The 1 ST Borneo Psychology Seminar 2021 Proceedings

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PROCEEDINGS
BORNEOPSY2021
THE 1 ST
BORNEO PSYCHOLOGY SEMINAR
Editors
Associate Professor Dr. Chua Bee Seok

Agnis Sombuling
Dr. Getrude Cosmas Ah Gang
Dr. Wanda Kiyah George Albert
Cite as: Chua, B. S., Sombuling, A., Cosmas, G., & Albert, W. K. G. (Eds.) (2021). Proceedings
of The 1st Borneo Psychology Seminar 2021. Universiti Malaysia Sabah
Copyright © 2021 by Faculty of Psychology and Education,Universiti Malaysia Sabah
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or

transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other
electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher,
except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other
noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to the
publisher, addressed “Attention: Permissions Coordinator,” at the address below.
Borneo Psychology Seminar 2021 Proceedings

Faculty Of Psychology and Education
Universiti Malaysia Sabah
Jalan UMS
88400, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah,
Malaysia
E-mail: borneopsy@ums.edu.my / agness@ums.edu.my
e ISBN
The 1st Borneo Psychology Seminar 2021 Proceedings
09-10 September 2021, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
e ISBN : 978-967-25882-0-7
WELCOME ADDRESS
BorneoPsy2021 Chairperson
It is a great privilege and honour to welcome you all to the 1st Borneo Psychology Seminar 2021
(BorneoPsy2021), organized by the Faculty of Psychology and Education, Universiti Malaysia Sabah,
Malaysia. It is a pleasure to have all of you here to participate in this international level seminar which
is being held online as a virtual seminar from 9th to 10th September 2021. The theme of the seminar
is “The Psychological well-being of Bornean community”.
Borneo is the world's third-largest island and the largest in Asia. It is governed by three separate
sovereign political powers: Malaysia, Indonesia (Kalimantan), and Brunei. There are over 200 different
ethnic groups in Borneo. The population consists mainly of Dayak ethnic groups, Malay, Banjar, Orang
Ulu, Chinese, and Kadazan-Dusun. This makes Borneo unique in her ethnic diversity, where people of
diverse ethnicities live together in a plural society. The ethnic diversity in Borneo is complexed by other
forms of diversities, such as religious, cultural, language, value, social and psychological aspects. The
1st Borneo Psychology Seminar 2021 is organized mainly to promote the development and growth of
the psychology field and psychology research to the community in Borneo.
The Seminar provides a wide connection between researchers, lecturers, students, practitioners,
professionals from psychology and human sciences to present, discuss, exchange, and share their
experiences and research results on all aspects of Psychology and specifically the indigenous
psychology in Borneo. In addition, the Seminar provides collaboration opportunities in research,
teaching, publication, and community service programs among Borneo scholars, researchers, and
practitioners. Besides, it allowed the participants to share and publish their findings in the seminar's
proceedings and in the "Psikologi Masyarakat Borneo" book. Through this seminar, I would like to
introduce you and encourage you to join the newly established association – The Association of
Psychosocial Sabah. The goals and mission of this association are in line with the purpose of this
seminar.
We are also very grateful to have two special appearances scholars in the field of psychology -
Professor Dr. Cecilia A. Essau, Professor of Developmental Psychopathology, Department of
Psychology, University of Roehampton, United Kingdom and Professor Dr. Low Wah Yun, Professor of
Psychology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya to deliver the keynote speech and share their
expertise in this Seminar. I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude and sincere
appreciation to both of our Keynote speakers, the moderator, participants, and all others who have
contributed to the success of this seminar. My special thanks also go to Dr. Getrude Cosmas, who has
created the song, especially for this seminar, “We are Bornean”, and my amazing team of committee
members who put the effort in their hearts and souls to make this seminar a success.

Chairperson
BorneoPsy2021
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TABLE OF CONTENT
No Paper Title & Author Page
1. Development of a Parent Training Module to Improve the Well Being of 1-6

Children with Autism
Amelia Inbam Neelagandan & Mohd Dahlan Hj A Malek
2. Hubungan Efikasi Kendiri Kaunseling Dan Kompetensi Kaunseling Spiritual 7-15

Dalam Kalangan Kaunselor Pelatih Universiti Malaysia Sabah
Aminullah Tanjol & Norafifah Bali
3. The Effects Of Boredom And Distress Tolerance On Problematic Internet Use 16-33
Among University Students
Ayleah Paz Sim Aquino & Patricia Joseph Kimong
4. Coping Among Married and Cohabiting Individuals in Malaysia During the 34-41
COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study on Associated Factors
Ching Sin Siau, Chua Bee Seok , Mimi Fitriana & Wah Yun Low
5. Factors Contributing To Food Waste Behaviour Among The Young Consumers 42-59
Chong Zi En & Mimi Fitriana Zaini
6. The Effect Of Online Learning And Procrastination Behaviour On Well-Being 60-77

Among Undergraduates In Universiti Malaysia Sabah
Choo Ming Hui & Norzihan Ayub
7. Kecerdasan Emosi Murid Sekolah Menengah Di Kota Kinabalu 78-85

Christina Andin, Lizra Danielle & Abdul Said Ambotang
8. Mediation Strategies and Its Role on Preteens’ Media-Induced Risk of 86-92

Socioemotional Adjustment
Crystal Ling & Hon Kai Yee
9. Factors Associated With Wdb Among Malaysian Public Servants In Sabah 93-102
Farah Mardiana Binti Radzali, Chua Bee Seok & Ismail Maakip
10. A Study of Two Groups of Navy in Identifying Type of Emotions, Regulating 103-111
and Understanding Emotions
Getrude Cosmas & Raja Nor Hanif Bin Raja Kamarulzaman
11. Gadget Usage Trends: How Parental Rules Are Prominent to Us? 112-124
Hon Kai Yee, Crystal Ling, Chua Bee Seok, Yap Chin Choo, & Gan Su Wan
12. The Relationship Between Loneliness, Personality Differences, Motivation 125-134

and Video Game Addiction in the Context of Gacha Games in F2P Mobile
Games: A Global Setting
Ida Farina binti Ismail, Mimi Fitriana & Chan Li Chuin
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13. Love, Trust and Commitment in Preserving Long-Distance Marital 135-143

Relationships
Joki Perdani Sawai, Rezki Perdani Sawai & Mahirah Masdin
14. Culture And Psychological Help-Seeking Attitude 144-154

Kesantini AthinarayananRao
15. Pengaruh Gaya Keibubapaan Dan Pengetahuan Keagamaan Ke Atas 155-195

Kesediaan Mengubah Tingkah Laku Dalam Kalangan Remaja Di Malaysia Dan
Brunei: Persepsi Sokongan Sosial Sebagai Penyederhana
Khairani Binti Kaharuddin & Mohd Dahlan Bin A. Malek
16. Effects of Spirituality on Resilience among Bornean Indigenous Youth amid 196-209
Covid-19 Pandemic
Kong Eng Tong
17. The Association Between Stress, Life Satisfaction and Suicidal Ideation in 210-228
Klang Valley, Malaysia
Loong Baolynn & Mimi Fitriana Zaini
18. Disaster Management Of Emergency Workers: Psychological Perspective 229-237

Mohd Dahlan Hj. A. Malek, Ida Shafinaz Mohd Kamil & Muhammad Idris
Bahari
19. Cabaran Kebolehpasaran Dalam Kalangan Pelajar Tahun Akhir Sepanjang 238-245
Pandemik Covid-19
Mohd Faqhrullah Khamis & Getrude Cosmas
20. Sustainability of Technical and Vocational Training Education Based on 246-260

Instructors’ Competence
Mustal bin Makmud, Mohd Khairuddin @Jerry Abdullah
21. Differences In Social Support Based On Demographic Factors Among 261-267

University Students During The Covid-19 Pandemic
Norsimah Dasan, Balan Rathakrishnan, Muhammad Idris @Ferlis Hj.Bahari,
Laila Wati Madlan & Norkiah Arsat
22. Environmental Program And Its Effect On Youth’s Attitude Towards The 268-276
Environment
Nur Syazana Binti Aziz, Nurul Afiqah Binti Mohd Nazzi, Cossicca Binti
Tenggok@Lee, Eliysia Mohiding, Sonita anak Buyong, Samantha Mae Lim Wee
Ping & Getrude Cosmas
23. Posttraumatic Growth in the Refugees: Life Experiences and Challenges 277-299
during the Covid-19 Pandemic
Philiya Mary Thomas & Mimi Fitriana Zaini
24. Relationship Between Life Satisfaction And Work Readiness Among 300-307
Undergraduate Students
Phyleecia Chong Sze Jing & Guan Teik Ee
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25. Psychological Abuse In Adolescents’ Interpersonal Relationship: An 308-322

Interpretative Analysis
Raadhika A/P R.Prakash Naidu, Mimi Fitriana Zaini & Asong Joseph
26. Attitude towards Covid-19 Vaccination Program 323-335

Yusmariaziani Binti Yusri, Wong Ying Huan, Regina Yap Wan Teng, Sammuel
Spencer Sulau Ak Tinggom, Nur Aisyah Binti Mohamad Firus, Stephennie Lione
Stephenson
27. Hubungan Antara Personaliti “Big Five” Dan Daya Ketahanan Mahasiswa 336-344
Semasa Pandemik Covid-19
Siti Khumairah Chua Abdillah, Agnis Sombuling & Endang Poerwanti
28. Attitude, Stigma and Working Alliance in the Counseling Relationship Among 345-355
University Students: A Conceptual Paper
Siti Nurafif bt Naim,Chua Bee Seok, Muhammad Idris Bullare @ Bahari &
Patricia Joseph Kimong
29. Teachers Knowledge and Attitudes on Inclusive Education 356-365

Suzinah Bongsu & Lailawati Madlan
30. Gaming in the 21st Century:Portrayal and Awareness of Mental Illness using 366-378
Video Games as Interactive Narratives
Wan Muhamad Kamarul Izzat bin Wan Mustafa & Mimi Fitriana
31. The Comparison Study on the Psychological Health of Emerging Adult with 379-388
Different Levels of Autism Spectrum Quotient
William Hoi Wei Yuan, Siah Poh Chua, Low Sew Kim, Gan Su Wan &
Walton Wider
32. Changing Landscape of Friendship During COVID-19 in Sabah, Malaysia: A 389-397

Preliminary Study
Wong Hoi Yan & Walton Wider
33. Development and Implementation of Assessment Program for Hotel 398-415

Receptionist
Wong Ying Huan, Regina Yap Wan Teng, Nur Aisyah Binti Mohamad Firus,
Yusmariaziani Binti Yusri & Sumitra Francis a/p Thilagaratnam
34. Research On The Relationship Between Psychological Capital And 416-419

Professional Well-Being Of College Teachers
Yang Xiaoling
35. Influences of Depression and Loneliness Towards Binge-Watching Behavior 420-427

among University Students
Yii Shi Si & Patricia Joseph Kimong
36. Abstracts Without Full Paper 428-450
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DEVELOPMENT OF A PARENT TRAINING MODULE TO

IMPROVE THE WELL BEING OF CHILDREN WITH AUTISM
Amelia Inbam Neelagandan1, Mohd Dahlan Hj A Malek2
Hospital Queen Elizabeth Kota Kinabalu
1
2
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: amelia.inbam@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Background: Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication,

restricted, repetitive behaviour, interest or activities, and these symptoms limit and impair everyday functioning.
Children with autism have been documented to have lower health related quality of life (HRQOL) compared to
their typically developing peers and even children with other chronic illnesses. Aim: This is part of a larger study
which aims to improve the HRQOL of children with autism in Sabah. The aim of this portion of the study was to
develop a Parent Training Module for Parents of Children with Autism. Methods: A literature search was
conducted on all major search engines with the keywords autism quality of life, autism HRQOL, autism parent
training, autism physical, autism emotions, autism social skills, autism school functioning, module development
and adult learning principles. Professionals in the field of autism were consulted for suggestions on developing
the parent training module. The author also attended a workshop on module development, reliability and validity.
The parent training module content was developed based on evidence based methods to improve the HRQOL of
children with autism. The structure of the module was based on documented steps of module development. The
training program was planned based on adult learning principles. Findings: The resulting module consisted of 5
units; introduction, physical functioning, emotional functioning, social functioning and school functioning. Each
unit consists of various activities such as lectures, group discussions and hands on practice. Parents then plan on
paper how they will implement these activities at home with their child, and record each activity in a log form,
which will be used as a measure of treatment fidelity. Conclusion: The newly developed parent training module
has the potential to guide parents to improve the well-being of children with autism.
Keywords: autism, autism parent training, HRQoL
Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication, restricted,

repetitive behaviour, interest or activities. These symptoms limit and impair everyday functioning.
Children with autism have been documented to have lower health related quality of life (HRQoL)
compared to their typically developing peers and even children with other chronic illnesses.
This paper describes a segment of a larger study which aims to improve the HRQoL of children with
autism in Sabah. The aim of this portion of the study was to develop a Parent Training Module for
Parents of Children with Autism, for parents to use with their children at home.
Background
Many factors contributed to the need for the development of a parent training module for children with
autism. This section briefly highlights the factors related to autism, such as the characteristics and
impact on the child and family. Following that, we will outline Health Related Quality of Life (HRQoL)
among children with autism and the need for the development of the current module. \
Autism
According to the diagnostic criteria for autism in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Fifth Edition
(DSM-5), a child must have persistent deficits in social communication and interaction, such as deficits
in social-emotional reciprocity, deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviours, and deficits in
developing, maintaining, and understand relationships. They should also display at least two out of four
types of restrictive, repetitive, behaviours, such as stereotyped or repetitive behaviour, insistence on
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sameness, highly fixated and restricted interests, and hyper or hypo reactivity to sensory input. (5th
ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013)
Autism is a pervasive developmental disorder (Volkmar, Rogers, Paul, and Pelphrey, 2014). It
affects many areas of a child’s life, from the fundamentals of childhood such as play and learning, to
the core of life, such as socializing, and understanding others and being understood. In some cases, it
affects behaviour, attention, and results in a multitude of socially unacceptable characteristics. (Lai,
Lombardo, & Baron-Cohen, 2014).
In addition to the impact on the child with autism, evidence suggest an equally negative impact
and burden on parents, caregivers and families caring for a child with autism. Parents, especially
mothers, have reported increased stress levels and increased depression compared to parents of typically
developing children. (Montes, & Halterman, 2007).
Due to poor language and social skills, (Lombardo, Pierce, Eyler, Barnes, Ahrens-Barbeau,
Solso, Campbell, and Courchesne, 2015; Magiati, Tay, and Howlin, 2014) individuals with autism have
very few meaningful relationships, and often lack any form of social interaction beyond their immediate
family (Calder, Hill, & Pellicano, 2013; Laugeson, Gantman, Kapp, Orenski, and Ellingsen, 2015). As
social and community involvement and interaction forms a part of HRQoL, this contributes to low
HRQoL among this population (Olsson, Tammimies, and Bölte, 2015).
Health Related Quality of Life among Children with Autism
Health-related quality of life (HRQOL) is the perception of the impact an illness/injury, medical
treatment and/or health care policy has on one’s life (Spieth & Harris 1996). While the concept of
HRQOL specifically measures health issues, it is still multidimensional and includes physical,
emotional, and social functioning. (Varni, Burwinkle, Seid, Skarr 2003). Studies have found that
children with autism have a significantly lower HRQoL compared to their typically developing peers.
(Kuhlthau, Orlich, Hall, Sikora, Kovacs, Delahaye, Clemons, 2012; Kose, Erermis, Ozturk, Ozbaran,
Demiral, Bildik, Tezan Aydin, Cahide, 2013). Kuhlthau et al (2012) also found that children with autism
demonstrated lower HRQOL compared to children with chronic medical conditions.
While HRQOL among individuals with autism and their caregivers have been studied and
documented to be low, there is little evidence in terms of intervention programs that aim to improve the
HRQOL among this population. It is the responsibility of professionals in the field of autism
intervention to “disseminate top quality autism treatment and increase access to evidence-based
treatment to ensure that individuals with ASD have the opportunity to fulfill their potential and lives
that are as independent as possible” (Granpeesheh & Tarbox, 2014)
The development of this parent training module aims to disseminate top quality autism
treatment by translating evidence based interventions into a training module. Through the parent
training conducted with this module, we will be increasing access to evidence based treatment by giving
parents access to evidence based intervention techniques.
Intervention aimed at improving autistic symptoms have been known to improve the HRQOL
of children with autism (Varni, Handen, Corey-Lisle, Guo, Manos, Ammerman, & Mathew, S. 2012).
Due to the lower HRQOL among children with autism, as well as the lack of a comprehensive
intervention addressing this, the current parent training module was developed.
Methodology
The development of the parent training module involved many steps and procedures. Firstly, a literature
search was conducted on all major search engines with the keywords autism quality of life, autism
HRQOL, autism parent training, autism physical, autism emotions, autism social skills, autism school
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functioning, module development and adult learning principles. Professionals in the field of autism were
consulted for suggestions on developing the parent training module. The author also attended a
workshop on module development, reliability and validity.
The module utilized in the current study was developed based on the recommended steps by
Sidek Mohd Noah & Jamaluddin Ahmad (2005). The first step of module development is to set the
objectives of what the module is expected to achieve. This was done based on the components that
constitute HRQoL among the paediatric population. The aim of the module is to improve the HRQoL
among children with autism. The next step is to identify the relevant theories and rationale that the
module will be based on. The current module is based on a family centred approach to intervention,
specifically utilizing the parent mediated intervention approach.
The content of the module is based on the principle of naturalistic intervention, which includes
environmental arrangement, interaction strategies and applied behaviour analysis principles. Parents are
taught how to build skills through reinforcements in the natural environment. (Franzone, 2009)
The parent training module content was developed based on evidence based methods to improve the
HRQOL of children with autism. The structure of the module was based on documented steps of module
development. The training program was planned based on adult learning principles.
The target audience and the time frame for the module implementation is also set at this initial
stage. The target audience was parents or caregivers of preschool children with autism. The time frame
for the module implementation was planned for weekly sessions over 5 weeks.
The initial draft of the module was then developed with the appropriate content based on the
theory and objectives. The mode of delivery was also planned for each activity and objective in the
module. The logistics of the module delivery was planned out, including the media used and how the
module will be implemented. The draft of the module was used to conduct a pilot study to determine
the suitability of the module in terms of content, activities, language use, and feasibility of the module.
Findings
A module is defined as an independent and complete teaching unit, or package, developed with the main
focus and intention of achieving a set of predetermined objectives (Greager & Murray, 1985, Russel,
1974). In the context of the current study, the newly developed parent training module will be able to
function as an independent and comprehensive teaching package, as it covers a wide range of knowledge
and skills needed by parents of children with autism. This module was developed with the intention of
achieving the predetermined goal of improving the health related quality of life of children with autism.
The module is currently called the Better Life Parent Training Module (BLPTM).
Sharifah Alwiah Alsagoff (1981) has also defined a module as consisting of a few distinct but
closely interrelated units. The current module consists of 5 distinct units, namely the introduction,
physical functioning, emotional functioning, social functioning, and school functioning. While each
unit may function as a distinct unit, all 5 modules are closely interrelated as each subsequent module
builds on the previous module. Each module provides instruction for the respective area, and when all
modules are put together, they provide an even greater synergistic outcome.
Contents of the Better Life Parent Training Module
The main objective of the Better Life Parent Training Module (BLPTM) is to improve the health related
quality of life of children with autism. Hence the contents of the module are strategies to improve the
quality of life of children with autism and the method of the module implementation is by equipping
parents with these skills.
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The BLPTM consists of 5 units, as follows:
Unit 1: Introduction
Unit 2: Physical Functioning
Unit 3: Emotional Functioning
Unit 4: Social Functioning
Unit 5: School Functioning
Unit 1 Introduction
As the name suggests, the first module is an introduction to the entire training module. The objectives
of the first module are for the participants to get to know each other and to have an introduction to the
training program.
The first activity in this module is an ice – breaker, where participants were asked to pair up
and introduce themselves to each other by sharing something they have in common and something that
is different about them. They also shared about their child with autism.
The next activity was an overview of the program as well as the guiding principles and strategies
utilized in the training module. The participants were introduced to the principle of behaviour change,
and how this would be applied throughout the program.
The trainer then introduced each module and the activities that will be carried out, as well as
the role of parents in terms carrying out the activities at home with their children. The parents were
also given basic strategies for stress management and parenting skills.
Unit 2 Physical Functioning
Units two to four are based on the Paediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL). The PedsQL is a
questionnaire that assesses the HRQOL among children and adolescents. It consists of four scales,
which are the physical, emotional, social and school functioning scales. This is a comprehensive
approach to HRQOL measurement and hence was selected as the foundation and guiding factor in
planning the content of the parent training module
.
Unit 2 is called the physical functioning unit and comprises physical activity and daily chores.
Physical activity includes exercise such as running, walking, dancing or any other form of exercise that
the child is interested in. This unit also includes are self-care such as brushing teeth, washing face,
bathing, and so on.
Parents are thought how to encourage their children to participate in physical activities, and
how to break down self-care and household chores so that their children are able to do some simple and
basic chores.
Unit 3 Emotional Functioning
This unit introduces the challenges that children with autism have with recognizing and expressing
emotions. The unit then goes on to equip parents with knowledge and skills to help them to teach
emotional regulation to their children. As sleep is an important factor and is part of the PedQL, basic
sleep hygiene and its importance is also included in this unit.
Unit 4 Social Functioning
This unit focusses on the importance of social interaction, as well as practical steps on how parents can
help their children with autism to develop social interaction skills. An important aspect of social
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interaction for children is play, hence this module provides parents with the knowledge and practical
skills on developing appropriate play skills in their children.
Unit 5 School Functioning
The final unit provides information about the role of parents in their child’s schooling, how to deal with
the school and teachers, as well as steps to provide their children with a conducive environment to do
their schoolwork. Attention is major factor when it comes to school functioning, hence practical
strategies are provided to help parents improve their child’s attention and focus.
Module Implementation
Each unit utilizes various modes of delivery such as lecture, discussion, videos, and hands on practice.
The contents and implementation of the module has been manualized for ease of implementation.
Parents are asked to write down when, where and how they will practice the skills with their children.
They are also provided with log sheets to record their home practice.
Conclusion
The newly developed Better Life Parent Training Module is a comprehensive manualized parent
training program. The module has the potential to guide parents to improve the well-being of children
with autism.
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Varni, J. W., Handen, B. L., Corey-Lisle, P. K., Guo, Z., Manos, G., Ammerman, D. K., ... & Mathew,
S. 2012. Effect of aripiprazole 2 to 15 mg/d on health-related quality of life in the treatment of
irritability associated with autistic disorder in children: a post hoc analysis of two controlled
trials. Clinical therapeutics, 34(4), 980-992.
Volkmar, F., Rogers, S., Paul, R. and Pelphrey, K.A., 2014. Handbook of autism and pervasive
developmental disorders. 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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HUBUNGAN EFIKASI KENDIRI KAUNSELING DAN KOMPETENSI

