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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
EEE 311 COURSEWARE
DETAILED COURSE INFORMATION
Course Title Electrical Engineering II

Course Code EEE 311 Credit Hours Four (4)

Session 2019/2020 Semester Second

Course Facilitator 1 Engr. Dr. D.B.N. Nnadi

Course Facilitator 2 Engr. H.I. Idoko

Course Facilitator 3 Engr. G.N. Ajah

Phone: 0803 725 1363
E-mail: genesis.ajah@unn.edu.ng
COURSE CONTENTS
i. Energy and Electric Energy Supply Sources: Generation, Transmission, Distribution
and Utilization
ii. Single and Three Phased Balanced Systems: voltage, impedance, current, power
factor, real and reactive power calculations for single phase and three phase loads.
iii. Power Transformers: Theory and operation, equivalent circuit, phasor diagram,
regulation, efficiency and rating three phase delta/star connections
iv. Electromechanical Energy Conversions: Basic electromagnetic theory, torque
production, magnetic devices.

Reference materials:
1. Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution - Leonard Lee Grigsby
2. Electric Power System Fundamentals - Salvador Acha Daza
3. Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering – Giorgio Rizzoni
4. Electric Energy Systems : analysis and operation edited by Antonio
5. Gómez-Expósito, Antonio J. Conejo, Claudio A. Cañizares.
6. Any other textbook on basic electrical engineering

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FULL COURSE CONTENT AND FLOW OF COURSE DELIVERY

Modules Topics
1. Energy and Electric Energy Topic 1: Generation
Supply Sources Topic 2: Transmission
Topic 3: Distribution
Topic 4: Electric Power Utilization
2. AC Power Topic 1:
Topic 2:
Topic 3:
3. Transformers Topic 1:
Topic 2:
Topic 3:
4. Electromechanical Energy Topic 1:
Conversions Topic 2:
Topic 3:

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Module 1
Energy and Electric Energy Supply Sources: Generation
Energy is a fundamental ingredient of modern society and its supply impacts directly
on the social and economic development of nations. Economic growth and energy
consumption go hand in hand. Coal, oil and natural gas have been the traditional basic
energy sources, and this implies dependence on third parties (sometimes) for energy
supply.
The electricity required to meet these consumption needs is generated in production
centers commonly called power plants or stations, where a source of primary energy
is converted into electric power with clearly defined characteristics.
1.1 Generation: Conventional and Renewables
There are many generation technologies, usually associated with the fuel used.
Conventional power stations can be discussed under the following: hydroelectric,
thermal, and nuclear.
1.1.1 Hydroelectric Power Generation
The primary source of energy used in hydroelectric stations is water. Hydroelectric
power generation involves the storage of a hydraulic fluid, water, conversion of the
hydraulic (potential) energy of the fluid into mechanical (kinetic) energy in a
hydraulic turbine, and conversion of the mechanical energy to electrical energy in an
electric generator.

Figure 1.1 Block diagram of a typical hydroelectric power plant

There are three main types of hydroelectric plant arrangements, which are
distinguished in system operation:

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1. Run-of-the-river plants, having small amounts of water storage and thus little
control of the flow through the plant.
2. Storage plants, having the ability to store water and thus control the flow
through the plant on a daily or seasonal basis.
3. Pumped storage plants, in which the direction of rotation of the turbines is
reversed during offpeak hours, pumping water from a lower reservoir to an
upper reservoir, thus ‘‘storing energy’’ for later production of electricity during
peak hours.
1.1.2 Thermal Generating Plants
Thermal generating plants (also referred to as steam plants) are designed and
constructed to convert energy from fuel (coal, oil, gas, or radiation) into electric
power. The actual conversion is accomplished by a turbine-driven generator.
Depending on what the fuel is being used, it may be termed coal-fired, oil-fired, or
gasfired stations.

Figure 1.2 Operational diagram of a thermal power plant

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The operating principle behind these stations is basically as follows:

1. The fuel is burned in a boiler to produce high-pressure steam.
2. High-pressure steam is converted in the steam turbine into mechanical energy.
3. Mechanical energy, as in hydroelectric plants, is converted into electric power
by the generator.
There are two types of steam plant technologies that use gas as a fuel, as shown in
Figure 1.3. There are gas turbine plants where, gas combustion in high-pressure air
feeds a turbine that produces mechanical energy, in turn absorbed by an AC
generator. There are also combined cycle or combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT)
plants. The operation of these stations, as may be inferred from their name, involves
two types of cycles. In the primary cycle a compressor attached to the shaft of a gas
turbine absorbs air at atmospheric pressure, compresses it, and guides it to a
combustion chamber where the gas that triggers combustion is likewise injected. The
resulting gas expands in the turbine blades to produce mechanical energy. The gas
expelled from the turbine, which is still at a high temperature, is used to heat a water
vapor circuit where the latent heat in the gas is converted into mechanical energy in
a steam turbine. Finally, electricity is generated by one or two AC generators
connected to a single common shaft or two separate shafts, one for each cycle

