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Environmental Conservation and Sustainable Development

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 Contents
Details Pages
No.
Contents 1
Dedication 3
Acknowledgement 5
Preface 7

Chapter One: The Environmental Conservation and Sustainability 9

The Concept of the Environment 9
Environmental Conservation 10
Environment and Sustainable Development 11
Sustainable Development Policies (Sudanese Experience) 12
Chapter Two: The Environmental Laws and Agreements 15
Environmental Laws and Legislations 15
Global Environmental Agreements and Conferences 16
Environmental Protection Laws and Policies in Developing Countries. 17
Sudan as an example of developing countries).
Goals of Economic Growth and Environmental Quality 20
Chapter Three: The State of Environment in the Developing 23
Countries
What are the Developing Countries? 23
The Common Characteristics of the Developing Countries 24
Common Environmental Problems in the Developing Countries 25
Water Pollution 25
Pollution Related to Domestic Solid Waste 26
Degradation and Deforestation 27
The Environmental Degradation Cause by Poverty 28
The State of the Environment in Sudan 29
Soil Degradation 29
ϭ

 Deterioration of Water Resources 30
Deterioration in Bio Diversity 30
Environmental Problems in the Sudan 31
Chapter Four: Environmental Conservation and Sustainability in 33
Relative to Islam
The Element of Green Construction in Islamic Perspective 33
Waste Minimization 35
Effective use of Water 35
Sustainable Use of Land 36
Limitation of Pollution 36
Poverty Eradication 37
Chapter Five: Environmental Administration and the Conservation 39
of Natural Resources
What is Environmental Administration? 39
Why the Conservation of Natural Resources 40
How Environment can be Conserves Effectively 41
Environmental Conservation and Sustainability Lesson of Experience from 41
China
Conclusion 44
References 47










Ϯ

 







Dedication
This book is lovingly dedicated to the light our God, who guided
us through the way. My dedication to my respective parents who have been
my constant source of inspiration. They have given me the drive and discipline
to tackle any task with enthusiasm and determination. Dedication also goes to
my brothers and sisters and my husband, for their a great support and
encouragement without their love and support this book would not have
possible.














ϯ

 

























ϰ

 Acknowledgement
I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude and deep regards to the soul
of my guide Professor Mohammed Hashim Awad (merciful of God go to him) for his
exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant encouragement throughout my higher
study in Khartoum University. The blessing, help and guidance given by him time to
time shall carry me a long way in the journey of life on which I am about to embark. I
am particularly grateful for the assistance given by Labert Academic Publishing
administration for publishing this book and special thank goes to Ms. Elena Alexei
the Acquisition Editor for her cooperation and helpful.
My thanks goes to Professor Syida Akhtar for her help and co-operation. I am also
like to express a deep sense of gratitude to my husband Ali Gadanfer, for his cordial
support, which helped me in completing this task through various stages.
I am obliged to the administration of Shagra University, Saudi Arabia for their
encouragement and the staff of Juba University for their valuable information
provided by them in their respective fields. I thank them for their constant
encouragement during the whole period of publishing this book. Without their
cooperation this book would not be possible. Lastly, I thank almighty, my parents,
brother, sisters, friends and every person gave me soothing to light my pathway. I
thank them all and I wish them all the best in their lives.
Hayat Bakhiet










ϱ

 





























ϲ

 Preface
Most of the developing countries have long time since established laws and formal
governmental structures to address their serious environmental problems, but few of
them have been successful in alleviating those problems. The objective of this book is
to stimulate discussion about the conservation of the environment and sustainability
in the developing countries. The heavy emphasis of the book has been placed on the
state of the environment and its problems in the developing. It focuses on poverty as
a major source of environmental problems.
Although the administrative organizations have been considered as an important
factor in implementing the environmental conservation and protection policies, it is
now recognized that administration in developing countries is a neglected factor and
it is tremendously inadequate.
The book shows laws and policies in the developing countries made for
environmental conservation and its improvement. The analysis of the book will help
readers to understand and draws attention to the issues such as public participation,
decision-making, the community's role in the protection of the environment and
realization of sustainability.
The book has been organized in to five chapters Chapter one deals with the concepts
of environnement, conservation, and sustainability. The second chapter examines
relevant policy instruments and environmental laws and legislations in developing
countries are designed actively to conserving and improving their environment.
Sudan could be taken as an example.
Chapter three discusses the environmental conservation in Islamic perspective. It
shows how the Quran has initiated what is now termed sustainable development.
Chapter four has described the state of the environment in the developing countries in
general and in the Sudan as particular.
The final chapter suggests some measures to increase the responsiveness of the
developing countries administration to environmental problems and explain how
environment can be promoted and sustainability maintained effectively both at
national as well as international levels.
ϳ

ϴ

 Chapter One
The Environmental Conservation and Sustainability
The Concept of the Environment:
The concept of the environment has been defined as the sum total of all surroundings
of a living organism, including natural forces and other living things, which provide
conditions for development and growth as well as of danger and damage. 1 An
environment is what surrounds a thing or an item. The environment could be a
physical or human element. The physical environment includes the built
environment, natural environment, air conditions, water, land, atmosphere etc. The
human environment such as people surrounding the item or thing, this is also known
as the social environment and includes elements such as spiritual environment,
emotional environment, home, family…etc. The environment is a fluid dynamic
thing.
In another words, environment can be defined as the sum total of water, air and land
interrelationships among themselves and also with the human being. It includes all
the physical and biological surrounding and their interactions. 2 It has been defined
by the western new collegiate dictionary, as "the aggregate of all the external
condition and influences affecting the life and development of an organism". There is
an interaction between organism and environment. For example the earth's
atmosphere with Oxygen and Carbon dioxide as component gases, is as essential part
of the environment and for life as we know it. The existence of these gases is a
consequences of the action of living organism, as well as necessary condition of life.
The relationship between vegetarian and soil provides another type of example.
The interaction problem is particularly confusing in the case of man and the human
environment . In the case of man we have to consider the cultural as well as the
biological and physical environment. In orienting and judging our surrounding we
depend on our sensory systems.

 
˺

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 ˻
 ǁǁǁ͘ŶĞǁĂŐĞƉƵďůŝƐŚĞƌ͘ĐŽŵǁǁǁ͘ŶĞǁĂŐĞƉƵďůŝƐŚĞƌ͘ĐŽŵ 
ϵ

 Environmental studies has provided an approach towards understanding the
environment of our planet and the impact of human life upon the environment. Thus
environment is actually global in nature. It is a multidisciplinary science whose basic
aspects have direct resave to every section of the society. Its main aspects are:
1. Conservation of nature and natural resources.
2. Conversation of biological diversity.
3. Control of environmental pollution.
4. Stabilization of human population and environment.
5. Social issue in relation to development and environment.
6. Development of nonpolluting renewable energy system and providing new
dimension to nation's security.
Environmental conservation:
Environmental conservation is the act of conserving or saving our natural resources
through careful management. This means we can use the resources but wisely and
responsibly. Examples: reducing your waste, saving trees, recycling, using renewable
resources that don't deplete our natural resources. And it decreed collective
ownership of all natural resources. All the land of this only one earth should be
managed so that the long – term survival of man as part of the ecosystem is
guaranteed. So, in thinking about environmental problem there is only one earth, so
we have to be very careful not to destroy the nature's potential. This tend to the
formulation and acceptance by many countries of a world conversation strategy.
According to Quran, the earth and its natural resources must be owned collectively
and human beings have required to developing it in a sustainable manner that brought
them prosperity.3 And they must preserve the earth's resources from destruction and
degradation. Allah has stated. And do good as Allah has been good to you. And do
not seek to cause corruption in the earth. Allah does not love the corrupters. As
prophet Muhammad (SAW) " There is more amongst the believers who plant a tree,
 
˼
Reference: What is Islam, Published by Darussalam, Riyadh, Suaudi Arabia, 2002. 
 Holly Qur-an – ALQasas 28: 77.


