Equation 1 is shown im of a series is the tial sums, we have im sx) Cb ereba ce that as m better approxi- r 0, n the function f defined by ; ther F08) = e+ ese = a) + ee — a Fe = See a" = is differentiable (and therefore continuous) on the interval (a — R, a + R) and @ FQ) = 6) + Pela = a) + 30x = a + = S nex — a)! Gi) ff) de = C+ oe — a) Heo SIO 4 HAM 3 te oe (ea iS The radii of convergence of the power series in Equation i) and (ii) are both R. NOTE s (i) and (ii) j 1 Equations (i) and (ii) in Theorem 2 can be rewritten in the form w. ad) x (iii) 4[3 ox = a] = x4 lear ~ ay") Gy f [3 © esx = ay" |u- Zhe cle = adeExpress 1/(1 — x is the radius of convergence? ? as a power series by differentiating Equation 1. What \ Differentiating each side of the equation Hltxtvtxters ey 1 . We get lt det atte = Dn! (i - xy nl If we wish, we can replace n by n + 1 and write the answer as According to Theorem 2, the radius of convergence of the differentiated series is the same as the radius of convergence of the original series, namely, R = 1. & ! | Find a power series representation for In(1 + x) and its radius of convergence. we have We notice that the derivative of this function is 1/(1 + x). From Equation |11 INFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES inteerating both sides of this equation, we Bet =Yeprs+e lls nat n ‘To determine the value of C we put x = 0 in this equation and obtain In(1 + 0) =C, Thus C = 0 and x ek ~2 ye 24s 2 3 4 In(l + x) ey ‘The radius of convergence is the same as for the original series: R tan x. “1 Find a power series representation for f() = 1/(1 + x2) and find the required series by integrating found in Example 1. SOLUTION We observe that f'(x) = the power series for 1/(1 + 2°) tan 'x = j fies for tan" obtained is called Gregon’s series after nathematician James Gregory who had anticipated some of scveries, We have shown that ries ig valid when 1 (-x7)" T+x 1-Cx) =D Cem apex exon 0SECTION 11.8 REPRESENTATIONS OF FUNCTIONS AS POWER SERIES 751 Now we integrate term by term: yal | . . Wyayeen {2 cova c+ Pew This series converges for | =x" <1, that is, for [x] <1. (b) In applying the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, it doesn’t matter which anti- derivative we use, so let’s use the antiderivative from part (a) with C = 0: 1 1 (-)" — + - eg +7528 2. (In + 12"! This infinite series is the exact value of the definite integral, but since it is an alternating series, we can approximate the sum using the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem. If we stop adding after the term with n = 3, the error is smaller than the term with n = 1 29-29 = 64x 10°" So we have 1 1 ee 82° 15+ 2'5 22-22 = 0.49951374ieINiTE SEQUENCES AND SERIES TER TT . ; tn, We get Solving this equation for the mh coefficient . ii \dopt the conventions that 0! = , ‘This formula remains valid even for n = 0 ae p ani Jp = fThs we have proved the following theorem. yee (FE) theorem If f has a power series representation (expansion) at ay that iif \ es ) fle) = Leds - a" —al Oas n> 50 sin is ual 10 ; =| We state the result of Example 4 for future reference.SECTION 11.10 TAYLOR AND MACLAURIN SERIES 759 SOLUTION We could proveed directly as in Example 4, but i's easier to differentiate the Maclaurin series for sin x given by Equation 15: Jn serestore’.sins,endcosx Since the Maclaurin series for sin x converges for all x, ‘Theorem 2 in Section 11.9 tells us din Examples 2 4, and Swere dis- that the differentiated series for cos x also converges for all x. Thus sg ferent methods, by Newton, sins fe remarkable because they sneering about each ofthese te knw ali daivatives a the Fa) rer 0. i) — oe ar aa for all x | 2M Gay - - - I =a {STINGS Find the Maclaurin series for the function f(x) = xcos x. SOLUTION Instead of computing derivatives and substituting in Equation 7, it’s easier to multiply the series for cos x (Equation 16) by x: = ™ oe ee 5 ay 22 Sey reos c= BOW Gaye = ZOO Gaps La [EQUI Represent f(x) = sin x as the sum of its Taylor series centered at 2/3. SOLUTION Arranging our work in columns, we have have tained two different series: f(x) = sinx hss, Ma ses ‘dete ris nea te Malan asf 43) = cos x As ae Tor estes a i ae 'e thatthe third Taylor polynomial T's 'S 8 good approximation to sin x ef trots good nea 0. Compare it sf") = sin x a mm Campa Sia outa oom 7s the Opposite is true, " PCy) = ~e08 x r(3) at and this pattern repeats indefinitely. Therefore the Taylor series at a/3is Bi -2y 2RINT SEQUENCES AND SEHTES milar to that in Example 4 esents sin x for all x is ¥ : een) mia notation if we ep, 3 in (H.) We can write the series in ate the terms that contain v3 8,2) + $geMa(e- 2)" sin x ws -+) + 2500+! 3 Ry ‘The proof that this seri (Just replace x by ¥ ~ 7 firect methods in Examples 5 and 6 angj - power series that we obtained by ind ; : , The power we indeed the Tylor or Maclaurin series of the given functions becaay ae yy apower series representation f(s) = Set ~ gy ne that, no matter h ae a a °: ean that c, = fCa)/n. In other words, the coefficients are unique obtained, i s determined. Find the Maclaurin series for f(x) = (1+ xf, where & is any real number \ Arranging our work in columns, we have fo) = (1 +9 fO=1 fe) = KL LO) =k fx) = kk — I + 0? £0) = Kk = 1) F(x) = kk — Wk — 2 + x? £0) = Kk — 1k - 2) JOG) = ke — I) ant DE f0) = kk = Ie ent ‘Therefore the Maclaurin series of f(x) = (1 + x) is = pin = ko De kH $F £00 yo} MEAD ean D mo Mt m0 nt ‘This series is called the binomial series. Notice that if k is a nonnegative integer, the? the terms are eventually 0 and so the series is finite. For other values of & none of the terms is 0 and so we can try the Ratio Test. If the nth term is a, then nt | (n+! “KR Dan DF a, [eal \ kk = 1) +e = n+ 1k = nx"! as n> ‘Thus, by the Ratio Test, the binomial series converges if || <1 and diverges if |x| > os ‘The traditional notat \raditional notation for the coefficients in the binomial series is (t) -Meanha aeons 7 nt and these numbers are called the binomial coefficients.