Fig. 1.3 Gas turbine and CCGT power plants

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1.1.3 Nuclear Power Plants

Nuclear power plants, also known as atomic power plants, consist essentially of a
nuclear reactor that produces vast amounts of heat with the atomic fission of the
uranium. This heat is transferred to a fluid, carbon dioxide, liquid sodium, or water,
and carried to a heat exchanger where it is transferred to a water circuit. Like in steam
stations, the rest of the process involves transforming the steam produced into
mechanical energy in a steam turbine and then into electric power with an AC
generator. There are two drawbacks to the use of nuclear power plants which are
difficult to solve, and which have made them socially unacceptable in some countries:
(1) the magnitude of the catastrophe in the event of an accident, no matter how low
the risk, and, (2) the problem of eliminating radioactive waste.
1.1.4 Renewables
In electric power grids, most production presently takes place in the conventional
stations, described in the foregoing discussion. There are, however, other types of
power stations that are gradually acquiring significance. These are often called
alternative plants, characterized by their limited environmental impact and the use
of renewable sources of energy: wind, solar, biomass, and CHP (combined heat and
power or “cogeneration”) plants. Of all these technologies, the one that have
undergone most spectacular growth in recent years are wind and solar energy.
Wind Energy: The wind is a free, clean, and inexhaustible energy source. It has served
humankind well for many centuries by propelling ships and driving wind turbines to
grind grain and pump water. Wind farms may be fitted with synchronous AC
generators, such as the ones used in other types of power stations.
Solar Energy: The source of solar energy is abundant and may represent in the future,
one of the main sources of energy. Photovoltaic (PV) cells are used to convert solar
energy to electrical energy. You can have standalone PV systems and grid connected
systems. PV systems has witnessed advances in technology which are making them
more affordable with improved design. The normal output of a PV panel is DC, but
currently there are PV panels that produce AC outputs, they are called solar
microinverters
Biomass Generation: which means obtaining energy from biological resources—
energy crops (also called biomass feedstocks), livestock waste, or forestry residue,
and so on—uses a resource available in nearly any habitat and perhaps for that

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reason is gaining popularity in developing countries. The two basic approaches taken
in this technology are:
1. Direct combustion in specific furnaces to produce steam subsequently used in
a turbine cycle, like in conventional steam power stations.
2. Gasification of the organic matter to obtain a combustible gas, usually with a
high methane content, generally used to feed an internal combustion engine or
gas turbine coupled to an electric generator. Matter can be gasified with
physical–chemical or anaerobic biological processes.
1.2 Transmission
The purpose of the electric transmission system is the interconnection of the electric
energy producing power plants or generating stations with the loads. Transmission
grid lines consist of aluminum cables with a steel core that rest on towers. Line design
is based on both mechanical and electrical considerations. The towers must be sturdy
enough to bear the weight of the cables and withstand the voltage in the cables while
maintaining the minimum safety distance between cables, between the cables and the
towers, and between the cables and the ground. A very visible assembly of insulators
attaches the cables to the towers. Sometimes two lines run along a parallel route,
sharing the same towers: this is known as a double circuit.
The concept of typical energy transmission and distribution systems - The generating
station produces the electric energy. The generator voltage is around 15 to 30 kV.
This relatively low voltage is not appropriate for the transmission of energy over long
distances. At the generating station a transformer is used to increase the voltage and
reduce the current. In Nigeria, the voltage is increased to 350 kV and an extra-high-
voltage (EHV) line transmits the generator-produced energy to a distant substation.
Such substations are located on the outskirts of large cities or in the center of several
large loads.

The voltage is reduced at the 330 kV/132 kV EHV substation to the high-voltage level
and high-voltage lines transmit the energy to high-voltage substations located within
cities. At the high-voltage substation the voltage is reduced to 66 kV or 33 kV, as the
case may be. Sub-transmission voltage lines connect the high-voltage substation to
many local distribution stations located within cities. Sub-transmission lines are
frequently located along major streets, The voltage is reduced to 11 kV at the
distribution substation. Several distribution lines emanate from each distribution
substation as overhead or underground lines. Distribution lines (low voltage
distribute the energy along streets.