 ϭϬ

or sows a seed, and then a bird, or a person, or an animal eats thereof, but it is
regarded as having given a charitable gift for which there is great recompense".4 By
these verses, therefore, it can be said that the Quran has initiated what is now termed
environmental protection and sustainable development.
Environment and Sustainable Development:
From the past development policies, two important lessons of experience have been
learned. First, the free market policy for realizing economic growth requires much
more than liberalized trade and macroeconomic efficiency. Other critical ingredients
are:
1. Regulation.
2. Fair competition.
3. Transparency.
4. Accountability. and more fundamentally,
5. Development is to be about people.
The failure of the past development policies to alleviate poverty, and preserve the
environment, had led to call for sustainable Human development Approach. The
UNDP has defined Sustainable Development “as the process by which people satisfy
their needs, and improve the quality of their life in the present. While safeguarding
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Johannesburg Summit on Sustainable Development in 2000, more recently,
emphasized that Sustainable Development is the process that is to eradicate human
poverty and regenerate the environment rather than destroying it. It empowers people
rather than marginalizes them. It also gives a higher priority to the poor, enlarging
their choices and providing opportunities for them to participate in decisions affecting
their own live.5
Inherent in the concept of sustainable development is the principle of equity, in
order to achieve economic and environmental goals; social goals such as universal
access to education, health care and economic opportunity must also be achieved.
 
ϰ
Sahih Al-Bukhari,3,513
ϱ
Johannesburg Summit on Sustainable Development in 2000
 ϭϭ

This definition has further advanced by the Human Development Report in 2002. The
goal of sustainable human development is to enlarge the range of all people choices,
and to make development more equitable, democratic and participatory.6
Sustainable Development policies (Sudanese experience):
Based on the above mentioned principles of Sustainable Development, most of the
developing countries governments have put forward a strategy and policy, where in
its priorities and objectives, Sustainable Human Development have been established.
These policies in their priorities “man is the means and the end of development
policy and equity is its most elevated goal,” rehabilitation, reconstruction and the
extension of basic services to the people of the whole country have also been
empathized as priority areas.4 For example, in Sudan the Sustainable Human
Development policies mainly based on the orientations of the National
Comprehensive Strategy for the years (1992-2002).The salient features and
objectives of these policies are summarized as below: 7
1. Achieving a growth rate of % 6.5 in gross domestic products.
2. By the end of the year 2002, the rate of inflation must have been reducing to
%10.
3. The exchange rate of Sudanese currency against the US dollar is to be kept
stabilized.
4. Making structural changes in the balance of payment are to be introduced so as
to improve the deficit in the balance of payment.
5. Expanding the development and social welfare programmes in order to raise the
level of living for the poorer groups of population as well as to realize food security
in the country.
6. Realizing and supporting the peace programmes.
7. Increasing the national revenues of the state, at the same time decreasing
government expenditure.

 
ϲ
The Human Development Report in 2002
ϳ
The National Comprehensive Strategy (1992-2002).
 ϭϮ

 8. Increasing the actual minimum wages and salaries, so that minimum wages are
increased by greater percentage than the rate of inflation. Other objectives include the
concentration of finance in priority sectors and the continuation of the privatization
policy.
Experience has shown that the Sustainable Development policies in the Sudan are
top-down policies. Public and foreign economic policies have concentrated on
finance and investment in urban economic sectors and ignoring the rural ones. These
development policies from above or from the centre have not been successful in rural
areas for a number of structural and institutional reasons:
1. These policies are marginalized of the traditional sectors such as agriculture,
which represents the main source of living in the rural areas.
2. It is also observed that the volume of investment in this sector is not only
comparatively low but is also declining.
3. Finances and investments policies have concentrated on the urban sectors such as
industry and manufacturing, and marginalizing the traditional sectors
The results of these marginalization of rural areas have manifested in the
deterioration of the agriculture and social services such as primary health care and
basic education in rural areas. This incidence of poverty on rural population, has both
short and long-term effects on their coming generations.
It argues that the inequality distribution of the economic resources and political
power create widespread of poverty and frustration in rural areas. therefore, they
were hampering the economic activities and distorting the rural transformation and
development.
From the above mentioned analysis we could say that Sustainable development in the
Sudan requires the following characteristics:
1/ A commitment to sound economic development policies. It need an effective and
predictable public administration.
2/ it requires the integration of the environment and sustainable development into
decision-making process.

 ϭϯ

3/ In the light of the country-specific conditions, sustainable development needs full
participation of all parties concerned.
These attributes are essential for the fulfillment of the policy directions and
objectives.
In this respects the Sudan can benefit from the liberalization of trading systems, by
implementing the following policies, as appropriate:
(1) Create a domestic environment supportive of an optimal balance between
production for the domestic and export markets and remove biases against exports
and discourage inefficient import-substitution;
(2) Promote the policy framework and the infrastructure required to improve the
efficiency of export and import trade as well as the functioning of domestic markets.
(3) Expand processing, distribution and improve marketing practices and the
competitiveness of the commodity sector;
(4) Diversify in order to reduce dependence on commodity exports;
(5) Reflect efficient and sustainable use of factors of production in the formation of
commodity prices, including the reflection of environmental, social and resources
costs.
(6) Encouraging data collection and research Means of implementation
The above-mentioned policy changes in developing countries involve substantial
national efforts for, Capacity-building in the areas of public administration, central
banking, tax administration, savings institutions and financial markets.

 ϭϰ

 Chapter Two
The Environmental Laws and Policies
The 1970s marked the beginning of the world's awareness of potential conflict
between economic progress in production and consumption, technology and
environment. The first wave of massive environmental concerns mainly called
attention to negative externalities and their social costs in the form of environmental
pollution and resources depletion notably in the field of energy resources, minerals
and fisheries connected with the industrial structure of our economies.
An illustration of the first type of environmental problem is poor natural resources
management in some countries which threats both physical basis of these countries
and also destroy the vulnerable ecosystem of the planet to an unprecedented extend.8
Other illustration of local to global influences are causes of overgrazing and
deforestation that may lead to wider social erosion, sedimentation, flooding and
Salinization.
The second type of problem concern the local scale environmental effects that
emerge from global trends. Acid rain, erosion, desertification, distraction of Ozone
Layer, ocean pollution and resources extraction are taken place on World wide scale.,
but their effects can clearly be observed at local or regional scale. Bartelmus p.
argued that the global regional interdependence of environmental problems confront
us not only with quantitative changes, but also with quantitative ( or structural) long-
term changes at all places on earth. It calls for a new of special economic-
environmental problems and policy issues.9
Environment laws and Legislations:
Environment law is a collective terms describing international treaties statutes,
regulations, common law or national legislation (where applicable) that operates to
regulate the interaction of humanity and the natural environment, It is purpose to
reduce the impacts of human activity and seeks to protect or enhance the
environment. Environmental law and policies was one of the faster developing areas
 
