf -

,
- -

" ,NH, product when excess of NH

,
is taken

Aniline b- Bromo
* 1¥ HOFMAN BROMAMIDE DEGRADATION :
Bj aniline
it, RCONH 1- Brz -14 NaOH A- RNH -12 Nabs
CH -
N CH-

,
, ,
,

N N
,
- Dimethyl + Mado,
benzenamine +21120
G. Amines
formed contains one

carbon less than that present in

NH, -

( HD ,
- NH
,
the amide
diamine
.

Hexane -1,6 -
?⃝
GABRIEL PHTHALIMIDESYN .
•

Alkyl amines are stronger bases than MHz

Basic
°
o .
nature of aliphatic amines increases
with increase in the number of alkyl
Inte 1¥ nik -

,
i. e effect of alkyl
"
groups +I
group
"
o increases their basicity .

o
0

ONE order of basicity in gaseous phase

•
. . .

NR

§oNa+R
""
30 amine > 2. amine > 1° amine > MHz
-

In
aqueous phase ,
solvation effect and
↳ Only 1° amines can be synthesized steric hindrance ,
besides inductive

by this method effect of alkyl group dead the basic

tea Aromatic 1° amines can not be strength of alkyl amines .

prepared by this method as aryl ↳ when alkyl group is ethyl gooub

halide do not undergo nucleophilic 4211512 NH > ¢214s)zN > ↳ Hs - NH > NH
, ,

sub Rxn with potassium phthalimide

.

↳ when alkyl group is methyl group

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES :
( CHINH > CH> MHz > ¢11BN > Ntb

PHYSICAL STATE ☒ BASIC NATURE of aniline or

aryl
The lower aliphatic amine would be less than that

amines are gases with fishy odour 1° .

of ammonia .

amines with three or more carbon ↳ less basicity of aniline as compared to

atoms are liquid and ones

higher MHz is attributed to -
I effect of
are solid . benzene
ring and de localisation of
lone pair of N .

COLOUR Pure amines are colourless Note ERG like -

OCH
, ctez increase
but develop colour on
keeping whereas
,

in air for long time

basic strength
E. 1×1.4 like NO, ,
SO> H decrease

SOLUBILITY amines basic strength

readily
.

Lower are
soluble in water ,
which
decreases in water and increases in CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINES
organic solvents with an increase in
molecular weight . FOR ALIPHATIC AMINES

BOILING POINT :
ALKYLATION
1° amines are
and 2°
R ✗ R' MHz
engaged in intermolecular association +
If R NHR 't RX ¥
- -

127
while
due to
Hydrogen bonding ,
c)
BNR
'
+ R X
-
→ R Ntr '
✗
3° amines do not have inter moi -
,

-
ecular association C due to absence (3) Quaternary
ammonium salt
of H -
atoms
order of B.pt of isomeric amines • It yields a mixture of 192° and 3°
1° > 2
.
> 3
'
amines and also quaternary ammonium
salt .

BASIC CHARACTER OF AMINES : •

major product is obtained when

larger the value

of Kb or smaller the a mine is taken in excess .

value of pkb stronger

,
is the base
NH.ci?-ctgR1Ar-ji-HcH3c0UiiR1Ar-iYj-g-ctg
ACYLATION -

MHz 4%010
>
Aniline Pyridine Acetanilide
4 ✗Hz ( 030
Base
BROMINATION

The reaction is carried out in presence of + 3Br,

€0B Br
3HBr
yo
+

a base stronger than

leg pyridine ) Br
which removes HCl so formed and
↳ To mono substituted derivative
shifts equilibrium to
right side .
get
INHÉCH INHÉCH
-%
}
BENZOYL AT/ ON ]
By ,

"
( tycoon
> ¥1 30175
R MH,
- + -
Coo - R NHCO -5£
-
1- HCl
' '
Br B,

CARBYLAMINE REACTION :

^-
R NC -13kV
NITRATION
R MH CHU -13 KOH >
-

¥i%?ng+É÷^
-
+
, "

Éi
,
+3%0 ✗
"
288k
secondary and tertiary amines do not

show this reaction

His 47%3
" %)
(g- ,
.

, ,
It is used as a test for 1° AMINES
To get mono substituted para derivative

REACTION WITH NITROUS ACID : " " " "" ,NH COCH]
HMOs those
⇐ →
,

' '
R NH-
+ HOMO → R OH 1-
-

Hat + HU
, NO NO
, ,

REACTION WITH ARYL SULPHONYL

SUL PHONATION !
CHLORIDE HINS BERG -

SON
REAGENT tithe
,
Hasa
> ¥-473k
RNH -1%-7-50,6 If ¥-502 NH -
R

①
,

soluble in alkali
20

R NH -1
soil ¥, ¥-502M R2
Jojo
-

, H

3° zwi Her Ion

R N -1 -

soil →
No Reaction
,
p -
amino benzene sulphuric acid is
Reaction is used to distinguish b/w the major product because distance
of amines and 3° amines
'
three classes 132 .
btw -
NH, and so> His maximum .

↳ sulbhanilic acid exist in

AROMATIC AMINES
2. WITTER 10N FORM .

MHz grouts is ortho and para directing

and powerful activating group .

Activating effect of NH, group in aniline ALDEHYDE KETONES

-
-

,
can be controlled by protecting the

MHz group acetylation with

by
-

anhydride and then

AND CARBOXYLIC ACID
acetic
carrying
out the desired substitution Rxu
 PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDES
Inorganic compounds containing carbon - AND KETONES :

oxygen double bond ( too ) called

carbonyl group . Their general formula 1.) By Oxidation of alcohols :

is CnH2n0 REC

É
R CH, OH
- -
i R -
CHO

-
É -
µ R
- -
pi
" al " " "

Cros
Aldehyde
r R -
CH -
R
'
y r -
e -
r,
Aldehyde ketone
tote go alcohol
to ketone
The
carbonyl compound in which

carbonyl group is bonded to an oxygen 2. By Dehydrogenation Of Alcohols

atom of hydroxyl group c- on ) are
Cu / 573K
R CHO
É
>
acid
known
caboxylic R CH,
-

as - -
OH
aldehyde
R -
-
OH i. alcohol

0415731' R C p
'

R -
CH -
R
'
> - -

Nomenclature of Aldehyde to
ion 2. alcohol ketone

É methanol CH
,
H ethanol
3. By Ozonolysis of Alkenes :

]\°
°
µ µ CH : lil 03 CHI
! CHL > ?c=o + HCHO
11° Iii ) tho cuz
I benlanal H
CH
,
2h ,

µ '
ce
4. By Hydration of Alkynes OH
2- Chloropentanal
11° < HIGH
die tksou .

, ctÉ=ÉH
I P, dit .

Hgsoy
H H

3- Methyl butanol Butanol

Tautomerism CH
,
-
CHO

All other alkynes give ketones .

°"
Nomenclature of ketones dit Hzso
R -
CECH die
teggoy
, R -

c=dtL ketone
É
°
"
CH CH CH
Tautomerism
>
R -
-

Ctg
] ] ,

Propanone Acetobhenone
( acetone ) ( methyl phenyl ketone ) BY Heating ca salt
of Acid
I Roocyca Is R co R + Caco
I
- -

ROOC
2- Pentathlon ' By Decarboxylation and Dehydration of
benzophenone
Aromatic Acids
i
ñ #
1 COOH 1- HCOOH
a
IF CHO -1110+0 ,

butanone
3- hexanohe
3- Methyl -
2-
COOH -11100C CH -

, MIO > COCH

} -1110-110 ,

STRUCTURE OF CARBONYL GROUP

120
'
PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDE ONLY
L
1. C- spa hybridization
( 0 2 Bond is 120
. →
ROSEN MUND REDUCTION
angle
. :

3. 30 bond ,
11T bond
1Pa Ha ,
Pd /
Bask R
# µ + HU
4 .
Carbon -

Oxygen R ,

11T Acid chloride aldehyde

double bond consist 1- I

É th , Pd /
Basjhe CHO
-
ce g-
E- § 5 . Carbon -

oxygen bond
\o/ Benzaldehyde
is polar in Nature → STEPHEN REDUCTION
G.) In carbonyl gb Ct is
electnbhilicr-czpysncklH.ir - cH=NH É R CHO
-

O
-

is Nucleophilic Partial
Reduction
 E TARD REACTION :
and ethers due to dipole -

dipole interactions But

their b.pt are lower than alcohols
( Ocr OHCI ,) ,
.

CH } ↳2 CH
(¥-
←
+ Crozet , > SOLUBILITY :
chromium
corwblex
Lower members
of aldehyde and
" 30-1 '
- "" ketones are soluble in water because of H Bond
-

Benzaldehyde
.

>
The solubility of aldehyde and ketones decreases
By Side Chain Chlorination of methyl benzene rabidly on increasing the length of alkyl chain .

followed All aldehyde and ketones are fairly soluble in

by Hydrolysis :

organic solvent .