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In the Nigerian electric power system, there’s installed capacity of approximately

6000MWe through a number of hydro (Kainji, Jebba, Shiroro), and thermal stations
(Egbin, Ughelli, Afam, Sapele). The transmission voltage levels are 330KV for the grid
transmission; 132KV for the sub-transmission lines, whilst the 33kV, 11KV and lower
voltages constitute the distribution networks. The System normal frequency is 50Hz.

Table 1.1 Transmission lines on the basis

TABLE 1.2 Electricity Production, Consumption and Capacity in Nigeria

Substations constitute a very fundamental component of the transmission grid. They

have three chief functions: they are the interconnection buses for lines, the

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transformation nodes that feed the distribution networks that reach consumers, and
the centers where system measurement, protection, interruption, and dispatch
equipment are sited. Typically, several high-voltage lines feed into the substation,
which steps the voltage down and sends the resulting current over the outgoing
(lower voltage) transmission or distribution lines. Materially, the substation is
structured around thick bars to which the various lines connect. Circuit opening and
closing facilities ensure the connection and disconnection operations needed for
dispatch, configuration changes, or the isolation of failed lines or other elements.
There is a wide variety of substation configurations. Busbar numbers and
arrangement (single, split, double, or triple bar substations, with or without transfer
bars, or ring-shaped) and the number of circuit breaker and dispatch devices per
outgoing or incoming line determine the configuration type. Increasing the number
of such devices increases substation costs but enhances safety, preventing such
anomalies as momentary downstream outages due to simple dispatching operations.
The most representative technological facility in substations is the transformer,
which raises or lowers voltage.
1.3 Distribution Systems
The physical structure of most power systems consists of generation facilities feeding
bulk power into a high-voltage bulk transmission network that in turn serves any
number of distribution substations. A typical distribution substation will serve from
one to as many as ten feeder circuits. A typical feeder circuit may serve numerous
loads of all types. A light to medium industrial customer may take service from the
distribution feeder circuit primary, while a large industrial load complex may take
service directly from the bulk transmission system. All other customers, including
residential and commercial, are typically served from the secondary of distribution
transformers that are in turn connected to a distribution feeder circuit.
The substations normally house circuit breakers that protect the feeders, that is, lines
running to other transformer stations where the voltage is stepped down again to
supply low-voltage power, in our case in Nigeria, 110V, to residential customers,
wholesalers, and retailers, etc. Consumers connect into the system at the voltage level
best suited to the scale of consumption.

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Figure 1.4 Representative portion of a typical power system configuration

1.4 Electric Power Utilization

Utilization is the ‘‘end result’’ of the generation, transmission, and distribution of
electric power. The energy carried by the transmission and distribution system is
turned into useful work, light, heat, or a combination of these items at the utilization
point. Understanding and characterizing the utilization of electric power is critical for
proper planning and operation of power systems. Improper characterization of
utilization can result of over or under building of power system facilities and stressing
of system equipment beyond design capabilities.
The term load refers to a device or collection of devices that draw energy from the
power system. Individual loads (devices) range from small light bulbs to large
induction motors to arc furnaces.
1.4.1 Basic Load Characterization
A number of terms are used to characterize the magnitude and intensity of loads.
Several such terms are defined and uses outlined below.

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Energy — Energy use (over a specified period of time) is a key identifying parameter
for power system loads. Energy use is often recorded for various portions of the
power system (e.g., homes, businesses, feeders, substations, districts). Utilities report
aggregate system energy use over a variety of time frames (daily, weekly, monthly,
and annually).
Metering — Electrical metering deals with two basic quantities: energy and power.
Energy is equivalent to work. Power is the rate of doing work. Power applied (or
consumed) for any length of time is energy. In mathematical terms, power integrated
over time is energy. The basic electrical unit of energy is the watthour. The basic unit
of power is the watt. The watthour meter measures energy (in watthours), while the
wattmeter measures the rate of energy, power (in watthours per hour or simply
watts). For a constant power level, power multiplied by time is energy. For example,
a watthour meter connected for two hours in a circuit using 500 watts (500
watthours per hour) will register 1000 watthours.
Demand — Loads require specific amounts of energy over short periods of time.
Demand is a measure of this energy and is expressed in terms of power (kilowatts or
Megawatts). Instantaneous demand is the peak instantaneous power use of a device,
facility, or system. Demand, as commonly referred to in utility discussions, is an
integrated demand value, most often integrated over 10, 15, or 30 min. Integrated
demand values are determined by dividing the energy used by the time interval of
measurement or the demand interval.
Demand Factor — Demand factor is a ratio of the maximum demand to the total
connected load of a system or the part of the system under consideration. Demand
factor is often used to express the expected diversity of individual loads within a
facility prior to construction. Use of demand factors allows facility power system
equipment to be sized appropriately for the expected loads
Load Factor — Load factor is similar to demand factor and is calculated from the
energy use, the demand, and the period of time associated with the measurement. A
high load factor is typically desirable, indicating that a load or group of loads operates
near its peak most of the time, allowing the greatest benefit to be derived from any
facilities installed to serve the load.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = (1.1)
𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑×𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