ϴ
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ϵ
ĂƌƚĞůŵƵƐ͕W͘ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂŶĚĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚ͕>ŽŶĚŽŶ͗ůůĂŶĂŶĚhŶǁŝŶ͕ϭϵϴϲ͘
 ϭϱ

of law at the end of the last century. From such beginnings a wide variety of laws
have been developed to protect the environment.
Early laws, often focused on the protection of rights associated with the ownership
of property could, indirectly, protect the environment. More recent laws have been
made to protect the environment itself. Globally, environmental laws apply in many
countries and states and grant wide rights such as the right to a clean and healthy
environment. Environmental laws cover a huge variety of issues from the local (e.g.
noise control) to the global (e.g. climate change control).
Global Environmental Agreements and Conferences:
International agreements and conferences of environment are vary according to each
agreement. There are certain conferences, including:
1. 1972's United Nations Conference on the Human Environment.
2. 1983's World Commission on Environment and Development.
3. 1992's United Nations Conference on Environment and Development and
4. 2002's World Summit on Sustainable Development have been particularly
important.
Numerous legally binding international agreements now encompass a wide variety of
issue-areas, from terrestrial, marine and atmospheric pollution through to wildlife and
biodiversity protection.10
Other international programs work on developing countries stronger environmental
laws, and regulations are concerning Pollution, scarce resources, wild animals and
plants do not respect political boundaries.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is focused on the
“growing urban and industrial pollution, water quality, electronic waste and indoor
air from cook stoves.” They hope to provide enough aid on concerns regarding
pollution before its impacts are contaminate the African environment as well as the
global environment. By doing so, they intend to “protect human health, particularly
vulnerable populations such as children and the poor.” In order to accomplish these
 
ϭϬ
Act on the disclosure of information about the environment and its protection, public participation in
environmental protection and environmental impact assessments of 3 October 2008 
 ϭϲ

goals in developing countries, EPA programs are focus on strengthening the ability to
enforce environmental laws as well as public compliance to them.
The international development banks, which control resources desperately needed by
the developing countries, are promoting the use of economic incentives and other
market-based strategies as the key to more effective environmental protection.
However, the donors have rarely asked whether the approaches they are urging,
which have recently had some success in Europe and the United States, can be
implemented effectively in developing countries with limited resources and little
experience with market-based policies of any kind.
We worry that these highly sophisticated instruments have been pushed too hard
and too fast, and that those who promote them say little about the context and
conditions in which they thrive. The targets of this advice should be better informed
about everything they would need to do to make market-based instruments work.
Otherwise, the cause of environmental protection itself may be dealt a blow when ill-
conceived policies divert a country's energies without producing the desired result.
Developing-world regulators, already marginalized in their own countries, will have
little to show for their efforts in terms of a cleaner environment.11
Environmental Laws and policies in the developing countries:
Every community needs rules and regulations to regulate such things. In traditional
tribal societies there were all kinds of rules about land use. Due to the rapid changes
during development new rules and regulations are needed. Environmental protection
policies in developing countries are designed to increase well-being and create an
eco-efficient society by promoting sustainable development. In addition, these
policies are designed actively to improving our environment, and ensuring that
natural ecosystems can continue to function well.
In this respect Sudan could be taken as an example of the whole Sudno-Sahelian
Belt, across Arica south of the Sahara. Historically tribal communities were well
 
11
Ronaldo Serôa Da Motta, Richard M. Huber, and H. Jack Ruitenbeek, "Market-Based Instruments for
Environmental Policymaking in Latin America and the Caribbean: Lessons from Eleven Countries,"
Environment and Development Economics 4, no. 2 (1999): 177201.

 ϭϳ

 organized in mitigating natural disasters like fire and the invasion by desert locust.
Managing natural resources become more institutionally efficient after the re-
conquest of Sudan in 1898, the first environmental law enacted was the Forestry Act
of 1901, followed by the Land Tenure Law of 1908. The early 30s witnessed several
environmental initiatives. The 40s produced the Stepping Report on desert
encroachment in Sudan and neighboring African Countries. The Forestry Law came
into force in 1932, the Wild Life Act and the proclamation of several National Parks
came in 1935. The Land Use Committee was also established in 1944. It was a good
record management of resources, however was focused on exporting raw materials to
the benefit of colonial countries.12
Many years ahead of its time was the establishment of the Jonglei Investigation Team
to look in to the probable impacts of the Equatorial Nile Project. The four volume
report, submitted in 1954 is perhaps the first environmental impact. Assessment
endeavour ever carried out prior to a development project in Africa. The project was
subsequently abandoned due to its monumental environmental and social
repercussions.
After independence in 1956 the National Government took several initiative to
management and rehabilitate natural resources. Several specialized departments and
units were created to conserve soils and program water etc. Massive project were
launched like the anti-thirst campaign of the 1960s, expansion in rain-fed and
irrigation agriculture, building dams across the Nile and other rivers, over stocks,
desertification etc. This resulted in large-scale population movements, environmental
degradation, dam siltation etc. It must be stressed that the outlook had always been
that natural resources are renewable and infinite. The volume put on the soils, waters
and natural vegetation covers for example was zero in the calculations of cost and
benefit of new projects.
Professional and sectoral tribalism and population explosion as well as syclic draught
increased synergetic pressure on the natural resources culminating in chronic poverty,
repeated famines and near total collapse in life-supporting systems. Sudan is at this
 
˺˻
 Ɛŝŵ/ůŵŽŐŚƌĂďLJ͕^ƚĂƚĞŽĨƚŚĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚŝŶ^ƵĚĂŶ͕^ƵĚĂŶĞƐĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂů^ŽĐŝĞƚLJ͘<ŚĂƌƚŽƵŵ͕ϭϵϵϲ͘ 
 ϭϴ

point in time one of the poorest countries in the world. In spite of the fact that it is
vastly rich in natural resources and highly qualified professionals. It is a typical
situation of scarcity among the plenty.
Firm Political Commitment and understanding of the environmental dimensions of
resources administration does not exist. Many examples could be cited. The new
adoption of the federal laws divided the country into 20 states. The division of old
administration areas into Northern and Southern states neglected need to draw
administration plans on regional bases.
In 1992, the National Salvation Government has taken steps for liberalizing the
economy. This economic liberalization prevailed during 1990s, dictated selling not
only loss making, but also profit making public enterprises to the private sector,
where it was assumed that they would be rehabilitated by being subjected to the
discipline of the market. the following steps have been taken were:13
1. Abolishment or drastic reduction of price subsides, whether relating to input
producers or consumer prices.
2. A 100% devaluation of the Sudanese pound against the US Dollar.
3. Privatization of most of the numerous public organizations.
4. Self- sufficiency in the consumption of the major food commodities such as
sugar and wheat were introduced.
The view that development is to be achieved through economic growth has been
criticized. It has been argued that economic growth generates many benefits, higher
standards of living, better education and health, greater longer life expectancy and
better working conditions. But, economic growth also has costs such as resources
depletion, environmental degradation, ecological disturbance and widening
inequality, especially during the take-off stage.
Hans Opshoor, emphasizes that continued economic growth would lead to
environmental degradation and increasing the number of poor, particularly in the