CH " -
1¥
-
CH Cklw CHO
]
-
-

, CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Toluene Benzol Chloride Benzaldehyde

Polar Nature Of Carbonyl Group -7
⇐:±÷÷⇐⇐ mmezcial method to
"

manufacture of Benzaldehyde
The polarity of carbonyl group arise due to high
GATTERMAN -

KOCH REACTION :
electronegativity of 0 atom
-
.

Anhy
CO , HU

AKI, / Cua
,
a- CHO
# Benzaldehyde Ji - § a- Nucleophile center
a Clewis Base )
electrophile center
PREPARATION OF KETONES Clewis Acid )
•

From Acid Chloride

Acidity Of ✗ -

Hydrogen Atom :

ZR Mg ✗ +
Cdclz → Rzcd -12ms
withdrawing effect
- -

ce electron
The strong
2 R' of carbonyl group and resonance
§
'
-4 Rid R -1 Cdu
§
+ → 2 R
-
-
-

,
stabilisation of conjugate base

are responsible for the acidity of

2.) from Nitriles :
d- hydrogen atom .

É
1%1
Ctf -

Ctf -
CEN + E- Mg Br i -0

→
E- d-
h
-

° →
c.
-
-

CH,
Ctf c = N
-
-

' :B e
Mgbr
NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTION
H Ot
" ,

↳ Hs -
c { the reactivity of aldehyde is more than that
4¥
1- Phenyl probanone
of ketones , due to

↳ steric Reason ↳ Electronic Reason

3.) Frieda craft Acylation
The attack of nucleophile The presence of two
• =
c-
Arm
É on carbonyl carbon is alkyl 920lb in ketones
+ AYR - -
U
-1¥ hindered by the presence
of large substituent on
the electrophile city of
carbonyl carbon more
Ketones
effectively than aldehyde
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALDEHYDE
.

REDUCTION
AND KETONE

|
NABH 4 or
> Alcohol
lower member of aldehyde and IIAIHU
•

ketones
upto Cyo are colourless , volatile liquid Aldehyde zn.mg/HU
while formaldehyde is a
gas at ordinary -
> ICH
and , , emmen , , ,

Hmb Higher members of both are solids

ketones reduction
.

with fruity odour .

NH , MHz / OH
-
-

•
B.pt of carbonyl compounds are
higher than > ICH ,
Wolff Kish her-

those of non -
polar compounds i hydrocarbons Reduction
NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTION CARBOXYLIC ACID C- C- OH )
"
o
HCNIOHI Jc / CN
,
- cyanohydrin
OH The consist
carboxyl grouts , of a carbonyl gb
NAHSO ] SO]Na
, yay OH
Bisulbhile addition attached to a hydroxyl group .

product
Aliphatic ( R -
COOH) or Aromatic ( COOH )
ROH ROH
> egg ¥, icon
,
me or Acetal Their
general formula is CnH2n0z
GHz OH
-

CHU -
OH
,
ICT ? ¥; Ketal
H -
COOH CH -
COOH
]

z Methanoic Acid Ethanol Acid

HN
-

>
1- ( = M Z
-

c. formic Acid ) Acid )

( Acetic
2 = OH, -

Nth ,
COOH
CH] CHICOOH
My doom
-

oxalic Acid
Propanoic Acid C Ethane -1,2 dioicacidl -

"° "
OXIDATION REACTION '
coat
kCn07lH+
, R -
COOH
#

{
Benzoic Acid
2- Methyl cyclopentane
"" """"
" & " + "" { °
" "" " " """" " " ""
"" ""
Totten's Test Aldehydes} Acid )

ace
"
-150k
Rcoo { Only METHODS OF PREPARATION :
> Cy Ote
-

+
Fehlingis Test Aldehydes}
From alcohol by Oxidation :

{ amnedthffhakn.LY
NAOX "
Nat É"
-

CHX, + RCOO Ctgcno C. Hscootl

> cigctyote
•

Halo form '"

give this test }
1¥00
"
°"
-0
REACTION DUE TO d- HYDROGEN

CH, -

¢117 ,
-
OH
¥ Ctf Ctf, -

-
-
COOH

OXIDATION OF ALDEHYDE AND KETONE

CH, -
CHO
1¥41 ( Hg COOH -

CH
,
-
É -
CH
,
-

Ctg
KMNOU
,
[ °)
( tycoon + cHg(OOH

oxidation of ketones is done with

difficulty ace . to POPOFF 's RULE i. e

Metonic group remain with smaller gooub .

FROM ALKYL BENZENE

COOH

¥93 ¥1s
1

Benzoic Acid

CH
, KMNOY
,
f%°" pnthalic
acid
foot
¥1,1M → Benzoic
acid
 HYDROLYSIS OF NITRILES Acidity of carboxylic Acid
R CN
-
+ tho É RCONH
,
¥ R COOH
-
LRCOONA +1129
Carboxylic Acid
R COOH RCOO Ma
Comte # + Hao
-

Ctf Ctf CN + H2O → ( Hz Ctf

-
-
- -
-

Ctf Ctf COOH NAHH} RCOONA 1- Hao -1102

-

,
FROM GRIGNARD REAGENT
•
Carboxylic acids are stronger acids than
0=5-0 1-
Ctf Mg Br -
→ 0=6-0
,
alcohols and many simple phenols but weak -

EH, MgBr -
er 1ha mineral acids .

•
Electron withdrawing group stabilise
the carboxylate anion and strengthen
the acid
MGTBOY,
,

CHSCOOH -1 whereas eo
donating group
destabilise the
carboxylate anion and
FROM ACYL HALIDE
weakens the acid .

R Coa
-
# RCOOH + HCl → Rxn
involving cleavage of C- OH bond

↳ Formation
CH Coo Ctf COOH + HU
of anhydride
?
•
,

LR COOH
H? A
, R - E -
p
FROM ACID DERIVATIVE
-

-
g
08%05 A

↳
R -
coz É R - COOH Esterification :

Orditoxqot '
R -
COOH + R' OH RCOOR →
Hao
Ease Of Hydrolysis ↳ Rx with and 5042 :
pus pus ,

RCOU > @ coho > RCOOH > RCONH,

P , RCOU + POU + HU
,
R COOH PU }
Hzpo]
-

>
3 Roll +
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES sock
> race + so, + lice
•
Aliphatic carboxylic acids upto nine carbon
↳ Rxu with ammonia
atoms are colourless liquid at room tents

with unpleasant odour .

The higher acids are RCOOH -1MHz → RCOO
-

Miki ¥0s RCONH

,

like Solids
wax .
Rxn involving -
COOH group
-
Reduction lil LIAIHY /ether
Rctgotp
•
Due to presence of intermolecular forces the lowest Reo , ,,
"
or B. He
>
"' ' "
so -1
carboxyl acids are freely miscible with Wales
But the solubility in water decreases
•
Decarboxylation
RCOO Nat R H -1 Naacos
-

gradually due to increase in size of alky/ gb

-

↳ 11.11.2 Rxn ( Hell Vol hard Zelinsky Rxh )

stronger intermolecular forces increases É

• "
Cte, -
Coote CX] -
Coote
iil
the Hao
b.pt of mono carboxylic acids as
compared to the alcohols
of comparable
↳
Electrophilic ring substitution
molecular masses .

carboxyl group acts as a

deactivating
H
and meta directing grouts
Oic
- -

¥0b
- -

Bra
to R OH /repro
R
-

c.
_%B8
-

- " A
O H Coon
o I
- -
- - -

,
Cone .HN? ]
Fl
Hydrogen Bonding in carboxylic Acid cone .

Hoo ,
E- N°2

R
pg R They do not undergo Frieda craft reaction because
-
n - lo . . .
h - o . - . H - O - - -

carboxyl group is
deactivating group and

in Alcohol / catalyst Alas gets bonded to carboxyl guy

Hydrogen Bonding
.
 { Electrochemistry } Salt Bridge $ its functions :
Electrolyte : Those substance which dissociate into ions a U-shaped
concentrated
glass tube
son
containing
of an
in their aqueous Solh on
passing electricity are known as
inert electrolyte like Kai KNO
}
electrolyte eg Nacl KU
,

,
Non -

Electrolyte : ikzsos in agar agar form -

Those substance which whose one end is dibbed

in beaker and 2nd end
doesn't dissociate into ions In their
one

is dipped in another beaker

solution
passing electricity
.

aqueous on

is known as non -
electrolyte
eg Sugar Urea Glucose function
passage of one electrolyte into
,
;) prevent the another
,
.

Ii ) It comblete the inner cell circuit .

ii 'D It maintains the electrical neutrality of Solh in both halt

cells .

iv ] Used to connect both the beakers

which dissociate completely which dissociate partially
.

into tons .
into ions .

ez Hel HMOs , Hasek etc e.

GNH-4011 Ca Hk Electrochemical cell / Galvanic cell / Voltaic cell : -

, . ,
It is used to
CH COOH etc convert chemical energy into electrical
} energy
.

CONDUCTORS beakers
.
we take two
'

conductors In Ist beaker take

Metallic Conductors Electrolytic we zn
•

rod dipped in 2ns 04 Solh .

