Know The Rules! Piloys Rules of Unum ‘uae @ RULES OF THUMB @ EASY AVIATION MATH © HANDY FORMULAS e QUICK TIPS ' BY ART PARIPILOT'S RULES OF THUMB now the Rules) Pilot's PUBLISHED B FLIGHT TIME ” PUBLISHING www. flight-time.com 1-877-926-6570 BY ART PARMA CFI, ATP, A&P/IA (i)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB Copyright © 2007 by aa Time Publishing First Edition, Revised 2007 By Art Parma CFITI, ATP, A&P/TA With Emile Le Corre CFII, ATP ISBN 0-9631973-4-7 FTP-ROT-1 All rights reserved. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. This book is for informational purposes only and is not intended to substitute any approved aircraft flight manual or official government publication. (ii)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB TABLE OF CONTENTS TEMPERATURE/ALTITUDE/AIRSPEED ....... 1 Pressiire Altitude... «isa cmos eevee canes sce ewed es 1 Density Altitude, High to Low...........ene eee eeee 2 Standard Temperature, ISA, Celsius-Fahrenheit..... 3 Indicated Altitude Correct for Temp, Mach/TAS ....4 VA, Maximum Pane: EIVAIance, a rer 5 Standard Atmosphere ............. 0 cee cence eee 6 TIME/DISTANCE/FUEL, Distance Formulas ....... 7 Time/Speed/Distance, NM/Minute .............005 7 IMINUTe oo cee eee ene 8 Minute/NM, Finger Rule... . 2... eee e ee eee ees 9 GPH, Fuel Consumption, Endurance................ 10 Time remaining, NM/Gallon, Fuel Required ......... 11 Eqital Time POmt.. «se sss s auns siete ate ey aie eins omy bere 8 12 Point of No Return... 0... ccc cece cece eee eens 13 Point of Safe Return ........... cece ence eee eee 14 TAKEOFF AND CLIMB, Vp, Takeoff Distance ..... 15 Climb Performance, Vy, Vc, Headwind/Tailwind |... 16 Horsepower/Altitude/ Weight/Soft Field ......... FLIGHT MANEUVERS, Timed/Compass Turns ..... 18 Reciprocal, Standard Turn Radius/Bank Angle ...... 19 pean Change, Level Off, Pitch Vs Rate,......... 20 ADF, Needle fo Bottom, Double Intercept Angle, .. “Se ADF, Teardrop, VOR Cross-fix .... 2.0... cece eee 2 VOR" Cone of Confusion", VOR Reception Range’!!! 123 FLIGHT PLANNING/NAVIGATION, Max WCA ...24 Enroute WCA, Headwind/Tailwind Component ...... 25 Grounds eect orabbine, Headwind/Tailwind Fuel/AS. .26 One in Sixty Rule, NM/Degrees Off Course........ 27 powers To Intercept, Vertical Maviog an eee eee 28 VOR 200'/Dot, Distance/Time to VOR/NDB........ 29 3° Enroute Descent, 3° NM/Thousand Rule......... 30 NM to Start Descent, 3° Rate of Descent ......... 31 2° Rate of Descent, ROD/Mach, Descent Angle..... 32 ‘% Gradient/Descent Angle, 500 fpm Descent Chart . .33 ROC Required, Climb Gradient, % Gradient ......... 34 ‘% Gradient /Feet per NM, Flight Plan Time to Climb. .35 (iii)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB APPROACH AND LANDING, Airs speed Va Vs Distance 36 Headwind Vs Landing Distance, 3° .36 croney ine Hearn /Tailwind 'empeeat see se 32 igh Density Altitudes, Runway Tllusions........... Alftuge/ehperature/ Airspeed Vs Landing Distance . 35 QUE KTON CALCULATIONS ..........-.-5000e> 46 Equivalents, Standard Weights............++++++: 48 Numerical Prefixes, Metric Measures .........6065 49 ICAO Sea Level Standard Values.............-055 49 QUICK CONVERSION TABLE: «ae swe gy ees ces ww es 50 (iv)RULE OF THUMB: Barometric Pressure varies approximately . for each 1,000' change in altitude. Fm Example: Sea Level Pressure = 29.92" or 1013 mb Pressure at 1,000’ = 28.92 or 976 mb Corollary: Barometric pressure varies apprenimately 1 millibar for each 29 feet change in altitude. RULE OF THUMB: To determine Pressure Altitude, add or subtract the difference between 29.92" and the current altimeter setting to the field elevation at the rate of 1" per 1,000'. PA = FE + (29.92" - ALT) X 1,000° Where: PA = Pressure Altitude FE = Field Elevation ALT = Altimeter Setting Example: Field Elevation = 890' Altimeter Setting = 30.42' 30.42" - 29.92" = 5" .5" X 1,000' = 500° High Altimeter Setting - subtract correction. Low Altimeter Setting - add correction. Alternate Method: Set the altimeter to 29.92" and read Pressure Altitude from the dial. Pressure Altitude is used in aircraft performance charts and is required to determine Density Altitude. Q)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB Fiyiecy Frown ait te Lew ook Ba Eckel - Look Out Below! (The aircraft will be lower than indicated altitude without changing to the local altimeter setting) HIGH TO LOW, LOOK OUT BELOW! RULE OF THUMB: Density Altitude increases or decreases 120' for each 1° Celsius the temperature varies from standard temperature (ISA). DA = PA + 120(OAT - ISA) Where: PA = Pressure Altitude DA = Density Altitude OAT = Outside Air Temperature Example: PA = 6000' OAT = 13° Celsius ISA = 3° Celsius (Rule of Thumb) DA = 6,000' + 120'(13-3) DA = 6,000' + 1200’ DA = 7,200' (And you thought you needed a Density Altitude Chart!) (2)TEMPERA TURE/ALTITUDE/AIRSPEED RULE OF THUMB: Standard temperature (ISA) decreases 2° Celsius per 1,000’ increase in altitude. ISA = 15°(SL) - 2°(altitude/1000' MSL) Example: Altitude = 6,000’ MSL ISA = 15°- (2° X 6) = 3° DO IT IN YOUR HEAD: Double the altitude (in thousands), subtract 15 and change the sign! Example: 6(thousand) X 2 = 12 12-15 = -3 Change sign = +3° Celsius RULE OF THUMB: To determine ISA °F, multiply the altitude (in thousands) by 3.5 and subtract from 59. RULE OF THUMB: To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit abe ae eer of degrees Celsius, subtract 10% and a Example: Celsius = 20° Double 20 = 40 Less 10% = 40 -4 = 36 Add 32: 36 + 32 = 68°F The Rule of Thumb works the same if the Celsius temperature is a negative number but you have to add the 10% instead of subtracting it. Example: C= -20° Double -20 = -40 Add 10% = -40 + 4 = -36 Add 32 = -36 + 32 = -4°F (3)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB RULE OF THUMB: To correct Indicated Altitude for ea senor temperature, multiply by 4 feet per ma for each 1° C the’ temperature varies from Example: Indicated Altitude = 5,000' Outside Air Temperature = 0° ISA at 5,000’ = 15° - 10° = 5°C 0° - 5° = -5° piden pen ISA Bit ousond) * X 4's Actual O initude = 5,000 - 100 = 4,900 RULE OF THUMB: True Airspeed increases 2% over pndicated Airspeed (IAS) for each 1,000" above sea level TAS = IAS + (2%)IAS X altitude/1,000 Example: Altitude = 6,000’ MSL Indicated Airspeed = 100 KIAS 2% X 6 = 12 knots 100 kts + 12 kts = 112 KTAS RULE OF THUMB: To ppprexinate KTAS from Mach, multiply the Mach number OY 570. Example: Mach = 77X 570 = 439 KTAS (4)TEMPERA TURE/ALTITUDE/AIRSPEED RULE OF THUMB: Vz, is equal to approximately 1.7 times Vs1. Example: Vs1 = 55 MPH Va # 94 MPH RULE OF THUMB: V, decreases 1% for each 2% reduction in Gross Weight. RULE OF THUMB: For greatest range IAS multiply Vs1 (Parton green arc) by 1.6 for fixed gear, or by 2.0 for retractable gear. RULE OF THUMB: For maximum endurance IAS fly at 1.2 Vs; fixed gear or 1.3 Vsi for retractable. RULE OF THUMB: The lower the altitude the better endurance (not range) for normally aspirated engines. RULE OF THUMB: Best rate of climb KIAS (Vy) mill decrease s 1/2 knot for each 1,000' density altitude. EXAMPLE: Vy at Sea Level = 67 KIAS Vy at 6,000' MSL * 64 KIAS RULE OF THUMB: Vy, Vx and Vg (best glide) will decrease approximately 1/2 Knot for each 100 pounds under maximum gross weight. @)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB _STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA ape | |e ea FEET bie Ct in. Ha. | mb/hPa | oOo | 59.0 | 150 | 29.92 | 1013.25 | |__2000_ | 519 | 110 | 27.82 | 942.13 | |_ 5000 | 412 | 51 | 249 | 843.19 | | 7000 | 340 | 11 | 23.09 | 781.89 | | 8000 | 305 | -08 | 22.22 | 752.71 | |__9000__| 269 | -28 | 2139 | 724.32 | |_10,000_ | 233 | -48 [ 20.58 | 696.94 | |_ 18000 | -5.2 | -20.7_[14.94**| 506.32 | |_ 22,000 | -19.5 | -28.6 | 12.64 | 428.33 | |_24,000_ | -26.6 | -325 | 1160 | 34,000 | -62.2 | -524 | 7.382 | 250.64 | |_36,200% | -69.7 | -56.5 | 6.683 | 225.79 | |_ 60,000 | -697 | -565 | 2.118 [ 72.312 | *At the Tropopause temperature remains relatively steady as altitude increases. ** Atmospheric Pressure drops to about one-half of sea level pressure at approximately 18,000’ MSL. (6)TIME/DISTANCE/FUEL Time, Distance and Ground Speed Formulas: Where: D = Distance 6S = Ground Speed T = Time To Find Distance: D= 65 X T Example: GS = 90 knots T = 30 minutes AF hours) D=90X .5=45NM To find Time: T=D+6S Example: D=30NM GS = 100 knots T=30+100 T= .3 Hours (1 hour = 6 minutes) .3 X 6 minutes = 18 minutes To Find Ground Speed: GS = D + T Example: D=50NM T = 25 minutes GS = 50 = 25 = 2 NM per minute 2 NM per minute X 60 minutes = 120 NM per hour Nautical Miles Per Minute (NM/Minute): NM/Minute = True Airspeed/60 Example: TAS = 120 KTS 120 + 60 = 2 NM per Minute (7)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB RULE OF THUMB: To quickly determine NM per minute, round your airspeed to the nearest 10, drop the zero and divide by 6. Example: TAS = 178 KTS # 180 knots Drop the zero and divide by 6: 18 = 6 = 3 NM per minute To Find Distance Using NM Per Minute: Example: Time since last checkpoint = 12 min. TAS (no wind) = 180 knots NM per minute = 3 12 minutes X 3 = 36 NM RULE OF THUMB: To quickly approximate the NM/ minute, multiply the indicated Mach number by 10 Example: Indicated Mach Number = .80 .80 X 10 = 8 NM per minute Minutes per Nautical Mile: Minutes per NM = 60/TAS Example: TAS = 100 kts Minutes/NM = 60/100 = .6 To Find ETE Using Minutes per Nautical Mile: Example: Distance on chart = 20 NM TAS = 100 knots Minute/NM = .6 20 X .6 = 12 minutes (8)TIME/DISTANCE/FUEL Rule of Finger! One finger equals approximately 5 NM on the Sectional Aeronautical Chart. ¥ To quickly estimate time to a point on the chart, count the number of fingers then use Minutes/NM: Example: Distance on chart = 4 fingers (20 NM) TAS = 100 kts Minutes/NM = .6 .6 X 20 NM = 12 minutes ETE Rule of THUMB! For the average person the distance from the tip of the thumb to the knuckle equals gppreximately 10 NM on the Sectional Aeronautical art. MINUTES/NM - NM/MINUTE “Ground Speed _ [60 idPILOT'S RULES OF THUMB To Determine Fuel Burn (Gallons Per Hour): Gallons Used Gallons Per Hour = tos Fen Example: Duration of Flight = 2 hours Gallons Used =18 gallons 18 + 2 = 9 gallons per hour It is a good idea to check the actual fuel burn of the aircraft you are flying and compare it with the AFM! RULE OF THUMB: The fuel consumption of an aircraft engin is equal one half the horsepower divided by Example: ews 0-360 = 160 horsepower 160 = 2=80 80 = 10 = 8 gallons per hour To Determine Aircraft Endurance: Usable Fuel Endurance = Fuel Burn Example: Usable Fuel = 40 gallons Fuel Burn = 8 gallons per hour 40 = 8 = 5 hours endurance (no reserve) (10)TIME/DISTANCE/FUEL To Determine Time Remaining: Fuel Remaining Time Remaining = Fuel Burn Example: Fuel Remaining = 24 gallons Fuel Burn = 8 GPH 24 = 8 = 3 hours remaining To Calculate NM Per Gallon: llon = NM Flown NM/Gallon = ~@cTions Used Example: Distance Flown = 200 NM Gallons Used = 25 MPG = 200 = 25 = 8 NM per gallon To Determine Fuel Required: Fuel Required = Time Enroute X Fuel Burn Example: Time Enroute = 2 hours Fuel Burn = 8 gallons per hour 8 X 2 = 16 gallons required (plus reserves) (11)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB Equal Time Point (ETP) Distance: Total Distance X Return GS “Continue GS + Return GS This is the point at which it will take the same amount of time to continue to the destination as to return to the point of departure. Example: Total Distance = 300 NM True Airspeed = 100 knots Headwind = 20 knots ETP = SAO 180 NM . 80 +120 . The Equal Time Point (ETP) would be at 180 miles from the point of departure. EQUAL TIME POINT 2:15 min <— Wind 20 kts <———————. 