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CHAPTER 3: CARBOHYDRATES
Lecturer: Dr. Vu Tran Khanh Linh
Department of Food Technology
HCMC University of Technology & Education
Email: linhvtk@hcmute.edu.vn

Chemical Reactions
 All carbohydrate molecules have ................. groups available
for reaction.
 Simple monosaccharides and most other LMW carb molecules
also have ................. groups available for reaction.

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<1> Oxidation to Aldonic Acids and Aldonolactones

Aldoses are readily oxidized to aldonic acids by oxidation of the
.................. group to a carboxyl/carboxylate group.
 commonly used for quantitative determination of sugars.

 Fehling solution (an alkaline solution of copper(II)) oxidizes an

aldose to an aldonate and in the process is reduced to
copper(I), which precipitates as brick-red Cu2O.

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<1> Oxidation to Aldonic Acids and Aldonolactones

In the process, the oxidizing agent Cu2+ is reduced
 aldoses are called “……………….. sugars”

 Ketoses also reduce Cu(II) to Cu(I) under alkaline condition of

Fehling test.

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<2> Reduction of Carbonyl Groups

 Hydrogenation:

 When applied to carbohydrates: addition of ……………………….

to the ……………… bond between the O atom and the C atom
of the ………………… group of an aldose or ketose.

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<2> Reduction of Carbonyl Groups

 Sorbitol:
 a sugar alcohol

 obtained by hydrogenation of …………………….

 widely distributed in plants but the amounts present are

generally ……………...
 about half as sweet as ………….....
 used as a general humectant in a product.

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<2> Reduction of Carbonyl Groups

 D-Mannitol:
 can be obtained by hydrogenation of ……………………
 commercially obtained along with sorbitol from hydrogenolysis of
sucrose (hydrogenation of D-fructose)
 not a humectant
 used as a nonsticky coating on candies.
 ……….. as sweet as sucrose

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<2> Reduction of Carbonyl Groups

 Xylitol:
 produced from hydrogenation of …………….
obtained from hemicellulose.
 crystals have a high negative heat of solution

 produces a ………………. effect in the mouth 

desirable ingredient in mint candies and
sugarless chewing gum.
 sweetness is about ………………. to that of
sucrose
 noncariogenic

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<3> Hydroxyl Group Esters

 The hydroxyl groups of carbohydrates form esters with organic
and some inorganic acids.

 Sugar phosphates: common metabolic intermediates

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<4> Nonenzymatic Browning

 The Maillard reaction
 a chemical reaction between ………………………., mainly D-glucose,
and a primary …………………….. (a free amino acid or amino group
on a side chain of a protein molecule).

 produce brown colors obtained upon ………………… or during

…………………………………… of foods containing ……………………...

 Browning is desired in ……………………………. , but not in foods

which have a typical weak or other color of their own

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(Amadori compound)
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-RNH2

• At pH > 5, the reactive cyclic compounds (HMF, furfural, and others) and compounds
containing amino groups polymerize to a dark-colored material containing nitrogen
called melanoidin.

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<4> Nonenzymatic Browning

 The Maillard reaction
 When …………..….. or ………………… are heated with ………………., a
variety of compounds are produced (e.g. flavors, aromas, and
dark-colored polymeric materials)
 They may be produced slowly during storage and much more
rapidly at the high temperatures encountered during ………………….
……………………………..

 The product mixture formed is a function of temperature, time,

pH, the nature of the ………………………, and the nature of the
……………….. compound

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<4> Nonenzymatic Browning

 The Maillard reaction result in:
 Brown pigments: contain variable amounts of nitrogen and have
varying molecular weights and solubilities in water.
 Volatile compounds: are often potent ................ substances.

 desired aroma formation accompanying …………………………………...

off-flavors in food during ……………..
 Flavoring matter, especially bitter substances: are partially desired
(................) but can also cause an off-taste in grilled meat or fish
(roasting bitter substances).
 Losses of essential .......................

 Compounds with potential mutagenic properties.