 
ϭϯ
^ƵĚĂŶĞƐĞEĂƟŽŶĂůƌĐŚŝǀĞƐ͕ƚŚĞEĂƟŽŶĂůĐŽŶŽŵŝĐŽŶĨĞƌĞŶĐĞ͕ϮϬKĐƚ͘ƚŽϮϭEŽǀ͘ϭϵϵϯ͕ƚŚĞ
ŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂůWĂƉĞƌ͘

 ϭϵ

rural areas. The symptoms of environmental degradation are hectares of forest lost,
tons of soil eroded, species endangered and severe pollution generated. It is evident
that the free market is unworkable where it comes to ecology and environment; The
free market policy should be replaced by government control in regarding these
aspects.14
Theodore Panayotou is an economist from Harvard University argued that
Environmental Management usually start with the appealing proposition that market-
based instruments relax the trade-off between the goals of economic growth and
environmental quality. He argued that in the short run, the instruments offer the
cheapest solutions and ones that can be achieved without specific knowledge of the
technology or pollution-reduction costs of polluting sources. At the same time, the
instruments will produce revenue for chronically poor governments. Their final
argument is that incentive-based approaches will spur technological advances that, in
the long run, make it cheaper to reach better environmental quality.
Goals of Economic Growth and Environmental Quality:
Comparing between advance countries and developing countries concerning the
goals of economic growth and environmental quality, we can see that the developing
countries simply lacked many of the prerequisites for an effective market-based
approach. And we should keep in mind that in many ways the donor countries are
stronger candidates for market strategies than are the developing countries. 15
One could argue that no harm is done in encouraging the developing countries to aim
for the most sophisticated policies, but the reality is that resources and political will
are limited. These countries cannot afford the luxury of failed experiments. An
opportunity was lost to invest that time and money in less ambitious projects might
have produce a sense of accomplishment and some small environmental gains. The
donors' failure to admit the serious shortcomings in the recipient countries, or to point
 
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Clifford S. Russell and William J. Vaughan, "The Choice of Pollution Control Policy Instruments in
Developing Countries: in International Yearbook of Environmental and Resource Economics, vol. VII, .


 ϮϬ

out the many issues that surrounded the limited introduction of market-based
instruments in the United States, had a cost. Environmental professionals in the
countries in transition should have been informed that they could not make this leap
without constructing supporting institutions. Most developing countries face a
number of institutional obstacles. Using the case of protected areas Jose Antonio and
others explores argue that government agencies often fail to implement
environmental protection policies mainly for the following reasons:16
1/ They lack political support.
2/ They have insufficient resources.
3/ They lack the infrastructure and expertise necessary to implement the
environmental laws and policies
4/ They have underdeveloped institutional capacity, and tend to overlook the
importance of cooperation at the local level.
Puppim de Oliveira explains how this trend may be reversed by decentralizing
policy implementation. To make the process work, central authorities should offer
incentives to ensure increased attention to environmental protection objectives in the
development process. At the same time, an independent body with oversight authority
should be in place to prevent development agencies from neglecting environmental
concern.17
The key elements discussed above accurate monitoring, transparency, a working
legal system, and a realistic incentive to trade are at least as scarce in the developing
as in the transitioning world. Corruption, favoritism, and poor environmental
enforcement are features of both landscapes. In addition, the developing world may
present its own unique challenges. There are fewer trained people, and the best
people tend to be concentrated in capitals rather than in field posts. In addition
equipment for monitoring and data gathering is scarce, and basic data are unreliable.

 
ϭϲ
Durval Olivieri, an exemplary text.”, Environmental Conservation, former Director of the Bahia State
Environmental Agency.
ϭϳ
Lawrence E. Susskind, coauthor of Better Environmental Policy Studies: How to Design and Conduct
More Effective Analysis.
 Ϯϭ

 ϮϮ

 Chapter Three
The State of Environment in the Developing Countries
The Developing Countries
Countries around the world are broadly classified into various categories based on
their economic development. These categorizations are based on a number of criteria
ranging from per capita income to life expectancy and literacy rates.
The term “developing countries” is often used in international development and many
of us think that we are clear in what it means. But the fact is that despite the World
Bank’s profound classification, there is considerable contradiction in accepting and
analyzing what actually developing countries are. This is because people in many
developing countries enjoy high standard of living despite having other low
indicators. Developing country, also called a less-developed country (LDC), is a
nation with a low living standard, undeveloped industrial base, and low Human
Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries.18
While the World Bank uses the per capita income as the basis for classifying the
world into developed and developing countries, the UN uses the Human
Development Index to rate the development of various countries. It has been noted
that the countries which have high population are also the ones that are still in the
developing phase.
Other classification is the size of the progress of a country can be seen from its
successful development. Income per capita, economic growth, unemployment, and
population growth rate is partly an indicator to measure the success of development.
Grouping the countries into developed and developing countries is generally based on
economic and technological sectors.
Now, countries have also been further classified as those that are in transition or
those that are emerging economies. Despite the variety in location, resources,
populations, history, culture, religion and other factors, all of these countries can still
be called developing. This is because of what they do have in common. They still are
 
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in the stage of transition, no longer being wholly traditional and not yet fully
modernized.
The developing countries are also caught up in the process of social change and
share a generalized consciousness of the objectives towards which change should be
directed. The ideology of development is crucial to an understanding of politics and
administration in developing countries. The major elements of any ideology of
development consist of nation building and the realization of socio-economic
progress. This related goal of socio-economic progress and nation-building in the
ideology of development, as has been identified by Esman "is the desire to triumph
over poverty and equally distribute the benefits of industrialization”. Instead of the
realization of that goal, deprivation in human live and unequal development has been
seen all over the developing countries.
The developing countries have also called underdeveloped nations most of them are
in Africa, Asia and Latin America. They are far from homogenous group of
countries. They are the average income, GDP growth rate is much lower than in
industrial nations, where the economy relies on a few export crops, and where
farming is conducted by primitive methods. In many developing nations, rapid
population growth threatens the supply of food.19 However, developing countries are
also differ in size, the volume and pattern of their international trade, their degree of
urbanization and many other characteristics.
The Common Characteristics of the Developing Countries:
we can find General characteristics of these countries which can be summarized as
follows: 20
a. Average income per capita of the population were generally low.
b. Education levels low average population.
c. Life expectancy lower average population.

 
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Reference: www.dailytape.com.The characteristics of developed and undeveloped countries.
1/9/2011.