1:30 min asp 1:30 min —> ONM 180 NM 300 NM Equal Time Point (ETP) Time: Divide the ETP Distance by the Continue GS: ETP = 180 NM Continue GS = 80 knots ETP Time = 180 + 80 = 2.25 hours ETP Time = 2 hours 15 minutes (12)TIME/DISTANCE/FUEL Point of No Return (PNR) Distance: Continue GS X Return GS PNR = Total Endurance X Continue GS +ReturnGS” The PNR is the point after which you do not have enough fuel to return to the point of departure. Example: Total Endurance no reserve = 5 hours Fuel Reserve = 1 hour True Airspeed = 100 knots Headwind = 20 knots PNR=5 x 20%120 _ a40Nm 80 +120 POINT OF NO RETURN 3:00 hours <— Wind 20 kts <——— noreserve “=atty OE SS ee Point of No Return (PNR) Time: Divide the PNR Distance by the Continue GS. PNR = 240 NM Continue GS = 80 knots PNR Time = 240 + 80 = 3 hours (13)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB Point of Safe Return (PSR) Distance: Continue GS X Return GS PSR = End less Res — Endirance: mae. Continue GS + Return GS The PSR is the point at which you can return to the point of departure with your planned fuel reserves. Example: Total Endurance no reserve = 5 hours Fuel Reserve = 1 hour True Airspeed = 100 knots Headwind = 20 knots 80 X 120 R= 4X ——— = 192 Ps x 80 +120 92 NM POINT OF SAFE RETURN 2:24 hours <— Wind 20 kts <—— 1 Hour reserve Ux! wee ONM 192 NM 320 NM You can fly 192 NM and return to the departure point with a planned 1-hour reserve. Point of Safe Return (PSR) Time: Divide the PSR Distance by the Continue GS. PSR = 192 NM Continue GS = 80 knots PSR Time = 192 + 80 = 2 hours 24 minutes (14)TAKEOFF AND CLIMB RULE OF THUMB: Rotation speed Vr is equal to approximately 1.15 times Vs Example: Stall Speed Clean Vs = 60 KIAS Vr = 60 X 1.15 = 69 KIAS RULE OF THUMB: Takeoff distance increases 15% for each 1,000 Density Altitude above sea level. Example: Density Altitude = 4,000° Takeoff Distance at Sea Level = 1,000' 4 (thousand) X 15% = 60% increase 1,000' X 1.6 (160%) = 1,600 RULE OF THUMB: A 1° C change in temperature from 7 will increase or decrease the takeoff ground roll Example: Ground Roll = 1.100 feet OAT=ISA+1°C 10% increase = 110 feet 1,100' + 110' = 1,210' ground roll RULE OF THUMB: Fixed pitch, non-turbo aircraft climb performance decreases 8% for each 1,000° Density Altitude above sea level. Example: Sea Level Climb = 700 fpm Density Altitude = 5,000° 8% X 5 = 40% decrease 40 X 700 = 280 fpm 700 - 280 = 420 fpm ROC at 5,000" (15)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB RULE OF THUMB: Variable pitch, non-turbo aircraft climb performance decreases 7% for each 1,000' Density Altitude above sea level. Example: Sea Level Climb = 1,000 fpm Density Altitude = 5,000 7h X 5 = 35% decrease 1,000 X .35 = 350 fpm 1,000 - 350 = 650 fpm ROC at 5,000' RULE OF THUMB: Best rate of climb IAS will decrease approximately 1 knot per thousand feet. Example: Altitude = 5,000' Vy at Sea Level = 85 KIAS Vy at 5,000' # 80 KIAS RULE OF THUMB: To reduce the effects of a headwind climb, climb at cruise climb airspeed. RULE OF THUMB: To take advantage of a tailwind climb at Vy (best rate of climb). RULE OF THUMB: Takeoff Performance: A headwind of 10% takeoff speed will reduce ground roll by 20%. A tailwind of 10% takeoff speed will increase takeoff roll by 20%. Example: Normal Takeoff Distance = 1,500° Takeoff Speed = 60 knots Headwind = 6 knots 6 + 60 = 10% of takeoff speed = 300° .2 (20%) X 1,500' = 1,500' - 300' = 1,200' ground roll (16)TAKEOFF AND CLIMB RULE OF THUMB: A 10% change in aircraft weight will result in a 20% change in takeoff distance. RULE OF THUMB: Abort the takeoff_if 70% of takeoff speed is not reached within 50% of the available runway. RULE OF THUMB: The maximum crosswind component is approximately equal to 0.2 X Vsi. RULE OF THUMB: A soft field or deep grass can increase takeoff distance by 50%. Wet snow or slush can double takeoff distance or make it impossible. RULE OF THUMB: Available horsepower decreases 3% for each 1,000' of altitude above sea level. Example: Altitude = 5,000’ MSL Sea Level Horsepower = 100% 5(thousand) X 3% = 15% Available Horsepower = 85% COROLLARY: A normally aspirated engine loses 30% of available horsepower at 10,000" and 40% at ” (17)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB LIGHT MANEUVERS RULE OF THUMB: For timed turns divide the number of desired degrees of turn by 3 for the time in seconds required to make the turn. Example: Amount of Turn Required = 60° 60 = 3 = 20 seconds A standard rate turn for 20 seconds will result in a 60° heading change RULE OF THUMB: For approximate timed turns multiply the number of desired degrees of turn by Example: beading Coonge = 20° 20 X 0.3 # 6 Seconds Note: This rule is easy to do in your head and accurate enough for most heading changes. RULE OF THUMB: Use 1/2 the bank angle for the lead rollout heading. Example: Angle of Bank = 30° Start rollout 15° before desired heading. RULE OF THUMB: The amount of lead or lag required when making magnetic compass turns will roughly equal the latitude in North America. Example: Los Angeles * 30° North Latitude Rollout 30° before when turning to a heading of 360°, and 30° past when turning to a heading of 180°. (18)FLIGHT MANEUVERS RULE OF THUMB: The first two numbers of the heading equal the sum of the reciprocal and the 90° heading change. Example: Runway 16/34, 1+6 = 7,3 Crosswind Heading = 250° + 7 = 5-7 Base Heading = 070° = 0+7 RULE OF THUMB: The angle of bank required to make a standard rate turn equals 15% of the airspeed (knots). Divide by 10 and multiply by 1.5. Example: Airspeed = 120 KIAS 120+10= 12 12 X15 = 18° bank RULE OF THUMB: The angle of bank required to make a standard rate turn is equal to the airspeed (MPH) divided by 10 plus 5. Example: Airspeed = 90 MPH 90+10=9 9 +5 = 14° bank RULE OF THUMB: The radius of a standard rate turn in NM is equal to 1% of 1/2 the airspeed. Example: TAS = 100 knots 100 = 2=50 1% of 50 = .5 NM radius Corollary: The diameter of the turn (twice the radius) is equal to 1% of the airspeed. Example: TAS = 120 