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Effects of the Maillard reaction on a starch-rich

The crusts of most breads (e.g.
material (potato slice). The substrate is shown
brioche) are golden-brown as a result
before (left) and after (right) being exposed to
of the Maillard reaction.
hot dry air (~230 °C)

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<4> Nonenzymatic Browning

 Caramelization:
 Heating of carbohydrates, in particular ………………………….
………………………………………, without nitrogen containing
compounds also leads to the formation of caramel (has
brown color)

A partially caramelized lump of sugar French Crème Brûlée

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<4> Nonenzymatic Browning

 Caramelization:
 To make caramel, a carbohydrate is heated alone or in the
presence of ……………………………………...
 Caramel contains a complex mixture of polymeric
compounds, formed from unsaturated, cyclic (five- and six-
membered ring) compounds.
 flavor and aroma compounds are also found

 caramel is produced commercially both as a ………………..

material and as a ………………… material

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<4> Nonenzymatic Browning

 Caramelization:

Caramelization - Brown colored products with a typical caramel aroma are obtained by
melting sugars (glucose in this case). A large number of furan and pyran compounds
are formed.

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<5> Formation of Acrylamide in Food

 The Maillard reaction has been implicated in the formation of
acrylamide in many foods that have been heated to high
temperatures during ……………………………………..

 Acrylamide is not detected in …………..……… or even …..………

foodstuffs

 Acrylamide is a known neurotoxicant and probably a weak

human carcinogen at exposure levels much higher than are
obtained from food.

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<5> Formation of Acrylamide in Food

 forms from the reaction between ……………………… and the
……………………… group of free …………………….. during certain types of
high-temperature cooking, such as ……………………………………….
 requires a minimum temperature of ………oC,

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<5> Formation of Acrylamide in Food

 to minimize formation of acrylamide in food :
 (1) removal of ………………………………………………………

 (2) alteration of ………………………………………………….

 (3) …………………… removal from food following its formation.

Through blanching or soaking in water it is possible achieve up to a

…….% reduction in acrylamide levels within processed potato
products.

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Glycosidic bond
 formed when a …….……….. group of one sugar molecule,
typically cyclic, reacts with the ……………….. carbon of the other

readily hydrolyzed by acid

 disaccharides can be hydrolyzed to yield their free
monosaccharide components by boiling with ……………….

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Figure. Formation of maltose

Figure. Common disaccharides

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OLIGOSACCHARIDES

Introduction
 contains from ................... sugar units
 disaccharides

 trisaccharides

 tetra-, penta-, hexa-, octa-, nona-, and decasaccharides, and

so on: can be either …………… or …………………….

 Only a few oligosaccharides occur in nature.

 Most are produced by .................... of polysaccharides into
smaller units

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Disaccharides
 Maltose:
 a …………………. sugar

 occurs only rarely in nature and only in plants as a result of

partial ....................... of starch
 produced during malting of grains, especially .................

 produced commercially by the hydrolysis of starch using

………………….

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Disaccharides
 Lactose:
 occurs in milk (…………… % in cow and goat milk, ………...% in
human milk), mainly free, but to a small extent as a
component of higher oligosaccharides.
 Fermented dairy products contain less ………………

 the primary carbohydrate source for ……………

 In the small intestine, lactase catalyzes the hydrolysis of

…………….. into ……………………………………..
 rapidly absorbed and enter the blood stream
 lactose intolerance:

 deficiency of ………………..

 cause …………………………………………………

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Disaccharides
 Sucrose:
 usually called simply sugar or table sugar

 a ……………………… sugar

 Sources of commercial sucrose:

 Sucrose and most other low-molecular-weight

carbohydrates (e.g., monosaccharides, disaccharides, ..)
have great …………………………………………
 can form highly concentrated solutions of high osmolality.
 Hydrolysis of sucrose results in the equimolar mixture of
……………… and ……………….., called invert sugar.
 The sucrase of the human intestinal tract catalyzes
hydrolysis of sucrose into ……………… and ………………..
utilized for energy
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Tri- and tetrasaccharides

 Raffinose: a trisaccharide which has a D-galactopyranosyl unit
attached to …………….

 Stachyose: a tetrasaccharide, contains another ………………. unit

 Raffinose and Stachyose:

 found in beans,

 not completely broken down into monosaccharides by

intestinal enzymes
 pass unchanged into the colon  metabolized by
……………………….  lactate and gases (……………………………….
………………………)  can cause ………………………………………………

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