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1.4.2 Load Curves and Load Duration

Load curves and load duration curves graphically convey very detailed information
about the characteristics of loads over time. Load curves typically display the load of
a customer class, feeder, or other portion of a power system over a 24-hour period.
Load duration curves display the cumulative amount of time that load levels are
experienced over a period of time.
The curves themselves represent the demand of a certain class of customers or
portion of the system. The area under the curve represents the corresponding energy
use over the time period under consideration. Load curves provide easily interpreted
information regarding the peak load duration as well as the variation between
minimum and maximum load levels. Load curves provide key information for daily
load forecasts allowing planners and operators to ensure system capacity is available
to meet customer needs.

Figure 1.5 Load curve for commercial customer

ASSIGNMENT: Discuss common faults in distribution systems and the protective and
control devices used to mitigate these faults. SUBMIT NEXT CLASS (16/04/21)

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Module 2
AC Power
In our country, Nigeria, the voltage and frequency of our power system is 220V at 50
Hz AC power.
2.1 Instantaneous and Average power
When a linear electric circuit is excited by a sinusoidal source, all voltages and
currents in the circuit are also sinusoids of the same frequency as that of the
excitation source. Figure 2.1 depicts the general form of a linear AC circuit. The most
general expressions for the voltage and current delivered to an arbitrary load are as
follows:

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃𝑉 ) (2.1a)

𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃𝐼 ) (2.1b)

where V and I are the peak amplitudes of the sinusoidal voltage and current,
respectively, and θV and θI are their phase angles.

i(t) I = Iе-jθ

V = Vе-jθ v Z =V/I
+ +
v(t)
– – е j(θ)

AC Circuit AC circuit in phasor form

Figure 2.1 Circuit for illustration of AC power

From here on, let us assume that the reference phase angle of the voltage source, θV ,
is zero, and let θI = θ.
Recall that the instantaneous power dissipated by a circuit element is given by the
product of the instantaneous voltage and current, it is possible to obtain a general
expression for the power dissipated by an AC circuit element:

𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡)𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) (2.2)

Equation 2.2 can be further simplified with the aid of trigonometric identities to yield:
𝑉𝐼 𝑉𝐼
𝑝(𝑡) = cos(𝜃) + cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) (2.3)
2 2

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where θ is the difference in phase between voltage and current.

Equation 2.3 illustrates how the instantaneous power dissipated by an AC circuit
1
element is equal to the sum of an average component, 𝑉𝐼 cos(𝜃), plus a sinusoidal
2
1
component, 𝑉𝐼 cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃), oscillating at a frequency double that of the original
2
source frequency.
The average power corresponding to the voltage and current signals of equation 2.1
can be obtained by integrating the instantaneous power over one cycle of the
sinusoidal signal.
Let T = 2π/ω represent one cycle of the sinusoidal signals. Then the average power,
Pav, is given by the integral of the instantaneous power, p(t), over one cycle:
1 𝑇
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = ∫0 𝑝(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
1 𝑇 𝑉𝐼 1 𝑇 𝑉𝐼
= ∫0 cos(𝜃) 𝑑𝑡 + ∫0 cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) 𝑑𝑡 (2.4)
𝑇 2 𝑇 2

𝑉𝐼
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = cos(𝜃) 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (2.5)
2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos(𝜃) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

As shown in Figure 2.1, the same analysis carried out in equations 2.1 to 2.3 can also
be repeated using phasor analysis. In phasor notation, the current and voltage of
equation 2.1 are given by

𝐕(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑉𝑒 𝑗0

𝐈(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑉𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 (2.6)