knots Diameter of Turn = 1.2 NM (19)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB RULE OF THUMB: To make a 6° change in heading use a standard rate turn then immediately level the wings. To make a 3 degree change in heading use a 1/2 standard rate turn. RULE OF THUMB: A decrease in airspeed by 1/2 decreases the effects of turbulence to 1/4 and the radius of turn to 1/4. RULE OF THUMB: When leveling from a descent begin to level at 10% the descent rate or 50 feet which ever is greater. Example: Rate of Descent = 600 fpm Begin Level-off = 60' above altitude RULE OF THUMB: Each 1° change in pitch will result in a 100 fpm climb or descent for each NM/minute airspeed (or Mach X 10). Example: Airspeed = 240 KTAS Pitch Up = 3° : 240 KTAS = 4 NM/minute 4 X 300 = 1,200 fpm rate of climb or: Mach = .75 Pitch Down = 2° .75(10) X 200 = 1,500 fpm rate of descent COROLLARY: At a given airspeed the number of degrees change in pitch attitude will equal the angle of descent. Example: Airspeed = 120 KTAS = 2 NM/minute 3° TLS = 600 fpm ROD 3° Pitch Down = 2 X 300 = 600 fpm ROD (20)FLIGHT MANEUVERS FLYING THE ADF Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing = Bearing to the Station (MH + RB = BTS) "9 a MAGNETIC 4 RELATIVE = BEARING TO HEADING BEARING STATION RULE OF THUMB: The ADF needle will normally move to the bottom when on a constant heading. The head of the needle will only move up when wind correction angle is not sufficient to track the bearing. RULE OF THUMB: To intercept an ADF bearing first arallel the bearing then double the angle (up fo 90° of the needle att the nose or tail. nat lop ’ __ PARALLEL COURSE_ BEARING TO INTERCEPT (21)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB RULE OF THUMB: Using the double the angle method, time the intercept. The time to intercept will equal the time to the station when tracking inbound. (Isoceles triangle) RULE OF THUMB: If the relative bearing (RB) is increasing, the station is to the right, decreasing the station is to the left. RULE OF THUMB: For timing outbound leg on a teardrop entry use: Time (seconds) = 100 - intercept angle. ye 7 “7 My wv Lc \ “7 \ - | W- 7 50° / 270° — d& “ _ 090° SQ HEADING 040° Example: Heading = 040° Radial to Intercept = 90° Angle to Radial = 50° 100 - 50 = 50 seconds outbound leg RULE OF THUMB: Using a FROM indication for a VOR cross-fix, when the needle is pointing toward the station you are not there yet. When the needle is pointing away from the station you have already past it. (22)FLIGHT MANEUVERS RULE OF THUMB: The diameter of the “cone of confusion” while passing over a VOR or NDB in NM is s 1/2 the altitude in thousands. Altitude (thousands) NM diameter = 2 Example: Altitude = 6,000° 6(thousand) = 2=3 NM RULE OF THUMB: The range of VOR reception in NM is ¥ 1.23 times the square root of the altitude in feet. VOR range (NM) = 1.23 Xy Altitude in feet (23)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB Enroute Wind Correction Angle You can quickly figure your wind correction angle and headwind or tailwind component without using an E6B or electronic flight computer. Amaze your friends! First find the Max Wind Correction Angle (WCAmax) as if the wind were a direct 90° crosswind. Wind Velocity WCAmax = NM per Minute Example: Wind = 20 knots Airplane Speed = 120 knots WCAmax = 202 WCAInare = 10° COURSE 360° ‘ 10° | WCAnax \ \ WIND 20 KTS \ HEADING 350° 90° MAX ANGLE A oe? (24)FLIGHT PLANNING/NAVIGATION Now find the Wind Correction Angle (WCA) for the actual forecast wind direction. WCA = WCAmax X sine of the wind angle Example: Wind 330° at 20 knots Course = 360° Wind Angle = 30° WCA = 10° X .5 (sine 30°) WCA = 5° COURSE 360° ‘\ 5° | ACTUAL WCA \ \ | HEADING 355° Headwind/Tailwind Component Ve = Vw X cosine of the wind angle Where: Ve = headwind/tailwind component Vw = Wind Velocity Example: Wind Velocity = 20 knots headwind Wind Angle = 30° off course heading 20 X .87 = 17 kts headwind component (25)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB Groundspeed Loss Due to Crabbing GSL = TAS - (cosWCA - TAS) Example: 120 - (.996 x 120) 120 - 119.5 = KTS Estimate Groundspeed Add or subtract the tailwind/headwind component from the TAS. Then SUBTRACT the groundspeed loss due to crabbing to get the final groundspeed estimate. Estimate Wind Effect On Fuel Required Headwind/Tailwind =hCI e Fuel Requi TAS hange Fu quired Example: TAS = 120 kts Headwind = 10 kts 10 + 120 = .08 or 8% more fuel Fuel Required (no wind) = 20 gallons 8% of 20 = .08 X 20 = 1.6 gallons 20 + 1.6 = 21.6 gallons required RULE OF THUMB: Increase speed by 10% when flying into a headwind and decrease by 52 with a tailwind. RULE OF THUMB: For maximum TAS and Range, load the airplane as close to the aft Center of Gravity limit as allowable. (26)FLIGHT PLANNING/NAVIGATION ONE IN SIXTY RULES OF THUMB: One Degree Off Course at 60 NM Equals 1 NM Off Course. NM Off Course _ Degrees Off Course Distance Flown 60 NM Off Course (NMOC) Degrees Off Course X Distance Flown 60 NMOC = Example: Degrees Off Course = 12° Distance Flown = 50 NM (12 x 50) + 60 = 10 NM off course Degrees Off Course (DOC) NM Off Course X 60 OC = B Distance Flown Example: NM Off Course = 10 Distance Flown = 50 (10 X 60) + 50 = 12° Doc COURSE LEG 50 NM ~~ _ ] 12°poc ~ SL p f 10 NM OFF COURSE iS The number of degrees off course will also equal the angle to parallel (ATP). ~ (27)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB Degrees To Intercept (DTI) NM Off Course X 60 Distance to Fly DTI = Example: NM Off Course = 10 Distance to Fly = 50 (10 X 60) = 50 = 12° DTI COURSE TO INTERCEPT E10 ey son® - 10.NM pisTane = _- ee ) DEGREES TO INTERCEPT PARALLEL COURSE Distance to Fly (DTF) DIF = NM Off Course X 60 Degrees to Intercept Example: NM Off Course = 10 Degrees to Intercept = 12° (10 X 60) + 12 = 50 NM to Fly COROLLARY: One in Sixty Vertical Navigation. One deg se climb or descent angle closely equals 100'/NM. This is because 1NM in 60 NM is also equal to 6076'/60 NM * 100'/NM. Example: Glide Angle = 3° Distance to Runway = 1 NM 3 X 100' = 300 Height above Runway (28)FLIGHT PLANNING/NAVIGATION RULE OF THUMB: To determine distance off course madriply 200° per dot (2°) per NM distance from the Example: CDI indicator 3 dots from center DME indicates 10 NM from the VOR 3 X 200' X 10 = 6,000' 1 NM = 6,076) ,000' + 6,076" = 1 NM off course RULE OF THUMB: To determine the distance to a VOR/NDB (abeam course), multiply the TAS by fares flown and divide by the degrees of bearing change. TAS X Minutes NM to Station = ————_——_ Degrees Change Example: Degrees Change = 10° TAS = 120 knots Time = 5 minutes 120 X 5 = 600 600 = 10 = 60 NM to Station RULE OF THUMB: To determine time to a VOR/NDB (abeam course). multiply minutes flown by 60 and divide by the degrees of bearing change. 