•
Flow of
electricity is due to the •
Flow of electricity is due to •
In Ind beaker we take
flow of eo the flow of ions .
CU Ood dipped in CUS 04 Sol ?
electronic Also known as ionic
Also known as
Bridge is used
•

conduit.rs
•

Salt to connect
conductors .

both the beaker

.

flow of electricity takes Flow of takes place

•
place •

electricity
Oxidation takes place at
without the decomposition of by the decomposition of ◦

substance substance .
2h rod in Ist beaker
•
The electrical conduction decreases .
The electrical conduction increases
◦
Reduction takes place at CU
with increase of with increase of tents trod in 2nd beaker
temperature . . •
oxidation half Rxu
.

because kernals start

vibrating because increase of temp ,
increase zn → 2m£ -1+2 eo
which produce hindrance in in dissociation or decrease in •
Reduction half Rxn
the flow of electrons inter ionic attraction
cu2++2e0 →
.

Cee
.

well
low as as
High Only low voltage of current 2m£ + + Cee
• •

overall ¥ zn + cut →

voltage of current can pass can pass

through electrolytic
conductors conductor
through metallic

eyre ,
Al ,
Ag etc .

e.g Nale ,
NaOH ek .

Electrode Potential
the tendency of an electrode to either
Factors
Influencing Electrolytic Conduction
• :
lose or
gain eo when
it is placed in its own solution .

→
Nature of Electrolyte :

of ions is conductance ↓ ↓
larger the no .
more
Oxidation Potential Potential
,

Nature of Solvent :
Reduction
→
The electrolytes ionize em water but not in The tendency of an electrode The tendency of an electrode

organic solvents like benzene because water is polar whereas to lose eo to

gain eo
benzene is non polar So , electrolytic conductance increase in
STANDARD HYDROGEN ELECTRODE ( S.H.E ) Device which is
-
-

used to
Polar solvents
calculate standard electrode
.

M
→ solute -
solvent attractions / Solvation or
Hydration : Potential
of any electrode
larger the
.

solvation of ions ,
lesser is conductance → It can act as bothoxidation
as well as Reduction Potential .

→
Temperature : As the temp increases the conductance also
AˢAH2→ 211++2
.

increases because the dissociation of electrolyte increases .

eo
So , number of ions as well as the Steed of ions increases
Ascathode
-

→ Dilution : ions
As dilution increases ,
the number of of a
weak 211++250 → Ha
speed increases
.

electrolyte as well as their and so

conductance also increases .

Bharat Panchal Sir Electrochemical Series

g. what is cell ? Arrangement q various electrodes in the
Aux It is a device which used
into another form of
to convert one form of energy increasing order
of standard reduction potential .

energy .

Chet lithium -3.05 V

Li →
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL ELECTROLYTIC CELL
ink Ca calcium
.

→
-2.87W
31kt At - Aluminium I. GGV -

UHT 2h → Zinc -
0.76 V
th Fe → Iron -

0.44W
oft Ni Nickel
→
-0.25 V
ieoecdol Pb lead
→ -

0.13 V
& H
cute
→
Hydrogen 0.00 V
C" → copper +0.34W
Ziggy Ag → Silver +0 SOV -

Seki 311£ Br → Bromine +1.08W

3114¥BUT at Au Gold

50VG@BG-GoBharatPancha1-ChemistryGuruji2.o
→ + 1-
Application conductance of Electrolytic solutions
1.) Comparison of Relative Reducing Power or
Oxidising Power .

2)
Predicting the feasibility spontaneity of Redox or a
Reaction
•

Resistance : It is the obstruction

conductor
to the flow of electric
current
through the top,
.

.
.

3.) metal will react with dilute

Predicting whether a will It is directly proportional to its length (l ) and inversely
mineral acids evolve and Hydrogen gas or Not .
Proportional to area of Crossection (A)

4.) Activity or
reactivity of metals .
Rt
f- or R=
ftp.
5.) Calculation the cell ← specific Resistance
of EMF of a
Resistivity
.

or .

E- Mf Er
Unit of Resistance = 0hm (b)
=
Eeeee = -

Eu metre Crm )
=
E
unit of Resistivity = 0hm
cathode
-

Pande Conductance :
inverse of resistance
•

The
Prediction Eooxidation
.
=
-

Nernst Eqh a--

b- =

§# =
K #
Dependence of EMF on concentration of electrolyte is 0hm -108 mho orb -1
and
Unit of conductance or Siemens .

temperature
Nernst eqn for half cell Rxn CONDUCTIVITY
inverse of resistivity is called
:
conductivity
•

The
MYaq+ ,
+ neo → Mcs ) ( specific conductance )
unit =
ohm . ,
am
. ,

Em
EM-RNT-flnj.mn#-aq KAE b- 1am
=
G- when A=km2
,
,
G- K _

Em electrode potential
of metal under given condition material is its conductance
conductivity
=

of a

Em : electrode potential of metal under standard condition when it is 1am

long and its area of
R I cross section is 1am ?
gas constant 8.3145K 1m01
-
-

= =

MOLAR CONDUCTIVITY
Temp in Kelvin
:
T
•

conductivity of all the tons

=

It is the
f- Faraday constant ( 96500 ( Mott )
of an electrolyte in Sol
=
"
produced by dissolving 1g mole
n =
no of e -0 loss or
-

gain in reaction It is denoted by Am

am K XV 08 am k ✗
10¥ K✗¥%ity
-
- -

-
=
=

Em Em 00m51 lrgqml-n.mg
-

:
.

"
Units : 0hm -1 c. m2 motor s c. M2 MOI

For cell : Note

fat ,±¥ f- is called cell by E
-

R constant denoted
aA+bB F- cC+dD
-
_
=

G
*
=
f- = RK

0.org#lgYn?jafEhgd-n
Ecell =
Peele -

Q .
Discuss the variation of conductivity and molar conductivity
or with concentration ( NCERT )

005¥ log {%g

Ecele -
-

Peele - Are In case of strong electrolytes the molar conductivity

increases slightly with dilution as mobility of ions increases ,
.

Éceee of weak electrolytes the degree

In
-

00h51 log Qc equilibrium of ionisation increases with dilution therefore there is a

case

constant
,

g- large increase in molar conductivity with dilution

where Qc is concentration Quotient is conductance between two
.

Conductivity
At equilibrium t-cell :O and Cfc :
Kc opposite faces of
}
one centimetre cube On .
dilution .
no -

of
ions her cm decreases therefore conductivity decreases
cat 298k )
Feed =

0.4591-19 Kc on dilution

CHSCOOH him =
limiting molar conductivity
standard when concentration approaches
maximum
Gibbs A- 4
•
hf ETele Zero the molar conductivity
work done
= -
,
or

free b4 cell
is known as
limiting molar

Energy *a
conductivity .

Calculate the emf of following cell at 298k :

"
Mg / Mg ( 0.001M) / / Cafe .
ooo , my
ICU
Fmg&YMg= -2.37 V
KOHL RAUSCH LAW : -

Ecua -1 / Cu = 0.34W
is
Limiting molar conductivity of an

Éceee Er EL 0.34 C- 2.371--2.7 Iv electrolyte the sum of individual contribution of

Ax
-
. = -

anion and cation of electrolyte .

Ani A+ Ani
Bain
Éceel Ain
00m51 log{0pg,
Fell =
-
AB = +

limiting A+ =
molar conductivity of cation .

005¥ log {Mg{£, limiting conductivity of Anion

= 271 -

Ain B- : molar .

APP
" i; calculation of limiting molar conductivity of weak
" " '• 14ᵗʰ
£71
002591-191%3-4
=
-

ii ) calculation of the Degree of Dissociation -

Degree of Dissociation (a) Amc molar conductivity at any =

→

conc C.
Tim →
limiting
.

molar conductivity
2.71 -0.02955 $2.68 Viii
=
= .

) Calculation of dissociation constant of weak electrolyte:

*#* Calculate standard Gibbs free energy change for the
reaction Concentration
given Dissociation constant ( Kc )
¥2
G-
:
zn + cast → zna-it.ca =

Aus Dae = -
nf Eceee Given Eeeee : HOV ✗ =
Degree of Dissociation .

=
-2×96500×1.10
I '
-212300 5m01 -212.3 KJ Mot
-

= =
 •
Suggest a way to determine the Ain value of water .

AI din
Chemical kinetics
Ain CHAO) din H+ OH
_

=
+

we find out Ain CHU) Ain CNAOH) and Ami CNAU ) Then
,

ninety = Ain CHUI + Am ( NaOH) -

Ain (Nau )
when one or more substance undergo a
change which
g. The conductivity of 020M Solution of KU at 298k is results in the formation of a new product called chemical
,

0.0248 S Cm -1
. Calculate its molar conductivity ☒ cere , .
reaction .

At is the branch of chemistry which

km%°nµ
nm CHEMICAL KINETICS
o0%◦
=

= =
124s c. m2 not '
,

deals with the study of gates of chemical reaction

g. Aim for Nall
,
HU and CH
]
COO Na are 126.4 -425-9 and
, their mechanism and the conditions in which hate
91.0 S c. m2 Mot
'
respectively .
Calculate Ai too CHIC OOH can be altered .