KAUNSELING SPIRITUAL DALAM KALANGAN KAUNSELOR
PELATIH UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH
Aminullah bin Tanjol*, Norafifah Bali
*Corresponding author’s e-mail : aminullahtanjol1999@gmail.com
ABSTRAK
Spiritual mempunyai hubungan yang positif terhadap kesihatan fizikal, psikologi dan perkembangan individu
seperti identiti, pandangan alam, pengurusan stres dan sebagainya. Bagaimanapun, kajian-kajian lepas
menunjukkan bahawa kebanyakan kaunselor pelatih tidak kompeten dalam mengintegrasikan pengetahuan
spiritual dalam sesi kaunseling. Kajian-kajian berkenaan kaunseling spiritual telah banyak dilakukan di luar
negara akan tetapi kajian dalam negara Malaysia berkenaan topik ini adalah kurang dan terhad. Kajian ini
bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti hubungan di antara efikasi kendiri kaunseling dan kompetensi kaunseling spiritual
dalam kalangan kaunselor pelatih. Efikasi kendiri kaunseling dipilih sebagai salah satu faktor atas cadangan para
pengkaji yang lain. Reka bentuk kajian kuantitatif menggunakan kaedah soal selidik melibatkan kaunselor pelatih
di Universiti Malaysia Sabah.
Kata kunci: Kompetensi kaunseling, kaunseling spiritual, efikasi kendiri kaunseling, kaunselor pelatih
Karier sebagai seorang kaunselor kekal releven dengan isu-isu semasa ditambah lagi dengan cabaran
pandemik COVID-19 yang memberi kesan dari aspek sosial dan ekonomi masyarakat. Kenyataan yang
senada ini terbit di pelbagai media-media akhbar tempatan tentang kepentingan kaunseling dalam
mendepani cabaran emosi dan kesihatan mental dalam negara. Kementerian Pembangunan Wanita,
Keluarga dan Masyarakat juga mencadangkan hal yang serupa agar ditambahkan lagi bilangan
kaunselor profesional dalam negara.
Mazidah et al. (2015) menyebutkan bahawa ramai individu dalam negara Malaysia yang
mengalami tekanan, kebimbangan, penghargaan kendiri yang rendah, konflik peranan dan nilai serta
masalah emosi dan interpersonal adalah disebabkan keadaan industri negara yang menuntut individu
untuk bekerja keras dalam banyak aspek kehidupan. Oleh itu, keperluan perkhidmatan kaunseling kekal
relevan dan keperluannya semakin meningkat dari semasa ke seamasa (Mazidah et al., 2015).
Kaunseling adalah satu perkhidmatan yang perlu mempromosikan kesihatan dan kesejahteraan secara
holistik dan menyeluruh (Myers et al., 2000 ; Robertson, 2008). Spiritual antara salah satu cabang yang
dilihat perlu dikuasai oleh seorang kaunselor kerana banyak permasalahan klien adalah disebabkan
pengurusan spiritual yang kurang baik (Suhaya et al., 2017).
Banyak kajian telah dibuat berhubung dengan spiritual dan kesihatan serta kesejahteraan
individu. Vietan et al. (2010) menyatakan bahawa spiritual membantu kepada kesihatan psikologi dan
perkembangan psikologi individu. Kenyataan ini juga disokong oleh Henriksen Jr. et al. (2015) telah
menyebutkan bahawa kajian berkenaan topik ini telah banyak dibuat oleh para penyelidik dan
menemukan hubungan signifikan antara spiritual dan kesihatan psikologi. Robertson (2008) juga
menyebutkan bahawa kajian berkenaan topik spiritual dan perhubungannya dengan kesihatan fizikal
dan mental serta kesejahteraannya telah dibincangkan dalam bidang kaunseling sejak lebih 20 tahun
yang lepas.
Kompetensi kaunseling spiritual adalah kemampuan seorang kaunselor untuk menyedari ilmu
pengetahuan, kemahiran dan kebolehan yang diperlukan untuk berhadapan atau menangani klien
dengan isu spiritual serta bagaimana untuk mengimplementasikan pengetahuan, kemahiran serta
kebolehan itu dalam praktis kaunseling (Ruffin, 2014).
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Mazidah et al. (2014) menyebutkan bahawa penerimaan terhadap komponen spiritual dalam
praktis dan perkhidmatan di peringkat Malaysia adalah sangat kurang. Ia menggambarkan bahawa
kaunselor tidak bersedia untuk memberi kerjasama dalam topik berkaitan spiritual dalam sesi
kaunseling. Penghindaran ini berkemungkinan disebabkan kurangnya pendidikan yang diterima dalam
menangani isu-isu sebegini (Vietan et al., 2016). Ia bersangkut paut dengan pendidikan dalam bidang
kaunseling. Di Malaysia, hanya ada empat buah universiti yang mengajarkan silibus berkenaan
kaunseling spiritual (Mazidah et al., 2015).
Secara konsisten, kajian menunjukkan bagaimana kaunselor pelatih mengelak dalam

membincangkan tentang spiritual dalam sesi kaunseling yang mereka kendalikan. Hal ini dinyatakan
oleh Cashwell et al. (2013) yang mana kajian yang telah dilakukan menunjukkan bahawa kaunselor
pelatih kurang menggunakan konsep spiritual mahupun agama dalam sesi kaunseling. Kenyataan ini
senada dengan penemuan Osborn et al. (2012) bahawa hanya 10 peratus sahaja kaunselor pelatih yang
mampu berbincang tentang spiritual dalam sesi kaunseling bersama klien mereka.
Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa integrasi spiritual dalam kalangan kaunselor pelatih kurang
diamalkan. Sekalipun kebanyakan daripada kaunselor pelatih mengakui akan kepentingan spiritual
dalam aspek pengamalan kaunseling (Osborn et al., 2012) namun begitu implementasi integrasi aspek
spiritual dalam sesi kaunseling adalah sangat kurang. Vietan et al. (2016) menyebutkan kemungkinan
penghindaran ke atas praktis agama dan spiritual dalam sesi klinikal berkemungkinan disebabkan oleh
kurangnya pendidikan yang diterima dalam menangani isu-isu sebegini. Bukan itu sahaja malahan
kajian berkenaan integrasi agama dalam kaunseling juga adalah terhad dan terbatas.
Robertson (2010) dalam kajiannya terhadap kaunselor pelatih menyebutkan bahawa perspektif
spiritual dan agama telah diabaikan dalam program kaunseling. Oleh itu, kajian yang berfokuskan
kaunselor pelatih ini adalah perlu dijalankan terutama dalam mengukur kompetensi kaunseling spiritual
dalam kalangan kaunselor pelatih. Young et al. (2002) menyatakan bahawa lebih separuh daripada
tenaga pengajar dalam kajiannya tidak cukup bersedia dalam membincangkan topik spiritual dan agama
semasa mengajar atau penyeliaan.
Kajian yang menghubungkan antara efikasi kendiri kaunseling dan kompetensi kaunseling
spiritual adalah kajian yang kurang dijalankan menjadikan bahan-bahan berkaitan adalah kurang
ditemukan. Oleh itu, beberapa penyelidik juga menggariskan agar melakukan kajian lanjut sama ada
secara umum yang hanya menyentuh soal kaunseling spiritual ataupun secara khusus kepada perkaitan
efikasi kendiri kaunseling dan kompetensi kaunseling spiritual. Mazidah et al. (2015) juga
mencadangkan supaya kajian berkaitan kompetensi spiritual dalam kalangan kaunselor untuk
mendapatkan lebih banyak maklumat berkaitan sekaligus untuk mendapatkan kepastian apakah faktor
yang mempengaruhi tahap integrasi kefahaman beragama dalam kalangan kaunselor. Rujukan berkaitan
dengan kompetensi spiritual dalam amalan kaunseling ini juga wajar dibanyakkan untuk menjadi
sumber rujukan dalam topik berkaitan (Mazidah et al., 2015).
Subarimaniam et al. (2020) menyatakan bahawa kajian berkaitan spiritual ini adalah penting
dan relevan untuk dijalankan memandangkan penguasaan kaunseling spiritual dalam kalangan
kaunselor di Malaysia adalah rendah. Lu et al. (2019) menyatakan bahawa perhubungan antara efikasi
kendiri kaunseling dan kompetensi kaunseling spiritual tidak begitu jelas bagaimana ia mempunyai
perkaitan dengan kompetensi spesifik ini?
Efikasi kendiri kaunseling dipilih sebagai salah satu faktor dalam kajian adalah berdasarkan
kajian-kajian lepas yang dilihat tidak konsisten kerana Subarimaniam et al. (2020) telah menemukan
hubungan yang positif antara konteks spiritual dan efikasi kendiri kaunseling manakala kajian Lu et al.
(2019) menemukan bahawa efikasi kendiri kaunseling bukan faktor kuat dalam menjangkakan
kompetensi kaunseling spiritual dalam kalangan kaunselor pelatih. Efikasi kendiri kaunseling adalah
penilaian individu terhadap kemampuan dirinya untuk mengendalikan sesi kaunseling secara efektif
(Larson dan Daniels, 1998).
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Efikasi kendiri kaunseling telah diuji dan mempunyai kaitan dengan kegelisahan, prestasi
kaunselor dan suasana penyeliaan (Larson dan Daniels, 1998). Efikasi kendiri kaunseling secara
teorinya memberi gambaran tentang kompetensi seseorang kaunselor. Aida (2018) mencadangkan
bahawa efikasi kendiri kaunseling yang tinggi akan dapat membantu kaunselor untuk memastikan
perkhidmatan yang diberikan benar-benar berkesan buat klien.
Efikasi Kendiri Kaunseling
Efikasi kendiri ditakrifkan sebagai perasaan atau kepercayaan seseorang individu dalam menggunakan
skil atau kemahiran yang dimilikinya (Tang et al., 2004 ; Flasch et al., 2016). Menurut Bandura (1995),
efikasi kendiri mewakili pandangan atau penilaian individu tentang kemampuannya untuk mencapai
tugasan yang diberikan kepadanya. Ia bukan sahaja melibatkan penilaian atau kemampuan individu
untuk mencapai satu-satu tugasan itu, tapi lebih daripada itu iaitu kepercayaan individu yang
membentuk keyakinan dan motivasi untuk menyempurnakan satu-satu tugasan (Bandura, 1997).
Beutler, Machado dan Neufeldt (1994) mencadangkan bahawa efikasi kendiri ini adalah
bersesuaian untuk menjadi asas pemilihan dan latihan kaunselor memandangkan ia memiliki konstruk
yang stabil dan dipercayai. Kenyataan ini juga disokong oleh Barnes (2004) yang mana telah
menyebutkan bahawa efikasi kendiri ini adalah penting untuk kompetensi seseorang kaunselor.
Efikasi kendiri kaunseling adalah penilaian individu terhadap kemampuan dirinya untuk
mengendalikan sesi kaunseling secara efektif (Larson dan Daniels, 1998). Efikasi kendiri kaunseling
dilihat sebagai kemampuan seseorang kaunselor untuk menjalankan sesi bersama klien secara efektif
(Flasch et al., 2016). Ia adalah satu nilai tambah yang amat penting kepada seorang kaunselor lebih-
lebih lagi kaunselor pelatih. McCarthy (2014) selaras dengan kajian Larson & Daniels (1998) telah
membuat beberapa kajian untuk mengurangkan kegelisahan kaunselor pelatih dan mereka
mencadangkan untuk meningkatkan efikasi kendiri kaunselor sebagai salah satu strategi.
Secara teorinya, bagi seseorang individu untuk melaksanakan sesi kaunseling dengan jayanya,
seseorang kaunselor itu perlu memberi kepercayaan kepada dirinya sendiri bahawa dia mampu untuk
menyediakan perawatan yang berjaya dan yakin untuk mampu menguasai teknik dan intervensi
(Bandura, 1986 ; Larson, 1998). Sekiranya kaunselor mempunyai pengalaman mengendalikan sesi
kaunseling yang berjaya, ia akan cenderung untuk mengulangi kejayaan itu sebagai satu sikap pada
masa akan datang (Gray et al., 2009).
Spiritual
Spiritus dalam bahasa Latin membawa maksud nafas, keberanian, semangat atau kehidupan (Suhaya et
al., 2017). Kamus Dewan Edisi Keempat ia mendefinisikan spiritual sebagai berkaitan dengan atau
bersifat rohani atau jiwa (bukan bersifat fizikal), rohaniah. Pendefinisian ini selari dalam pendefinisian
oleh Sapora & Ruhaya (2012) yang menyebutkan secara umum bahawasanya spiritual atau kerohanian
ini kerap kali dikaitkan dengan roh ataupun jiwa. Spiritual adalah satu set nilai secara dalaman serta
sempurna yang berkaitan dengan kejadian yang lain serta secara abstraknya ia adalah sesuatu yang suci
yang letaknya dalam jiwa (Suhaya et al., 2017). Beliau menyimpulkan bahawa spiritual ini adalah suatu
rangkuman nilai, kepercayaan, misi, kesedaran, subjektiviti, pengalaman, hala tuju dan usaha ke arah
sesuatu yang lebih besar di samping membawa makna kepada diri (Suhaya et al., 2017).
Gladding (2018) menyatakan bahawa spiritual ini dibezakan dengan konsep agama dan ia boleh
dihuraikan sebagai pencarian seorang manusia kepada makna dan tujuan dalam hidup dan lebih utama
adalah untuk mendapatkan kebenaran yang sejati. Menurut beliau lagi, konsep ini adalah bersifat
interpersonal berbanding konsep agama biarpun ada ketikanya kepercayaan spiritual ini dikongsi dalam
kalangan sekelompok individu (Gladding, 2018).
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Pengertian yang digariskan oleh Association for Spiritual, Ethical and Religious Values in
Counseling (ASERVIC) memberikan definisi spiritual ini adalah semangat yang menyerap masuk dan
juga tarikan ke dalam diri seseorang individu yang mana prosesnya dialami secara aktif dan secara pasif.
Ia adalah satu kemampuan dan kecenderungan semula jadi terhadap tiap-tiap individu dalam keadaan
yang berbeza dan unik. Penerangan yang dibawakan oleh ASERVIC menyatakan bahawa keunikan
tentang konsep spiritual ini menjadikan ia ditakrifkan berbeza-beza mengikut pengalaman individu.
Daripada penerangan-penerangan di atas berkenaan makna spiritual ini kita dapat

menyimpulkan bahawa spiritual ini adalah elemen dengan konsep yang abstrak yang terletak dalam diri
seseorang manusia yang memberi motivasi berbentuk kekuatan ataupun semangat dalam mencapai satu-
satu tujuan mahupun mencari makna yang besar dalam kehidupan. Bagaimanapun, pendefinisian yang
disimpulkan selepas memberi perhatian kepada beberapa penerangan pengkaji tidak dapat membawa
kepada penerangan yang tuntas selaras dengan teks yang dikeluarkan ASERVIC yang menegaskan
bahawa adalah sukar untuk memberi konsep yang menyeluruh dan jelas kepada konsep spiritual.
Deskripsi spiritual hanyalah suatu pendefinisian permulaan yang mana ia tidak mampu memberi erti
secara holistik untuk mewakili konsep spiritual itu sendiri.
Kenyataan ASERVIC ini sesuai dengan pandangan yang diberikan oleh Salasiah (2016) di
mana beliau menyebutkan pendefinisian ke atas makna spiritual pun pelbagai definisi yang kita temukan
dalam kalangan pemikir-pemikir Barat atas faktor tiadanya jajaran persepakatan yang jelas dalam
kalangan pemikir konsep spiritual dan masing-masing mempunyai pendapat dan pemikiran sendiri
terhadap konsep spiritual yang berlatarbelakangkan agama, budaya dan adat yang berbeza-beza.
Kompetensi Kaunseling Spiritual
Kompetensi kaunseling spiritual adalah kemampuan seorang kaunselor untuk menyedari ilmu
pengetahuan, kemahiran dan kebolehan yang diperlukan untuk berhadapan atau menangani klien
dengan isu spiritual serta bagaimana untuk mengimplementasikan pengetahuan, kemahiran serta
kebolehan itu dalam praktis kaunseling (Ruffin, 2014).
Kompetensi dalam integrasi spiritual dalam praktis kaunseling ini sudah dibincangkan sejak
sedekad yang lalu dengan penglibatan Majlis Akreditasi Kaunseling dan Program Pendidikan Berkaitan
(CACREP) telah menambahkan spiritual dan agama sebagai sebahagian daripada piawaian
pentauliahan (Stewart-Sicking et al,, 2015). ASERVIC (2009) telah mengeluarkan garis panduan
kompetensi yang perlu ada pada kaunselor dalam menangani isu-isu berkaitan agama dan spiritual yang
mana mempunyai enam cabang utama iaitu :
(i) budaya dan pandangan alam