60 X Minutes Flown Minutes to Station = Degrees Change Degrees Change = 10° TAS = 120 knots Time = 5 minutes 60 X 5 = 300 300 = 10 = 30 minutes to Station Example: (29)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB RULE OF THUMB: For every 10 seconds it takes to fly though 10 degrees of bearing change the airplane is 1 minute from the station.(Station abeam course) Example: Degrees Change = 10° Time = 30 seconds 30 seconds = 3 X 10 seconds 3 minutes to station DESCENT PLANNING RULE OF THUMB: To determine the NM distance to start a 3° enroute descent, divide the altitude to lose (in flight levels) by 3. Nautical Miles = Tonto Example: Altitude = 12,000' MSL (FL120) Pattern Altitude = 3,000' (FL30) Altitude (FL) to Lose = 90 90/3 = 30 NM out start descent COROLLARY: To determine the NM distance to start a 3° enroute descent, multiply the altitude to descend (in thousands) by 3 and add 10%. Example: Altitude = FL 200 Pattern Altitude = Sea Level Altitude to Lose = 20,000' 20(thousand) X 3 = 60 NM 60 NM+ 6 NM= 66 NM (30)FLIGHT PLANNING/NAVIGATION RULE OF THUMB: To determine the point at which to begin a 2° or 4° enroute descent, divide the altitude needed to lose by the angle of descent. (Use flight levels for altitudes) Nautical Miles Out = Flight Level Descent Angle Example: Altitude = 12,000' MSL (FL120) Pattern Altitude = 3,000' (FL30) Altitude Fy to Lose =.90 90/2 = 45 NM out start descent RATE OF DESCENT To determine Rate of Descent Required, divide the change in altitude by the time to the fix. Example: Altitude to Descent = 10,000' Crossing Fix = 20 NM Ground Speed = 300 knots = 5 NM/min 20 NM +5 = 4 minutes to fix 10,000' = 4 = 2,500 fpm ROD RULE OF THUMB: For a 3° Rate of Descent (ROD) take half of your ground speed and add a zero. Example: Descent ground speed = 240 knots Descent angle = 3 240/2 X 10 = 1200 fpm ROD RULE OF THUMB: For a 3° Rate of Descent (ROD) multiply your ground speed by 5. Example: Descent ground speed = 120 knots Descent angle = 3° 120 X 5 = 600 fpm ROD (31)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB RULE OF THUMB: For a 2° rate of descent, divide the ground speed by 3 and add a zero. Example: Descent airspeed = 240 knots Descent angle = 2° 240/3 = 800 fpm ROD RULE OF THUMB: For the required rate of descent imeatiply the descent angle by the NM/minute times Example: Descent angle = 4° Descent cineend = 240 knots NM/min = 240/60 = 4 NM/minute 4 X 400 = 1,600 fpm RULE OF THUMB: For the rate of descent required, rae the descent angle by the mach number times ROD = (Mach X descent angle) X 100 Example: Mach number = .7 Descent angle = 3° 3X.7=21 2.1 X 100 = 2,100 feet per minute RULE OF THUMB: To determine the descent angle required, divide the change in flight level by the distance. AFL/NM = Descent Angle® Example: “Cross XYZ VOR at FL60” FL = 120 Distance to VOR = 30 NM AFL = 120 - 60 = 60 60 + 30 = 2° descent angle (32)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB RULE OF THUMB: To find the number of feet per NM descent, multiply the descent angle by 100. Example: Descent Angle = 3° 3 X 100 = 300'/NM RULE OF THUMB: Divide the descent angle by 0.6 to determine the % gradient. Example: Descent Angle = 2° 2° + 0.6 = 333% gradient Corollary: Multiply the % gradient by .6 to determine the descent angle. [28 [30 | 32 | | 35 | 37 Altitude to Lose Rate of Descent Minutes to Descend X NM/min = NM to Start Descent = Minutes to Descend (33)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB fete eS SE CLIMB REQUIREMENTS RULE OF THUMB: To determine the climb gradient divide the obstacle helgnt above airport by the NM distance. (Remember: Rise over Run) Example: Obstacle Height = 1,000' Distance from Airport = 5 NM 1,000' /5 = 200' per NM RULE OF THUMB: To determine the % gradient from the climb gradient, divide the feet per NM by 60. Example: Climb Gradient = 200' per NM 200 + 60 = 3.3% gradient RULE OF THUMB: To find the rate of climb required, multiply the NM/minute by the climb gradient. Example: Climb Gradient = 200' per NM TAS = 120 knots 120/60 = 2 NM/minute 2 X 200 = 400 feet per minute required RULE OF THUMB: To find the rate of climb required, multiply the % gradient by the ground speed. Example: % Gradient = 3.3% Ground Speed = 120 knots 3.3 X 120 = 400 fpm RULE OF THUMB: To determine the % gradient divide the obstacle height by 60 times the Na distance. Example: Obstacle Height = 1,000' Distance from Airport = 5 NM 1,000 = (60 X 5) = 3.3% (34)FLIGHT PLANNING/NAVIGATION RULE OF THUMB: To determine the % gradient divide the climb requirement at a given groundspeed by that groundspeed. Example: Climb pequenent 750 fpm at 150 kts 750 = 150 = 5% Note: The % gradient is quickly read in the 100 kts ground speed column on the DP climb table. Example: is DP requires @ minimum climb gradient of 300' per NM | Ground speed-Kts | 75 | 100 | 150 | 200 | 250 | | 300'pernm___| 375] 500 | 750 [1000] 1260 | Dividing 500 fpm by 100 gives you a 5% climb gradient. RULE OF THUMB: Multiply the % gradient by 60 to get the number of feet