Ami din Nat tinct c. m2 moi

l ①
Ay NaCl + 126.4 s
- -
-

-
=

Ani HU =
dink + till
-

-425.9
-
Sam
'
Mot '
-20 ON THE BASIS OF SPEED
dni Na -1=9105 Chimo / ④
"
ninety Coo Na din CH COO
-
= +
, is VERY FAST REACTION : some reaction such as
have to calculate Ani ctlzco OH Ain CHOO + Mitt ionic
-

we reactions occur very

-

③ +20 ① test Agnos + Nacl Agu Nanos

operating Mot
'

390.5 SEMI e.g

- → +

ii ) VERY SLOW REACTION : some reactions are

Faraday 's law of Electrolysis : very slow i. e takes
months to years in eombletion
First law : e-
8 Rusting of iron in the presence of air and moisture
The mass of substance deposit or liberated at
formation of coal and bebotium
•

any electrode
during
electrolysis is directly
•

proportional to the amount of charge iii) MODERATE REACTION i. Those reactions which are
passed .

very slow not neither

mathematically w✗Q E. II. OH ] very fast but takes place at moderate speed .

-6 W ✗ Ixt
[ Ixt =D ] inversion of
w -

- ZXIXT
e.
g cane sugar
was mass substance deposit / liberate
of 421122011 +
H2O ↳ HI 206 + CGH 1206
electrochemical equivalent
M¥%
↳
fructose Glucose
2=9%500 =
I> current 1- → time
ON THE BASIS OF NUMBER OF STEPS
COMPLEX REACTIONS
Q What do you mean by Faraday constant ? when a sequence of elementary
ELEMENTARY REACTIONS
Aug charge of one mole of e o reactions gives us the
product called
" complex reaction each step in a
6.022×1023×1.6×10 96487 ( MOH The
taking
-

reactions place
,

=
complex reaction is called elementary Rxh
Cmo " in called
.

≈ 96500
one Steb are
slowest step is called rate
elementary reaction
determining step .

Second law : when same amount of electricity passed through

-

two different electrolyte connected in series , amount RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION :

It is the change in molar
of substance deposited at electrodes is directly proportional
to their equivalent weight
concentration
of species taking part in the chemical reaction
time
.

per unit .

Amount of Ag deposit =
eq.wt.qAg_ for the reaction A → B

Amount
of Ca deposit eqiwt of Cu Rate of disappearance of A
.
.

in of A
Decrease
Aˢ
=
cone .
= -

Time taken
Rate of disappearance of B
g. A solution of Aesop is dectoolysed for 10 minutes with a
in GB
An?ˢ
= Increase conc .

= +
current of 1.5 amperes what is .
the mass of copper Time taken
deposited at cathode NCE⑨ NOTE
Any Acc . to RM Cu 2-1-1250 → Cu concentration
The
of reactant
decreases so it

MgY×Mˢ✗IXt 632%4%5×600
w= ZXIXE ,

resign
=

represent by -
while
,

≈ 0.2938g
the cone .

of product increases
it + ve sign
&
so represented by
of A :( NOD, is platinum
.

A solution elecbolysed between electrodes

TYPES OF RATE OF REACTION :
Using a current of 5.0 ampere for 20 minutes what mass of
InstantaneousralemnwMAEACC.to
.

AverageRatewM
nickel will be deposited at the cathode Ni -58.7) NCERT
t.CAT of man - -

2-1-12 Reaction Ni
Ni eo →

change in molar cone change in molar conc -

of reactant
monljgmaff-xt.lt ✗
w -
ZXIXT 50×12 "
reactant and product and product at a given
-

of
=

18258 at a given interval of time instant of time .

Q How much
charge is required R P

YOU
.
"

Support % =+%¥
A"ᵗ Rate of Inst

^-¥=+n¥?
.

lil
-

1 Mol of Aest to Al
-

Rate + reaction
Reaction ◦

The electrode reaction is }

Alt + Seo → Al
Charge required =3 f
Moffet RELATION BETWEEN RATE OF REACTION AND STOICHIOMETRY
•
) ATB > CTD
31196500C
28950€
= =

Rate R✗ "
dEd]_ ddE- +
dd-
+
ddE
-
-

( ie ) from molten each

= =

20.0g of
=
Ca
The electrode reaction is Ca 2-11-20 → Ca
is clear from stoichiometry of reaction
It
IF ) 2A → c. + D
Ca required
•

40g of =

If
that the rate of disappearance
of A
is twice the velocity of formation of c &D
20g of Ca required = .
 So
,
rate
of reaction can be given as below
SURFACE AREA
Rate of Ron
3- d&¥- +
%¥ +dd_ Greater the surface area of reactant higher
-

is
: ,
=

the role of reaction It is observed that if .

reactant is a solid substance then rate of reaction depends

e.g 5 Bo Broj +6 H+ 3 Bra 3h20
-

+ > +
let upon the size of its particles
eaq ).

caq ) Cag ) .
cg ,
A piece of wood slowly but it burns rapidly
.

burns
e.
g
Rate of Reaction
f- Af,B 1¥05? -7^-41+-1=5^-1?¥=tA¥1¥ cut into small pieces
-

=
when
-

= .

EXPOSURE TO RADIATION :

UN1T0fRATE0FREACT10MwmmumnTtM increases rapidly in presence

The rate of some reactions
of radiation Luv and visible
"
Min "
Photons of UV and visible light having high energy
Motti ' sector Moll
A¥ Molt ' dissociates chemical bonds of reactants rapidly which
Molt hot
=

see amino , µ , or
'
increase the Gate of reaction .

with
Consider 4-14
In dark
s 2h4 ( slow) Ha -16
Sun
→ 2h ( explosion1
a
general reaction : ,
eight
aAtbB → CC
RATE LAW
Rate of Rate of Reaction is directly proportional to
reaction
_÷dd¥ˢ= -3%74=+12%+1 the product of molas concentration of reactant and
each raise power their coefficient on which
doff
to
of disappearace of
rate A = -
the
rate of reaction actually depends .

Product
rate of disappearance of B
dofB aA+bB Rale Constant
= -
→

specific Reaction
¥ ¥
or
actual
Rate used rate
of appearance of C = +
dogg Rate of Rxn =
KIA]
✗
[ B)
P

9 A -12ps → 3C +217
what will be
,
the rate
of disappearance of B is 1×10 -2m¥ ,
↳ Rate law too any reaction can not be predicted
determined
c) Rate of Rxn dis Rate of change in cone .

q A and C. theoretically but must be

experimentally
Aux Rate of disappearance B
dEdB 1×10-2 mollis -1 RATE CONSTANT :
-

, =

hate constant is equal to hate

Rate 9AM reactant
tᵈea- -2-01%+1=-1}_dea¥=+zdG
= -

of reaction when concentration of each

=

becomes unity .

Rate of Rxn
_±dEaB- -2=05×10-2
%
=
1-2×1.0×10 Moll is -1 -
ORDER :
It is the sum of powers ace . to rate law
Iii ) Rate of change in
concqA-daqnj.R.o.pe expression .

o.s-xio-z.mn Rate of Rxu B 02 des ✗+ B

KEA ] ✗
[ B)
=
=
e- is -1

CharacteristiesofRaleConstantwwmwM
Rate of change in cone .

GC
+
ddE¥ JXR OR 3×0.5×10-2
-

1.5×10%011-151 •
7 Indicates the speed of reaction Greater the value ,

of rate constant baster is the reaction

#fACT0RSAFrECT1N4RATE0fREACT10NÑmmw
uunwt.ge
.
.

very reaction has a particular value of rate

constant at a particular temperature .

CONCENT E RATION OF REACTANT

:[
•

+ is observed that rate

•
) The rate constant for the same reaction differs
of decreases
reaction with time we know that initially .
with temperature .

the cone of reactant is maximum so the rate of change value of rate constant for a reaction does
.

) The
is also maximum As the of reactant decreases
•
in cone . cone .

depend upon the concentration of reactant

.

not
when the rate of reaction also decreases
It means that the rate of reach is '

directly proportional to the cone of reactant .

.
•
1 The unit of rate constant is dependent on the
order
of reaction
TEMPERATURE OF SYSTEM :
.

Generally , the rate of all

reactions approximately increases on increasing temp .
MOLECULARITY OF REACTION
In other words the rate of reaction also decreases
of atoms , ions or molecules
,

on
decreasing temp Generally , the
.
rate of reaction mixture The total number
of the
increases two to three times on
increasing tent ubto 10°C .

reactant which collide effectively to

give product
•
NATURE OF REACTANT : is termed as its molecularity .

In a chemical reaction old bonds

broken and new bonds formed A → Product Molecularity =L ↳
are are
, Ntke NO, → N , -12110
so , the reactivity of substance depends on
Product ,
2A →
Molecularity =
2 ↳
breaking and formation of specific bonds .

Product
qHI→tg+Iz
A + B →
, Molecularity 2 .