(ii) kesedaran diri kaunselor
(iii) pembangunan manusia dan spiritual
(iv) komunikasi
(v) penilaian; dan
(vi) diagnosis dan perawatan
Teori Kognitif Sosial
Teori kognitif sosial adalah kajian yang dipelopori oleh Albert Bandura yang menggunakan teori
tingkah laku dan kerangka pembelajaran sosial (Stajkovic dan Luthans, 1998). Skop yang dibincangkan
dalam teori ini adalah jauh lebih luas dan komprehensif dibandingkan dengan perbincangan hanya
dalam topik tingkah laku dan topik pembelajaran sosial (Stajkovic dan Luthans, 1998). Ia adalah suatu
teori yang meramalkan bagaimana tingkah laku dapat diubah dalam usaha untuk mendapatkan hasil
(Pei-Hsuan & Schallert, 2008). Dalam konteks kajian ini, hasil akhir yang ingin didapatkan adalah
kompetensi kaunseling spiritual dalam kalangan kaunselor pelatih. Kajian tidak memberi fokus utama
kepada tingkah laku tetapi lebih kepada elemen kognitif kaunselor pelatih iaitu efikasi kendiri
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kaunseling mereka. Teori kognitif sosial juga melibatkan elemen kognitif ini dengan dengan membuat
beberapa perkara seperti mekanisma peraturan kendiri (self-regulatory mechanism), yang mampu
melangkaui beberapa isu seperti masalah pembelajaran ataupun untuk mengubah tingkah laku
(Stajkovic dan Luthans, 1998).
Dalam kognitif sosial teori pembelajaran dilihat sebagai kaedah menerima pengetahuan melalui
pemprosesan maklumat dalam kognitif (Stajkovic dan Luthans, 1998). Ia melibatkan penerimaan
individu dalam sistem sosial mereka untuk dipelajari apabila individu itu ada dalam satu-satu kelompok
sosial. Stajkovic dan Luthans (1998) menyatakan lagi bahawa kebanyakan pemikiran dan tindakan
manusia akan mewujudkan bahagian-bahagian sosial yang baharu memandangkan kognitif manusia
memproses kepada motivasi manusia, sikap dan tindakan disebabkan satu-satu persekitaran tempat
hidupnya. Dalam erti kata lain, sesuatu keadaan di tempat individu berada akan memberi kesan kepada
tindakan atau kompetensi individu tersebut sekaligus meningkatkan tahap motivasi mereka. Motivasi
adalah sangat berkait rapat dengan efikasi kendiri individu bahkan Bandura (1997) efikasi kendiri
adalah penjelasan yang utama untuk menerangkan motivasi.
Efikasi kendiri adalah komponen dalam teori kognitif sosial yang sebahagiannya merupakan
teori pembelajaran melalui pemerhatian (Grey, 2009). Kajian dan penguasaan Bandura dalam konsep
efikasi sendiri telah meningkatkan penerimaan ahli-ahli psikologi dalam melihat bagaimana
kepercayaan individu dalam kemampuan mereka untuk melakukan tindakan dalam memberikan hasil
yang diinginkan (Stajckovic dan Luthans, 1998). Bahkan, efikasi kendiri telah dilihat kepentingannya
dalam bidang kajian yang luas dan terus berkembang dalam banyak kajian (Bodenhome dan Skaggs,
2005).
Bandura menegaskan bahawa individu dengan efikasi kendiri yang baik akan melihat masalah
sebagai cabaran dan membuat sasaran untuk menangani masalah tersebut (Sawyer et al., 2013).
Seterusnya, individu dengan efikasi kendiri yang baik akan terus berusaha untuk mencapai hasil yang
diperlukan dan sukar untuk berputus asa walaupun mungkin akan ada kesan yang negatif daripada
tindakan mereka (Karami dan Imani, 2014). Efikasi kendiri dianggap sebagai lensa saintifik yang
bersesuaian untuk mengukur kepercayaan individu berkaitan kemampuan mereka untuk mencapai
tujuan.
Cabaran yang dihadapi pada ketika ini adalah tentang keperluan spiritual dalam arus semasa.
Dalam kajian yang dilakukan Astin et al. (2007) dimana kajiannya mendapati tujuh daripada 10 pelajar
kolej memerlukan perkhidmatan dari segi agama dan spiritual dan Suhaya et al (2017) juga menemukan
data yang hampir serupa dimana masyarakat memerlukan perkhidmatan kaunseling spiritual. Spiritual
yang merupakan bahagian daripada paradigma silang budaya telah menjadi gelombang kelima dalam
bidang kaunseling (Ruffin, 2014) tapi masih ramai kaunselor pelatih yang tidak cukup kompeten dalam
menangani isu-isu spiritual dalam sesi mereka (Osborn et al., 2012). Ia adalah suatu cabaran yang perlu
ditangani dalam keadaan permintaan yang tinggi dalam kalangan masyarakat tentang adanya
perkhidmatan kaunseling spiritual.
Secara teori menurut teori kognitif sosial, individu yang mempunyai efikasi kendiri yang tinggi
akan melihat masalah-masalah yang ada sebagai satu cabaran. Tambahan lagi, individu dengan efikasi
kendiri yang tinggi akan mampu bertindak untuk mendapatkan hasil yang baik iaitu kompetensi
kaunseling spiritual dalam menangani isu-isu spiritual klien. Burney (2008) mengatakan hal yang sama
bahawa efikasi kendiri yang baik akan membantu menentukan perasaan individu, pemikiran mereka
dan bagaimana untuk memberi respon terhadap tugasan yang mencabar disamping menentukan apa
yang perlu dibuat dan bagaimana untuk mendapatkan motivasi untuk menyelesaikannya.
Kajian Lepas
Berdasarkan data-data dalam kajian lepas, penyelidik yang menghubungkan efikasi kendiri kaunseling
dengan kompetensi kaunseling spiritual adalah terlalu sedikit. Kajian lepas lebih banyak
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menghubungkan efikasi kendiri kaunseling dengan kompetensi kaunseling silang budaya ataupun
mengkaji efikasi kendiri kaunseling sahaja dengan faktor-faktor lain yang melibatkannya. Kajian lepas
berkenaan tajuk ini adalah amat sedikit.
Antara kajian yang menggunakan faktor efikasi kendiri kaunseling dan kompetensi kaunseling
spiritual adalah Lu et al. (2019) yang mengkaji tahap kompetensi kaunseling spiritual kaunselor pelatih
dengan menggunakan beberapa faktor seperti efikasi kendiri kaunseling. Lu et al. (2019) menyebutkan
bahawa adalah penting untuk melihat sejauh mana kompetensi kaunselor pelatih dalam
mengintegrasikan pengetahuan spiritual dalam menangani klien dengan isu tersebut kerana ia
melibatkan isu etika. Dalam kajian yang dijalankan, Lu et al (2019) menemukan bahawa hanya 3
daripada 109 kaunselor pelatih yang cukup kompeten dalam melaksanakan kaunseling spiritual. Hal ini
selaras dengan beberapa kajian lainnya yang menyatakan bahawa kaunselor pelatih adalah tidak cukup
kompeten dalam menangani isu-isu spiritual dalam sesi dan cenderung mengelak membincangkannya
(Osborn et al., 2012 ; Cashwell et al., 2013).
Kozina et al., (2010) menyatakan bahawa efikasi kendiri kaunseling adalah faktor yang yang
penting dalam menentukan keyakinan kaunselor pelatih dan secara umumnya mempengaruhi
kompetensi kaunselor pelatih. Namun begitu, Lu et al., (2019) berpendapat bahawa hubungan antara
efikasi kendiri kaunseling dengan kompetensi khusus seperti kaunseling spiritual adalah masih terlalu
kabur. Dalam dapatan kajian, efikasi kendiri kaunseling dengan kompetensi kaunseling spiritual
kaunselor pelatih adalah terlalu kecil membuktikan bahawa efikasi kendiri kaunseling bukanlah faktor
yang kuat dalam menjangkakan kompetensi kaunseling spiritual (Lu et al., 2019).
Kajian yang paling bersesuaian dengan kajian ini adalah kajian yang dijalankan oleh Lu et al
(2019) manakala kajian-kajian yang lain lebih menyentuh soal silang budaya. Namun begitu, topik
silang budaya juga boleh diberikan perhatian. Hal ini kerana kompetensi spiritual ini adalah bahagian
daripada subtoopik kompetensi silang budaya (Ruffin, 2014). Dalam kajian Lu et al. (2019) juga
menemukan hubungan korelasi yang sederhana tentang kompetensi silang budaya dalam menjangkakan
kompetensi kaunseling spiritual.
Kajian Subarimaniam et al. (2020) menguji tahap efikasi kendiri kaunseling dengan kerangka
konseptual yang dibina melalui kerangka teori kognitif sosial Bandura. Ia menggunakan model segi tiga
timbal balik yang mana secara teori efikasi kendiri kaunseling, kompetensi kaunseling silang budaya
dan spiritual itu adalah tiga elemen yang saling mempengaruhi antara satu dengan yang lain. Dalam erti
kata lain, menurut kerangka yang dibentuk dalam kajian, apabila efikasi kendiri tinggi maka kompetensi
kaunseling silang budaya dan spiritual juga tinggi dan begitu juga sebaliknya. Subarimaniam et al.
(2020) juga menyebutkan bahawa kaunselor pelatih yang mempunyai efikasi kendiri yang tinggi akan
memilih untuk menggunakan pengetahuannya berkaitan konsep spiritual untuk menyelesaikan isu etika
sesi. Hasil kajian mendapati terdapat hubungan yang positif antara spiritual dan efikasi kendiri daripada
tiga universiti swasta yang dikaji (Subarimaniam et al., 2020). Oleh itu, kita melihat terdapatnya
hubungan antara efikasi kendiri kaunseling dan spiritual dalam kajian yang dilaksanakan menjadikan
dapatan kajian ini tidak konsisten dengan dapatan kajian yang dilakukan oleh Lu et al. (2019).
Kerangka Konseptual
Menurut Barnes (2004) efikasi kendiri kaunseling adalah faktor penting dalam mengukur kompetensi
kaunselor. Sawyer et al. (2013) menyebutkan bahawa efikasi kendiri yang baik akan mampu melihat
dan menentukan apa yang ingin dicapai dalam menangani masalah tersebut. Dalam konteks kajian ini,
isu yang cuba dilihat adalah soal kompetensi kaunseling spiritual dalam kalangan kaunselor pelatih.
Bandura (1997) menyatakan bahawa efikasi kendiri penting dalam meramalkan perubahan
tingkah laku. Tingkah laku yang ingin dicapai di dalam kajian adalah kompetensi kaunseling spiritual.
Maka, berdasarkan penerangan daripada Bandura (1997) bahawa efikasi kendiri yang baik akan dapat
mempengaruhi tingkah laku yang diperlukan untuk mendapatkan hasil yang dituntut, kita dapat
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menyimpulkan bahawa efikasi kendiri kaunseling akan dapat meramalkan kompetensi kaunseling
spiritual. Larson dan Daniels (1998) juga menyatakan hal yang sama di mana efikasi kendiri kaunseling
ini adalah faktor yang penting yang dapat menghasilkan prestasi yang baik dalam kalangan kaunselor.
Rajah 1. Kerangka konseptual hubungan antara efikasi kendiri kaunseling dan kompetensi
kaunseling spiritual.
Signifikan Kajian
Antara kepentingan kajian ini adalah untuk memenuhi cadangan daripada para pengkaji sekaligus
menambah kajian berkenaan kaunseling spiritual dalam negara. Di Malaysia, majoriti rakyatnya
mempercayai akan konsep ketuhanan menjadikan konsep spiritual ini adalah perlu di peringkat
Malaysia. Hal ini disokong oleh Subarimaniam (2020) dalam kajiannya yang menyatakan bahawa
majoriti responden mempercayai akan kewujudan Tuhan dan hal ini dapat dilihat dalam bilangan
masjid, kuil dan gereja yang banyak di merata tempat dalam negara sebagai manifestasi kepercayaan
kepada Tuhan oleh itu kompetensi dalam bidang spiritual ini adalah diperlukan. Kajian ini akan
menambah banyak sumber rujukan untuk menambahkan maklumat berkenaan faktor yang
menyumbang kepada integrasi kaunseling spiritual dalam negara sekaligus dapat mengenalpasti
hubungan antara efikasi kendiri kaunseling dengan kompetensi kaunseling spiritual dalam kalangan
kaunselor pelatih.
Kajian ini akan menyediakan institusi pendidikan untuk melihat efikasi kendiri kaunseling
sebagai salah satu pendekatan untuk meningkatkan kompetensi kaunseling spiritual. Di Malaysia hanya
ada empat buah institusi yang menyediakan modul integrasi kaunseling spiritual, bagaimanapun hanya
terbatas pada agama islam sahaja (Mazidah et al., 2015.
Tenaga pengajar adalah individu penting untuk memantau perkembangan dan kemajuan
kaunselor pelatih maka kajian ini juga menyediakan satu data untuk membantu tenaga pengajar dan
penyelia agar dapat menggunakan efikasi kendiri kaunseling untuk menambahkan kompetensi
kaunselor pelatih (Mullen, 2015) terutama dalam aspek kaunseling spiritual. Menurut Mullen (2015)
kaunselor pelatih memerlukan latihan dan bimbingan terhadap sesuatu yang mereka belum
memperolehi pengalaman tentangnya. Peranan tenaga pengajar dan penyelia untuk menyediakan satu
modul berdasarkan kajian-kajian berkenaan kaunseling spiritual untuk menyediakan kaunselor pelatih
mengintegrasikan pengetahuan mereka dalam sesi kaunseling.
Kajian-kajian lepas telah menunjukkan bagaimana seseorang kaunselor pelatih tidak begitu
kompeten dan sentiasa mengelak dalam membincangkan hal-hal berkaitan spiritual dalam sesi
kaunseling mereka (Osborn et al., 2012 ; Cashwell et al., 2013). Limitasi kajian yang dibuat adalah atas
faktor demografi maka kajian yang dibuat dalam negara akan dapat menutupi jurang kajian tersebut.
Bagaimanapun, kaunselor pelatih akan dapat melihat tahap kompetensi majoriti dalam kalangan mereka
dalam menangani isu-isu berkaitan spiritual.
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Dagang, M. R. M., Ibrahim, R. Z. A. R., & Abu Bakar, A. (2014). Counselors’ spiritual competence in
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Dagang, M. R. M., Ibrahim, R. Z. A. R., & Abu Bakar, A. (2015). Integrasi Agama dalam amalan
kaunseling di Malaysia. ICIC 2015 : International Conference on Empowering Islamic
Civilization in the 21st Century. September 6-7, 2015. Kuala Terengganu Terengganu.
Flasch P., Zachary D. Bloom, & Holladay K. (2016). Self-efficacy of counselor trainees in Pre-
practicum : A Phenomenological study. Journal of Counselor Practice, 7 (1), 1-20.
Gladding, S. T. & Crockett, J. E. (2018). Religious and spiritual issue in counseling and therapy:
Overcoming clinical barriers. Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health, 1-10.
Henriksen Jr. R. C., M. A. Polonyi, J. N. Bornsheuer-Boswell, R. G. Greger & R. E. Watts. (2015).
Counseling Students’ Perceptions of Religious/Spiritual Counseling Training : A Qualitative
Study. Journal of Counseling & Development, 93, 59-69.
Karami, A., & Imani, M-N. (2014). The relation between spiritual intelligence and self-efficacy in high
school teachers of District 18, Tehran Iran. Martinia, 5 (2), 100-106.
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Larson, L. M., & Daniels, J. A. (1998). Review of the counseling self-efficacy literature. The Counseling
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look at competence and comfort level.
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THE EFFECTS OF BOREDOM AND DISTRESS TOLERANCE ON

PROBLEMATIC INTERNET USE AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Ayleah Paz Sim Aquino*, Patricia Joseph Kimong