per NM. Example: 3.3% Gradient 3.3 X 60 = 200 feet per NM RULE OF THUMB: Add 1 minute to your flight plan for each 1,000° climb to cruise altitude. Use flight plan cruise airspeed. Example: Cruise Altitude = 7500’ MSL Airport Elevation = 2,500'MSL Altitude to Climb to Cruise = 5,000' Add 5 minutes to the ETE. (35)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB APPROACH AND LANDING _ RULE OF THUMB: A tailwind of 10% of your approach speed will increase your landing distance by 20%. A headwind of 10% of your approach speed will decrease your landing distance 20%. Example: Approach Speed = 60 knots Tailwind = 6 knots Normal Landing Distance = 1,000" 60+6=10% 1,000’ X 120% = 1,200' RULE OF THUMB: A 10% change in airspeed will cause a 20% change in stopping distance. RULE OF THUMB: To determine the rate of descent required for a normal 3° glide angle, multiply your ground speed by 5. Example: Approach Speed = 60 knots Headwind = 10 knots 60 - 10 = 50 knots ground speed 50 X 5 = 250 feet per minute For a 2.5° glide angle multiply ground speed by 4. For a 3.5° dlide anale multiply ground speed By 6. RULE OF THUMB: To determine a Visual Descent Point (VDP) in NM (3° glide path) divide the Height Above Touchdown (HATH (in hundreds) by 3. Example: MDA = 1,200' MSL Touchdown Elevation = 300' MSL 1,200 - 300 = 900' HAT 9(hundred) = 3 = 3 NM VDP (36)APPROACH AND LANDING RULE OF THUMB: To determine the crosswind component multiply the wind speed b the sine of the angle to the runway. (Sound hard? It's easy!) Example: ur 16 Wind 130° at 20 knots Angle to Runway = 30° Sine of 30° =. 5 X 20 = 10 knots crosswind component To determine the sine of an angle, simply drop the zero, add 2 and move the decimal over one place to the left. Example: Angle = 20° Drop the zero, add 2 and move the decimal, , 2+2+4=4 RULE OF THUMB: To determine the headwind/ tailwind component, multiply the wind speed by the cosine of the wind angle to the runway. Example: Runway = 16 Wind = 140° at 20 knots Angle to Runway = 20° Cosine 20° = .9 20 knots X .9 = 18 knots headwind To quickly find the Cosine of an angle, use the Sine of the supplement (the angle to which added equals 90°). Example: Cosine 20° = Sine 70° (70° + 20° = 90°) Sine 70° =7+2=5 9 (move the . ) = oa Sine 70° = Cosine 20° = .9 Try this method a few times and you will realize you can determine headwind and crosswind components quicker i yoilr head than looking at a crosswind component chart! (37)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB RULE OF THUMB: For high density altitude approach and landings, fly the same IAS as for low density altitude airports. Example: Density Altitude = 6,000' MSL Indicated Approach Speed = 60 KIAS Actual Sppcpect ope = 67 KTAS 3° Glide Path * 335 fpm RULE OF THUMB: A narrow runway may give the appearance of being longer, a wide runway may give the appearance of being short. AA A RULE OF THUMB: A narrow or upsloping nun will ive the airplane on final the appearance of being igher than normal. A wide or downsloping runway will give the airplane on final the appearance of being lower than normal. RULE OF THUMB: A sli or _wet runway mai increase your landing distince ty 50%. y may RULE OF THUMB: Use Vso X 1.3 (Vref) for approach speed over the threshold. RULE OF THUMB: Plan to touch down in the first 1/3 of the runway or go around. (38)APPROACH AND LANDING RULE OF THUMB: For each knot of airspeed above Veer over the numbers, the touchdown point will be 100 feet further down the runway. RULE OF THUMB: A 1,000 change in field elevation will cause a 4% change in stopping istance. The greater the altitude, the greater the landing distance. RULE OF THUMB: A 10° C deviation from standard temperature will cause a 5% change in stopping distance. Higher temperature, longer stopping distance due fo increase in TAS. RULE OF THUMB: A 1° reduction in approach angle increases the landing distance 13% RULE OF THUMB: Use 1.5 Vso on downwind, 1.4 Vso on base and 1.3 VSO on final approach. RULE OF THUMB: Add 5 to 10 knots to Vper on final approach in gusting conditions. RULE OF THUMB: Vper for larger aircraft: Add all the wind and 1/2 the gust (factor) on approach. Example: Wind 270° at 10kts Gusts 18kts Veer = 120 kts 120 + 10 + (8/2) = 134 Vapp = 134 kts (39)i PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB QUICK TIPS — Multiengine Airplanes 1. The loss of 50% of thrust in a twin engine airplane results in a loss of 80% rate of climb. 2. Use a 2° to 3° and ¢ ball into the operating engine for maximum single engine climb performance. ILS Approach 1. To catch a localizer without a heading reference, turn toward the needle until it stops moving, then hold wings level. 2. One dot on the localizer is approximately 300' at the outer marker, 100' at the middle marker. One dot on the glide slope is approximately 50' at the outer marker, 8' at the middle marker. 3. A 3° change in pitch will equal a 3° glide path at a given airspeed. ADF Flying 1. One degree deviation of the ADF needle is equal to 100' per NM. Compass 1. OSUN; Overshoot South-Undershoot North. 2. ANDS; Accelerate North Decelerate South, Anticipate North, Delay South 3. Use latitude plus 1/2 bank angle to roll out on North/South heading. Ex. 25° N 30° bank, rollout 25 + 15 = 40° lead or lag. 4. For reciprocal headings: add 2 subtract 2/subtract g ade 2. Example: 230° -2+2 = 050°, 160° +2-2 = Navigation 1, One minute of latitude is equal to 1 NM. One minute of longitude is equal to 1 NM X Cosine of the latitude. (40)QUICK TIPS Airspeeds 1. At a given mach number a 1° C increase in temperature will result in a 1 knot TAS increase. 2. At agiven temperature a .01 increase in mach will result in a 6 knot increase in TAS. 3. Maximum range IAS will reduce 5% for each 10% reduction in aircraft gross weight Aerodynamics 1. Doubling the weight or G-Force doubles the angle of attack required for level flight, tripling the load triples the angle of attack, etc. 2. ine maximum angle of attack before stall is about 3. 