↳
INO -102 →
2m02 Gfast ) Product 2^10+02 → &M%
At Btc → , Molecularity =3
20 -102 →
202 C. Slow )
Characteristic of Molecularity :

•
EFFECT OF CATALYST :
catalyst
•

Molecularity of a reaction is always an integer .

increase the rate values (

of reaction It can not have fractional or zero a zero
•
a

are those substance which

collisions b/w
without
undergoing any chemical molecularity implies that no effective

change in them .
reactant molecule takes place i. e reaction doesn't
It is considered that occur at all ] .

judged by balanced chemical

presence of catalyst decrease
Molecularity
• can be a
Rxu
the activation energy of reactant • for a complex reaction molecularity has no
significance
which increase the
,
rate of 91 Ngos 2 HI 1921-1-2
.

2^1021-1-202 molecularity
→ →
= I
mole .
= z
 ORDER OF REACTION •

Integrated Rate Equation

The order of a reaction is defined as the sum 1- bowers
◦
first Order
to which the concentration terms are raised in rate Those reaction whose rate depends upon one
law equation . concentration term of reactant .

A- + 2B → C +D r →p

( experimentally Put value in eq①

'
Rate law Rate of Reaction ✗ er ] of I
R :
Kea]m[B]n determined . )
_%ˢ= KER ] lnR= Kt + I
-

order writ A=m order w.at B- - n

, -
lnR= Kt -
ln Ro
overall order of given reaction =
Mtn
-

d{- t.dllnro-lnR.tt
=

G. what is the order of reaction ?

I. B.s ( Integrating both sides ) lnR◦ =
Kt
Aug Rate law, R :
KEATH [ B) 2 TR
-

/ d{%→= Kfdt

&ylvgR£=t?ww)
order of reaction 2£ 2.5

kt+II±&ʳʰ°
: or
"

lnr constant
characteristics of Order of
=

a Reaction :

a) It represents the number of species whose concentration value of

to get the I UNIT =
Molt 's -1
affects the rate of reaction directly .

+ =
O R :
Ro
,
•
7 Reaction order can be obtained by adding all the exponents -
end .
=
I ᵗ=&?÷ log ¥ ,
of the concentration terms in rate expression .

•
1 The stoichiometric coefficients
corresponding to each .
- a

species in the balanced reaction have

/
'-

the T
no effect on T
order of the reaction
log ty
e.) The reaction order of a chemical reaction is always cases ¥ ,

↑
defined with the helb of reactant concentration and
not with product concentration .

y > >
1- →
( a- so → ( a- so →
•
) for a complex reaction , the slowest stets is rate determining
step .

" "° Order Reaction

Zero Order Reaction : Those reaction whose rate depends
upon zero concentration terms of reactant
Clark
.

Rate : KCA
]°H, + 2 HCl :
2m20 → 2%+02 R→P
Rate of Reaction
°
✗ ER]
First Order Reaction :
2 Ha -102
ddEˢ= R
'
Rate KEA ] 21102 Kt + I
-

→
K
=
-

Second Order Reaction -

R -
-

Kt -
Ro
-
der ] :
K.dk
Rate =
KEA]& B- R= "t
I. B.SC
Integrating both sides

R_RÑwwT
e.
g C -10
,
→ CO -10
-

fdlr] :
Kfdt
ING → INO -10 ← Integration
R
_i
_

Kt -11
-

=
constant
UNIT OF RATE CONSTANT
to
" " get the .
value
of I "

(Moll -17msec -1
"

Calm )
aI
.

k= K = sect
t=o R=R ↑
,
.
↑
Zero order
k=(mole -171 -0sec
A- ◦ +
-
I
MOLL
-
I see -1 -
Ro -
_
I " %
" " "
First order ' * + →
ca " ( a- a) →
(Matt )
- -
→
h=1 K see i see i
put 1- in equation is
-
- -
-

'
second order
:(moll 1) -2sec I
' '
n=2 K
-
-

moi l sect Half life ◦

1- a Reaction :
The time in which the concentration
Half order n -1k K :(Moll -111¥ Sec -1 → Molk [ 112 see -1 of a reactant is red iced to one half of its initial cone
-

It is represented by tyz
G. Identify the reaction order
.

}
d) 14=2.3×10-51 Motts -1 → Order =L t-2.sc?eogRg- E-
Hae R=¥ first

tyz-2fY_lrgRp4gX2tyz_o.ggIw@OrderQ.Th
④ K =
3×10-4 s
-
l → order =
I

e conversion of molecules ✗ to Y follows second

order kinetics , if concentration of ✗ is increased to t
R◦¥-
-

ty R Rk
_

1- = -

three times how will it affect the rate of formation 84 ?

_

,
,

AE The reaction is ✗ →Y
ty A
E
&÷
-

:
,

Acc . to rate law Ta

rate : K [ ✗ 32

If EX) is increased to 3 times , then

rate ' = KES ✗ 32

rate ' =
9 KEX]2

gxrale

Thus, rate of reaction becomes 9 times and hence rate of

formation of increases 9- times .
 PSEUDO FIRST ORDER REACTION

Surface Chemistry
Reaction which are not
truly of the first order but under
certain conditions become reactions of first order are called

pseudo first order Reactions . The phenomenon of

substance
attracting and
retaining the molecules
99 substance is
catalysed inversion
on the surface of an another
e.g Acid of cane sugar
called adsorption .

421122011 1- H2O G. Hizob -1 6111206 The substance which adsorbed is called

excess]
rnectose adsorbate and the substance ubon which adsorption takes
Glucose
place is called adsorbent .

Rate : KECIZH, 2011 ]

it water Vab ours are adsorbed the surface of silica gel
hydrolysis
ri
Acid catalysed of ethyl acetate
in contact with
His Ammonia chair coat
.

gas .

CH COO t ↳ HSOH
] GHS + H2O CHI OOH + Note
cexless) • The reverse bro cess of adsorption
Rate : K [ CU COO GH5)
, is caved desorption
Both of the above reactions are biomolecular but are found The adsorption of gases on
•

to be the first order because water is present in such a thesurface of metal is called
large excess that its concentration remains almost constant occlusion
during the reaction .
e.g th gas on palladium metal

p.y.ch Absorption
A reaction is reactant How is the substance
The phenomenon of the molecules of a
inside an another substance is called absorption
entering
g. second order writ a .

rate
of reaction affected if the concentration of The substance which is absorbed is called
reactant is NCERT (2009,201%2014) absorb ale and the substance inside which absorb Hon
takes place is called absorbent
d) doubled di > reduced to half
Auto .

Rate rk.CA]
&-
Difference between Adsorption and Absorption
EA ] =
Ia ,
rate -
-
Kaa )&= 41492 Adsorption Absorption
=
↳ times •
It is a
surface phenomenon •
It is a bulk phenomenon .

&
CA ] :
1-29 ,
rate =

K[g) 4- Kal Ig : :
th
•
Adsorbed species is accumulated
in the surface
•
Substance is uniformly
distributed throughout
9. A first order is found is have a rate constant the bulk
• It is a fast process •
It is a slow process .

K -5.5×10-14
-

sect Find half life of the reaction Rate

of adsorption decreases Absorption takes place
.
.
•
•

AE Half life too a first order Reaction is NCERT

gradually at same speed
NOK
.

adsorption and absorption both takes place

when
+42
.

£6,9T ÷q
=

= = 1.26 ✗ 1013s simultaneously called sortition e. 9 cotton + ink .

.

is
•
Desorption the
ofprocess removing an adsorbed
substance i. e adsorbate from
Q The half life for radioactive decay of 4657304 of adsorbent
the surface .

An archaeological artifact contained wood that had Tubes of Adsorption

only Soi of the C' 4 found in
.

living tree Estimate .

Physical Adsorption Chemical Adsorption

age the sample
of NCERT °
It arises because
of van • It is caused
by chemical
der Waals bond formation
the Radioactive decay follows first order kinetics forces .

Enthalpy of adsorption is Enthalpy of adsorption

•
•

low ( 20-40 KJ/ Mol ) is high C 80 -240 KJIM I .

Decay
} 9÷
[ K) =
=
•
It is reversible in nature •
It is irreversible in
nature
•
It is non-specific in nature •

It is specific in nature .

No activation energy is
&_l9{nA
+ =
◦
• Activation energy is
2-3%5,730×0.0969 required
:

required .

•
No compound formation .

surface compounds are

takes place formed .

-
. 1845 Year .

•
Multi molecular layers on • Uni molecular layer is
minutes adsorbent is formed formed
9 A first order reaction takes for 20%
.

20
In increases with decrease First increase and the
decomposition
• •

Calculate
tyz ( log 0.0969)
¥ increase
.