*Corresponding author’s e-mail: ayleahpsaquino@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The COVID-19 pandemic has been associated with increased psychological distress. As a coping strategy,
individuals spend more time on the internet, especially university students who are at greater risk for problematic
Internet use (PIU). Although boredom has been identified as a significant predictor of PIU and psychological
stressor in COVID-19, studies of boredom in the context of PIU is limited in local and overseas studies. There is
also a critical gap on whether distress tolerance reduces the likelihood of PIU among individuals. The study
investigates the relationships between boredom, distress tolerance, and PIU, along with the effects of boredom
and distress tolerance on PIU among university students. A conceptual framework on the relationship between
boredom, distress tolerance, and PIU is presented based on flow theory and the model of distress tolerance. This
framework could contribute towards a better understanding of PIU by explaining possible predictors and the role
of boredom and distress tolerance in Internet use. The evidence of PIU among university students can aid in the
early detection of PIU and encourage appropriate intervention strategies. Mental health practitioners should also
be aware of boredom as a psychological stressor and assist clients in developing distress tolerance as a self-
regulation strategy.
Keywords: boredom, distress tolerance, PIU
How often do you find yourself sitting around at home or your work desk feeling bored? More
relatable in the COVID-19 pandemic (World Health Organization [WHO], 2020), perhaps, could be
zoning out of a monotonous online lecture, losing attention during a long meeting, getting tired of
playing your favourite games or even from watching the same TV shows. This unpleasant, aversive
experience where individuals show a lack of interest, have difficulty concentrating, or are unable to
engage in satisfying activities, is called boredom. While boredom itself is a common experience in
daily life (Eastwood et al., 2012), its influence to signal the need for change and its ability to steer
human behaviour towards enjoyable activities has been largely overlooked (Westgate & Steidle,
2020). Studying boredom is, therefore, necessary as it can motivate individuals to seek stimulating
experiences, and this largely includes seeking stimulation in negative behaviours such as problematic
Internet use (PIU) (Lin et al., 2009; Pempek et al., 2009; Skues et al., 2015).
Research continues to find that university students are highly vulnerable to developing PIU
(Derbyshire et al., 2013; Laconi et al., 2015; Wartberg & Lindenberg, 2020; Saiful Islam et al., 2020).
In addition, a few researchers have pointed to the high prevalence of cases of PIU among younger
generations and Malaysian undergraduate students (Ling et al., 2011; Lu & Yeo, 2015; Rahman et al.,
2020). University students are a group of internet users who rely heavily on the internet for academic
purposes and other general uses such as social networking, and research suggests that these factors
can put them at greater risk of developing PIU (Derbyshire et al., 2013; Kittinger et al., 2012; Kuss et
al., 2013; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000; Saiful Islam et al., 2020).
Several studies have highlighted the increase of online activities and media use during
COVID-19 as a coping strategy to deal with psychological stressors and mood states, such as fear,
anxiety, stress, loneliness, and depression (Cellini et al., 2020; Chao et al., 2020; Dixit et al., 2020;
Saiful Islam et al., 2020). This includes boredom, which has been identified as a key negative
psychological stressor in COVID-19 (Brooks et al., 2020). In addition, boredom has been associated
with the probability of Internet addiction and the use of social networking sites (SNSs) (Lin et al.,
2009; Pempek et al., 2009; Skues et al., 2015). Moreover, more recent research has specifically
emphasised boredom as a major construct associated with PIU and the increase in online activities
(Chao et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2009; Pempek et al., 2009; Skues et al., 2015). Therefore, findings point
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to boredom as a significant construct to be studied as a vital link to PIU, especially among university
students.
Suppose boredom, like other psychological stressors, affect the level of internet use. In that
case, likely, university students are increasingly using the internet as a self-regulation strategy to
escape the distressing state of boredom (Skues et al., 2015). One such direct self-regulation strategy
is distress tolerance, which is the ability to deal with aversive emotional states is referred to as distress
tolerance (Simons & Gaher, 2005). Distress tolerance can affect various processes across many facets
of behaviour and affect regulation (Simons & Gaher, 2005). Therefore, distress tolerance is an
important factor in understanding the mechanisms by which individuals deal with boredom and
whether having a higher tolerance for distress could reduce the likelihood of individuals falling into
PIU.
Earlier work has focused on certain psychological well-being constructs, such as loneliness,
social interaction anxiety, level of autonomy and environmental mastery, to be significant predictors
of PIU (Akhter & Khalek, 2020; Casale et al., 2014). Additionally, there is a clear research gap on the
potential of distress tolerance in reducing the likelihood of individuals falling into PIU (Skues et al.,
2015), especially at a time of pandemic and the need to transition to the internet for school and work
purposes. To date, studies about the relationship between boredom, distress tolerance, and PIU have
been disregarded in both local and overseas studies. Therefore, the current paper seeks to address this
gap by focusing on PIU among university students and the effects of boredom and distress tolerance
on PIU.
This paper aims to investigate the relationships between boredom, distress tolerance, and PIU among
university students. First, the effects of boredom and distress tolerance on PIU among university
students is proposed in a conceptual framework, which is based on the theory of flow
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1975; Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014) and the model of distress tolerance
(Zvolensky et al., 2010; Zvolensky et al., 2011), as well as previous research findings.
Problematic Internet use
The current pandemic (WHO, 2020) saw a surge in demand for bandwidth or the maximum capacity
for data transfer. In addition, the implementation of the Movement Control Order (MCO) forced
Malaysians to stay at home, leading to the increased use of video conferencing, learning and shopping
over the internet (Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission [MCMC], 2020). As a
result, adherence to the MCO by remaining indoors saw 23.5% higher Internet traffic nationwide
during the first week of the MCO, while the second week of the MCO saw a further increase of 8.6%
(MCMC, 2020).
At the same time, the country has seen a growth of Internet users, with 88.7% of the
population being Internet users as of 2020, which is an increase of 1.3% from 87.4% of the population
being Internet users in 2018 (MCMC, 2020). Furthermore, internet users in Malaysia have also been
spending more hours online in 2020 compared to 2018. For example, 50% spent 5 - 12 hours on the
internet, an increase of 13% from the 2018 observation of 37% of Internet users spending 5 to 12
hours per day on the Internet (MCMC, 2020). This increase in internet use appears commonplace
during COVID-19, placing individuals at risk of developing problem internet behaviours (Saiful Islam
et al., 2020).
Numerous studies have reported the unhealthy, excessive and maladaptive pattern of Internet
use by different terminologies, such as Internet addiction (Douglas et al., 2008; Widyanto & Griffiths,
2006; Young, 2009), Internet Addiction Disorder (Widyanto & Griffiths, 2006), pathological Internet
use (Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000), Internet dependency (Lin & Tsai, 2002), and more
frequently as PIU (Akhter & Khalek, 2020; Caplan, 2002; Shapira et al., 2003; Skues et al., 2015).
PIU occurs when an individual cannot control his or her use of the internet, causing marked distress
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and/or functional impairment of daily activities (Shapira et al., 2000; Shapira et al., 2003). As of today,
evidence that excessive use of the internet constitutes a type of "addiction" remains insufficient for
inclusion as a diagnostic category in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth
Edition) (DSM-5) (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). However, it has been included
as a target for further investigation (APA, 2013), recognising its potential significance as a mental
health issue (Skues et al., 2015).
Factors associated with PIU
Previous studies have shown that individual differences such as extraversion (Kuss et al., 2013;
Mottram & Fleming, 2009; van der Aa et al., 2008), neuroticism (Kuss et al., 2013; Tsai et al., 2009),
openness to experience (Kuss et al., 2013), agreeableness (Kuss et al., 2013; van der Aa et al., 2008),
sensation seeking (Shi et al., 2011), self-efficacy (Shi et al., 2011; Whitty & McLaughlin, 2007),
impulsivity (Mottram & Fleming, 2009; Shi et al., 2011), hostility (Fumero et al., 2018) and shyness
(Caplan, 2002; Chak & Leung, 2004) are associated with PIU. In addition, other psychological factors
such as loneliness (Caplan, 2002), depression (Caplan, 2002; De Leo & Wulfert; 2013; Dowling &
Brown, 2010) and social anxiety (De Leo & Wulfert, 2013; Lee & Stapinski, 2012; Park et al., 2013;
Tokunaga & Rains, 2010) have also been recognised as risk factors for PIU.
In terms of gender differences, large-scale studies have found males to be more likely to
experience PIU than females (Ko et al., 2009; Laconi et al., 2015; Laconi et al., 2018; Morahan-Martin
& Schumacher, 2000; Su et al., 2019). In addition, studies suggest that males tend to use applications
that put them at higher risk for developing PIU, such as online games, cybersexual activities and online
gambling (Lin et al., 2011). The findings also reported that males scoring lower than females on
internet addiction (IA)-related protective factors (e.g. effortful control) but higher than females on
potential risk factors (e.g. maladaptive cognitions) (Li et al., 2010; Su et al., 2019). A study on the
incidence and correlates of pathological internet use among 277 undergraduate college students found
that males were more likely to be pathological Internet users than females, with an incidence rate
being three times higher for males than females (Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000). This
incidence was also supported by a similar study on 371 British university students, which also found
the rate of male to female pathological Internet users to be 28.7% to 9.5% (Niemz et al., 2005).
However, some contrary data does exist in opposition to the notion that males have higher
levels of PIU than males (Su et al., 2019). In one cross-cultural comparison study among high school
students from China and the U.S., males had higher internet addiction (IA) prevalence estimates than
females (male 15.7% versus female 5.8%) in Chinese samples while females had higher IA prevalence
estimates than males (male 7.3% versus female 9.7%) in U.S. samples (Sun et al., 2012). In a study
that examined the prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of different levels of Internet use in a
young adult college sample (n=2108) (Derbyshire et al., 2013), women were found to be just as likely
as men to have problem Internet behaviours. This inconsistency in findings can perhaps be explained
by cultural differences as well as possible differences in the predictors of PIU among men and women
(Kuss et al., 2014; Su et al., 2019). For instance, males appear to experience more problems with
online gaming and specific PIU, whereas PIU among females appear to be linked to more time spent
online and problems with social media use, which in turn affects PIU scores (Andreassen et al., 2016;
Laconi et al., 2015).
Most research that centres on PIU agree that associations exist between PIU and its adverse
outcomes. However, there is a lack of evidence for cause-effect relationships between PIU and these
negative outcomes (Kubey et al., 2001; Skues et al., 2015). As mentioned earlier, psychological
variables such as anxiety and depression have been described as risk factors of PIU. However, some
studies have described such variables as outcomes of PIU (Skues et al., 2015). For example, a cross-
sectional study on Internet risks among 3212 adolescents in Spanish schools found that when
adolescents are more exposed to smartphones and the internet, it increases the chances of traditional
offline psychosocial problems experienced in their online equivalents (Machimbarrena et al., 2018).
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This means that instead of offline psychosocial problems like bullying, verbal abuse, addictions, and
phobias, adolescents who use the internet excessively are more likely to experience cyberbullying,
sexting, nomophobia, and Internet addiction - affecting the individual's psychological, social,
academic and professional life (Machimbarrena et al., 2018; Saiful Islam et al., 2020).
Individuals with PIU may experience long-term sleep problems, physical inactiveness,
difficulties in focusing on work, and poorer relationships with family members (Alimoradi et al., 2019;
Saiful Islam et al., 2020). Therefore, clinicians and educators are increasingly being called upon to
offer advice and counsel to clients and families about problems stemming from Internet use (Mitchell
et al., 2009). A survey among mental health professionals working with clients seeking clinical
consultation for Internet-related problems found that over half of the sample reported pornography
(56%) due to PIU (Mitchell et al., 2005). Clients also reported incidences of infidelity (21%), sexual
exploitation and abuse (16%), sexual and nonsexual harassment (10%), isolative-avoidant use or the
diminishment of face-to-face social interaction (10%), as well as fraud, stealing, and deception (9%).
In all these reports, clients identified themselves as either perpetrators or victims of these problems
(Mitchell et al., 2005).
PIU among university students
Research has consistently found that adolescents and young adults are at particularly high risk of PIU
(Derbyshire et al., 2013; Laconi et al., 2015; Wartberg & Lindenberg, 2020; Saiful Islam et al., 2020).
Research also showed that university students are at greater risk of developing problem internet
behaviours. This is because they spend many hours searching for study-related information, browse
the internet for general use, use social networking sites (SNSs) and other communication tools
(Derbyshire et al., 2013; Kittinger et al., 2012; Kuss et al., 2013; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher,
2000; Saiful Islam et al., 2020). For example, a cross-sectional study conducted among 463 university
students from Sarawak found that students who used the internet for more than five hours per day
were more likely to have PIU (Rahman et al., 2020). Furthermore, in a study on Internet addiction
among undergraduate students in a Malaysian public university (Rosliza et al., 2018), it was found
that out of the 322 participants, 56.5% (182 persons) participants were categorised as problematic
Internet users, which was a higher prevalence compared to previous research among Malaysian
adolescents.
Research also found that university students who spend longer time on the internet have been
associated with poor academic performance (Caplan, 2002; Niemz et al., 2005; Rahman et al., 2020)
and are a group for whom PIU may manifest as having a direct and quantifiable impact on academic
performance (Skues et al., 2015). In addition, students may find it increasingly difficult to sustain
attention on a single task when there is the opportunity to network via mobile devices, which can
become even more problematic if students frequently switch tasks and fail to complete the set task
(Skues et al., 2015).
In a study that attempted to identify the possible mechanisms for the association between
technology attitudes and Internet use, Rosen et al. (2013) observed 263 middle schools, high school
and university students in their homes. They noted that students who had accessed texting and social
media more frequently while studying tended to spend less time on task and switched tasks more
frequently. In addition, the students who accessed the internet more frequently had lower GPAs, while
better grades were obtained by students who practised a high use of study strategies to avoid
distractions (Rosen et al., 2013). Researchers have also shown that time spent on Facebook negatively
correlates with grade point average (GPA) among college students. Facebook users report lower mean
GPAs and spend fewer hours studying on average than non-Facebook users (Junco, 2012; Junco &
Cotten, 2012; Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010). This could suggest a problem with self-regulation,
mainly since the internet provides a very accessible source of distraction and could be more
immediately and emotionally rewarding than studying (Wang & Tchernev, 2012).
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Tokunaga and Rains (2010) proposed a relationship between three key variables: PIU, which
represents the failure to control Internet use, withdrawal symptoms, and use of Internet-based
communication to substitute face-to-face interaction; time spent using the internet; and psychosocial
problems, namely social anxiety, loneliness and depression. These three variables sought to test two
broad characterisations of PIU, which are PIU as a pathology versus PIU as an indicator of deficient
self-regulation (Davis, 2001; LaRose et al., 2003; Tokunaga & Rains, 2010). The authors posit that
path analyses of the study support the deficient self-regulation model, supporting previous evidence
(LaRose et al., 2003) that deficient self-regulation provides a justifiable explanation for the
relationships between PIU and time spent using the internet and psychosocial problems. From this
perspective, it can be said that PIU is a result of deficient self-regulation (Tokunaga & Rains, 2010).
That is, PIU develops due to the psychosocial problems that hinder the capacity to closely regulate
Internet-related behaviours, which leads to greater time spent using the internet.
Literature review on boredom
While boredom has been long overlooked, it has been drawing increasing attention across various
subfields of psychology (Eastwood et al., 2012; Westgate & Steidle, 2020). For example, Fisher
(1993, p. 396) defines boredom as "an unpleasant, transient affective state in which the individual
feels a pervasive lack of interest in and difficulty concentrating on the current activity". Another, the
more recent definition of boredom is "the aversive experience of wanting, but being unable, to engage
in satisfying activity" (Eastwood et al., 2012, p. 483).
While common, when an individual fails to launch into other activities as an alternative to
his or her unsatisfying pursuits, this makes boredom an uncomfortable experience (Mugon et al.,
2018). For example, in 11 studies conducted among college students and community participants,
researchers found that the participants, who were asked to spend 6 to 15 minutes in a room alone,
typically did not enjoy spending time by themselves with anything to do but think, regardless of
whether the participants were in a controlled environment or the comfort of their own homes (Wilson
et al., 2014).
In one of these studies, participants were given the same instruction to entertain themselves
with their thoughts, along with the opportunity to experience negative stimulation, if they desired, by
way of electric shock. However, of the participants who said they would pay to avoid the shock, 67%
of men (12 out of 18) and 25% of women (6 out of 24) gave themselves at least one shock during the
thinking period (Wilson et al., 2014). Thus, the experiment suggests that boredom can be so aversive
that one may self-administer an electric shock, even if one was willing to pay to avoid it!
People who experience or have "boredom proneness" are associated with higher levels of
depression, anxiety and stress (Chao et al., 2020; Goldberg et al., 2011; Lee & Zelman, 2019),
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Malkovsky et al., 2012), and problems with impulse
control such as drug abuse among adolescents and emerging adults (Lee et al., 2007). Research also
showed that being highly prone to boredom associates with poor attentional control, particularly on
tasks requiring sustained attention (Malkovsky et al., 2012; Boylan et al., 2020), and display poor
affective and cognitive self-regulation. Boylan et al. (2020), Isacescu et al. (2016), and Mugon (2018)
also reported that people who are highly prone to boredom tend to exhibit lower levels of self-control.
Struk et al. (2020) conducted a study on the influence of behavioural restrictions on boredom
among undergraduates, and found that individuals who were surrounded by opportunities for action
(objects such as a computer, a puzzle to be completed) reported greater boredom than the control
group. About a quarter of the participants (30 out of 121) chose to break the rules by engaging in
restricted objects. The research concluded that in-the-moment feelings of boredom could contribute
to rule-breaking behaviour. Similarly, and more recently, another study on boredom in the COVID-
19 pandemic discovered that under the constraints imposed by social distancing, those highly prone
to boredom tended to break the rules more frequently (Boylan et al., 2020). The results further
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strengthen the idea that boredom proneness may be a risk factor for low self-control, as boredom
appears to drive the urge of individuals to act against their own self-interest and the interests of others,
such as breaking existing social distancing protocols.
The above studies represent the idea that boredom occurs when there is a mismatch between
the need for arousal and the availability of desirable stimulation from the environment (Eastwood et
al., 2012). Since boredom is alleviated by seeking stimulation, which raises arousal, one approach to
deal with boredom can turn to the internet (Skues et al., 2015). For instance, if university students find
lecture attendance, studying and working on assessments boring, they may turn to their networked
mobile devices to alleviate it (Skues et al., 2015)
.
Boredom has been associated with general Internet use (Davis, 2001; LaRose et al., 2003),
the use of social networking sites (SNSs) (Pempek et al., 2009), and media use (Chao et al., 2020). A
study on the role of the environment in exacerbating the effect of boredom among 121 undergraduates
in Canada suggested that during a lecture, the presence of a device that offers an alternative, satisfying
activities can make students more bored due to the high opportunity cost of engaging in those activities
instead of focusing on the lecture (Struk et al., 2020). Therefore students will more likely be on their
devices instead of the lecture.
Boredom in flow theory
The flow was originally defined as "the holistic sensation that people feel when they act with total
involvement" (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, p. 36), also known as a powerful motivating force in human
behaviour. The individual experiences flow as a "unified flowing" from one moment to the next, in
which one is in control of his or her actions, and in which there is little distinction between self and
environment, stimulus and response, or between past, present, and future (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975).
Flow has also been described as the state in which the individual's skill is balanced or matched to the
challenge of a task and in which he or she is so involved in the activity that nothing else seems to
matter (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). In another conceptual definition, flow is a very positive
psychological state that typically occurs when a person perceives a balance between the challenges
associated with a situation and their ability to meet the challenge's demands and accomplish (Beard,
2014).
Flow is divided into nine elements: challenge-skill balance, action-awareness merging, clear
goals, unambiguous feedback, concentration on the task at hand, sense of control, loss of self-
consciousness, the transformation of time, and an autotelic experience (Beard, 2014;
Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Fong et al., 2014; Kawabata & Mallett, 2011; Payne et al., 2011). The most
prominent element in flow is the challenge-skill balance, or the balance between perceived challenges
and perceived skills (Fong et al., 2014). Csikszentmihalyi argued that this challenge-skill balance
leads to the experience of flow and that maintaining such a balance is intrinsically rewarding (Fong et
al., 2014).
This idea is represented in Csikszentmihalyi's (1975) original model of the Flow State (Figure
1). The model posits that, at any given moment, people are aware of a finite number of opportunities
that challenge them to act and the awareness of their skills to cope with the demands imposed by the
environment (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). When a person believes that the action opportunities are too
demanding for his or her capabilities, anxiety is experienced as a result; when the ratio of capabilities
is higher, but the challenges are perceived as still too demanding for the person's skills, the experience
is worry. Flow is felt when opportunities for action are believed to balance the person's skills – the
experience is therefore autotelic. When skills are perceived as greater than the opportunities for using
them, boredom occurs, which can fade into anxiety when the ratio becomes too large (action
opportunities exceed the challenges presented) (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975).
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Figure 1. The original model of the flow state. It is adapted from “Beyond boredom and anxiety”, by
Csikszentmihalyi, M., 1975.
However, simply balancing challenges and skills did not optimise the quality of the flow
experience (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). This was due to the notion that activities providing
minimal opportunities for action did not lead to flow, regardless of whether the individual experienced
a balance between perceived challenge and skill (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). Therefore, to
achieve a more functional and operational definition of flow, the Milan group study re-defined flow
as the balance of challenges and skills when both challenge and skill are above average levels for the
individual (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). It was found that personal development could only
be maintained if individuals are constantly confronted with more challenges that are perceived as
complex (Massimini et al., 1987).
This shift led to an important re-mapping of the previous model, revealing a fourth state –
apathy associated with low challenges and low skills, also known as stagnation (the inverse of flow)
(Massimini et al., 1987; Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). As such, today’s model of flow
differentiates the challenge/skill terrain into eight experiential channels instead of four quadrants, as
seen in Figure 2 (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). The quality of the experience intensifies
within a channel or quadrant as challenges and skills “move away” an individual’s average levels.
Additionally, the challenge/skill space is operationally divided into a series of concentric rings, each
associated with increasing intensity of experience (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014).
Boredom, like flow, is largely a function of how attention is being structured at a given time
(Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). Based on both models, when challenges begin to exceed skills,
the person first becomes vigilant and then anxious; if skills begin to exceed challenges, one first
relaxes and then becomes bored (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). When experiencing boredom,
the low level of challenge relative to skills allows attention to drift (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi,
2014). However, experiencing boredom presses a person to adjust his or her level of skill and/or
challenge to escape the aversive state and re-enter flow (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014).
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Figure 2. The current model of the flow state. It is adapted from “The concept of flow” in “Flow and
the foundations of positive psychology (pp. 239-263)” by Nakamura, J., and Csikszentmihalyi, M.,
2014.
Literature review on distress tolerance
Distress tolerance can be defined as “the capacity to experience & withstand negative psychological
states” (Simons & Gaher, 2005, p. 83). This meta-emotion construct can be illustrated in the following
four conditions: (1) individuals with low distress tolerance are expected to report distress as being
unbearable and are unable to handle being distressed; (2) an individual’s appraisal of being distressed
is expected to include a lack of acceptance of distress, shame of being distressed, and perception of
coping abilities as inferior to others; (3) the reflection of the emotional regulation of individuals with
low distress tolerance in their great efforts to avoid negative emotions and rapid use of means to
alleviate negative emotions; (4) if unable to alleviate negative emotions, individuals with low distress
tolerance are expected to report their attention being absorbed by the distressing emotions and their
functioning being significantly disrupted by the experience of those emotions (Simons & Gaher,
2005).
As a result, individuals with lower distress tolerance may attempt to avoid negative emotions
and related aversive states (Zvolensky et al., 2010). In contrast, individuals with higher levels of
distress tolerance may be more able to respond to distress or distress-eliciting contexts adaptively.
Theoretically, distress tolerance may affect, and be affected by, various processes involved in self-
regulation, including attention, cognitive appraisals of distressing emotional and physical states, and
emotional as well as behavioural responses to distress (Zvolensky et al., 2010).
Studies on distress tolerance continue to suggest that persons with low distress tolerance (e.g.,
perceived and/or behavioural) may be prone to maladaptively responding (e.g., avoidance-oriented
coping) to distress or distress-eliciting contexts in the present or future (Leyro et al., 2010). As a result,
distress "intolerance" may affect various emotional and behavioural processes such as attentional
regulation, distress appraisal, and regulation in response to distress (Simons & Gaher, 2005). In
addition, empirical research has consistently pointed to low tolerance for distress as a risk factor for
psychological disorders and various forms of psychopathology, such as anxiety, mood-related
problems, substance use and personality disorders (Leyro et al., 2010).
A study by O'Cleirigh using the Distress Tolerance Scale (DTS) among 116 HIV-positive
patients found that under conditions of higher degrees of life stress, low levels of distress tolerance
were associated with depressive symptoms and substance use (alcohol and cocaine, in particular).
Another study on distress tolerance and impulsivity in the prediction of bulimic symptoms among 200
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undergraduate students from an American university found that students low in distress tolerance and
high in impulsivity were most likely to report high bulimic symptoms when experiencing negative
affect (Anestis et al., 2007)
However, the same study also found that high distress tolerance significantly mediated the
association between anxiety sensitivity and bulimia severity (Anestis et al., 2007). Similarly, in a
cross-sectional study among 265 psychology undergraduate students, Buckner and colleagues (2007)
found that distress tolerance concurrently mediated the relationship between depressive symptoms
and alcohol and cannabis use, suggesting that distress intolerance may partially account for alcohol
and cannabis use problems among depressed young adults.
Intolerance of uncertainty is one aspect of distress tolerance that has been extensively studied
in the areas of a generalised anxiety disorder (GAD), general worry, and to a lesser extent, in
obsessive-compulsive and panic psychopathology (Buhr & Dugas, 2006; Carleton et al., 2014; Dugas
et al., 2001; Tolin et al., 2003). In a Canadian university student sample (n=197), intolerance of
uncertainty emerged as the most salient predictor of worry compared to other factors such as perceived
control and perfectionism, suggesting it to be a relevant construct in understanding worry (Buhr &
Dugas, 2006). Empirical evidence also demonstrates that intolerance for uncertainty is related to
higher degrees of anxiety symptoms (Berenbaum et al., 2008; de Bruin et al., 2006; Leyro et al., 2010).
In a non-clinical sample of 239 college students, a strong predictive relationship between intolerance
for uncertainty and trait anxiety was demonstrated as well as a high association with worry
(Berenbaum et al., 2008). Other work on college students (n=105) from the Netherlands (de Bruin et
al., 2006) identified intolerance of uncertainty as a mediator of the relationship between neuroticism
and trait worry.
Another aspect of DT, discomfort intolerance, has been widely studied in both clinical and
non-clinical samples (Schmidt et al., 2006). Using the Discomfort Intolerance Scale (DIS), Schmidt
et al. (2006) found that patients with panic disorder reported higher DIS scores and a diminished
ability to tolerate discomfort compared to non-clinical samples. Similarly, Bonn-Miller et al. (2009)
found that discomfort intolerance was significantly incrementally predictive of post-challenge ratings
of anxiety, which focused on bodily sensations, physical panic symptoms and negative affectivity
among a non-clinical young adult community sample (n=216) in Vermont. In a study involving non-
clinical and clinical community participants (mixed sample), with approximately 1700 participants,
Schmidt et al. (2007) found that discomfort intolerance significantly and incrementally predicted
ratings of anxiety and agoraphobic cognitions trait anxiety and anxiety sensitivity.
The capacity to tolerate distress has primarily been studied in terms of physical and cognitive
experimental tasks, which is often measured by the ability of individuals to withstand exposure to
aversive tasks or stimuli (Zvolensky et al., 2010). The overall body of research and evidence
evaluating DT's theoretical and clinical importance and its related aspects for vulnerability to
psychopathology is growing but limited (Leyro et al., 2010), which can be owed to the lack of research
in distress tolerance.
Model of distress tolerance
At present, there is no overarching integrative model of distress tolerance (Zvolensky et al., 2010).
However, two conceptually distinct forms of distress tolerance (DT) have been theorised (Leyro et
al., 2010; Zvolensky et al., 2010). Specifically, DT has been referred to as (a) the perceived capacity
to withstand negative emotional and/or other aversive states, and (b) the behavioural act of
withstanding distressing internal states elicited by specific stressors or distress-tolerant behaviour
(Zvolensky et al., 2010; Zvolensky et al., 2011). Although nested conceptually within these two
frameworks, it can be agreed that individuals with lower levels of DT may be prone to respond in
maladaptive ways to distress and distress-eliciting situations (Zvolensky et al., 2010).
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Perceived capacity for distress tolerance
The perceived capacity to tolerate distress has been defined in terms of five constructs: tolerance of
uncertainty, tolerance of ambiguity, tolerance of frustration, tolerance of negative emotional states,
and tolerance of physical sensations (Leyro et al., 2010; Zvolensky et al., 2010). Tolerance of
uncertainty can be conceptualised as individual differences in the perception of information during
uncertain situations and the cognitive, emotional, and behavioural reactions to this information (Dugas
et al., 2001; Freeston et al., 1994; Zvolensky et al., 2010). Furthermore, if intolerant, it is expressed
in the excessive tendency to consider it unacceptable that a negative event may occur (Dugas et al.,
2001) – which has been highly associated with the experience of worry (Buhr & Dugas, 2002;
Zvolensky et al., 2010).
Tolerance of ambiguity refers to the individual differences in the perception and processing
of information about ambiguous situations or stimuli when confronted by unfamiliar, complex, or
incongruent clues (Furnham & Ribchester, 1995; Zvolensky et al., 2010). Different from tolerance of
uncertainty, tolerance of ambiguity is aimed at ambiguous or unpredictable stimuli. When an
individual has relatively low levels of tolerance of ambiguity, he or she is expected to respond with
more significant emotional distress when faced with an ambiguous situation (Zvolensky et al., 2010).
Tolerance of frustration looks at individual differences in the perceived capacity to withstand