10° to 25° of flaps add more lift than drag, 25° to 40° flaps add more drag than lift. Weight and Balance 1. An airplane will be more stable and stall at a higher airspeed with a forward CG location. 2. An airplane will be less stable and stall at a lower airspeed with an aft CG location. Flight Maneuvers 1. pam and Yank for Chandelles, Yank and Bank for azy 8's 2. High performance aircraft: The angle of bank should approximate the number of degrees of turn not to exceed 30° of bank. 3. Each one degres pitch change will produce a vertical speed rate of chang equal to the mach number X 10 or NM/Min X 100. Ex. 3° pitch change at mach .8: 3 X 800 = 2400 fpm. 4. “Step on the Ball" to remember which rudder pedal to push to re-center the slip/skid indicator. 5. The radius of a standard rate turn in meters is equal to the TAS times 10. Use = the bank angle for the lead rollout of a standard rate turn. (41)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB Flight Maneuvers 7. For altitude correction use 2 times the deviation in feet for the VSI rate back to altitude. (example: 100' deviation use 200 fpm to return) Meteorolo 1. At 40° % is also -40° F 2. To find the height of the cloud bases AGL in Celsius, divide the femperarire/daiy point spread by 2.5 ie multiply by 400). o find the height of the cloud bases AGL in " Fahrenheit, divide the temperature/dew point spread by 4.5. . Increase maneuvering and approach speeds by 20% with ice present on wings. 5. best structural icing occurs between 0°C to - Thunderstorms 1. Deviate 10 to 20 miles upwind around thunderstorms non anvil side lying over the top of a thunderstorm, allow at least 1,000' for each 10 knots of wind speed. . A dew point of 10° C (or ae indicates enough moisture present for the development of severe thunderstorms, possible tornadoes. . If the OAT is cooling at arate greater than 5.5 F er 1,000’, the air can be considered unstable. jail may be found 10 miles or more from the rain underneath the anvil. . Do not take off or land if you are within 15 miles of a steady state advancing thunderstorm and you do not know where the gust front is. . To minimize the possibility of lightning strikes, avoid the freezing level by at least + 5° C, and stay out of clouds. (42)QUICK TIPS Flight Plannin 1. Jet Aircraft: Altitude for short trips use 10% the distance plus 5. Ex. 230NM use 23 + 5 = FL280 2. Jet Aircraft: To accept higher FL needs 1% less than maximum continuous Ni for cruise mach for each additional FL. 3. The most efficient cruise altitude for single engine fixed pitch airplanes is around 7,500’. Climb to this altitude for legs of 50 miles or more (eastbound). Visibility 1. The in-flight visibility in miles is equal to the number of thousands of feet AGL when the surface is just visible over the nose of the airplane. Landin 1. If the una is moving down in the windscreen ou are to high, overshooting, if the runway is moving up in the windscreen you are to low, undershooting. Night Flying 1, “Use at least a 3° glide path on final approach and be wary of runway illusions. 2. Remember “Red, Right, Returning” to determine if a plane is headed toward you or going away. 3. Fly a normal traffic pattern, avoid straight-in approaches to airports with dark surrounding areas. Mountain Flying 1, Approach mountain ridges at a 45° angle to allow a ulck turn to lower terrain in case of down draft. f the winds are 35 knots or more consider not flying in mountainous areas. . Cross mountains at an additional 1/3 the height of the mountain or 3,000' to 4,000’. . Maintain level flight attitude in turbulence, accept variations in airspeed and altitude. (43) - wnPILOT'S RULES OF THUMB Mountain Flying 5. 6. 7. Vv 1 Do not fly up blind canyons and do not fly up the center of the canyon. Stay to the updraft side of the canyon to allow room fo turn around. Remember that the actual horizon is the base of the mountains and using summit peaks as a horizon reference will result in a continuous climb. Maintain an altitude enroute that permits gliding to a reasonably safe landing area. OR/DME Navigation . DME slant range error is minimized when you are one NM distance for each 1,000’ above the station. . To determine a lead radial when flying a DME arc, use your TAS divided by 2 times the NM radius of the arc. . Tune 10, Turn 10 when flying around a DME arc. Each time the CDI centers, select the next 10 bearing to the station and make another 10° heading change. . To determine the number of degrees per NM distance around a DME arc, divide the arc radius into 60, Example: 60/10(DME arc) = 6° per NM. . Turn to intercept DME arc in NM = 1% of TAS. Example: 120 kts TAS, start the turn 1.2 NM from the arc. . Flying a DME arc, if you are outside the arc make a 20° heading correction, if you are inside the arc hold the present heading. Collision Avoidance 1. If an aircraft appears stationary and is getting larger alter course. Altimetry 1. Remember: Move Kollsman window numbers up, altitude goes up, Kollsman numbers down - altitude goes down. (44)QUICK TIPS Radar Math 1, 1° in 10 NM = 1,000". Example: Altitude 10,000' AGL. Set Radar to contact ground at 20 NM, Tilt Radar up 5° (2,000' X 5) to set bottom of beam level with aircraft altitude. Quick Conversions 1. To convert pounds of Jet A into liters divide the number of pounds required by 2 and add 10% Example: need 4000 Ib jet fuel, 2000 + 200 = 2200 liters. 2. To convert pounds of Jet A into US Gallons take off the zero and add 50%. Ex. 3000 pounds of needed, 300 + 150 = 450 gallons. 3. To convert meters into feet mulltiate by 3 and add 10%. Ex. Ceiling = 500 meters. 500 X3 = 1,500. 1,500 + 150 = 1,650". 4. To convert visibility in meters to statute miles, multiply the meters in thousands by 0.6. Example: Visibility 3,000 meters, 3 (thousand) X .6 = 1.8 5. The wind speed reported in meters per second will elesely equal double that number in knots. Example: 5 mps * 10 knots (9.7 knots). 