.
=
em decreases with
temperature in temperature
At K
2-3+03-19 age
-
.
_

f- constant ^

2320%
↑
↑
log 1¥
232¥
=

=
✗ 0.0969

~
34m Hm

=
0.011158=11.258×10-3 "
y
ty ,
=

06,9£ =
0.693
>
6%1 then Temperature →
,

11-158 × 10-3
.
Temperature
All the Best ① similarity Both are directly proportional to

surface area i. e increases with increase in

surface area .
 Mechanism Of Adsorption
At intermediate
As the molecules of the adsorbate At low pressure At
high pressure
are held on the surface the adsorbent Pressure
of entropy
Ent b
.

decreases i.
En ✗ b°
'
e as is ve
Ima pin
-

'

for the to
process of adsorption occur Aa must be
-
" e.
intermediate rate

atiou
at Pressure

;¥É?
As As is then when of
ye 9 will
" "

be
↑
-

,
-
ve
obtained fractional tower
.

we A

/ AHI > / TASI and AH is -

ve qp ,
so em
Hence is ,
for process of A- d. sortition
Im ✗ bYn
¥ kph
"

the Pressure
"

It -4€

pg
, .
→ =
,
so
adsorption is exothermic in nature p
.

both sides
factors extent Taking log
affecting of adsorption
E- Nature
log Im =
log K 1-
in lngb
of Adsorbate and Adsorbent
In general , the more Thus a graph between 1cg Im and log P gives a
straight line
is
liquefiable gas , the more readily will it be absorbed
a
with Shobe Hilal to "

easily liquefiable gases such as MHz Ha Clz , so coz etc ,

Yn yn
g , ope
, , ,

are
readily adsorbed than the permanent gases such as , Limitations ↑
02 N, thy etc Higher the critical temperature of the 99s
"
"

It is applicable only to limited

,
.

, .
-
-
-

• -

greater is the extent of adsorption

ÉT } intercept Iogk
.

range of pressure
=

the amount
of adsorption of gas on same ◦
It is applicable only for
charcoal follows the order
man
of physical adsorption .
>

157°C )
log P →

SO
,
CTC =
> CHU CTC =
83°C) >
H2 ( To =
-120°C ) Application of Adsorption
Adsorption chromatography
•

A
gas is adsorbed in different amount on different adsorbent Air pollution Mask
•

g H2 is strongly adsorbed on nickel surface while it is

e. •
Separation of Noble Gases Ion
Exchange Method
weakly adsorbed on alumina surface under identical condition Purification of In Metallurgy
•

. •
water .

Qa surface Area : •
Removal
of moisture and Humidity
Increase in the surface area
of adsorbent ,

increase the total amount of the gas adsorbed

colloidal state :
A state matter in which size
because number
of sites increases Thus of of
adsorbing particle is 1hm to that
finely divided metals Cpt, Ni ) and porous substance
,
100ohm can Pass through
filter paper but not animal membrane is
C Charcoal gel ) are best solid adsorbents . through
called colloidal State
Ka
Temperature
.

Adsorption is an exothermic process (

taking components of colloidal state
Place with evolution of heat ) therefore in
,
accordance

with Le -
Chatelier 's Principle ,
the magnitude of adsorb ti - Distressed Phase
The substance dissolved in a medium is
-
⇐
on should increase with fall in temperature .

called dispersed phase It is like solute in solution

actually happens except in
. .

This
chemisorption where Distension Medium
The medium in which the dispersed phase
extent
of adsorption first increases
and then decreases with increase in temperature particles aredissolved is called dispersion medium It is .

like solvent in solution .

6.*
Adsorbing tower of adsorbent : -

Classification Of Colloids
increases by the increase in the
The extent
of adsorption
adsorbing bowery state Phase and
On the basis of physical of Distressed
•

adsorbent . It is done by
rubbing the surface
of Dispersion medium
adsorbent and by removing
.

the molecules which are

already adsorbed .

↳ Effect
of Pressure An increase in pressure
is
of adsorbate
gases , the extent
of adsorption increases .

iilAt low pressure , the extent

of adsorption increases
rapidly with pressure
Hit At medium pressure the ,
e-

of adsorption is found
extent
to be directly proportional
to the pressure
in At
high
pressure ( closer to Im
the saturation pressure of basis nature interaction
• On the
of of
gas ] the adsorption tends to ← Adsorption increases
rabidly in beginning
achieve a
limiting value
Pressure →

Freundlich Adsorption Isotherm :

a graph which
show the relationship b/w magnitude
of adsorption
and pressure at constant temperature

Em → amount
of gas adsorbed per gram
adsorbent .

e-
g Starch ,
Gum , Gelatine EJ Felon, , Asis ,
Ay , Ag
 Based upon size
of particles Condensation Method :
•

Method in which small size particles

can m ) are converted into colloidal size particle

Purification of Colloidal Solution

Dialysis The process of separating the particles of colloids from

those
of crystalloid by means of
Mechanism of Micelle formation water
ditties ion through
is sodium salt
soap
a suitable membrane .

Principle
of higher fatty acid and
may be represented Roo Na
by
.
.

colloidal particles
when soap is dissolved in water it dissociate into RCOO -
can't pass through a

and Nations .
membrane while the ions
% electrolyte can pass through
471135 ( OONA Electrodialysis
→
the Rcoo ions form an agg The
ordinary
-

Process
-

of dialysis
-

regale of spherical shape is slow to increase the

with their R kart towards speed of purification
of
the centre of the sphere and the Coo
-

bart towards the dialysis is carried out

by
is called Micelle applying electric field
circumference of the sphere The
.

aggregate
Cleansing Action of Soap :
Physical Properties of colloids
when a
dirty cloth come in
contact with soap solution then Rcoo
◦

Heterogeneous in Nature
arrange themselves
-

around it in such a way that stable due to the

•
Quite presence of same tube
or part of it is in the dirt or oil of charge on colloidal particles -

•
Coo part
-

is outside the dirt or oil .

Can be filtered through ordinary filter paper but not

The COO part interact with water As a result , the ◦ if
-

through animal membrane .

droplet pulled away from the dirty surface of the cloth , can't be seen naked eye /
•
colloidal particles by
and
goes into water which is washed away
with the ordinary microscope .

Colour the colloidal 801h depends upon the wave tengu

excess
of water Hence the .
dirty clothes washed
away ,
°

of
the scattered colloidal particles which in
Kraft tembe rather
which formation
of light by ,

The tap .
above of micelles turn depends upon the size and the nature of
takes place .

particles .

Critical Micelle Concentration ( CMC ) :

The minimum cone .
Colligate've Property : colloidal som do not show colligate're
above which micelle formation takes place
property to remarkable extent as the molas mass
'
.

of these particles is very high So colligati.ve

Preparation of colloids
.

properties are very small .

r•
Bredig 's Arc Method :
This method is used to make the Brownian Movement The continuous
colloidal solution silver
zigzag movement
of
of gold , colloidal particles in all possible direction in a colloidal
platinum et .

solution is called Brownian

-

movement .
depends Ubon
An electric arc is set size colloidal particles
help btw two metallic
→
of
electrodes → viscosity of dispersion medium
suspended into ice cold
water in a vessel The heat
of
.

the arc converts the metal

into vapours which are condensed
in the ice cold water in
the
resulting
formation of small sized colloidal particles .

✗• Petplizatiou large size particles

The process of converting the
cause it is due to the kinetic motion of
of a precipitate into small
dispersion medium particles
size colloidal particles in
.

the presence suitable Importance : -

of a
◦
responsible for the stability of
electrolyte is called
colloidal solution particles
Replication and the electrolyte
is called
used bebtising agent .

Cause -

when suitable electrolyte is added in a precipitate

a

the particles
of ppt adsorb one particular type of ion from
the electrolyte on its surface and get dispersed due to repulsion
 Tyndall Effect
Elements
:

when a
strong beam d- and f- Block
of light pass through
colloidal solution , d- Block elements
becomes Those elements in which the last eo
the path of light enters in the d- subshell
visible due to the scattering of light ,
is called of penultimate shell

tyndall effect General Electronic Configuration (n 1) d '

'◦
nso -2
-

→
.

in
-

is blue in colour projection of light

g. Sky
e. ,

cinema hall .

Tyndall effect is observed when

• There is a large difference in refractive index of

dispersed phase and dispersion medium .

is not
The diameter
of the dispersed phase particle
•

much smaller than the wavelength of light used .

Electrical Properties
The stability of a colloidal solution
is due to the
charge on colloidal articles ( + ve ox ve ) -

There is repulsive force between the colloidal particles

due to which they are not together to coagulate
subdivided into four series
They are . .

The charge on the colloidal particles is due to

preferential adsorption in
The d- block elements which the atoms ions have
.

→ or

colloidal Solh when colloidal son of Agt incomplete d- orbitals are called transition elements
when of AGI
→
→ .

is prepared by adding KI .
is prepared by adding Agnos → 2h , Cd and
Hg have completely filled Cn 1) d- orbitals -

Ai Ast so
they do not show much resemblance with

%A±gI
At * other transition elements
[
.

Agt Agt -1
.

As 6-
I There are four series
of d- block elements .

At
-

I
I
-
At 3d series
Ai Agt Cse to 2h)
-

Zeta potential led series CY to (d)

Potential difference b/w 5d Series Cla and Hf to Hg ]
bd series CAC and Rf to (a)
fixed layer and mobile

layer is called Zeta

Electronic Configuration : By Bharat Panchal Sir
-
.

potential 's '

scandium 3d -4.52
.

21 .
se -
[ As]
Electrophoresis 22 .
Ti -
Titanium [ As] 18 3dL Us 2
}
In this 23 V Vanadium [ Ar 318 3d Us 2
process when
electricity
-
.