aggravation (Zvolensky et al., 2010) and is related to self-control and affective variables. For instance,
tolerance of frustration is concomitantly related to procrastination and self-harm, while prospectively
resulting in greater anxiety and depression symptoms (Leyro et al., 2010; Zvolensky et al., 2010).
Individual differences in the perceived capacity to withstand internal distress is referred to as tolerance
of negative emotional states (Simons & Gaher, 2005; Zvolensky et al., 2010), in which the appraisal
of distress may, in turn, increase the perceived intensity and aversiveness of negative emotions
(Simons & Gaher, 2005). Finally, tolerance of physical sensations, or discomfort tolerance, is defined
as “an individual’s capacity to withstand physical perturbations or uncomfortable bodily states”
(Schmidt et al., 2006, p. 264).
It is important to note that while these five constructs have been theorised to focus on the
tolerance of certain forms of distress, they are conceptually distinct and have yet to be integrated into
one broad model (Zvolensky et al., 2010). However, these constructs have been measured using self-
report indices and are theorised to be generally stable across contexts and time (Zvolensky et al.,
2010).
Distress-tolerant behaviour
While distress tolerance is generally referred to as the capacity to withstand negative emotional states,
it can also be used to refer to acts or behaviours of withstanding negative emotional states (Zvolensky
et al., 2011). The behaviourist view of distress-tolerant capacity (DT capacity) refers to the
phenomenon in which a person is unwilling to remain in contact with particular experiences (e.g.,
bodily sensations, emotions, thoughts, memories, behavioural dispositions) and takes steps to alter the
form or frequency of these events, as well as the contexts that result in these events (Zvolensky et al.,
2011).
Zvolensky and colleagues (2011) proposed that the relationship between the number of
distress people tolerate in their lives and the level of adaptive behaviour they demonstrate, along with
the level of well-being they experience, can be best described by an inverse-U-shaped-function
(Figure 3). In general, people at the extreme ends of the curve, or those tolerating the most and least
distress, are the individuals who exhibit the most maladaptive behaviours and who experience the
lowest levels of well-being (Zvolensky et al., 2011). People at the midsection of the curve, on the
other hand, have high DT capacity, such as judgment and distress awareness, which are necessary to
determine the boundaries for tolerating distress that is appropriate to them. Therefore, individuals at
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the lower ends of the curve are predicted to have low DT capacity as they are low in these traits, and
at the high extreme if they have high DT capacity (Zvolensky et al., 2011).
While there are different models of distress tolerance, it can be agreed that a person with a
higher tolerance for distress has a higher capacity for experiencing and withstanding negative
emotional states. As a relation to the conceptual framework, boredom puts the person in an aversive,
negative emotional state and therefore, the ability of the person to handle the situation is strongly
dependent on his or her capacity to withstand the boredom experience, that is, a high tolerance for
distress.
Figure 3. Inverse-U relationship between distress tolerance (DT) and adaptive behaviour/well-being.
It is adapted from “Distress tolerance: theory, research, and clinical applications”, by Zvolensky,
M. J., Bernstein, A., and Vujanovic, A. A., 2011.
Conceptual framework
Figure 4. The proposed relationship between boredom, distress tolerance, and problematic Internet
use (PIU).
As shown above (Figure 4), the conceptual framework for the current study is based on the
flow theory and model of distress tolerance (perceived capacity for distress tolerance and distress-
tolerant behaviour). In this framework, the three variables can be defined as follows. Boredom is
operationally defined as an aversive state in which an individual has difficulty concentrating on the
current activity and is unable to engage in a satisfying activity. Second, operationally, distress
tolerance is defined as the capacity to withstand aversive states. Finally, in this paper, problematic
Internet use (PIU) refers to an excessive and maladaptive pattern of Internet use, which causes an
individual to experience marked distress and functional impairment in daily activities.
It is suggested that boredom would affect the level of Internet use, as boredom should signal
an attention drift whereby university students should then adjust the level of skills or challenge to
escape the aversive state and re-enter flow (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). Therefore, students
should seek stimulation from the environment to maintain optimum arousal levels, and this could be
achieved by engaging in Internet use, which is a ready distraction for university students who rely
heavily on the internet for study purposes and are prone to PIU (Saiful Islam et al., 2020). Furthermore,
it is predicted that DT would have a mediating effect on PIU as it can be an ability used to deal with
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aversive states (Simons & Gaher, 2005), therefore a way to regulate Internet use. In other words,
boredom is expected to, directly and indirectly, affect PIU, the latter mediated by DT.
Discussion
This paper provides a better understanding of the cognitive, affective, and behavioural aspects of
individuals with PIU, along with how Internet use factors (e.g., time spent on the internet) and
demographic factors (e.g., gender, age) are related to PIU. The paper addresses the potential of
boredom as a psychological stressor towards excessive and maladaptive patterns of Internet use and
distress tolerance as a way to regulate Internet use.
Furthermore, this paper pinpoints university students from Malaysia as a target for research
to provide information about Internet use problems among university students. By detecting the
vulnerabilities of students with PIU, educators and lecturers will identify students who are more likely
to develop PIU in the early stages, which would allow appropriate measures such as counselling or
other interventions to be provided to these students. In addition, a study into the relationships and
effects of boredom and distress tolerance towards PIU could give a clearer picture of the experience
of university students during this pandemic, where students have had to transition to blended and
online learning. This could provide insights as to how this change has potentially contributed to the
experience of boredom and distress tolerance, thereby leading to excessive and maladaptive patterns
of Internet use. Therefore, this paper addresses the gap of the limited studies of boredom and distress
tolerance in PIU, not only in local research but also in overseas studies.
As this paper oversees the COVID-19 pandemic, it also highlights the importance of dealing
with psychological distress in times of crisis, such as applying coping strategies for boredom or
increasing self-regulation strategies. Therefore, the conceptual framework from this paper may assist
mental health practitioners such as counsellors and social workers in their professional practice,
particularly in the care of clients who are at risk of or have PIU. Mental health professionals are
encouraged to be aware of clients’ experiences and ways of dealing with psychological stressors (e.g.
boredom) and to help clients increase their tolerance of distress in this difficult time.
The literature review and conceptual framework add to the existing knowledge in the
psychology field and provide empirical evidence and theoretical explanations for the psychological
aspects of students with PIU, expanding the existing literature of the theory of flow and model of
distress tolerance. This could also benefit the research on the different therapies and interventions
related to PIU to accelerate the progress of efficient treatment and the design of intervention
programmes that prevent or treat PIU.
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COPING AMONG MARRIED AND COHABITING INDIVIDUALS IN

MALAYSIA DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC: A CROSS-
SECTIONAL STUDY ON ASSOCIATED FACTORS
Ching Sin Siau1, Chua Bee Seok2*, Mimi Fitriana3, Low Wah Yun 4
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
1
2
Universiti Malaysia Sabah,
3
International University of Malaya-Wales,
4
Universiti Malaya
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: chuabs@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
After the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak at the end of 2019, families are forced to adapt to various “new norms”.
Coping strategy play important role in mediating the relationship between stressors and psychological morbidity.
This study aims to examine the predictors of coping among married individuals factoring in the influences of age,
gender, educational attainment, socioeconomic status, health and lifestyles. A sample of 221 participants who had
a married or cohabiting Malaysian couples involved in this study. The findings indicated that factors such as being
older, and male was protecting of coping during the COVID-19 pandemic. A positive appraisal of change after
COVID-19 was also protective of better coping, as was better sleep. The results of this study should be used to
target interventions on individuals who are in a relationship during the COVID-19 pandemic. The finding enable
future studies to perform more rigorous investigations using validated and comprehensive questionnaires to
further deepen their understanding on the results of this study.
Keywords: Coping, educational attainment, socioeconomic status, health and lifestyles
Introduction
After the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak at the end of 2019, there has been drastic changes at the
individual and family level in the lives of families. This is partly due to lockdown measures
implemented to ensure the safety of individuals and to curb the spread of the COVID-19 virus, such
as the Movement Control Order enacted in Malaysia (Prime Minister’s Department, 2020). This led
to a domino effect of psychosocial and economic implications (Ho et al., 2020). There have been
studies that found increased anxiety and depression and lower well-being among the general
population (Low et al., 2020; Xiong et al., 2020).
Families are forced to adapt to various “new norms”, such as working from home for working
adults, and a transition to learning online for those who are going to school and university. Apart from
that, parents experience the difficulty of having to work and take care of children at the same time
from the same sphere of their homes (Spinelli et al., 2020). As the sequelae of the stress experienced
in the family and spousal unit, studies have also indicated increased family conflicts and lower levels
of quality in the relationship between spouses and family members (Luetke et al., 2020, Pieh et al.,
2020). This is a serious issue as the couple or spousal unit of the family constitutes the core of the
family’s well-being and the children’s physical and psychosocial development (Härkönen et al.,
2017).
Past studies have pointed to the importance of coping as a factor that mediates the relationship
between stressors and psychological morbidity (e.g., Sharif & Khanekharaf, 2017). This means those
with higher levels of coping may be able to weather a disaster or life’s challenges better compared to
those who have lower coping abilities (Krishna et al., 2018). During the COVID-19 pandemic, a few
studies have investigated the relationship between coping and other psychosocial outcomes. For
example, Guo et al (2020) found that those who used prosocial and cognitive coping strategies to deal
with the COVID-19 pandemic reported better mental health compared to those who did not in China.
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Another study in Spain among 5545 individuals revealed that those who coped by following routines,
exercising, and having a healthy diet were less likely to report being depressed or anxious (Fullana et
al., 2020). A study among nurses indicated that humour and resilience predicted lower anxiety levels
(Savitsky et al., 2020). It is clear that coping is an important feature to ensure mental health.
In the spousal relationship context, a serial mediation analysis among Italian couples revealed
that perceived coping responses in the partner was protective of mental well-being (Donato et al.,
2021). Fraenkel and Cho (2020) recommended that during the pandemic, couples could cope better
by accessing religion and spirituality, turning for sources within to access the mind’s joy and peace,
and reaching out to maintain social connectedness in order to promote resilience. In spite of these
studies, there is a noted lack of research that focusses on the impact of various lifestyle and
psychosocial choices on a married or cohabiting individual’s perceived coping. This is important as
married/cohabiting individuals may have added burden such as maintaining spousal relationships and
caring for children, and the protective effect of lesser social isolation. Therefore, this paper aims to
examine the predictors of coping well among married individuals in Malaysia, factoring in the
influences of age group, gender, educational attainment, socioeconomic status, area of domicile,
having children, relationship quality, perceived threat of COVID-19 towards one’s health, financial
well-being, ability to go off media, perceived change after COVID-19 pandemic, work, chores, sports,
and sleep quality.
Methods
Study Design
The study design is cross-sectional.
Sampling
A sample of 543 data from Malaysians who answered an online survey (part of the Personal and
Family Coping with COVID-19 in the Global South research consortium) were used in this study.
Two hundred and twenty-one participants who were 18 years and above, had a married or cohabiting
status, and citizens of Malaysia were extracted for analysis to determine their perceived coping level
and factors associated with it.
Measures
Demographic data
The age, marital status (married or cohabiting), gender, education, economic status, and number of
children of the participants were collected.
Coping
Coping was measured using the question “In your opinion, do you think you are coping well during
the COVID-19 situation?” Participants answered on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1= “Not well
at all” to 5= “Very well”. For the multiple logistic regression, responses “Not well at all”, “Not well”
and “Average” were coded 0 = “Not well and average coping”; “Well” and “Very well” were coded
1= “Coping well”.
Relationship quality
Relationship quality was measured using the abbreviated version of the Relationship Quality Index,
which consists of three items (RQI; Norton, 1983). Participants responded on a 7-point Likert scale,
which ranges from 1 = “Very strongly disagree” to 7 = “Very strongly agree”. The internal consistency
reliability of this scale administered among the study sample was α=0.928.
Concern of COVID-19 to health
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A question was asked, “How concerned are you about your own health and the health of your family
in relation to the COVID-19 virus?” to measure concern of COVID-19 to own and family’s health.
Participants answered on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = “Not at all concerned” to 5 =
“Extremely concerned”.
Finance
A question on financial concern was asked: “Are you concerned about supporting your family
financially because of the COVID-19 virus?” Participants answered 1= “Yes” and 2= “No”.
Ability to go off-media
A question on ability to switch off from COVID-19 related news on media was asked: “How difficult
do you find it to switch off from media (tv news, newspapers, radio) and social media (Facebook,
Youtube, Twitter, Whatsapp) reporting about COVID-19?” Paticipants answered on a 5-point Likert
scale ranging from 1= “Very easy” to 5= “Very difficult”.
Change in life after COVID-19
A question on perceived change in life after COVID-19 was asked: “Weighing the positives and the
negatives, has your life become better or worse since the COVID-19 crisis started?” Participants
answered on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1= “Much worse” to 5= “Much better”.
Lifestyle
Participants were asked to rate their lifestyle change after COVID-19 arrived in their country in terms
of performing household chores/household repairs, doing exercise/sports, and sleeping. Participants
answered on a 3-point Likert scale ranging from 1= “Less than before COVID-19 arrived in my
country” to 3= “More than before COVID-19 arrived in my country”.
Procedures
An online survey was distributed through the snowball sampling method to various organizations and
personal acquaintances of the researchers. Participants who provided informed consent answered the
questionnaire. This study received ethical approval from the Universiti Malaya Research Ethics
Committee (UM.TNC2/UMREC – 950).
Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS version 25 (IBM Corp, Armonk, NY, 2017).
Descriptive analysis was performed to obtain frequencies and percentages of participant demographics
and responses to the concern on COVID-19 to health, finance, ability to go off-media, change in life
after COVID-19, and lifestyle questions. A multiple logistic regression was conducted to determine
the association between the predictors and coping ability. Missing data were deleted listwise.
Results
Of the 221 individuals whose data were extracted for analysis, most o them were female (67.9%), 25-
34 years old (29.4%), married (87.8%), had postgraduate education (48.4%), had higher middle to
high income (47.1%), had children (75%), and lived in urban area (86.6%). Most of them were coping
well and very well (66.1%), extremely concerned about the threat of COVID-19 on their family’s
health (47.5%), had financial issues (60.9%), found it neither easy nor difficult to get off media
(37.7%), found their lives were about the same after COVID-19 (56.4%), had more chores than before
COVID-19 arrived (61.4%), were less active than before COVID-19 arrived (40.6%), and had the
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same amount of sleep before and after COVID-19 arrived (54.8%) (refer to Table 1). The Relationship
Quality Index mean score was 16.61 (SD = 3.38).
[TABLE 1 HERE]
The multiple logistic regression conducted to examine factors influencing moderate to severe anxiety
was significant, χ2(21) = 49.86, p < .001, explaining 30.0% (Nagelkerke R2) of the variance in anxiety
and 72.5% of the cases were classified correctly. The Hosmer and Lemeshow test indicated that the
model was of good fit (p=.581). The results indicated that higher odds of coping well were reported
among those aged 55 to 64 years (OR 11.733, 95% CI: 1.159, 118.793), males (OR 2.365, 95% CI:
1.043, 5.360), perceived life had changed for the better after COVID-19 pandemic (OR 1.783, 95%
CI: 1.086, 2.928) and with more sleep (OR 1.850, 95% CI: 1.036, 3.303) (refer to Table 2)
[TABLE 2 HERE]
Discussion
This study found that a few lifestyle indicators were worse after COVID-19 arrived among married
or co-habiting couples, such as less sports and exercise, more chores, more financial concern, and
extremely concerned about the threat of COVID-19 on their and their family’s health. This indicates
that married or cohabiting persons in the COVID-19 pandemic did have adverse consequences from
the COVID-19 situation. The findings were consistent with several other studies, such as Tison et al.
(2020) who found that step count had decreased during COVID-19 lockdown, Adams-Prassl et al.
(2020) who suggested that household chores may have increased especially for females, Wilson et al.
(2020) who reported that one-third of the participants surveyed had some financial concerns, and Ali
et al. (2020) found that fear of the COVID-19 virus was elevated in a cross-cultural survey.
Surprisingly, most of them reported that they were coping well and did not find that their lives
had changed for the better or worse. The results of the logistic regression further indicated that those
who felt their lives had changed for the better had higher odds of coping well. This indicates that an
individual’s perception of coping may be affected but is not entirely dependent on outer
circumstances, but on one’s appraisal of the situation. For example, this study found that one’s
appraisal of the situation (that it had changed towards the better) was predictive of coping well in
COVID-19. This is consistent with Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) theory that appraisal of one’s
situation may alleviate a stressful situation and therefore is able to cope better.
This study also found that males reported coping better than females. This is consistent with
Liu et al. (2020) who found that women were less likely to believe they could cope well with COVID-
19, especially among younger women and those with prior mental health issues. Horesh et al. (2020)
also found that females were more likely to have worse mental health and lower quality of life during
the COVID-19 pandemic. Panayiotou et al. (2017) suggested that females may be more prone to
anxiety as they utilize avoidant coping when faced with a problem. Females may also have lower odds
of coping well due to gender disparities not controlled in this study, such as adherence to traditional
gender roles. Therefore, even though the results remained significant after adjusting for household
chores, having children, and other lifestyle factors, we could not rule out that increased burden for
females during the COVID-19 pandemic is a factor to their lower perceived coping (Adams-Prassl et
al., 2020). Apart from age, another demographic factor affecting coping was age group. Older age
(those in the 55 to 64 age bracket) was associated with higher odds of coping well. This may be due
to older adults having lesser worry counts compared to younger adults who may have more family
and work concerns compared to older adults (Gonçalves & Byrne, 2013).
An important lifestyle factor, sleep, was positively associated with higher odds of coping well.
The results are consistent with a plethora of studies pointing to the positive effects of quality and
duration of sleep in protecting one’s mental health and coping ability (e.g., Wang & Yip, 2020).
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Similarly, Bergmans et al. (2019) found that those who reported poor sleep quality were more likely
to cope by unhealthy behaviors such as overeating and using medications. Fu et al. (2020)’s study of
Wuhan residents revealed that those who had sleep disorders had higher odds of using passive coping.
Therefore, it is important to measure one’s sleep quality when determining their ability to cope with
the COVID-19 pandemic.
In conclusion, the results of this study indicated that demographic factors such as being older
and male was protecting of coping during the COVID-19 pandemic. A positive appraisal of change
after COVID-19 was also protective of better coping, as was better sleep. However, married and
cohabiting individuals indicated that they had less physical activity, performed more household
chores, had more concerns about their financial situation, and most were extremely concerned about
the threat of COVID-19 to their family’s health. The results of this study should be used to target
interventions on individuals who are in a relationship during the COVID-19 pandemic.
This study has the limitation of being a cross-sectional study. In addition, coping, perceived
health concern of COVID-19 and lifestyle questions were one-item questions, which may lead to
validity problems. However, the results of this research enable future studies to perform more rigorous
investigations using validated and comprehensive questionnaires to further deepen their understanding
on the results of this study.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all our participants.
References
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Table 1
Demographic information, concern on COVID-19 on family health, perceived change after COVID-19 pandemic, and lifestyle
characteristics of study participants (N=221)
Variable Frequency (n) Percentage (%)

Age group
18 to 24 15 6.8
25 to 34 65 29.4
35 to 44 64 29.0
45 to 54 45 20.4
55 to 64 32 14.5
Gender
Male 71 32.1
Female 150 67.9
Marital status
Cohabiting 27 12.2
Married 194 87.8
Educational attainment
Primary/Secondary 19 8.6
Diploma/ Ceritificate 26 11.8
Undergraduate 69 31.2
Postgraduate 107 48.4
Socioeconomic status
Low Income 17 7.7
Lower Middle Income 100 45.2
Higher Middle to High Income 104 47.1
Children status
No Children 55 25.0
With Children 165 75.0
Domicile
Urban 188 86.6
Rural 29 13.4
Concern about own and family’s health due to COVID-19
Extremely concerned 104 47.5
Moderately concerned 54 24.7
Somewhat concerned 40 18.3
Slightly concerned 19 8.7
Not at all and concerned 2 0.9
Financial concern
No 86 39.1
Yes 134 60.9
Ability to go off media
Very easy 39 17.7
Easy 45 20.5
Neither easy nor difficult 83 37.7
Difficult 30 13.6
Very difficult 23 10.5
Perceived change in life after COVID-19 pandemic
Much worse 6 2.7
Worse 46 20.9
About the same 124 56.4
Better 33 15.0
Much better 11 5.0
Household chores
Less than before Covid-19 arrived in my country 15 6.8
Same than before Covid-19 arrived in my country 70 31.8
More than before Covid-19 arrived in my country 135 61.4
Physical activity
Sleep
Note. Number (n) is based on available information and percentage (%) is reported over the total respondents (N).
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Table 2
Multiple logistic regression of factors predicting coping (N=221)
Variable Wald Odds ratio 95% Confidence Interval p-value