 Ϯϰ

d. Population growth rate per year is quite high.
e. The mortality rate is relatively high population per year.
f. Livelihoods of the population is generally patterned agrarian.
g. Narrow the field work.
h. Commodity exports of raw materials, rather than processed ingredients.
i. The majority of the population live in rural areas.
j. Low levels of population health.
k. High unemployment figures.
Developing countries also are vary in the form their environmental problems take ,
some countries are heavily endowed with environmental assets such as tropical
forests, while others are arid and desert, some are mountainous, while others are low
lying and flood prone. Generalizing across all developing countries and categorizing
the environmental problems they each face is thus different.
Common Environmental Problems in the Developing Countries:
According to the International Network for Environmental Compliance and
Enforcement (INECE), the major environmental issues in developing countries are
drought and flooding, air pollution, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, freshwater
21
availability, degradation of soil and vegetation, and widespread poverty.
Environmental problems that are common in developing countries can be stated as
the following:22
1/ Water pollution.
2/ Pollution related to domestic solid waste and due to lack of sanitation..
3/ Degradation and deforestation.
4/ Environmental Deterioration cause by poverty.
1/ Water pollution:
Water pollution in developing countries consists of those associated with water
quality and unrelated sewage discharges into rivers, streams and open ditches. The

 
21
Environmental Protection Law of 27 April 2001
22
Raghbendra Jha, John Whalley, The Environmental Regime in Developing countries, University of
Chicago Press, Jan. 2001, 219-223.
 Ϯϱ

1998 UN Human Development Report suggests that as much as 50% of all discharges
into water ways in developing countries untreated. These in turn, generate significant
health problems, including waterborne diseases, which in some countries are rife. The
(HDR) estimate that diarrhea and dysentery account for an estimates 28% of the total
burden of disease in developing countries, that polluted water generates nearly two
billion cases of diarrhea annually in developing world, and that diarrhea-related
diseases cause the deaths of some 5 million people annually, including 3 million
children. They also estimate that contaminated water leads to 900 million cases of
intestinal worms and that Asian rivers carry 50 times as many bacteria from human
excrement as rivers in European and North American countries.23The high level of
arsenic linked to phosphoric fertilizers in ground water, which kill some of the people
who drink such water, is a further problem in a number of countries.
2/ Pollution related to domestic solid waste:
Another component of the pollutant category is domestic solid waste. In most
developing countries, there are only limited solid-waste disposal systems and the
result is the spread of infection diseases. The 1998 Human Development Report
estimate that between 20 and 50% of domestic solid waste in these countries remains
uncontrolled, even with up to one-half of local government spending in some
countries going to waste collection. In some areas, given the lack of sanitation, waste
becomes mixed with excrement, further contribution to the spread of infection
diseases. Poorer households in these countries tend to live near waste disposal sites.24
Health related problems (which include respiratory damage, heart and lung disease
and cancer) due to smoke from burning and to vehicle exhaust in both urban and rural
areas reflect another pollutant problems come from burning dung, wood, and crop
resides. The 1998 HDR estimates that 90% of deaths globally due to air pollution are
in developing world and of those 80% are due to indoor pollution.

 
23
The 1998 UN Human Development Report, Oxford University Press.
24
Health, J. and H. Binswanger, Natural Resources degradation effects of Poverty and Population Growth,
1996.
 Ϯϲ

3/ Degradation and deforestation:
Degradation that that we identify as a major part of the environmental problem in
developing countries is due to soil erosion. Erosion arises from variety of causes. One
is population growth that result in progressive division of plot sizes, with spillover of
topsoil into neighboring plots, river estuaries, hydro dams, and in the case of
countries with more desert areas, windborne soil loss. The 1998 Human Development
Report estimate that in Burkina Faso and Mali, the person in sex has been forced to
leave his or has land because of it has turned into desert and that deforestation has a
worldwide annual cost of $ 42 billion reduces agricultural productivity and in some
areas the availability of agricultural lands per capita. Soil erosion has also had the
effect of reducing fodder available for cattle.
In addition to soil erosion and soil quality, other degradation type arises with open-
access resources (resources for which the property right are ill-defined or poorly
enforced) and the over-exploitation of these resources. These include deforestation
associated with other factors such as land cleaning , slash and burn cultivation,
squatting, and some countries, the collection of firewood. These problems are
especially, severe in Africa, Schatan (1998), for instance, identify land degradation as
the most serious environmental problem facing Latin and Central America. For
Africa, Ghana, one of the less severe cases, Lopez (1997) estimated that over
cultivation of land at the expense of forest runs to 25% of land use. Over exploitation
of fisheries is a further problem.25
Human being have significant role in deforestation and desertification process in
most developing countries. For example, in Sudan a large number of women
specially in rural areas are participated substantially in agricultural activities. Hall
and Ismail, stated that women in Darfur, frequently cut down forest, clean bush and
scrub. In Darfur state mainly the northern belt which is in danger and already badly
stricken by the process of deforestation has drastically decreased the productivity of
land in the last few decades.
 
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 Closely related to the causes and effects of desertification, is increasing of
deforestation. Whitney defined the term deforestation as the huge utilization of wood
fuel already has its impact on the environment. The desert creep, soil degradation,
increasing aridity and salinity, lowering of water tables, and low productivity of the
soil are the result of removal of trees as a productive cover for the soil. Of Sudan,
e.g., for every 100 Faddans of timber cut only 70% are replaced naturally. 98% of
this wood is used as fuel for domestic purposes.
Finally, in this regards under the heading of degradation are urban congestion
problems. Rapid growth in urban population and vehicle densities, especially in high
growth economies, leads to congestion. This lower air quality, increase the spread of
infection disease, and generates significant time loss from traffic, high accident rate,
and noise. A 1990 study by Japan's International Corporation Agency produced the
estimate that road congestion in Thailand ( one of the worst cases) reduces potential
output in Bangkok region by one third.
4/ Environmental Deterioration cause by poverty.
Recently, the environmental issue is viewed within the context of social crisis such
as migrants and acute poverty. It has been widely acknowledged that poverty is one
source of environmental degradation. Spread of poverty over the world is part of a
large term global trends. Human Development Report of 1994 noted that there is no
doubt that poverty is increasing in areas of both the industrialization and developing
world- and that it has differing effects on men, children and women.
Poverty is one of the leading cause of environmental deterioration in poor countries.
According to the UN Population Fund, high fertility and poverty have been strongly
correlated, and the world’s poorest countries also have the highest fertility and
population growth rates. According to the Brundtland report, “poverty is a major
cause and effect of global environmental problems. It is therefore futile to attempt to
deal with environmental problems without a broader perspective that encompasses
the factors underlying world poverty and international inequality.” Individuals living

 Ϯϴ

in poverty tend to rely heavily on their local ecosystem as a source for basic needs
(such as nutrition and medicine) and general well-being.26
Fouad N. Ibrahim argued that when more children are born or when land productivity
diminishes as a result of soil degradation. population growth continues to increase,
increasing pressure is being placed on the local ecosystem to provide these basic
essentials. Therefore, environmental deterioration in poor countries in turn is directly
related to the deterioration of a healthy quality of life and living standards. So,
strategy for poverty reduction will certainly embrace all aspects of national policy.
The State of the Environment in Sudan
Sudan as one of the developing countries at the beginning of the 20s century the
population was only 3 millions and the economy was the subsistence one.
Modernization of the economy and social progress started with education well before
World War one. Massive agricultural schemes like the Gezera ( 2.5 million feddans)
were launched after the war. This involved building dams and irrigation works( 10
thousand km of canalization in Gezera Scheme). Although pilot projects, to tots
production techniques preceded the full scale launching of the project, environmental
impacts, like deforestration, population movements, stabilization and water related
diseases were not even considered. 27 The goals of the scheme was the production of
long-stable cotton for export, economic progress followed in many directions,
influenced by the colonial powers, trying to bridge the gulf between production
growth and stagnant economy.
Soil Degradation:
This is interpreted as the inability of the resource to sustain production. This is due to
receding isohyets towards the south of the country. Consequently the vegetation
cover north of latitude 12 disappeared almost completely. This is also due to repeated
use of fire, deforestation, drought and the dearth of reforestation effects. Compacting

 
26
Lusigi, Angela. "Linking Poverty to Environmental Sustainability". UNDP-UNEP Poverty - Environment Initiative.
Retrieved 4/2/2011.
27 .United Nation Human Development Report of 1994, p. 20.

