1.

GRAPH COLORING:
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In graph theory, graph coloring is a special case of graph labeling; it is an
assignment of labels traditionally called "colors" to elements of a graph subject
to certain constraints. Graph coloring is the procedure of assignment of colors to
each vertex of a graph G such that no adjacent vertices get same color. The
objective is to minimize the number of colors while coloring a graph.This can also
be referred as vertex coloring. Similarly, an edge coloring assigns a color to each
edge so that no two adjacent edges are of the same color, and a face coloring of a
planar graph assigns a color to each face or region so that no two faces that share
a boundary have the same color.

2.Why Graph coloring/Applications:

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Graph coloring has a huge number of applications in our day to day life. Few of
them are listed here:
a.Map Coloring: Geographical maps of countries or states where no two adjacent
cities cannot be assigned same color. Four colors are sufficient to color any map.

b.Making Schedule or Time Table: Suppose we want to make am exam schedule for a
university. We have list different subjects and students enrolled in every subject.
Many subjects would have common students (of same batch, some backlog students,
etc). How do we schedule the exam so that no two exams with a common student are
scheduled at same time? How many minimum time slots are needed to schedule all
exams? This problem can be represented as a graph where every vertex is a subject
and an edge between two vertices mean there is a common student. So this is a graph
coloring problem where minimum number of time slots is equal to the chromatic
number of the graph.

c.Bipartite Graphs: We can check if a graph is Bipartite or not by coloring the

graph using two colors. If a given graph is 2-colorable, then it is Bipartite,
otherwise not.

d. Sudoku: Sudoku is also a variation of Graph coloring problem where every cell
represents a vertex. There is an edge between two vertices if they are in same row
or same column or same block.

e.Aircraft Scheduling: Assuming that there are k Aircrafts and they have to be
assigned n flights. The ith flight should be during the time interval (ai, bi). If
two flights overlap, then the same aircraft cannot be assigned to both the flights.
The vertices of the graph correspond to the flights. Two vertices will be connected
.If the corresponding time intervals overlap.
Therefore, the graph is an interval graph that can be colored optimally in
polynomial time.
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3.Here the question arises what is graph?
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Definition-A Graph G consists of pair (V (G), E(G)) where V (G) is a non-empty
finite set whose element are vertices or points and
E(G) is a set of unordered pairs of distinct elements of V (G). The number of
vertices in a graph is called its order and the
number of edges in a graph is called its size.

**DEGREE**-The degree of a vertex of a graph is the number of edges incident to the

vertex, with loop counted twice.
The degree of vertex denoted by deg(v) or deg v.
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4.Type of graphs
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a.Simple graph:A graph with no loops and no parallel edges is called a simple
graph.
b.Multi graph:A graph having parallel edeges but no self loop is called a multi
graph.
c.Pseudo graph: A graph consisting of both parallel edges and self loop is called a
pseudo graph.
d.Complete graph:if a vertex is connected to all other vertices in a graph, then it
is called a complete graph.
e.Regular graph:A graph G is said to be regular, if all its vertices have the same
degree.
f.Null graph:A graph having no edges is called a Null Graph.
g. Bipartite graph:A graph is said to be bipartite graph if its vertex set can be
decomposed into two disjoint subsets and there can exist such an edge which joints
one vertex of one subset with one vertex of another subset.
h.Connected graph:A graph G is said to be connected if there exists a path between
every pair of vertices.
i.Disconnected graph:A graph G is disconnected, if it does not contain at least two
connected vertices.
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5.TERMINOLOGY
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There are few terms we have to know before the study of graph coloring:
a.Vertex:A vertex is a point where multiple lines meet.A vertex is also denoted by
an alphabet.
b.Edge: An edge is an mathematical term for a line that connects two vertices.
c.Loop:In a graph,if an edge is drawn to itself,it is called a loop or self loop.
d.Parallel edges:In a graph,there may exist more than one edge associated with a
given pair of vertices.Such edges are called parallel edges.
e.Incidence:In a graph,when a vertex is an end vertex of an edge,then the edge and
vertex are said to be incident to each other.
f.Adjacent vertices:Two vertices are said to be adjacent to each other if they are
the end vertices of the same edge.
g.Adjacent edges:Two non-parallel edges are said to be adjacent if they are
incident to a common vertex.
h.Proper coloring:If a graph which will be colored in such a way that no two of its
adjacent vertices will be colored by some colour then we say the graph is properly
colored.
h.Chromatic Number:If a graph can be colored properly by minimum number of colours
that number is called chromatic number of that graph.
If a graph that requires k different colours for its proper coloring and no less is
called k-chromatic graph.
i.Independent set of vertices:Let G be a graph.And A be a subset of its vertex
set.The subset A is said to be independent set of vertices if no two vertices of
subset A are adjacent.
j.Clique:Let G be a graph and Z be a subset of its vertex set.The subset Z is said
to be clique of G if every pair of vertices in Z are adjacent.
The number of vertices present in the largest clique in a graph is said
to be its clique number.
k.Chromatic polynomial:The chromatic polynomial is the polynomial P(G,x) with
variable x that gives the number of ways of coloring the graph G with x or fewer
colors.
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-------------------------------------------------------------------------6.Method
to color a graph
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The steps required to color a graph G with n number of vertices are as follows −
Step 1 − Arrange the vertices of the graph in some order.

Step 2 − Choose the first vertex and color it with the first color.

Step 3 − Choose the next vertex and color it with the lowest numbered color that
has not been colored on any vertices adjacent to it. If all the adjacent vertices
are colored with this color, assign a new color to it. Repeat this step until all
the vertices are colored.