Cr Chromium [ As ] 18 395µs '

is passed in a
-

U -
tube 26 .

25 Mn -

Manganese [ As ] 18 345 453

having colloidal
.

a Solh then
,
26 .
Fe -
Iron [ At] /8 3d 6452
only colloidal particles 18 3d 't 452
£7 .
Co -
Cobalt [ Ar ]
18 3d8us2
start to more towards Ni Nickel [ Ar ]
qg .
-

EAR ]
's
3d "4s '
the
opbositirely charged 29 .
Cu -
Copper
"
electrode This movement of 30 . 2h -
Zinc EARTH 3d 452
.

colloidal particle is called Co2 -1 → [ As] 1831445

&"
electrophoresis to halt
[ Ajy8zd3 yso (
stable due
(p
.
-1

filled tzg )
→

Coagulation : -
24
"
The process of collecting together of cult CAN 3d " 45
colloidal particles 29
→ C fully filled )
so as to change them into large
sized precipitate particles in the presence
of an electrolyte cut → EARTH 3d%s°
"
is called coagulation It is also called
.

flocculation .

] -1
[ As ]
's
3d
°
Uso
235C →

0+0+0 →
fest Ear ]
'S
30545 ( half filled )
precipitate
→
g.
colloidal
particles
Atomic Radius e-
g Tic
, MnqN , Ferg N, V40.56 and Ti Hit ek
As from left to atomic radii
we
right ,
Ceo interstitial compounds
first decreases largely , then decreases slowly
The are very hard ,

retain metallic conductivity have high m.pt

and increases in the end of the series .
,

and are chemically inert .

This decrease in atomic radii Alloy formation : -

in the
beginning is due to Alloys are homogeneous solid solution
d- block
the increase in effective nuclear Many & elements form alloys because
increase in they have similar atomic radii due to which
charge with the ,

atomic number .
they can
easily
replace the atom of other metal .

with the increase in . Alloys thus formed and often have high
number
of eo in (h 1) d. subshell M.pt
.

Brass ( Cee -12M Bronze ( Cutsn )

the screening
effect of these d- electrons on the outermost e.g q
ns electrons also increases This increased screening BY Bharat Panchal Sir
-

magnetic properties
- -

: -

effect counterbalances the effect increased nuclear of Diamagnetic substances are rebelled
cHna'rge , therefore the atomic
.
radii remains by magnetic field while
paramagnetic substances
• m°ˢᵗ " attracted
Mein the series eo co
are
by magnetic field .

the end of
-

to Those substance which are attracted very strongly

repulsion takes place so the size atom increases
of
.

by the applied field are called ferromagnetic

ION " RADIUS
in the d- block elements and their compounds
of the same oxidation
general ,
ions Many of
in a given series show progressive decrease is due
state are
paramagnetic in nature it to
in radius with increase in atomic number due the presence unpaired in incomplete
to the increase in effective nuclear charge
of eo

" d- Orbitals
Radius 9 [ ionic Radii few > Fe ]
Ionic
o¥+ate → The
paramagnetic Nature 9 no -

of unpaired e◦

Melting and Boiling Point

High m.pt and B.pt moment cut ¥+2 ) Bom
Magnetic
=

First increase and then decrease ↓

due to increase and decrease in n b number Bohr
number unpaired electrons
because the
of of unpaired e?
magneton
strength of bond
depends on number
of unpaired eo Complex formation : -

Many of d- block elements form

Note →
Tungsten CWI has the highest M.pt Complex compounds .
because

Mercury City) is the only metal in liquid foam Cil They have atomic radii
→
.
small

Metallic Character Cis High Nuclear charge

Iii ) Presence vacant d- orbital
•
show all the properties of general
metals
of so they can
•

strength of metallic bond a number

.

accept lone pair of eo from ligands -

ofunpaired eo which increase the chance and By Bharat Panchal Sir

catalytic Properties :
-
-
-

make the bond strong

Transition elements and their
Cr is a hard metal while Zn is a soft metal
.

Compounds show catalytic

•
.

properties due to variable

oxidation state and their ability to adopt
Enthalpy of Atomisation :

They have strong metallic Multiple oxidation state .

bond due to which they have high enthalpy of %

-10 250 ] ( contact
Process)
atomization 250,
?

Ionisation Energy : _
BY Bharat Panchal Sir
-

Nz+3Hz 2A HI ( Haber Process )

]
Lies b/w S and b- block elements
in incomplete orbitals,
-

The d-
( more
of unpaired
◦
presence e is
than s block but less than b- block elements ) hence
-

to absorb and re emit

I. E increases from left to right in a period
possess the
capacity -

wide which is
as the effective nuclear charge increases range of energies used as an
.

activation energy .

I. E ✗ Effective Nuclear Charge Formation Of Coloured Ions : -

it unpaired %
Hg is very High
eo
•
Iot
of 2h
,
Cd and due to
fully .

present complex is coloured transition

filled orbitals , due to d d -

and also paramagnetic in nature

•
I. E
of 5d and Cod series elements is more than 3d
is absent ,
if unpaired eo

and led elements due to lanthanide and complex to the absence of

or compound is due
Actinide contraction . d- d transition and diamagnetic in nature
e.g cusoy is blue
formation of Interstitial compounds :
a
_

in
_

colour while
Transition metals have a
tendency is
e
n
eg
znsou
form interstitial compounds
e
to with colourless I I -

H, C , B N atoms
or
&
.

+2g
-

stoichiometric
They usually
are non -

typically
and are neither
ionic nor covalent .
 Oxidation state : -

show large number of oxidation stale

the participation of both ( n
'

due to -
nd and ns electrons
in bonding in different compounds .

Oxide formation : -

Many of the d- block elements forms

oxides
of different types because
of the presence of
so
many different oxidation state .

NE Acidic character ✗ oxi Stale .

Ionic Character ✗ Oxi state

. .

•
Mn shows maximum number
of oxidation state due to
F- Block Elements
presence of maximum number of unpaired
:
the e◦
-

Elements in which last eo

•
osmium cost show +8 oxidation state enters in f- orbital
of pre penultimate -
shell
→ cut is more stable than cult because it Undergoes
in aqueous General Electronic ""
disproportionation Reaction Solh = (n -
2) f- ( h 1) do -1ns 2
-

configuration
2 Cult → ( U2 -1 + Cee

NOH The
ability of oxygen to stabilise these high
oxidation state exceeds that of fluorine because

oxygen can form double bond while fluorine form

single bond .

By Bharat Panchal Sir

fluoride is Mnfy
-
-

As a result
highest Mn yf series
whereas the highest oxide is Mnz07 .

or

Electrode Potential : -
Lanthanoid Series
The stability of a combo und or

depends upon electrode potential and it further Ist Inner Transition

depends Ubon
'

series
lil Enthalpy of atomisation / sublimation
Ii) Ionisation enthalpy
Liii ) Hydration enthalpy
By Bharat Panchal Sir -
.

Are" " Oxidation State :

Mileage )
-

Mcs ) > A-
atomisah.a.tl The oxidation
= + ye common state of
.

Ian than oids is with

A- + ] +2 and +4
A- H ^-ᵗʰᵈH ionisation H = + Ve .

9hm
H =
-
ve lanlhanoid Contraction : -

Hydration
,,

Meg , > Mtg , The regular decrease in the atomic

and ionic radii increase in
of lanthanoids with the
atomic number
from left to right in lanthanoid
series is called lanthanoid contraction .

Cause of lanthanoid Contraction

→ increase in effective nuclear charge
Poor
screening effect of 4f electrons
→
.

Consequences of lanthanoid Contraction

The separation
◦

of lanthanides is difficult as there is little

very
difference in their size due to which they
have similar chemical
properties .

There is regular trend for m2 -11M Basic from left

no standard electrode strength of hydroxides decreases
•

potential due to irregularities in ionisation

the to right
enthalpies and enthalpy of atomisahin °
Covalent character of hydroxides increases from Hor .

The size 3rd transition series elements is similar

copper is the only metal having positive value of of
•

to the size
of 2nd transition series
to so it does not liberate the hydrogen gas from .

acids
chemical Reactivity : -

By -
Bharat Panchal six
. By Bharat Panchal Sir
-
-

use
of lanthanides
chemical in glass industry
reactivity
¥
✗
•

•
As an oxidising agent
•

Ecma -11m ) is very less ( more -

ve ) except Cee •
In
making magnetic
and electronic behaviour
so these metals are highly reactive
•

oxidising power 9 to
•
In
making alloy steel
which is in
used
making
Reducing Power
!
•
✗ bullets .