The impedance of the circuit element in Figure 2.1 is defined by the phasor vo0ltage
and current of Equation 2.6 and 2.7 to be
𝑉
𝑍 = 𝑒 −𝑗(𝜃) = |𝑍|𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑍 (2.7)
𝐼

And therefore that the phase angle of the impedance is

𝜃𝑍 = 𝜃 (2.8)

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Expression for the average power obtained in Equation 2.4 can also be represented
using phasor notation:

1 𝑉2 1
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = |𝑍|
cos(𝜃) = 𝐼 2 |𝑍| cos(𝜃) 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (2.9)
2 2

AC power systems operate at a fixed frequency of 50 Hz (50 cycles per second) in

Nigeria, corresponding to a radian frequency

𝜔 = 2𝜋 ∙ 50 = 314 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 AC power frequency (2.10)

We shall continue to use radian frequency, ω, as 314 rad/s.

In AC power analysis, it is usual to employ the root mean square (rms) values of AC
voltages and currents in the circuit, the use of rms value eliminates the factor ½ in
power expressions (Equation 2.9) and leads to simplification of the equation.

We shall then establish the use of the following expressions:

𝑉
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 𝑉̃ (2.11)
√2

𝐼
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 𝐼̃ (2.12)
√2

1 𝑉2 ̃2
𝑉
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = |𝑍|
cos(𝜃) = |𝑍| cos(𝜃)
2

1
= 𝐼 2 |𝑍| cos(𝜃) = 𝐼̃2 |𝑍| cos(𝜃) = 𝑉̃ 𝐼̃ cos 𝜃 (2.13)
2

Expressing impedance as a vector in the complex, we have:

𝑅 = |𝑍| cos 𝜃 (2.14)

𝑋 = |𝑍| sin 𝜃 (2.15)

And the amplitudes of phasor voltages and currents will be denoted by the rms
amplitude. The rms phasor for voltage and current are:

̃ = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑉 = 𝑉̃ 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑉 = 𝑉̃ ∠𝜃𝑉

𝐕 (2.16)

𝐈̃ = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝐼 = 𝐼̃𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝐼 = 𝐼̃∠𝜃𝐼 (2.17)

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Therefore 𝑉̃ and 𝐼̃ denotes the rms value of voltage or current while 𝐕

̃ and 𝐈̃ will
denote rms voltages and currents.

𝐈̃ = 𝐼̃∠𝜃𝐼 corresponds to the time domain waveform

𝑖(𝑡) = √2𝐼̃ cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝐼 ) (2.18)

̃ = 𝑉̃ ∠𝜃𝑉 is
and the sinusoidal form of the phasor voltage 𝐕

𝑣(𝑡) = √2𝑉̃ cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑉 ) (2.19)

The phase angle of the load impedance plays a very important role in the absorption
of power by a load impedance. From Equation 2.13, it shows clearly that the average
power dissipated by an AC load is dependent on the cosine of the angle of impedance.

The term cos (θ) is referred to as the power factor (pf). For a purely inductive or
capacitive load, the pf is equal to 0 and equal to 1 for a purely resistive load. In every
other case, pf is between 0 and 1 represented by Equation 2.19:

0 < 𝑝𝑓 < 1 (2.20)

From Equation 2.13, we can also see that

𝑃𝑎𝑣
𝑝𝑓 = cos(𝜃) = ̃𝐈̃
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (2.21)
𝐕

EXAMPLE 2.1

Compute the average and instantaneous power dissipated by the load of Figure 2.2.
Note: Use rms values for all phasor quantities in the problem

R=5Ω
v(t) = 25.25 sin (ωt) +
(ω = 314 rad/s) – i(t)
L = 10 mH

Figure 2.2
Solution

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Known parameters: Source voltage and frequency, load resistance and inductance
values
Find: Pav and p(t) for the RL load
Step 1: define the phasors and impedances

̃ = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟖𝟓 ∠ (− 𝝅);
𝐕 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 5 + 𝑗3.14 = 6∠0.523
𝟐

𝜋
̃ 17.85∠ (− 2 )
𝐕
𝑰̃ = = = 𝟑∠ − 𝟑. 𝟎
𝒁 6∠0.523
The average power can be computed from the phasor quantites:

𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑉̃ 𝐼̃ cos 𝜃 = 17.85 × 3 × cos(0.523) = 53.5 𝑊

The instantaneous power is given by the expression:

𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡) × 𝑖(𝑡) = √2 × 17.85 sin(314𝑡) × √2 × 2 cos(314𝑡 − 3.0) 𝑊

The resulting outcome is an alternating signal with respect to time t.
EXAMPLE 2.2

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