6. To convert from minutes to tenth of hours divide by 60. Ex. 12 min/60 = .2 hours 7. To convert from tenths of hours to minutes multiply by 60. Ex. 0.5 X 60 = 30 minutes. (45)PILOT'S RULES OF TENE BOSNOG Aw me NF Pe b Ww pe ao NNN NN DY BB Be oe 88 Oo 8 RN Time = Distance + Ground Speed: T = D/6S Distance = Time X Ground Speed: D = TX 6S Ground Speed = Distance + Time: GS = D/T Nautical Miles per Minute = GS/60 Convert Hours to Minutes = Hours X 60 Convert Minutes to Hours = Minutes/60 Fahrenheit = Celsius X 1.8 + 32: F° = 1.8C° + 32 Celsius = (F-32) X 0.56: C° = (F°-32) X 5/9 Kelvin = Celsius + 273° . Standard Temperature Vente 15C° - 2 X Alti tude/1000: ISA = 15°-2 Gallons/Hour = Gallons Tied 8 atime: GPH = GU/T . Gallons te Beer - Time X Gallons per Hour: GR=T . Time Renate Fat Gallons on Board = Gallons per Hour: TR = GOB/ A peige = = Ground spat X Time Remaining: R = GS X . Vertical line = Altitude Change/Time: VS = AC/T . Time 3 Cc une Altitude Change = Vertical Speed: TTC = . Rate fe Nab Required = peas er minute X climb gradient: ROC = NM/MIN enter of erpeany. © Total Moment + Total Weight: CG = TM/TW . Moment = Weight X Arm: M= WXA 9 CG Distance Aft of LEMAC CG. in % = €&& bistance ATT of LEMAC G. in % MAC MAC . Miles off Course = Degrees Be eons X Distance Flown = 60: MOC = (DOC X D . Degrees to Intercept = NM Off Course X 60 = Distance to Fly: DTI = (NMOC X 60) /DTF . Degrees of f Course = NM oue purse 60+ Distance Flown: DOC = (NMOC X . Time to Station: (Elapsed Thr Time X 60) + Bearing Change. . Distance to Station = (Elapsed Time X Groundspeed) + Bearing Change. (46). Time to Clim . Excess Horse Power = (SL Rate of Climb X Gross AVIATION CALCULATIONS . Vertical Speed = Altitude Change + Time. . Density Altitude = Pressure Altitude + 120(0AT- ISA). . Rate of Climb Required = Feet/NM X Groundspeed/60 . Hours Decimal = Hours + Minutes/60 . Hours Minutes = Hours + (Decimal X 60) . Center of Gravity = Total Moment/Total Weight . Moment = Weight X Arm . Weight Shifted/Total Weight = Distance CG Shifted/ Distance weight Shifted = Altitude Change + Vertical Speed. Weight) = 33,000 . Rate of Climb = (Excess Horse Power X 33,000) = Actual Weight . Rate of Climb = (Gross Weight/Actual Weight)? X SL Rate of Climb . Specific Range = Nautical Miles/Pounds of Fuel . Specific Range = KTAS/Gallons per Hour . Specific Endurance = Flight Hours/Pounds of Fuel . Specific Endurance = 1/Gallons per Hour . Standard Rate Bank Angle (MPH) = TAN“[(9.217748 x MPH)/ ers) . Standard Rate Bank Ang le (KTS) = TAN7![(10.6004 x KTS)/3860] . Turn Radius(ft) = KTS?/11.26 X Tangent Bank Angle . Turn Rate = 1091 X Tangent Bank Angle/KTS . Standard Rate Turning Radius = (Velocity/30) /2m . Tire Hydroplaning Speed = 9/ Tire Pressure (psi) . The radius of a standard rate turn in NM is equal to the TAS/200. . G-force = 1/Cosine of the Bank Angle . Turn Diameter = KTAS 2/34028 Tan. Bank Angle . Stall Speed = VS1 X VA=VA . Pivotal Altitude = TAS(mph)2/15 . DME Arc Distance = pearsed of Arc X (2 R/360) . Speed of Sound (Kts) = 39 . Mach = KTAS/Speed of Sound Knots (47)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB EQUIVALENTS 1 inch mercury = 33.863 millibars or hectopascals 1 millibar or hectopascal = 0.02953 inches of mercury 1 millimeter hg = 1.332 millibars or hectopascals 1 meter per second = 196.85 feet per minute 1 meter per second = 1.9438 nautical miles per hour 1 foot per second = 60' per minute = 3,600' per hour 1 statute mile/hour = 88' per minute = 1.46' per sec. 1 NM/hour = 101.2 feet per minute = 1.68 feet per sec. 1 kilogram = 2.2046 pounds 1 pound = .45359 kilograms 1 kilometer = .62137 statute miles or 53996 NM 1 statute mile = .86898 NM or 1.6093 KM or 5280 ft. 1 nautical mile = 6076 feet 1 nautical mile = 1.15 statute miles or 1.852 kilometers 1 foot = .3048 meters 1 meter = 3.2808 feet or 1.0936 yards 1 yard = .9144 meters 1 inch = 25.4 millimeters (mm) 1 US gallon = 3.7853 liters or .83267 Imperial gallons 1 US gallon = 231 cubic inches or 0.134 cubic feet 1 liter = 26418 Ue galens 1 minute latitude (N/S) = 1NM 1 minute longitude (E/W) = 1 NM X (cosine latitude) 1 kHz = 1,000 Hertz, 1 MHz = 1,000 kHz STANDARD WEIGHTS 1 gallon Jet A = 6.75 |b/3.06 kg 1liter Jet A = 1.8 Ib/0.8 Kg 1 polar Avgas = 6.0 Ib/2.72 kg 1 liter Avans = 1.6 Ib./0.719 kg 1 gallon 50W oil = 7.5 |b/3.4 k 1 quart 50W oil = 1.875 |b/0.85 kg 1 Iter 50 W oil = 1.981 lb/0.898 kg 1 gallon water = 8.33 Ib. 1 gallon methanol = 6.62 Ib. 1 passenger = 170 Ib. (48)AVIATION CALCULATIONS NUMERICAL PREFIXES nano (n) = .000000001 or 10°? micro (wu) = .000001 or 10-¢ milli = 001 or 10-3 centi (c) = .01 or 10°? deci (d) = .1 or 107? deka ( 8) = 10 or 10? hecto (h) = 100 or 10? kilo (k) = 1,000 or 10 mega (M) = 1,000,000 or 10¢ giga (G) = 1,000,000,000 or 10° METRIC MEASURES 1 meter = 1,000 millimeters or 100 centimeters 1 kilometer = 1,000 meters 1 liter = 1,000 milliliters 1 kiloliters = 1,000 liters 1 prom = 1,000 milligrams 1 kilogram = 1,000 grams 1 metric ton = 1,000 kilograms ICAO SEA LEVEL AIR STANDARD VALUES Pressure = 1013 mb = 760 mm Hg = 14.7 psi Temperature = 15° C = 59° Speed of Sound = 741.4 miles per hour or 1087.4 feet per second (49)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB QUICK CONVERSTOR TABLE Convert From Multiply By Nautical Miles........ a Miles..........00. 1. ae Statute Miles METERS 1s ccrsconcscaurace « Fe Statute Miles ..... Nautical Miles .... .. 0) Kilometers........... Statute Miles............. 0.62136 U.S. Gallons.......... Liters ..........0.. US Quarts........... Liters . Liters oi sis ssesmemes US US Pounds ........... Kilograms Jet A Gallons......... Jet A Liters... AV Gas Gallons AV Gas Liter: Oil Gallons. Oil Quarts (50)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB Notes (61)PILOT'S RULES OF THUMB Notes 2)