 Ϯϵ

of soils and deforestation become very signification problems around water points
especially after the anti-thirst campaign of the 1960s. Sand dune movement
accelerated rates of desertification.28
Deterioration of Water Resources:
Global warning, drought and deforestation accelerated rates of deterioration in water
resources both quantitatively. The annual discharges of the Nile system have
decreased during the past two decades. It is postulated that rainfall over the Ethiopian
High Lands will decreased in the order of 15% which would resulted in a 30%
decreased in the discharge of the Ethiopian tributaries of the Niles.29
Dams across the Nile in Sudan have serious siltation problems. This is due to the high
load transported down from the Ethiopian plateau as well as from degraded water
sheds. Lower water current velocities are a consequence of decreased volume of
discharge. This makes Sudanese rivers vulnerable to invasion by weeds and water,
related diseases. Perhaps the Nile is one of the least polluted rivers in the world.
Sources of contamination include sugar estates, power plats and agricultural
chemicals. The infrastructure of rain water drainage systems has deteriorated of late.
Increases of Malaria and enteric diseases are prevalent during the rainy season. The
wide use of domestic water storage tanks has also made malaria and domestic
disease.
Deterioration in Bio Diversity:
The annual rate of deterioration is close to 504 thousand hectares. Only 30,000
hectares are reforestrated. We lost a number of wild life species in the last tow
decades , many more are endangered or vulnerable. This is mostly due to habitat
destruction. Several grass and herbs have disappeared due to over grassing, repeated

 
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drought and fires. Fires are responsible for the annual loss of 30% dry fodder
otherwise available to wild life and the 103 million heads of livestock.30
Awareness and sensitivity to environmental issues is week among the public and the
policy makers.
It must be stressed that the overwhelming limitations of land use in Sudan are the
periodic droughts experienced in the Sahelian Belt. Population distribution is
inversely proportional to vegetation cover in such a way that 78% of the Sudanese
inhabit northern areas with only 33% of cover( which already creased to 18%) the
remaining 22% inhabit the southern parts with 67% of the forest area.31
Most of the economic development was established in northern part of the country.
Horizon expansion in large-scale rain fed mechanized agriculture replaced the
traditional subsistence one. The areas under plough are currently 36 million feddans
for the rain-fed sector and 4 million for the irrigated sector. Productivity is very low
notwithstanding the use of agricultural chemicals and hydrocarbon fuel. Farming
marginal lands ( with precipitation less than 300 m) is particularly disastrous.
Farming and distorting flood plains seasonal water courses have far reaching effects.
Environmental problems in the Sudan:
Environmental problem of Sudan can be summarized in recurring droughts and
desertification have led to an increase in environmental consciousness. The fact that
environmental issues affect all aspect of life in the country is gaining acceptance.
The basic environmental problems of Sudan are related to the absence of an
acceptable strategic master land use plan, the growing conflict in land use policies,
the depletion of natural resources and the un checked population growth ( due to lack
of coherent population policy).
These problems are made worse by the limited perception of the environmental issues
as well as the total neglect for the impacts of agricultural policies. The adoption of "
Modernization" in agricultural practices with very little vetical direction has become

 
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an instrument of interference in the traditional sector and takes away from its
resources the land, forest, ranges, pastures and wild life.
In Sudan There are other factors working against the environmental interest. These
can be stated as the following:
1/ Inadequate financial and human resources.
2/Underdeveloped institutional and technological capabilities.
3/Inadequate opportunities for people to participate meaningfully in the development
process.
4/Inappropriate or narrow economic and social policies.
5/ Inadequate incentives for environmentally sound behaviour.
6. There are macroeconomic pressures such as low commodity prices and debt
burdens.
All this means that the environment is a fundamental part of development. Whole-
hearted and systematic efforts must be made to remove these constraints on achieving
environmental sustainability.

 ϯϮ

 Chapter Four
Environmental Conservation and Sustainability
in Relative to Islam
Emotionally people felt their life to be determined by the power of nature. In the
ecosystem everything depends on everything and many desire side effects are to
result of man present activities. Many people benefit from common resources such as
forests, grazing land or fish population, but no one cares to look after them. Allah
said " nay ,we let them and their forebears enjoy the good things of life, until they
outlive their prosperity can they not see that we visit the land under their control and
gradually curtail its bounders all around them? Is it, them, they who will prevail? 32
For many human activities there is a short–term benefit to a few persons, while
there is long – term cost to the environment and thus to the community at large. If
one decides to cut trees from a mountain slope, one will gain some profit from the
wood, but after some time erosion will move the soil from the slope, no frost will
grew on that slope and the water flow of the river will no longer be regulated,
resulting in floods and drought. The person who was responsible for this chain of
event by cutting the trees will not have to pay for this damage, so for him it will still
be profitable to go on cutting. A similar situation arises where a fisher man can use
new gear and stout to over fish from the water.
The ecological problem we are facing today arise from the fact that we have started
using very scarce resources wastefully and in such a way that we are not giving
nature a chance to replace the things we are taking out of it. Islam maintains that God
is the absolute creator and sustainer of the universe and the resources within, all
elements of nature and the associated resource. Islam advocates, that environmental
disruption of any kind must be avoided for two reasons:
First, it is an ethical command of Islamic jurisprudence and law.
And second, it is essential for providing the public interest and universal common
good of all mankind.

 
ϯϮ
Holly Qur-an, Al Anbiya 22-44͘
 ϯϯ

 The right to benefit from nature are connected to obligation and maintenance or
preservation of the resource. The essential legitimate rule set up by the prophet
Muhammad is that " The benefit of a thing is in turn for the liability attached to
it"(Sahih Al-Bukhari). A lot of environmental destruction is case of by people's lack
of knowledge of what their creator demands of them.
People today need to be forced to understand that the conservation of natural
environment is religious responsibility required by the almighty. Allah as stated. And
do good as Allah has been good to you. And do not seek to cause corruption in the
earth. Allah does not love the corrupters.33 Numerous people these days adore Mother
Nature but don't understand much regarding it. Practically they need to be made
conscious of what is going on, however they most importantly need to discover the
teaching that has been contained in their religious belief, or way of life.
Concerning Muslim for example, this relationship is based on teaching within the
Qur-an scripture conserved precisely both in oral memorized type as well as in book
form for more than fourteen centuries, such as in the following verse: " it is He who
has made you guardians of the earth. He has raised you in ranks, some above others,
that he may try you in the gifts He has given you. For you Lord is quick in
punishment, yet He is indeed off-forgiving, most merciful.
The state of the environment can be assessed by monitoring physical, chemical,
biological and other factors, and by analyzing their interrelationships. Such analysis
can provide information about how rapidly the climate seems to be warming, where
and how harmful emissions spread through the environment, and which species are
thriving or declining.
It is difficult to evaluate the benefits and disadvantages of any environmental
changes purely on the basis of scientific data, however. How much we worry about
problems such as climate change, industrial pollution of local lakes largely depends
on our knowledge and our values.
If everyone has learnt to understand long – term interests of the community at large,
there is a larger chance that one action, will be in agreement with these long–term
 