Lower Upper
Constant 3.388 0.035
Relationship quality 0.036 1.011 0.907 1.127 0.849
Age group
18 to 24*
25 to 34 1.434 2.921 0.505 16.884 0.231
35 to 44 0.725 2.238 0.350 14.309 0.395
45 to 54 1.722 3.767 0.520 27.304 0.189
55 to 64 4.346 11.733 1.159 118.793 0.037
Gender
Female*
Male 4.249 2.365 1.043 5.360 0.039
Marital status
Cohabiting*
Married 0.419 0.597 0.125 2.852 0.518
Educational attainment
Primary/Secondary*
Diploma/ Ceritificate 0.049 1.184 0.264 5.307 0.825
Undergraduate 2.407 2.857 0.759 10.764 0.121
Postgraduate 0.009 1.061 0.303 3.720 0.926
Socioeconomic status
Lower Middle Income*
Low Income 0.848 0.533 0.140 2.034 0.357
Higher Middle to High 3.487 2.075 0.964 4.464 0.062
Income
Children status
No Children*
With Children 0.463 1.422 0.516 3.919 0.496
Domicile
Urban*
Rural 0.375 1.390 0.484 3.989 0.540
Concern about COVID-19 on own and 1.546 0.802 0.566 1.136 0.214
family health
Financial concern
No*
Yes 3.310 0.480 0.217 1.058 0.069
Ability to go off media 1.225 0.841 0.619 1.143 0.268
Perceived life change 5.225 1.783 1.086 2.928 0.022
Household chores 0.333 1.179 0.674 2.062 0.564
Physical activity 0.056 0.944 0.586 1.521 0.812
Sleep 4.319 1.850 1.036 3.303 0.038
Note. *Reference group.
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FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO FOOD WASTE BEHAVIOUR

AMONG THE YOUNG CONSUMERS
Chong Zi En*, Mimi Fitriana Zaini

International University of Malaya Wales
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: ezc1998@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Food wastage is a worldwide issue that has been faced by many countries for several decades. Food waste is a
global concern which can bring impacts to the environment, economic and social. Therefore, it is necessary to
stop food waste behaviour. Fundamental causes need to be identified to prevent food waste behaviour. This study
aimed to investigate the factors contributing to food waste behaviour among young consumers in Klang Valley
where the predicting factor will be emotions regulation, social pressure, and gender. A quantitative approach and
causal-comparative research design were used and 316 young consumers that live in Klang Valley and within the
age of 15 to 24 years old had been recruited as samples using the convenience sampling methods. Data were
analysed to test the hypotheses by using independent sample T-test and multiple regression. Research findings
showed that gender and emotion regulation did not carry an important role in predicting food waste behaviour,
but the social pressure was found to be highly correlated and was the significant predictor for the occurrence of
food waste behaviour among the young consumers in Klang Valley. Demographic data also showed that less food
waste behaviour occurred in the setting with higher social pressure compared to a less social pressure
environment. This research highlighted the role of social pressure as a significant factor that contributed to the
occurrence of food waste behaviour among the young consumers in Klang Valley. The research implied such
important findings to the development of food waste awareness among people, especially the youths in their
building knowledge, understanding as well as positive attitude and behavioural consequences towards their daily
food consumptions. This is also to promote a healthy lifestyle strategy for the youths as the educational
implication to be applied in the family as well as in the community.
Keywords: Food waste, Consumer behaviour, Theory of planned behaviour, Emotion regulation, Social pressure,
Health psychology
Food is one of the basic needs of human beings. According to FAO (2013), an estimated 1.6 Tonnes of
“primary product equivalents” were wasted globally, while 1.3 Gtonnes are the edible part of the food.
This huge number of food wastes is not a healthy sign. There was a minimum of one in three children
under five years old that were malnutrition globally and one of the reasons was due to shortages of food
(UNICEF, 2019). Food waste is a global concern that brings impacts to the environment, economy and
society (FAO, 2013). Research by Massow et al. (2019) says that food waste brings consequences in
terms of economic losses which is the dollar value, nutritional losses like calories, vitamins and minerals
and also environmental impacts such as global warming potential, land, and water usage. There were
tons of impacts followed by food waste behaviour. We can avoid those impacts when less food needs
to be produced because more than half of the impacts on the environment by food waste occurs during
the production step (Scherhaufer et al., 2018). Therefore, it is necessary to stop food waste behaviour if
we wish to scale back food production.
Fundamental causes need to be identified to prevent food waste behaviour. According to the
studies done by Martin-Rios and colleagues (2018), food was mainly wasted at the final stage of the
consumer supply chain in developed countries. Thus, finding out the factors of food waste behaviour of
consumers is essential to reduce food waste. There were plenty of research had proven that attitude,
subjective norms and perceived behavioural control are influencing the intention to prevent food waste
which later affects food waste behaviour (Aktas, 2018; Bhatti et al., 2019; Heidari et al., 2020; Russell
et al., 2017). Specifically, subjective norms are one's perceptions of the social pressure from important
others on their behaviour (Kikwilu et al., 2009; Russell et al., 2017). Therefore, subjective norms will
also fall under the categories of social pressures. Previous research also proved that social media has a
minimal influence on food waste behaviour (Gössling, 2016; Young et al., 2017). While other research
also proved that awareness and concern about food waste are some of the factors that influence food
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waste behaviour (Janssens et al., 2019; Syahirah et al., 2018). In the research done by Russell et al.
(2017), habits are one of the significant factors that affect food waste behaviour. Emotion is also another
important factor that contributes to food waste behaviour as proved by Block et al. (2016) and Russell
et al. (2017).
Most of the research was completed out of the Malaysia context. Thus, with the information
and results provided by previous researchers, this research aims to investigate the factors contributing
to food waste behaviour within the Malaysia context. The predicting factor in this research will be
emotion regulation and social pressure. This research focuses on young consumers as Secondiet et al.
(2015) and Schanes et al. (2018) mentioned that the tendency of wasting food on young consumers was
higher. This research also compared the food waste behaviour between male and female young
consumers because according to the research of Cantaragiu (2019) and Secondi et al. (2015), there was
a difference between male and female on the food waste behaviour.
Statement of Problem
Food wastage is a worldwide issue that has been happening for several decades. Food waste has
indirectly brought an impact to the environment such as greenhouse gas emissions and resource
depletion (Mourad, 2016). In Malaysia, about quarter of the average income of Malaysians were spent
on food that was later wasted (Sulaiman & Ahmad, 2018). The food waste behaviour brought
consequences that were indirect and not prompt but changes needed to reduce the impacts. A problem
has to be solved from the root. Therefore, if this research was not conducted, the factor that contributes
to food waste behaviour will remain unclear and the problem cannot be solved. When talking about
managing food wastage, Malaysia still lacks strong guidelines and procedures that help to reduce food
wastage (Sulaiman & Ahmad, 2018). Besides, a campaign was proven able to reduce food waste
behaviour (Schanes et al., 2018). Strong guidelines, procedure and a successful campaign can only
develop when the reason behind behaviour is known. So, if this research was not proposed, strong
guidelines, procedure and successful campaign that was suitable for Malaysian unable to develop. Based
on Schanes et al. (2018), younger family members tend to waste more food. For the betterment of the
environment, encouragement and education are needed for young consumers to change their attitude
toward food waste behaviour. Thus, young consumers might not understand what they can change to
reduce food waste behaviour if this research is not done.
Therefore, the current study aimed to identify the factors contributing to the food waste
behaviour and compare those factors in the occurrence of food waste behaviours among the young
consumers. The current study also specifically aimed to identify the difference between the
occurrence of food waste behaviours among young consumers with low emotion regulation
and high emotion regulation in Klang Valley, to investigate the difference between the
occurrences of food waste behaviours among young consumers with low social pressure and
high social pressure, and to explore the frequency of food waste behaviours between male and
female young consumers Klang Valley.
The hypotheses were employed in the current study to find out whether there were significant
differences between the young consumers with high emotion regulation and those with low
emotion regulation in the occurrence of food waste behaviours, significant difference between
the young consumers with high social pressure and those with low social pressure in the
occurrence of food waste behaviours, and if there were significant differences between the
young consumers of male and female in food waste behaviours.
Significance of Study
Gross (2015) defined emotion regulation as the control or modification of the unfolding emotional
response. This study will specifically focus on young consumers whose ages between adolescent and
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early adulthood as based on Zimmermann and Iwanski (2014), the emotion regulation strategies
decreased during the stage of adolescence and adulthood. According to Jagau and Vyrastekova (2017),
emotion correlated with food waste behaviour. But, there was a lack of evidence to support being able
to regulate emotions will help to reduce food waste behaviour. Therefore, it is important to have this
study to see if there was an association between emotion regulation and food waste behaviour and if
yes, the strategies for emotion regulation to reduce food waste behaviour, especially for young
consumers can be developed.
Next, this research paper was important for society to be more aware and concerned about the
food waste issues and try their best to improve the situation. This is because social pressure would
influence people in changing their behaviour (Dragone, & Savorelli, 2012). Therefore, society can
understand and know that their help was needed to reduce food waste behaviour through this research
paper as the relationship between social pressure and food waste behaviour was investigated.
Food waste behaviour would impose many serious consequences including environmental,
social and economic (Stefan et al., 2013). For example, generated greenhouse gasses, influenced the
food availability of the country and wasted natural resources. Understanding the reasons that cause food
waste behaviour helps in changing food waste behaviour. Therefore, this research paper was significant
to reduce and prevent the consequences that were caused by food waste behaviour.
Literature Review
Emotion Regulation and Food Waste Behaviour
Emotion was a powerful drive that triggered human behaviour as emotions were vital motivators for
decision-making (Kim et al., 2013). Emotion plays an important role in certain behaviour such as body-
focused repetitive behaviours (Roberts et al., 2013). Therefore, the emotion regulation skill was
significant to predict human behaviour. This statement was proven by previous researchers where Vater
and Schröder-Abé (2015) shown that there was a link between emotion regulation and interpersonal
behaviour; Koole and Rothermund (2011) concluded that implicit emotion regulation was significant
for goal-directed behaviour; and emotion regulation helps to moderate the link between empathy and
prosocial behaviour (Lockwood, 2014).
As expected, emotion influenced food waste behaviour (Block et al., 2016). According to
Graham-Rowe et al. (2014), negative emotions such as guilt, frustration, annoyance, embarrassment or
regret can be both the motivations and barriers to reduce food waste behaviour thus revealing potentially
personal goals conflict was needed to hinder existing food waste reduction attempts. However, Russell
et al. (2017) proved that negative emotions are contributing to preventing food waste. Negative
emotions helped in minimizing food waste, especially the feeling of guilt and shame by wasting food
(Jagau & Vyrastekova, 2017; Richter, 2017). Even though plenty of research did prove that emotion
somehow was associated with food waste behaviour, yet, there was a lack of research to support that
emotion regulation was also associated with food waste behaviour. Therefore, emotional regulation was
considered as one of the predicting factors in this research.
Social Pressure and Food Waste Behaviour
Social pressure would engage certain behaviours (Russell et al., 2017). This statement was supported
by Moloney et al. (2010) who say that social pressure plays a role in behaviour change programmes that
explore shaping and influencing particular behaviours they seek to change. Social influences which
include social pressure was one of the domains that lead to behaviour change (Atkins et al., 2017; Cane
et al., 2012; Francis et al., 2012)
Even though many studies have proven that social pressure affects human behaviour, not much
research is focusing on the link between social pressure and food waste behaviour. One of them would
be Graham-Rowe (2014) which proved social pressure prompted food waste behaviour change.
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Therefore, this research intended to find out the association between social pressure and food waste
behaviour which focuses on the young consumer.
Gender Differences and Food Waste Behaviour
The effect of gender differences on human behaviour had always been argued and discussed by many
researchers. Some proved that females waste less food compared to male (Aschemann-Witzel et al.,
2018; Secondi et al., 2015); some proved that males tend to reduce food waste (Mallinson et al., 2016;
Visschers et al., 2016). But, Principato et al. (2015) found that there were no differences in food waste
behaviour for male and female Italian youths. Hence, this research intended to find out if there was an
association between gender differences and food waste behaviour among young consumers in Klang
Valley.
Theoretical Framework
Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) was an extension of the Theory of Reasoned
Action. In TPB, the components included attitude toward the behaviour, subjective norms, perceived
behaviour control, intention and behaviour. According to Ajzen (1991), a particular behaviour will be
more likely to be performed when the intention to engage in a behaviour was strong. Ajzen (1991)
believed that the intention would be influenced by the attitude toward the behaviour, subjective norms
and perceived behaviour control.
Recently, TPB was widely used by many researchers to explain and predict food waste
behaviour. Xu et al. (2017) used TPB in their studies and the result showed that household waste
separation behaviour can be predicted by subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, past
behaviour and intention. By using TPB, Neubig et al. (2020) have proved that intention to reduce food
waste increased by action-related information. Moreover, Schmidt (2019) also used TBP and found out
that household food waste could be predicted by consumers’ intention to prevent direct disposal of
expired food. Russell et al. (2017) also used TBP and found out that the intentions to reduce food waste
and the food waste behaviour could be determined by habits and emotions. In short, much research had
shown that TBP was useful in explaining and predicting the key determinants that were associated with
food waste behaviour.
As mentioned, emotion regulation, social pressure and gender have been proved to be
associated with food waste behaviour. Therefore, the TPB was amended to suit the research objective
and better helped in testing hypotheses for this research. The predicting factors that influence intention
in TPB had been changed to emotion regulation, social pressure and gender which would later affect
the intention to prevent food waste behaviour and thus, influencing the food waste behaviour.
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Figure 1
Theory of Planned Behaviour
Note. Figure 1 illustrates the theoretical framework adopted from Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned
Behaviour (TPB) for this study. The interaction of the components served as the fundamental reference
in the current study.
Methodology
Research Design
The research approach that was used was a quantitative research approach which involved using
statistical or numerical data to investigate social phenomena systematically and analyse the collected
data to identify the trends and relationships (Watson, 2015). The quantitative research approach was
used because it saves the researcher’s time and resources and also enables the researcher to generalise
the result to the targeted population using scientific methods for data collection and analysis (Daniel,
2016).
In this research paper, the causal-comparative research design and correlational research design
were used. Correlational research design helped to investigate, predict and explain the relationship
between variables (Seeram, 2019). Causal-comparative design was a non-experimental research design
that seeks to explore the cause and effect relationships of independent and dependent variables between
or among two or more groups after the occurrence of a phenomenon, an action or an event (Busk, 2017;
Salkind, 2010). There were two methods under causal-comparative design which investigate the effect
of the different independent variables on the dependent variable or try to find out the cause of the
different dependent variables according to Busk (2017). In this research paper, the former one was used
in which the consequence of different independent variables such as emotion regulation and social
pressure on the dependent variable which is the food waste behaviour was investigated.
Sampling
The selected population was the young consumers that were within the age of 15 to 24 who live in
Klang Valley. The total number of selected population was 1,286,700 including 673,200 males and
613,600 females (Department of statistics Malaysia, 2020). The sample size was set at 385 respondents
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determined by using the raosoft website. These samples were selected by using convenience sampling
methods which is one of the non-probability sampling methods. The non-probability sampling method
was used to select samples from the population that were accessible and available according to the
researcher’s choice (Setia, 2016). The convenience sampling method was recruiting participants that
met the researcher’s requirements and were often readily and easily available (Taherdoost, 2016). The
convenience sampling method was used because it was affordable, easier as the participants were ready
and saves time as the surrounding people could be the subjects if the requirements were met (Etikan et
al., 2016).
Instruments
The current research used the online survey method for data collection with demographic information
of the respondents served as the opening questions in the form of the questionnaire. The basic
information included age, gender, location, education status and employed status. The Food waste
behaviour inventory (Herpen et al., 2019) was utilised in the current study to measure the behaviour of
the food waste and the intention to execute the acts. It was measured by using a 4 point Likert scale
(1=Never, 2=Rarely, 3=A moderate amount, 4=A great deal). The inventory exposed items related to
food waste behaviour, specified over various food product categories to be responded to by the sample
in the past week. The items on intention behaviour of not to waste food were included in the inventory.
Emotion Regulation Skills Questionnaire (ERSQ) (Grant et al., 2018) was used in the current research
to include 9 subscales, used to measure awareness, sensations, clarity, understanding, modification,
acceptance, tolerance, readiness to confront distressing situations when necessary to attain personally
relevant goals and self-support, based on a 4 point Likert scale (1=Never, 2=Rarely, 3=Always,
4=Almost always). Social pressure inventory (Shahar et al., 2014) was used to measure the subjective
norms which serves as the social pressure that engages certain behaviour, based on a 4 point Likert scale
(1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Agree, 4=Strongly Agree).
Data Collection
The data collected from the respondents who were available and met researchers' requirements who
were between the ages of 15 to 24 and live in Klang Valley. Before the data collection process, a pilot
test had conducted 40 responses prior to the real study. The questionnaires were distributed to
respondents using online distribution due to the pandemic. Online questionnaires were done by using
Google Form and started for the purpose of data collection. Informed consent and briefing that
mentioned participation are anonymous, voluntary, freedom to withdraw and confidential of the
information was mentioned at the beginning of the Google Form. Participation of participants means
that they had read the informed consent form and agreed to join this research. Researchers had collected
385 questionnaires data cleaning was done to reach on only 316 responses that were valid and ready to
be analysed.
Data Analysis
The collected data were analysed by the Statistical Package of Social Science (SPSS). The collected
data was key-in to SPSS and converted to numbers or figurative values based on different variables of
each section in the questionnaire. The data were analysed by applying statistical techniques like
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
First, an independent sample T-test was applied for the analysis of hypothesis 1, 2 and 3. An
Independent sample T-test was used because according to Gerald (2018), it helps to let the researcher
know if there is any statistically significant difference in the mean scores for the two groups who are
not dependent on one another. Hypothesis 4 was analysed by using multiple regression. This is because
based on Brace et al. (2012), multiple regression helps researchers to make predictions for one variable
(dependent variable) from another variable (independent variable).
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Ethical Consideration
Informed consent was given to the respondents before filling in the questionnaire. The respondents
voluntarily participated in this research and can withdraw anytime. This research would not bring harm
to the respondent. This research was anonymous in which their identity was not revealed to the
researchers. The gathered data was confidential.
Results and Findings
Out of 385 returned questionnaires, only 316 (82.08%) were considered acceptable and were used for
analysis. The research hypothesis of this research was tested by adopting and adapting Herpen’s Food
waste behaviour inventory, Grant’s Emotion Regulation Skills Questionnaire (ERSQ) and Russel’s
Social pressure inventory. SPSS Version 20.0 was used to analyse the collected data. An Independent
sample T-test was used to examine whether there was any statistically significant difference in the mean
scores for the two groups who are not dependent on one another. Hypothesis 4 was analysed by using
multiple regression to examine whether there was a significant comparison of predictors, for the
occurrence of food waste behaviours among the young consumers.
Preliminary Data Analysis
Before distributing the questionnaire, we need to ensure that our items in the questionnaire were valid
and reliable. Therefore, a pilot test had been done by collecting 40 sets of questionnaires even though
the items were adopted and adapted from previous research to enhance validity and reliability.
Cronbach’s alpha was used to check the internal consistency of the items within each section.
Cronbach’s alpha of each section was calculated using SPSS. As shown in Table 1, all Cronbach alpha
was in the acceptable range which was above 0.70 and this meant the items within each section were
consistent.
Table 1
Cronbach’s Alpha of Each Sections
Cronbach’s No. of Items
The Scales
Alpha
Food Waste Behaviour Inventory:

Actual Food Waste Behaviour 0.783 7
Intention to Prevent Food Waste Behaviour 0.942 3
Emotion Regulation Inventory 0.848 9
Social Pressure Inventory 0.938 9

Note. This table shows Cronbach’s alpha for each section for the questionnaire for this research.
Acceptable Cronbach’s alpha: 0.70 and above.
After the pilot test, an actual questionnaire distribution was done and the data collected was
entered in SPSS. Before data analysis, a data screening was done to fix the mistakes that were made
during entering data to prevent errors when data analysis. Data cleaning such as preventing missing
data was done after data screening progress. Normality tests were done before data analysis to see if
the collected data was normally distributed.
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Table 2
Normality Test for Independent Variables
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
Emotion Regulation 0.215 316 0.000 0.857 316 0.000
Social Pressure 0.093 316 0.000 0.955 316 0.000

Note. This table shows the Normality test for independent variables. p > 0.05 indicates
normally distributed.
The sample size was 316 which is more than 50, hence, this research will refer to the Kolmogorov-
Smirnov. As shown in Table 2, the p-value was significant (p < 0.05) which indicates that the collected
data is not normally distributed. This might be happening due to the large sample size, hence, the
histogram of the independent variable was used to see if the data was normally distributed.
Figure 2
Histogram of Emotion Regulation
Note. Figure 2 shows the histogram of frequencies for emotion regulations.
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Figure 3
Histogram of Social Pressure
Note. Figure 3 shows the histogram of frequencies for social pressure.
As shown in Figure 2 and 3, both independent variables were normally distributed. Hence, data was
continued to be analysed.
Research Findings
Findings of Significant difference between Groups of Emotion Regulation, Social Pressure,

Gender and Food Waste Behaviours among the Young Consumers
Table 3
The Food Waste Behaviour for High Emotion Regulation and Low Emotion Regulation Young
Consumers
Variable Food Waste Behaviour t p
High Low
Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
Emotion 1.679(0.509) 1.663(0.454) 0.029 0.769