Misch metal
e.g
( lanthanides + Fe -1s

+ C + cat AD
 Am bidentate
Co -

Ordination Compounds
Transition metals Those ligands
ligands
which have
form a large no .

complex compounds in which the metal atoms are bound two donor atoms but use one atom to attach with
by sharing central metal atom So these
to a number
of anions or neutral molecule a
are mono dentate
.

ligands
qeo such compound are known co-ordination
.

as CN ( Celano )
e.g
. -

SCN ( thiocyano )
{
-

compounds .

co ordination compound ☒ c-
Difference b/w Double salt and -

cigocyano, Ncs -

cisothiocyano)
Double Salt Co-ordination Compounds Negative ligands which have negative charge
Neypae ligand ,

{
.

symbol of Name of charge

They usually contain two simple
on
→
→ The simple salty from which ligands ligands ligands ammine
salts in equi molar proportion
NH °
they are formed may or CN
-

cyanide -
±
not be in equi molar prob U
-

chloride I CH -
NH methylamine o
May ]
-

. ,
Br Bromide
-

-1
are ionic compound and °
→
They iodide H2O 994A
They may not be
→ d-
-

-1

do not contain any co-ordinate

or
may Noi Nihilo N -1 NO Nitrosyl 0
ionic
-

but the complex part Ono

-

Nitin -
o -l
bond GO Carbonyl °
always contain co ordinate bond OH Hydro ✗ ◦ -1
-

no ,
Cs thio carbonyl °
Nikah
◦
" "" " "" • me " " " " " " " "' " " " " nine
• " " " rain -
"" "
' " "° "
" ◦
Salts are the same as those afion
Ncs
-

isothiocyano -1

compounds are I
:P Triphenylphosphine
-

cigar
-

Acetate -1 0
of its constituent compounds .

different from its constituent -

. H
-

Hydride -1
Thio 4.8C A 0
02 -

oxo -2 TLNCSNH
In the double salt metal ions In a co ordination compound
•
,

92 peroxo
• -

Pyridine
-

2 0
show their normal Valency the metal ion
satisfy its so ,2
.

suebnito → Enif
two 2- sulbhalo -2
type of valencies called soy
CH Methyl °
cop carbonate z
-

primary
.

}
and secondary valency
Bidentate
.

•
A double salt loses its •
A coordination compounds Bidentate
identity in the solution retain its identity in its glycenato
gly -1
solution ethane -1,2 en o
e.
9K250g ALCS 041] -24110 0×2 oxalate
. -

[ fe (( m ) , ]
-2
diamine
e.g Ky
. -

→ Types of coordination compounds Chelating ligands : -

is
It closed
ring type compound formed
Cationic Complex Anionic Complex Neutral Complex
by poly dentate ligands (
chelating ligand ) on binding
complexion camp complexion carry complex doesn't to central metal atom
Importance
+ ve charge -
ve charge carry any %
" M ← He GHz it forms stable
-

•
more
[ Fe ( CNN charge
[ COCNH] )o]2+
,

← complex called
e.g [Nico,, ] µ _
(µ
,

Ho
,
chelating effect
use
ligands ◦ in softening of Hard water
The atoms ions or molecules which can donate
metal ion
,

Detection
°
the lone pair of eo to central metal atom by co ordinate bond -

of
in ordination compounds called ligands separation element
co are
of f- block
- °
. .

D. enticing of ligands : -

co-Ordination Entity
The number of donor atoms present The central metal atom and the ligands
in the ligand is called its denticity On the basis of
. which are
directly attached to it are enclosed in square
bracket ordination sphere or coordination
denticity ligands
and called
are
of different forms as : co -

dentate , bidentate bidentate , tetra Hate poly dentate e.g Efe( CN )j4 is called coordination sphere entity
-

mono , .

hex 'd dentate etc

" "" * In
.

Monodentate ligands when The ionisabk

groups written outside the square
ligand is a bound to a metal ion
bracket and are called counter ions eg Keefe ( CN )D
single donor atom
.

through a
where Ky ions are called counter ions
a-, Bo CN -

e.g
-

,
"

Co-ordination Polyhedron
Hjo ; NH, .CO The spatial arrangement of the
around
ligands the central metal atom is called co-ordination
'

Bidentate ligands Polyhedron

when a
ligand can bind
through two donor e.g
atoms .

oxalate ethane -1,2

e.g 9
9146 nato ( Gly )
diamine
-
,

GOO
-

COO GHz MHz

-
-

Han Chi COO

-

MH CO Ordination Number
-

[µ
- -

,
ordinate
,
total number
'

The of co -

Poly dentate ligands bond formed by ligands with central metal atom
when have than two
a
ligand more
Co-ordination
donating sites .
Number =
{ ( Numbeo of ligands ✗ Denhiity)
EY kuefe Unto ]
Ethylene Diamine )
CoClz@n23Hc.N [
e.g EDTA C. Tetra Acetate Ion

= 6×1 = G CN =
2×1+2×2 = 6

OOCH!
,-ÑfCᵗʰc°°
- -
• •

Oxidation Number
# N -
CH -
CH The charge present on the central
,
CTLCOO
-

go , metal atom in a coordination compound is called

-

oxidation number . It is always positive .

Donor Atoms → 6
e.g Ky [ Fe ( CN )o ]
Hexi dentate ligands .

1,
4G ) -1K -16C-17--0 ✗ = 2
 [ Ni clip
-

ON THE BASIS OF LIGANDS •

Homolebtic in which only one type of ligands are present Nit → CAN 's 3d 845
28
19 Ky [ Fe ( CN ) , ]
Helen lentic in ↑ " / Mkt / 4 IT ✗ ✗ 1×1 ✗
which different type of ligands are present
4s Ub
e.
g. [ Cock Centre za

hybridisation Geometry tetrahedral → sb3 →

Nomenclature of co ordination compounds
-

It is paramagnetic in nature
e.g •
KYEFECCN)o ] → potassium hexacyanido ferrate CII )
U 2) -
_ 4272+2 ) IF B. M = -
_

• @ Q(Hz0ki NO , →
Hlraaqua dichloride chromium GTI) nitrate
&
[ NICCN) 4)
-

tetraammtne.ch/oridonipo-N-cobaltC1I )
•
•
[ Coll ( NG ) (NH] )y] NO, →

nitrate
Kjfecczou }] potassium toioxalato ferrate CIII ) Ni 2-1 [ As ] 18 3d 45
'

→
•
→

28
][CoCCNs(NO) ] potassium bentacyanido nitrosyl cobaltite #
1T¥
K
it / + At # IT
•
>
☐
•
[ Coclzcenljssoy dichloride bi:( ethane -1,2 diamine) cobalt 4s
→
3d
-

City sulphate
is pairing of e@ takes
•
[ ↳ • (0^10) HI>
CN a
strong ligand so

chlonieobiscethane -1,2 diamine ) nitito -0 -

Place
cobalt ' # ' " ° "
☒
↑H↑Hqk / it ✗
17¥
'

◦
[Nikola] → tetra carbonyl nickel (o )
• Li [ At the] → lithium tetra hydride aluminate CIII) 3d Up
hybridisation → dSb2
Werner Theory • two types of Valencies
Metals possess Geometry →
Square planar
primary
,
called ionisable valency c oxidation number
diamagnetic in
or

and ordination
It is nature
secondary or non ionisable valency ( co
.

- -

Number )
The
primary valencies directional
•
are non
CRYSTAL FIELD THEORY
-
.

:
complex show bribery
•
The compound do not any
and Metal ligand bond is in ionic nature so, there
central metal atom ligands present
-

of the the
-
.

in it .
B electrostatic force of attraction btw metal and

ligands
Valence Bond Theory :
-

The
ligands are treated as
negative centres and
these negative centres are so arranged around
Acc to this
.

theory ,
metal -

ligand
bond arises
central metal atom that here is minimum repulsion
due to the donation
of electron pair from ligands btw them
to central metal atom
.

the ion under the In a free transition metal ion all the fire d-
metal atom
-
.
or
Influence of ligands can use (n 1) d , ns , nb , nd
-
orbitals have equal energies ( degenerate orbitals )
orbitals for hybridisation
but when it takes part in complex formation
these d- orbital } split in two parts
Hybridisation C. N Geometry Example
.

it is called d- d transition or crystal

Sb 2 linear
[Aeg ( ( N) ]
-

field shitting .

Trigonal blanar [HGI} ] For Octahedral For Tetrahedral Complex

_

Sbz 3 Complex
Sb } 4 Tetrahedral [ Nikola ) z .

5949 " planar entice NKT

dsp 2 4
] 59149M pyramidal fellow
dsb 5
"
d2sp3 6 Octahedral finned [Cr( NH] } ]
}
'
Octahedral (outer) ( Feff )
-

sp ] d 6
"
e.
g [ COCNH, } ] of d- orbitals
shape

{
( 03-1 → EARTH 3d 6
At
G- Ao
-
-

63-1 Mla HUH ☐ I 1 1

27
3d Us Up
Go NH] is a
strong ligand so
pairing of e -0

takes place

↑H↑HHXH × XIXIX
spectra chemical series :
ga u, UP → it % arrangement of all ligands
diamagnetic of increasing
in order CFSE value is called
hybridisation d%b3 →
spectochemical series .

The ligands with small value

Geometry Octahedral →
U -
_

¥-4 do CFSE are called weak ligands and the

ligands
0 Bom
with higher value of cf.SE are called strong
-

ligand
inner
=

orbital complex
I ( Br ( S2 ( SCN { A- ( F- { OH { OX
_ -
- - -

{ H2O ( NCS { NH ] ten { NO { CN { CO

-
-
-