˼˼
  Holly Qur-an-Al Qasas 20:77͘
 ϯϰ

interests. The tragedy of common can only be solved by a stable community with
highly developed sense of responsibility.
The Qur-an told that the state of social and environment's health as a tree is seen
through its roots ,stems divisions, leaves fruits and seeds. The Sharaa laws and
regulations emphasize general approaches regarding to the best way to practice
sustainability actions for protection, restoration, and preservation of the natural
resources base.
The idea of the prophet Muhammad (SAW) as a master of green politics will
originally struck the word environment and associated concepts like ecology,
environmental awareness and sustainability to this terminology. Today green are
modern that were constructed in the face of the rising worries regarding the modern
condition of the natural world around us.
The Elements of Green Construction in Islam Perspective:
The elements of Green Construction in Relative to Islam are:
1/ Waste Minimization:
Islam calls for the effective use of natural resources and waste minimization. Alla
stated " And do not cause corruption in the earth, when it has been set in order.34 A
great way to minimize the pollution and exploitation of Wild-life environments that
are mainly accountable for plant and animal destruction, is to adhere to another verse
of the Quran, which affirms, " Eat and Drink" , but waste not by excess, He loves not
the excessive.
2/ Efficient use of water:
The teaching of prophet Muhammad (PBUH) stress the appropriate use of water
without wasting it. The prophet said: Don't waste water even if you are on a running
river. ( Sahih Al-Bukhari). For this reason we all need to work to make our water
secure to drink, to save it and also to utilize it properly. As Muslim we have to
consider every opportunity to anticipate and remember nature and our environment
and recall Allah's grace and mercy.

 
ϯϰ
Holly, Quran, Al-Araf 7:56
 ϯϱ

In another verses Allah said " And have you seen the water that you drink? Is it you
who brought it down from the clouds, or is it we who bring it down? If we willed, we
could make it bitter, so why are you not grateful?( Holly Quran, Alwagiaa 56:70).The
Teaching in the Quran are developed move through the lesson of Prophet Muhammad
(PBUH). In the Hadith among the three miracles of the natural world that all Muslim
is entitled to " Muslims have common share in three things, grass, water, and fire.35
3/ Sustainable Use of Land:
The earth has been created for one as a mosques and is a means of purification. With
these words the Prophet Muhammad highlights the scared nature of earth or soil, not
merely as genuine entity but also as purifying representative.36 The Prophet (SAW)
saw earth as subservient to mankind, however recognized that it should not be over
exploited or mistreated, knowing that it had rights, just like the trees and wildlife
living on it.
To be able to safe guard land, forests and wildlife, the Prophet created inevitable
avers called Himia and Haram, where recourses were to be remaining unchanged.
They are still being used currently haram areas are frequently drawn up around wells
and water sources to protect the ground water table from over pumping. Hima applies
specially to wildlife and forestry and normally designates a place of land in which
grazing and wood cutting are restricted, or where particular animal species are
safeguard.
4/ Limitation of Pollution:
The Prophet (PBUH) discourage or banned activities that result in unpleasant smell
and odors from happing in certain public places. He stated " He who eat garlic or
onion should stay away from us" (Sahih- AlBukhari) the time that one should stay
away is limited to the length of the smell. By comparison, whatever pollutes the air
and is harmful towards the overall health shall be forbidden, Allah said " it is Allah

 
ϯϱ
Abu Dawood, Book, 23,3470.
ϯϲ
^ĂŚŝŚElbukhari, 1:331͘
 ϯϲ

who sends the winds which rise the clouds which we the drive to dead land and by
then bring the earth to life after it was dead. That is how the resurrection will be". 37
5/ Poverty Eradication:
poverty has considered the main factor in environmental deterioration. Divine
religions oppose the co-existence of affluence and deprivation within any human
society. The poor in the Islamic perspective are entitled to a share of every rich
person's wealth by virtue of being co-owners of the natural resources from which
their wealth is derived. In the Islamic economic system wealth is regarded as a gift
from God, who donates it directly to a person, through inheritance or charity.
According to Quran, the earth and its natural resources must be owned collectively
and human beings have required to developing it in a sustainable manner that brought
them prosperity. 38And they must preserve the earth's resources from destruction and
degradation. By these verses, therefore, it can be said that the Quran has initiated
what is now termed sustainable development. And it decreed collective ownership of
all natural resources.
Islamic religion also urged the rich Muslim to give alms (Zakat) to the poor as
charity, but it made it the rightful share of the poor in the wealth of the richer which
the latter are obliged to pay, and charged the state with the task of collecting and
distributing it. It made Zakat one of its five pillars (together with the assertion that
God (Alla) is one and that Mohamed his final messenger, prayer, fasting and
pilgrimage to Mecca).39 The Quran and Sunaa of the prophet (peace be upon him)
specified the categories of wealth and income from which Zakat is collected, and the
groups to which Zakat is paid. Transfer from the rich to the poor continues until
poverty disappears and every member of society attains sufficiency as a minimum
standard of living .

 
ϯϳ
Holly Quran, Al-Fair, 35:93͘
ϯϴ
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ĂŬĂƚƵƌĞĂƵŶŶƵĂůZĞƉŽƌƚ͕ϮϬϬϮ͘

˼̂

 ϯϳ

 ϯϴ

 Chapter Five
Environmental Administration and the Conservation
of Natural Resources
What is Environmental Administration?
Ecology is the study of the relationship between all living things and the physical
environment. The ecological concept of interrelation provide a central theme of
environmental administration. It is administration of specific natural resources at a
given time and place. It involves a complex of interrelation that has the capacity to
influence the environmental resources in present or the future. For example, the
administration of water resources cannot occur without affecting other natural
resources. Since the environment include all living and non living aspects, we have to
take into account their structure (how they are build together) with their behavior
(what they do) and functions ( what it's good for). Forest is more than collection of
trees. Other environmental science like biology, geography play key roles in
environmental administration.
In order to solve the environmental problems we need to use two alternatives. The
first one, this problems can be solved through technical innovations. The second
alternative we need proper environmental administration. The main objectives of this
administration is to slow down the rate of environmental degradation to the level
where there is little significant degradation in the vital resources system and
environmental functions.
Environmental administration can be define as a pattern of social and structural
development transformation which optimizes the economic and other resources.
Societal benefits that available in the present without due jeopardizing the lively
potential for similar livelihood in the future generation. Environmental administration
is administration which raises economic welfare with a maximum amount of
resources conservation. And at the same times, with a minimum amount of
environmental degradation.