Regulation
Note. SD=Standard Deviation. N=316.
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare food waste behaviour for high and
low emotion regulation among young consumers. There was no significant difference in the scores
for high (M= 1.679, SD= 0.509) and low (M= 1.663, SD= 0.454) emotion regulation groups; t
(312)= 0.029, p = 0.769. These results suggest that emotion regulation does not influence food waste
behaviour among young consumers.
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Table 4
The Food Waste Behaviour for High Social Pressure and Low Social Pressure Young Consumers
High Low
Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
Social Pressure 1.406(0.357) 1.770(0.489) -7.234 0.000
Independent-samples t-test also conducted to compare food waste behaviour in high and low
social pressure groups. Results showed that there was a significant difference in the scores for high
(M= 1.406, SD=0.357) and low (M= 1.77, SD= 0.489) social pressure groups; t (204)=-7.234, p <
0.001. These results suggest that social pressure does have an effect on food waste behaviour among
young consumers. Specifically, our results suggest that people with high social pressure would be
more likely to prevent food waste behaviour.
Table 5
The Food Waste Behaviour for Male and Female Young Consumers
Male Female
Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
Gender 1.684(0.492) 1.668(0.483) 0.265 0.791
Influences of gender differences on food waste behaviour were compared by using an

independent sample t-test. There was no significant difference in the scores for male (M=1.684,
SD=0.492) and female (M=1.668, SD=0.483) young consumers on food waste behaviour; t
(314)=0.265, p = 0.791. These results suggest that gender does not affect food waste behaviour
among young consumers.
Findings of Significant Comparison of Predictors, for the Occurrence of Food Waste Behaviours
among the Young Consumers
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Table 6
Regression Analysis Summary for Factors Predicting Food Waste Behaviour among Young
Consumers.
Unstandardized Standardized
Independent Coefficients Coefficients
Variables
𝜝𝜝 Std. 𝜷𝜷 𝘱𝘱 R2 Adjusted F 𝘱𝘱
Error R2
(Constant) 2.299 0.294 0.000 0.118 0.110 13.978 0.000
Emotion -0.005 0.094 -0.003 0.957

Regulation
Social -0.245 0.038 -0.344 0.000

Pressure
Gender -0.003 0.058 -0.003 0.959
Note. The dependent variable is food waste behaviour. N=316. R=0.344.Regression df=3. Residual
df=312.
Multiple regression analysis was used to test if the emotion regulation, social pressure and gender
significantly predicted the food waste behaviour of young consumers. The strength of the relationship
between the food waste behaviour and all the predictor variables combined was strong (R=0.344)
which indicates this model is a relatively good predictor for the food waste behaviour among young
consumers. The results of the regression indicated that 11.8% of the variance in food waste behaviour
can be explained by variance in emotion regulation, social pressure and gender. This model is
statistically significant to predict the food waste behaviour, F(3, 312)=13.978, p<.001. It was found
that social pressure is the most influential and statistically significant predictor in this model (B = -
.245, p<.001) while emotion regulation (B = -.005, p=.957) and gender (B = -.003, p=.959) was the
least influential predictors. Participants with higher social pressure will be more likely to have lower
food waste behaviour.
Discussion
Emotion Regulation and Food Waste Behaviour
The first hypothesis assumes that there was a significant difference between the young consumers with
high emotion regulation and those with low emotion regulation in the occurrence of food waste
behaviours. This hypothesis was rejected according to the result shown in Table 3. Even though
previous researchers did prove that emotions did influence food waste behaviour (Block et al., 2016)
especially negative emotions such as guilty which helps in reducing food waste behaviour (Graham-
Rowe et al., 2014; Jagau & Vyrastekova, 2017; Richter, 2017; Russell et al., 2017) but according to
Sirieix and colleagues (2017), emotions were not directly related to food waste as guilt was an emotion
that a person would experience only when they imagined the results of a future outcome. Hence,
concerns about food waste mentioned by Schanes and colleagues (2018) must come before emotion
regulation in preventing food waste behaviour.
Research done by Torrence and Connelly (2019) also mentioned the similar thing where
emotion regulation strategies require implementation of different resources such as attention and effort.
For example, when the consumers were not concerned about the food waste issue, they would not be
aware of their emotion when they were wasting food and therefore no intention and effort was given to
regulate their emotion. Gross’s (2015) extended process model of emotion regulation and said that
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emotion regulation was guided by goals and valuation systems. In which, if the consumers do not have
a goal of reducing food waste, they would not value that regulating their emotion was good for reducing
food waste, hence, emotion regulation will not happen when deciding to prevent food waste. This
statement was supported by Russell et al. (2017) which said that negative emotional experiences did not
lead to an immediate reduction of food waste even though having little intention as a longer and stronger
intention only occurs in the future with the impetus of wanting to reduce food waste behaviour.
Social Pressure and Food Waste Behaviour
The second hypothesis predicted that there was a significant difference between the young consumers
with high social pressure and those with low social pressure in the occurrence of food waste behaviours.
This hypothesis was accepted as the p-value was smaller than 0.05 and findings suggest that people
with high social pressure would be more likely to minimise food waste behaviour.
This finding were supported by previous researchers which found that social pressure plays an
important role in engaging, shaping, changing and influencing human behaviours (Atkins et al., 2017;
Cane et al., 2012; Francis et al., 2012, Moloney et al., 2010; Russell et al., 2017). Graham-Rowe’s
studies (2014) also proves that social pressure prompted food waste behaviour change. Ajzen’s TPB
(1991) also supported the findings as TPB suggested that subjective norms, which is the perceived social
pressure that deciding on engaging or not engaging in certain behaviour would affect the intention and
therefore affects human behaviour.
In a nutshell, social pressure influences the food waste behaviour of young consumers in which
the young consumers would be more likely to reduce food waste behaviour when having higher social
pressure.
Gender Differences and Food Waste Behaviour
The third hypothesis assumed that there was a significant difference between the young consumers of
male and female in food waste behaviours but the findings shown in table 5 lead us to the conclusion to
reject this hypothesis. This finding indicates that both female and male young consumers have no
difference in the occurrence of food waste behaviour.
This finding was supported by Principato et al. (2015), which found that there were no
differences in the amount of food waste for male and female Italian youths. However, many previous
studies show that gender differences have some influences on food waste behaviour (Aschemann-Witzel
et al., 2018; Mallinson et al., 2016; Secondi et al., 2015; Visschers et al., 2016). This might be because
these researches were mostly done with participants from other ages but not young consumers and also
other countries, not Malaysia. In short, male and female young consumers in Klang Valley have no
difference in their food waste behaviour.
Predictors for the Occurrence of Food Waste Behaviour
The last hypothesis of this research was predicted that there was a significant comparison of predictors
including emotion regulation, social pressure and gender, for the occurrence of food waste behaviours
among the young consumers. Multiple regression analysis was used to test this hypothesis and the
findings in table 6 showed that this predicting model was a relatively good predictor for the food waste
behaviour among young consumers (R=.344) and this hypothesis was accepted (p<.001). When looking
into each predicting variable, social pressure contributed significantly to the model (p<.001) but
emotion regulation (p=.957) and gender (p=.959) did not. This could be linked to the previous findings
and explanations in which higher social pressure led to the reduction of food waste behaviour while
emotion regulation and gender differences did not influence food waste behaviour among young
consumers in Klang Valley. In conclusion, social pressure was a good predictor for the occurrence of
food waste behaviour but emotion regulation and gender were not.
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Implications of Findings
Food waste behaviour brought many consequences to the environment, social and economic, such as
generated greenhouse gasses, influenced the food availability of the country and wasted natural
resources (Stefan et al., 2013). Hence, the findings were expected to help the public to know that social
pressure was one of the factors that contribute to food waste behaviour in young consumers. With this
understanding, the consequences that were caused by food waste behaviour could be prevented and
reduced by reducing food waste behaviour with the following implications.
The finding of this research contributed into developing a strong guideline, procedure and
successful campaign that is suitable for Malaysia young consumers. This is because Schanes, Dobernig
and Gözet (2018) proved that a campaign helped in reducing food waste behaviour, but Malaysia still
lacks strong guidelines and procedures that help to reduce food wastage (Sulaiman & Ahmad, 2018).
For example, using social media as a medium to promote food waste reduction campaigns in which
asking the participant to promote by sharing and tagging their family and friends. Linking this to the
finding of this research, the person being tagged will be more aware and have a stronger intention to
reduce food waste behaviour as they know that their family or friends hope them not to waste food.
Last but not least, society would understand and know that their help was needed to reduce food
waste behaviour in young consumers as this research paper proved that there was a relationship between
social pressure and food waste behaviour. For example, giving the young consumers an environment,
encouragement and education that lead them to change their attitude toward food waste behaviour was
needed. For example, encourage them to prevent food waste behaviour by providing lunch boxes for
them to pack back their leftover food.
Limitation of Study
The first limitation of this research was using a convenient sampling method. This sampling method
was used as it was the easiest sampling method for researchers to collect data, especially during this
pandemic. It was considered as a limitation because it led to underrepresentation of the population and
therefore the result was unable to generalise on an identifiable targeted population (Bornstein et al.,
2013).
The second limitation of this research was methodological limitations. This research measured
food waste behaviour using a self-perceived measurement which is a questionnaire. Social desirability
might contribute to the responses and affect the findings of the research. Abeliotis et al. (2014)
emphasized that the use of questionnaires leads to an underestimate of true food waste behaviour. In
which, social desirability bias occurs as participants would feel shame (Lebersorger & Schneider, 2011),
and this led participants to report that they never or only wasted a little food (Giordano et al., 2018).
The other limitations of the study was the strength of intention about preventing food waste
behaviour. As mentioned by Russell et al. (2017), having little intention would not lead to the immediate
reduction of food waste. A goal or a stronger and longer intention on reducing food waste behaviour is
needed before examining the relationship between emotion regulation and the occurrence of food waste
behaviour. However, this statement was only able to be seen as an assumption but not as the conclusion.
This research did not measure preexisting goals or the strength of intention about preventing food waste
behaviour and therefore analysis was unable to be conducted.
Recommendations for Future Research
The first recommendation for future research was using sampling methods that enable the result to be
generalised to the whole targeted population. This is because current convenient sampling methods
might not be sufficient to fully represent the population even having a relatively large sample. For
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example, using probability sampling such as simple random sampling methods instead of non-
probability sampling methods.
Moreover, future researchers could implement more objective measurement to measure real
food waste behaviour. For example, if the situation is suitable, use conduct observation which was the
most effective mechanism to measure food waste behaviour (Russell et al., 2017). The waste sorting
analysis which measures the actual weight of food wasted or a self-reported diary was recommended as
they were more reliable (Giordano et al., 2018). These measurements helped in producing a more
reliable result as it reduced the possibility of false memory when recalling during answering the
questionnaire.
Last but not least, future research could investigate the relationship of an individual’s food
waste behaviour with preexisting goals and also with different strength of intention about preventing
food waste behaviour. This is because this research finding shows that there is no significant relationship
between emotion regulation and food waste behaviour and we assume that this happens due to absence
of goal and a strong and long term intention for food waste reduction. Hence, if future researcher found
out the relationship between preexisting goals and different strengths of intention about preventing food
waste behaviour and actual food waste behaviour, then the future researcher can further research on
relationship between emotion regulation and food waste behaviour as the previous researcher (Block et
al., 2016) proved that there was a link between emotion and food waste behaviour.
Conclusion
Food waste is a global issue that needs to gain attention in light as it brings serious impacts to the
environment, economy and society. This research highlighted specific factors that may contribute to the
occurrence of food waste behaviour among young consumers. According to the findings, social pressure
was correlated to young consumer’s food waste behaviour where the higher social pressure led to food
waste behaviour reduction. The current research findings suggested emotion regulation and gender did
not play an important role in the occurrence of young consumer’s food waste behaviour. Probability
sampling methods were recommended to future researchers to increase the generalisability.
Furthermore, self-perceived questionnaires, observational studies or waste sorting analysis were
suggested to future researches to gain more insight and accurate data on actual food waste behaviour.
Lastly, preexisting goals and different strengths of intention about preventing food waste behaviour
were recommended to test in future research as researchers assumed it was the factors that influenced
the insignificant relationship between emotion regulation and food waste behaviour of young
consumers.
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THE EFFECT OF ONLINE LEARNING AND PROCRASTINATION

BEHAVIOUR ON WELL-BEING AMONG UNDERGRADUATES IN
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH
Choo Ming Hui*, Norzihan Ayub
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: mhminghui02@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In 2019, the global economy was hit by an unexpected coronavirus outbreak. Hence, people are
encouraged to practice social and physical distancing, which, in turn, means all the education sectors
are forced to close down and be replaced by online learning. Furthermore, students' procrastination is
common nowadays, especially in this pandemic, and the well-being of undergraduates is now being
addressed globally, as undergraduates will be the pillars of the future. Previous research has discovered
a negative relationship and a negative impact on students' well-being between online learning and
procrastination behaviours. Students’ mental and physical health do not improve significantly during
distance learning due to the lack of social interaction with peers and excessive usage of online learning
technologies, in addition to students’ procrastination. When students procrastinate, they will feel better
momentarily. However, it will certainly bring tension and anxiety to one’s life in the long term, thus
causing students to experience poor well-being. However, procrastination was found to be linked with
online learning and this adversely impacted students’ well-being.
Keywords: covid-19, online learning, procrastination behaviours, well-being, undergraduates
In 2019, the global economy was hit by an unexpected coronavirus outbreak, 2019-nCoV, or also known
as Covid-19 (Temsah et al., 2020). People are encouraged to practice social and physical distancing by
keeping people in a safe space and by minimizing unnecessary activities outside the home (Eva et al.,
2021). Hence, the pandemic forced many education sectors to remain closed temporarily, which, in turn,
caused various schools, colleges, and universities to replace traditional face-to-face learning with online
learning, in order to deal with the challenging situation and ensure education continued at the same time
(Chung et al., 2020; Dhawan, 2020). As mentioned, the online teaching and learning (PdP) approach
used to substitute classroom instruction is one of the safest methods for breaking the chain of COVID-
19 infections during the Movement Control Order (MCO) period (Limited internet access a challenge
for online learning, teaching, 2020; Mahyoob, 2020). In other words, online learning was, in particular,
the greatest option for ongoing education throughout the epidemic. Online learning could be done
asynchronously, where teachers have to prepare homework or record speeches, so students can keep up
at their own pace; or it could be synchronous learning, which occurs at a specific time through specific
media.
Online education is the best option for both students and educators, especially during the
lengthy MCO periods. Online learning brings advantages for both lecturers and students. However, if
this practice is sustained, it has the potential to have psychological consequences for students in the
form of depression, stress, and excessive worry, in turn causing one’s well-being to be affected
(Maulana, 2021). Nowadays, student mental wellbeing is a crucial concern (Pedrelli et al., 2014; Davis
& Hadwin, 2021; Salimi et al., 2021). According to Lister et al. (2021), distance learning students in
higher education report mental health problems at a greater rate than college students. Anxiety was the
major problem among students (Unger & Meiran, 2020; Jiang et al., 2021), followed by depression and
stress (Jiang et al., 2021).
Since online learning is entirely reliant on technical equipment and the internet, teachers and
students with poor internet connections may face difficulties accessing online learning (Eloksari, 2020;
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Matte, 2020). Online learning's reliance on technical equipment and the supply of such technology pose
significant challenges for institutions, teachers, and students. For example, over half of Sabah's teachers,
parents, and students struggle with an unreliable or insufficient Internet connection, according to
Mistirine Radin, head of the Sabah Education Department (Lee, 2020). According to a Malay newspaper
(Ram, 2021), a 52-year-old mother, who is also a teacher, and her 12-year-old daughter walked to the
river in search of an Internet connection to complete their assignments.
Furthermore, owing to socioeconomic disparity among kids, some depend on computers and
free internet access at school, and due to school closures, the relocation process for this group of students
is expected to be slow (Demirbilek, 2014). It became clear that children from poor socioeconomic
backgrounds would have a tough time migrating as early as anticipated, since they would be unable to
attend school owing to the epidemic.
Another challenge in online learning is the competency of technologies. Digital competence is

a collection of abilities, knowledge, and attitudes necessary for effectively, efficiently, and ethically
using ICT and digital devices to fulfil tasks such as problem solving, information management, and
collaboration (Ferrari, 2012). Students and teachers who are digitally illiterate are likely to fall behind
in online education (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020).
Following instructional delivery, teachers conduct assessments to determine educational goals

through tests, quizzes, and examinations. In online education, exams are frequently performed online,
with teachers confined to proxy monitoring, making the regulation and control of cheating
difficult (Arkorful & Abaidoo, 2014). In general, students expressed a preference for traditional
learning over online learning, citing challenges encountered during the implementation of online
learning.
Aside from online learning, students’ academic procrastination behaviour is one of the causes
of students’ poor well-being (Pychyl & Sirois, 2016; Berber Çelik & Odaci, 2020). Academic
procrastination happens when students make unnecessary delays in completing activities, projects, and
assignments (Moonaghi & Beydokhti, 2017; Zacks & Hen, 2018), or it is described as the learner's
persistent and pervasive urge to delay academic tasks, which is usually accompanied by anxiety
(Gargari et al., 2011). Procrastination is linked to a variety of negative moods and difficulties, including
increased stress, decreased work performance, decreased well-being, regret and suffering, and an
increased risk of mental and physical diseases (Klingsieck, 2013; Steel & Ferrari, 2013; Rozental &
Carlbring, 2014; Sirois, 2014; Kroese et al., 2016; Svartdal et al., 2018). Students who engaged in
excessive procrastination reported developing emotions of tiredness, guilt, anxiety, hypersensitivity,
and moderate depressive symptoms as a result of the pressure to meet deadlines for assignment
submission (Beutel et al., 2016; Maria-Ioanna & Patra, 2020). In other words, students who
procrastinate the most frequently tend to have a lower subjective well-being indicator and experience a
lower level of satisfaction with academic life at the same time (Balkis & Duru, 2016; Grunschel et al.,
2016).
In a nutshell, the traditional face-to-face classes have been modified due to the pandemic
situation. Technology makes things more accessible and easier, as well as more challenging. Thus, both
students and lecturers will have to adapt to a new standard. Hence, online learning will affect students’
well-being. Students’ well-being will be affected by their procrastination behaviour as well. Academic
procrastination has caused students to encounter stress, which, in turn, causes students to have poor
well-being.
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Conceptual Definition
According to Dunn (2021), a conceptual definition establishes the parameters to be measured or is used
to describe precisely what needs to be assessed or observed in research (what a word or a term means
in this study).
Online Learning
The word “online learning” was coined in 1995, and it referred to the use of a learning management
system (LMS) or the online downloading of text and PDF files (Bates, 2014). Since then, the phrase
“online learning” has evolved to include a variety of distinct and related concepts, including e-learning,
blended learning, online schooling, and online classes (Singh & Thurman, 2019). Online learning is
simply a means for instructors to do work remotely without feedback or interactions with students
(Maulana, 2021), or it could also be described as "learning that occurs over the internet", whether in a
synchronous or asynchronous setting, in which students interact with instructors and other students at
their own pace and location (Singh & Thurman, 2019). Coman et al., (2020) likewise, defines E-learning
as a term that utilizes interactive devices, such as the internet, CDs, cell phones, or even television, to
facilitate distance learning and teaching. In a nutshell, E-learning is the process of transmitting
information and education through the use of different electronic technologies, and the term becomes
more understandable when placed within a framework in which technology is used to satisfy people's
desire to learn and develop (Coman et al., 2020).
Procrastination Behaviour
Procrastination may be described as the action of delaying the starting or performing of a job that must
be carried out within a certain deadline (Wolters & Corkin, 2012), or it could be known as the avoidance
of tasks one is aware one should be doing (Pala et al., 2011). Usually, procrastinators who regard a task
as difficult and needing effort to complete are more inclined to avoid or delay starting the work (Jiao et
al., 2011). Typically, procrastination may occur in school and work, throughout everyday activities,
duties, and in social interactions; nonetheless, it is most often connected with education and employment
(e.g., academic procrastination), since external and explicit deadlines for completing a task or job are
established (Klingsieck, 2013). There are two forms of dysfunctional procrastination - behavioural
procrastination and decisional procrastination (Kristanto & Abraham, 2016; Devi & Dhull, 2017); both
of which are more prevalent during research work. Behavioural procrastination is a kind of self-sabotage
that enables individuals to transfer responsibility and delay action (Devi & Dhull, 2017). For example,
a student may do badly on a test and claim procrastination as an excuse. Whereas decisional
procrastination is to delay making a choice when confronted with conflicts or choices (Ling et al., 2012).
Individuals that engage in high-level decisional procrastination are often fearful of mistakes and are
perfectionists (Devi & Dhull, 2017).
Well-Being
According to the theory of psychological well-being, an individual's psychological well-being is defined