 ϯϵ

Other definition of environmental administration is a techniques of operations which
result in achieving the objectives in an optimum and effective manner so that the
natural resources are utilized fully and without waste.
Why the Conservation of Natural Resources?
There are different reasons which justify the importance of conserving the
environmental administration. These are:
1/Maintain genetic resources and diversity in nature:
Many species of plants or animal which are not yet used, probably can become
important resources for food or medicine if enough research work is done. Many
species can destroy before they have been described scientifically. All plants and
animals which have been destroyed in the domesticated in the past have been derived
from natural ancestors. The genetic resources of their wild population still is
important for deriving new traits.
2/Scientific and Educational Reasons:
Nature is the leader of the art, an old expression indicating that many of artificial
techniques developed by mankind have a natural basis, studding the nature and
functioning of ecosystem is of great value to understanding of human being system as
well. Wider the range of environmental available to study , the easier the various
process can be recognized.
3/ Tourist Attraction:
For various reasons people from countries where most of nature has been destroyed,
are willing to spend money to see nature reserves . Natural park to attract tourists
such as East African countries have developed.
4/ Economic Reasons:
Economic reasons are related to the survival of mankind. The beauty of nature can be
an additional reason for conservation specially for people living in urban areas, the
recreation in natural environment are important.

 ϰϬ

5/ Esthetical Reasons:
Conserving nature is important for its own sake. All religious assure that the earth has
been created for human being to exploit, but mankind also has the duty to guard and
maintained the other creatures on the earth.
How Environment can be Conserved Effectively:
To conserve our environment and to improve the state of the environment in
developing countries, these goals will involve:
1. promoting the use of economic policy instruments
2. Slowing the impoverishment of biodiversity
3. Building up adequate capacity to prevent environmental pollution
4. Reducing the amounts of waste generated in relation to economic growth
5. Reducing the harmful effects of hazardous and dangerous substances
6. Preparing to influence the setting of targets for the next phase of the
implementation of the UN Climate Protocol, and then carrying out the necessary
measures. 40
Environmental Conservation a Lessons from China:

Developing countries can take a lesson of experience from other countries such as
China. For example, China is confronted with the dual task of developing its national
economy and protecting its ecological environment. Since the 1980s, China's policies
on environmental protection and sustainable development have experienced five
changes:

(1) progression from the adoption of environmental protection as a basic state policy
to the adoption of sustainable development strategy;
(2) changing focus from pollution control to ecological conservation equally;
(3) shifting from end-of-pipe treatment to source control;
 
40
Environmental
administration, with Geoffrey Wandesforde-Smith,UC Davis, Fall Term 2003.
www.environment.fi.


 ϰϭ

(4) moving from point source treatment to regional environmental governance; and
(5) a turn away from administrative management-based approaches and towards a
legal means and economic instruments-based approach.
China has set down sustainable development as a basic national strategy Since 1992,
however, environmental pollution and ecological degradation in China have
continued to be serious problems and have inflicted great damage on the economy
and quality of life. The beginning of the 21st century is a critical juncture for China's
efforts towards sustaining rapid economic development, intensifying the
environmental protection efforts, and curbing the ecological degradation.
As the largest developing country, China's policies on environmental protection and
sustainable development will be of primary importance not only for China, but also
the world. Realizing a completely well-off society by the year 2020 is seen as a
crucial task by the Chinese government and an important goal for China's economic
development in the new century, however, attaining it would require a four-fold
increase over China's year 2000 GDP. Therefore, speeding up economic development
is a major mission during the next two decades and doing so will bring great
challenges in controlling depletion of natural resources and environmental pollution.

By taking a critical look at the development of Chinese environmental policy, we

try to determine how best to coordinate the relationship between the environment and
the economy in order to improve quality of life and the sustainability of China's
resources and environment. Examples of important measures include:41 adjustment of
economic structure, reform of energy policy, development of environmental industry,
pollution prevention and ecological conservation, capacity building, and international
cooperation and public participation.

 

41
Dharam Ghai and Jessica M, People's participation in sustainable development, Vivian. London, England,
Routledge, 1992. 23-49.

 ϰϮ

 Between 1997 and 2003, 9,138 investment projects had been made in the Chinese
sampled villages. The majority (87 percent) focused on provision of public goods,
e.g., roads and bridges, grain for green, irrigation, school construction, and drinking
water. Funding came from central (53 percent) and local (47 percent) sources.
Investments were spread across all provinces, but the majority of the environment-
oriented spending has occurred in poorer areas with relatively high levels of state
funding. Village level officials, while not government representatives, were found to
be key political and economic actors shaping the development of rural areas.42
The relationships between villagers and local level officials in communities were
also found to be important as many rural development tasks are co-managed and co-
funded. However, there has been a change in the way grassroots bodies carry out
their tasks, e.g. tax reforms village elections, and the village decision making
processes is changing. Although the study showed that targeted environmental
projects have been part of the local investment activities, their impact has been below
expectations. These investment projects appear to have only a limited scope for
integrating poverty and environment objectives, in spite of the strong linkages that
exist.
New approach adapted for rural development. It has been set up to test actual
poverty-environment planning at local levels, particularly villages. China has
integrated environmental challenges into actual guidelines for poverty reduction.
Environmental challenges have to be addressed in rural development programs are
the followings:
i) land overuse and degradation.
ii) water and soil erosion.
iii) habitat degradation, e.g. forests and biodiversity loss.
iii) natural disaster impacts.
iv) land pollution from agricultural chemicals.

 
ϰϮ
Brundtland Commission report, The World Conservation Strategy for the 1990s.


 ϰϯ

v) serious water pollution and water shortages.
vi) management of unwanted mulching film, and
vii) domestic waste management.
Conclusion:
There is an increasing that a more coherent approach is needed in dealing with
environmental issues including land use, urban development, common property
resources, spatial inequality, and inter generation equity. All nations must work
together to solve environmental threats of a global nature, and those which undermine
sustainability at more local levels.
Industrialized countries need to reduce their levels of consumption and continue to
improve the management of their natural resources. Developing countries are
continue to seek cooperation with industrialized countries, to address their sustainable
development priorities. Each country must play its fair role, based on the principle of
mutual benefit and obligation, and according to its relative technical and financial
capacities.
To promoting the environment and sustainability the developing countries, we will
pursue the following objectives:
1/ Increase the institutional, human resource and technological capacities of
developing country governments.
2/Support developing countries organizations and communities to plan and
implement effectively the development policies, programs, and activities that are
environmentally sustainable.
3/ Strengthen the capability of developing countries to contribute to the resolution of
global and regional environmental problems, while meeting their development
objectives.
4/ Integrate environmental considerations more effectively into developing countries
decision-making.
5/ Promote education and awareness among governments and the public in
developing countries, is importance of environmentally sustainable approaches to

 ϰϰ

development. Environmental education help one for a better understanding of the
relationship between the environment and sustainability.
The developing countries in order to conserve the environmental resources and to
achieving sustainable development there are many related aspects these are requires:
1/ Appropriate economic policies.
2/Efficient resource allocation.
3/ Use, more equitable control over resources.
4/ Increased productive capacity among the poor.
5/Achieving social sustainability means more equitable income distribution.
6/Ensuring the participation of intended beneficiaries and those who may be affected
in the decisions which affect their lives.
7/ Sensitivity to cultural factors including cultural diversity, and a recognition of the
values conducive to development.
8/Attaining political sustainability is premised on the assurance of human rights,
promotion of democratic development and good governance.43
9/Achieving environmental sustainability requires managing and protecting
ecosystems as well as maintaining both their economically productive and their
ecological functions.
10/ Maintaining the diversity of life in the both human-managed and natural systems,
and at the same time protecting the environment from pollution to maintain the
quality of land, air and water.

 
43
Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment on Environment and Development.
(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)


 ϰϱ

 ϰϲ

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30. The American Hertage, New Dctionary of Cultural Literacy. Third addition,
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