by how they operate in particular areas of life (Udhayakumar & Illango, 2018), with the experience of
positive emotions such as happiness and contentment, in addition to the growth of one's potential,
having some influence over one's existence, having a sense of intent, and having positive relationships
(Ruggeri et al., 2020). Since low subjective well-being was associated with higher depression (Grant et
al., 2013), anxiety (Malone & Wachholtz, 2018), and stress (Anushri et al., 2014; Wersebe et al., 2018),
it could be used as a predictor of future depression, anxiety, and stress (Al Omari et al., 2020; Santini
et al., 2020). Therefore, having depression, anxiety, and stress could also be known as well-being. The
scientific analysis of well-being employs two distinct philosophical frameworks, which are hedonic
well-being and eudaimonia well-being. The hedonic perspective emphasizes satisfaction, describing
well-being in terms of enjoyment acquisition and avoidance of suffering (Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2015).
It may be characterized as subjective well-being. The eudaimonia approach, on the other hand, is
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concerned with sense and self-realization, with well-being defined as a person's complete functioning
(Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2015). More precisely, it may be referred to as psychological well-being.
Individuals with high psychological well-being describe feeling content, competent, supported, and
content with their lives (Winefield et al., 2012). While the word "well-being" was first intended to refer
to the idea of well-being in general, it has evolved into educational study topics, one of which is student
well-being (Hidayah et al., 2016). The level of well-being in the school setting is a critical predictor of
a student's development at the school (Aulia et al., 2020).
Theory
There are three theories included in this study, which are behaviourism, temporal motivation theory
(TMT) and PERMA theory.
Behaviourism
Behaviourism is most closely associated with the studies of Edward Thorndike (1898) and Ivan Pavlov
(1927) and was one of the earliest learning theories established (Wu et al., 2011). Online learning,
however, has often adopted behaviourist ideals. According to behaviourism philosophy, humans are
strongly influenced by experiences in their surroundings that provide them with specific stimuli, and
learning may only be observed by adjustments in either the pattern of performance or differences in
input (Ertmer & Newby, 2013; Anindyarini et al., 2018; Alomyan & Green, 2019). As such, this theory
presupposes that humans learn from being modelled positive behaviour and by engaging in learning
behaviours that seek to replicate positive behaviour (Inankul, 2016). In brief, behaviourism theory is
based on the observation of several behavioural aspects that occur during the learning phase, where
learning occurs as a result of stimulus and reward.
According to Burhanuddin et al. (2021), this theory underlines four important things, which
could be applied in both physical classes and online classes. Firstly, learning should be succinct and
consistent with previously observed behaviour. Second, to ensure a successful learning mechanism,
students should be regularly encouraged and validated before their behaviour is conditioned by the
pattern of environmental reinforcement. Thirdly, learners should be provided with direct guidance and
finally, ‘stimulus discrimination’ can be provided to the learner with the most possible road to success.
To generate effective behavioural reactions in students, offer appropriate feedback as soon as the
students react in online classes, or it is known as immediate reinforcement (Anindyarini et al., 2018;
Alomyan & Green, 2019; Bradley, 2011). For example, online software apps offer instant feedback to
students dependent on their success, thus, reinforcing constructive content progression.
Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT)
Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) has its origins in the work of Steel & König (2006). The theory
stresses time as a major motivator and examines the effect of deadlines on how attention is allocated to
certain activities (Steel & König, 2006). The same authors also stated that TMT is especially effective
in analysing human behaviours, such as procrastination and goal planning. It is a meta-theory of
motivation that combines expectancy and hyperbolic discounting with need and prospect theory (Steel
& König, 2006; Hodgkinson & Healey, 2008). TMT argues that any individual will always prioritise
activities that provide the most value, at least in that individual's view at the moment (Siaputra, 2010).
In other words, when individuals believe the task's usefulness is small, they tend to procrastinate.
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Formula 1 illustrates the inter-component relationships. (Steel & König, 2006; Steel, 2007;
Gröpel & Steel, 2008; Steel et al., 2018):
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (𝐸𝐸)𝑥𝑥 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑉𝑉)

𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 =
1 + 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 (Г)𝑥𝑥 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷(𝐷𝐷)
Formula 1. The inter-component relationships of TMT
According to the theory, one’s utility rises when individuals are confident in their ability to get
(i.e., expectancy) a desired reward or result (i.e., value). However, utility is diminished when a long
period of time passes before the reward is realised (i.e., delay) and when we are particularly sensitive
to delays (i.e., impulsiveness) (Steel et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019). The constant “1” is included to
avoid the equation from nearing infinite as the delay approaches zero (Steel et al., 2018).
According to Schraw et al. (2007), three contextual macro themes that contribute to
procrastination are: unclear directions, deadlines, and a lack of incentives. When this condition applies
to the formula, unclear direction is equal to expectancy, absence of incentives is value and deadlines
are equal to sensitivity to delay (Siaputra, 2010). For instance, when the expectancy of a job is
decreased, a person is more likely to delay; similarly, if the incentive is not enticing enough, it will not
motivate the person to work on the job. However, an individual's procrastination behaviour tends to
reduce as the deadline approaches. Hence, TMT is said to be the most appropriate theory to apply to
students’ procrastination behaviours.
PERMA Theory
According to Seligman (2011), PERMA (Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and
Accomplishment) are five quantifiable components of well-being. This theory suggests that all
individuals in different fields seek these five components for themselves (Seligman, 2019), where
positive emotions (P) are synonymous with hedonic states of pleasure (i.e., feeling joyful, content);
engagement (E) relates to psychological links with events or organisations (e.g., feeling interested,
engaged in life); relationships (R) entail a sense of mutual integration, of being cared about and accepted
by others, and of being content with one's social interactions; meaning (M) applies to the conviction
that one's existence is worthwhile and the sense of belonging to someone is greater than oneself;
accomplishment (A) includes achieving strides towards objectives, becoming motivated to perform
everyday tasks and a sense of achievement (Forgeard et. al., 2011; Seligman, 2011; Kern et al., 2015;
Turner & Thielking, 2019).
On a psychological level, well-being is an amorphous concept that encompasses all feelings of

well-being and optimal functioning (Kern et al., 2015). High PERMA is regarded as a condition of
optimum well-being, dubbed ‘flourishing’ (Turner & Thielking, 2019). The PERMA dimension is used
to predict scores of school life's general happiness, anxiety, and depression rates (Lai et al., 2018). The
PERMA model may be used to measure students’ well-being in both traditional classes and online
classes. Promoting students' well-being has been found to aid their academic success as well (Norrish
et. al., 2013; Leskisenoja & Uusiautti, 2017).
Procrastination Behaviour in Gender
Is there a link between one’s procrastination behaviour and gender? Numerous researchers have
examined the effect of gender variations on procrastinatory behaviour in educational contexts in recent
years, with conflicting findings, or showing mixed and inconsistent results.
Solomon and Rothblum (1984) found no difference in overall self-reported procrastination

between men and women. As predicted, there is other research also mentioned that gender does not
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seem to have a role in procrastination (Haycock et al., 1998; Konovalova, 2007; Whatley, 2009; Islak,
2011; Özer, 2011; Vij, 2016).
On the other hand, gender was shown to be a significant predictor of procrastination, with men
scoring higher on procrastination and perfectionism (Mandap, 2016; Wazid et al., 2016), as opposed to
Steel (2007) who asserts that gender differences in academic procrastination are contentious and
difficult to anticipate. Because the study does not show any relationship between gender and
procrastination behaviour. Milgram et al. (1995), Hampton (2005) and Yong (2010) determined that
men are more prone to postponing than females. A supporting study by Senecal et al. (1995) discovered
that - female university undergraduates exhibit less procrastination than male students. Moreover, males
procrastinate more than females, owing to poor time management abilities and lack of metacognitive
techniques, according to research (Limone et al., 2020). In brief, females, it is thought, are inherently
more driven than males (Islak, 2011).
In contrast, there is one paper that presupposes that female students procrastinate more than
male students. For instance, according to Özer, Demir & Ferrari (2009), substantially more female
students than male students reported higher levels of academic procrastination due to fear of failing and
laziness, compared with male students, who are more risk taking and rebellious against control.
However, there is limited research stating that female students are more likely to procrastinate than male
students.
In a nutshell, there are various studies proven that gender could affect one’s procrastination
behaviours, or it might not.
Mental Well-Being in University
In recent years, there has been a debate about student mental well-being in higher education, as research
indicates that mental health problems have a significant impact on students' achievement, advancement,
and study outcomes (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2011; Galderisi et al., 2015; Thorley, 2017; Evans
et al., 2018; Hughes & Spanner, 2019; Sick et al., 2019). Students who are struggling with mental health
issues are less likely to finish and/or pass a course or module (Mojtabai et al., 2015; Richardson, 2015),
are more likely to drop out of university (Mojtabai et al., 2015; Richardson, 2015; Brown, 2016), and
get worse grades (Eisenberg et al., 2009). Additionally, students are more likely than non-students to
suffer or acquire mental health issues, indicating that academics and university culture play a major role
(Tinklin et al., 2005; Brown, 2016; Ribeiro et al., 2018; Winzer et al., 2018).
According to a recent nationwide poll of college students in the United States (American
College Health Association, as cited in Park et al., 2020), 85% of students reported feeling overwhelmed
by their assigned duties during the past year, while 49.8% reported feeling hopeless. Mental health is a
global issue (Lozano et al., 2012), which raises concerns as the majority of mental disorders begin to
develop by the age of 25 (Kessler et al., 2007; Brown, 2018)Therefore, the need to take a proactive
approach to preventing mental disease and promoting mental health, as well as to treatment, recovery,
and rehabilitation, is growing recognition all over the world (WHO, 2013; Davies, 2014). This hybrid
strategy of proactive and responsiveness has been highly accepted in higher education, and many papers
have been published arguing for a stronger focus on proactive methods (Houghton & Anderson, 2017;
Hughes & Spanner, 2019).
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Mental Well-Being of Malaysian Students
Malaysia - a leading Asia-Pacific higher education country, is not excluded from the poor mental health
of university students (Knight & Morshidi 2011; Lee 2014).
Today, around 30% of individuals aged 16 and older in Malaysia suffer from issues of mental
health (Hassan et al., 2018). It can also be seen that in less than a decade, the number of students
suffering from mental health issues has quadrupled, from only 10% of students in 2011 to 20% of
students in 2016 (Hezmi, 2018). For instance, around 30% of Malaysian medical students (n=761)
indicated a high incidence of stress (Yusoff et al., 2010), which has been linked to depression and
anxiety (Rosal et al. 1997; Shapiro et al. 2000). Furthermore, undergraduates often face stress as a result
of independent living, a high academic load, and the need to get excellent grades in addition to finding
a job following graduation (Kunjiapu & Kunasegaran, 2021). A survey of 91 Malaysian undergraduates
revealed that students experienced varying degrees of depression while enrolled in higher education
institutions; 19.8% reported moderate levels of depression, 14.3% reported mild levels of depression,
8.8% reported severe levels of depression, and 2.2% reported extremely severe levels of depression
(Manap et al., 2019). According to Chong et al., (2013), over a third of Malaysians with mental health
issues did not seek treatment, due to stigmatization and unfavourable attitudes towards mental health
(Eissa et al., 2020; Kotera et al., 2018).
Recent restructuring in Malaysian higher education, which categorises public universities as

research, field-specific, or comprehensive (Ministry of Higher Education 2012), may be negatively
affecting students' mental health, as students face uncertainty during this transition, resulting in elevated
anxiety (Mey & Yin, 2015). Also, it was found out that several of the top reasons for mental health
problems among Malaysian students were excessive workload, financial challenges, and familial
concerns (Ministry of Health 2016; Yusoff et al. 2010).
Literature Review
Online Learning and Procrastination Behaviour
Pellas (2014) conducted a study with the objective of examining how students’ personal characteristics
may influence their participation in online learning courses. The participants involved in the study were
305 students, including 153 graduates and 152 postgraduates, who enrolled in online learning held by a
virtual world, Second Life. The average age of the participants was 23 years old. The result of the study
claimed that students’ personal factors such as procrastination behaviour will influence students’
engagement in online learning, with the study showing that computer self-efficacy in online courses
was negatively correlated with students’ behaviour factors.
In another study by Cerezo et al. (2017), a total of 140 undergraduate students in the United
States took part in a blended learning experience using the Moodle (Modular Object-Oriented
Developmental Learning Environment) Management System. The aim of this research is to examine
student behaviour in a mixed learning environment, more precisely procrastination behaviour and its
relationship to performance. Based on the results, time management failure or procrastination behaviour
is more prevalent when the learning process is not classroom-based (distance or computer-based
learning), since the student must take an active part, requiring self-regulation. In other words, when
students face online learning, students’ procrastination behaviour will decrease. In addition, the results
also showed that when students procrastinate, their performance tends to be poor.
However, there are limited studies overseas, as well as in Malaysia, regarding the relationship
between online learning and students’ procrastination behaviour.
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Online Learning and Well-Being
In Malaysia, a study conducted by Al-Kumaim et al. (2021) determined whether the online learning
platforms utilised by undergraduates during the Covid-19 period posed any barriers to their learning. A
total of 486 undergraduates in Malaysia participated and the data set was gathered between the 16th of
May and the 5th of June 2020, at the first peak of the epidemic phase in Malaysia. The respondents
were in the age groups of 18-20 years; 21-23 years; 24-27 years; and 28 years and older, with the aged
group 21-23 years standing at the highest percentage in the study. Participants from public universities
account for 92% of the sample, compared to 8% from private universities. According to the results,
dealing with numerous online learning platforms may be one of the causes of information overload,
which results in work overload and increased stress levels among students. In addition, the extra
expenses involved in purchasing more internet connections, purchasing computer hardware required for
online courses, and poor time management all contributed to students’ well-being. 67% of the
undergraduates reported experiencing stress as a result of online learning during the pandemic. The
increasing variety of online workloads occupying students' thoughts and the increased effort associated
with greater hours spent on online learning platforms may be one of the primary causes of student stress.
In brief, poor mental well-being is closely linked with increased stress and elevated stress levels in
people. Online learning, therefore, has a negative impact on students’ well-being.
Another study conducted in Malaysia by Sundarasen et al. (2020) stated that the abrupt switch
to online courses was a significant factor in increasing anxiety and stress levels among university
students. 983 undergraduates, including public and private universities, took part in the study, and the
age range was between 19 and 25 years old. The majority, which is 86.5% of the students in this
research, were involved in online learning. The students encountered significant technical infrastructure
challenges, most notably a lack of internet connectivity. Additionally, it is alarming to note that some
students attend 6-8 hours of daily online courses on their mobile phones, contributing to unmanageable
stress and health problems. It was also claimed by the authors that students' poor well-being was
exacerbated by their teachers' excessive expectations, which included numerous tasks and no flexible
deadlines. Uncertainty about their examinations, semester completion, and graduation, as well as the
necessity to balance home duties and care for siblings while taking online courses, all had a significant
effect on their anxiety levels. In a nutshell, online learning has shown a negative impact on students’
well-being, especially undergraduates.
According to a study by Hasan & Bao (2020), a number of 400 Bangladesh’s higher secondary
school students has been obtained, with the students ranging from 15 to 18 years old. The research
aimed to investigate and evaluate the effect of psychological distress among secondary school students
during the COVID-19 pandemic on e-learning. The results of the study found that there was a positive
relationship between e-learning and psychological distress among students. Students' mental well-being
was negatively impacted by online learning stress and related academic delays, which were positively
associated with students' anxiety symptoms during the lockout. Hence, this study established that online
education has a significant effect on students' academic and psychological development.
However, there is a study which is opposed to the previous study stating that – online learning
improves students’ well-being. According to Bolatov et al. (2021), students experience less burnout
during online learning than during traditional learning time. Students ranging from first to fifth years of
the Astana Medical University’s (AMU) Kazakhstan “General Medicine” course participated in the
research. The samples in traditional learning were 619, aged 17 to 27 years old, whereas the samples in
online learning obtained in the study were 798 undergraduates, aged between 17 and 33 years old.
Specifically, the goal of this research was to compare the mental states of medical students who switched
from conventional learning (face-to-face classes) to online learning with the mental states of students
who remained in conventional learning. Based on the findings of the research, burnout syndrome was
present at a rate of 27.6% among students during the conventional learning phase but reduced to 16.7%
during the online learning period (decreased by 1.6 times). Depression affects 27.6% of students
enrolled in online courses, compared to 49.3% of students enrolled in conventional courses. As a result,
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the prevalence of depression (49% vs 28%) and anxiety (42% vs 15.5%) among students during physical
classes is considerably greater than during online learning times. The well-being of undergraduates
increases in the time of online learning may be attributed to the following factors: the removal of
geographical and temporal obstacles, the motivation for self-education, and the reduction of indirect
costs, such as transport, additional meals, and extra accommodation.
Procrastination Behaviour and Well-Being
A study conducted by Ismail (2016) revealed that procrastination has traditionally been seen as a
dysfunctional and ineffective habit that has a detrimental effect on one's psychological well-being. In
this study, procrastination has been divided into two forms: active procrastination and passive
procrastination, and the purpose is to investigate the relationship between these two aspects of
procrastination and psychological well-being, since various types of procrastination may have varying
impacts on psychological well-being. A number of 120 respondents from the Institute of Business
Administration (IBA), Karachi, ranging from 18 to 24 years old, were taken in conducting this research.
The result showed that there was a small positive connection between active procrastination and
psychological well-being, demonstrating that when active procrastination increases, a proportion of
psychological well-being increases as well. While passive procrastination and psychological well-being
showed a slightly negative correlation, indicating that when passive procrastination rises, a tiny
percentage of well-being declines. As a result, there is a relationship between procrastination behaviours
and students’ well-being.
According to Hussain & Sultan (2010), 500 university students from Pakistan participated in
the study. The study aimed to examine the impact of procrastination on university students' learning.
87% of undergraduates procrastinate in submitting their assignments, according to the authors.
Furthermore, the results showed that 73% of the students encountered depression and anxiety after
procrastinating, which proves that there is a positive relationship between procrastination and
undergraduates’ well-being. Due to procrastination, students are hesitant to begin their academic work,
losing their competitive spirit in the process, which causes students to experience inferiority and develop
negative tendencies towards their well-being. The research demonstrates that 66% of the delayed
undergraduates are incapable of managing their academics and seek shortcuts to compensate for their
shortcomings. Procrastination contributes to the development of certain harmful behaviours linked to
some socially unacceptable attitudes or beliefs, including addiction. Procrastination contributes to the
development of certain harmful behaviours linked with some socially unacceptable attitudes or beliefs,
including addiction, which consequently cause them to have poor well-being.
Besides that, Balkis & Duru (2016) performed a study with the objective of the impact of
procrastination on affective well-being. 328 undergraduates from Pamukkale
University in Turkey were recruited for the study, and the respondents’ age ranged from 19 to 34 years
old. In the study, the authors found that procrastination has been linked to lack of self-regulation, and
the results showed that students with a high degree of self-regulation capability may feel a greater
positive impact as a result of successfully completing their tasks, indicating that adolescents with strong
self-regulation abilities exhibit excellent emotional and mental health. In other words, undergraduates
who do not delay their work will have a healthy well-being. Additionally, the findings also indicate that
students who engage in excessive procrastination are more likely to feel unpleasant emotions and are
dissatisfied with their academic life, which confirms that procrastination is detrimental to well-being.
Students who are unable to endure frustration, estimate the time needed to complete projects, or
persevere in completing tasks are more prone to putting off assignments and chores. One would, thus,
be less pleased with academic life and feel unpleasant emotions like dissatisfaction, tension, and
distress, leading to poor well-being.
Other than studies from overseas, another study by Lim et al. (2017) conducted in Malaysia has
proven that procrastination has a negative impact on students’ well-being. 218 Malaysian undergraduate
students were recruited through social networking sites to fill in an online survey questions, including
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self-reports of procrastination propensity, state and trait anxiety, with the purpose of this research -
determining the impact of procrastination on anxiety. Based on the results of the study, procrastination
was shown to be positively related to both state and trait anxiety. Procrastinators are more prone to
suffering from anxiety, which is stated by the authors, because one’s procrastination may hinder the
development of trait self-efficacy in one’s life. Hence, those with poor self-efficacy believe they are not
able to cope, which leads to a high level of anxiety. In conclusion, procrastination will lead to poor self-
efficacy, which in turn brings anxiety to undergraduates, causing them to experience poor well-being.
Discussion
This paper will redound to society’s benefit, considering that students’ well-being plays a vital role in
online learning, as well as the effect of procrastination behaviour on students’ well-being.
Moreover, the literature review and conceptual framework of this paper may benefit the
psychology fields as well, with the contribution to current knowledge by providing empirical data and
theoretical justification for students' well-being, expanding past research, with the theory of social
constructivism, behaviourism, temporal motivation theory, and PERMA theory. For teachers, this study
will be very beneficial, as teachers will understand how students deal with online learning, in addition
to discovering whether online learning is conducive to learning. Furthermore, teachers can also know
how students’ procrastination behaviour affects their well-being. Thus, teachers may pay more attention
to students who have a high procrastination level. The finding will also benefit parents. Parents may
have greater awareness of their children’s conditions (e.g., burnout, suicidal ideation) or give support
to them during online learning, which makes them a functional individual in society. Parents could also
pay more attention to their children, whether they are procrastinating or not, and monitor them on a
regular basis. By checking on their children, the children’s well-being will be ensured. Moreover, the
greater demand for students using online education in this pandemic justifies the need for more effective
well-being strategies. Procrastinating behaviour is common among students. It is important for students
to know the effect of procrastinating behaviour on their well-being, so that they are able to handle their
emotional problems well, which, in turn, maintains their function in daily life. In brief, through this
research, students will acknowledge the impact of online learning and procrastination behaviours, and
thus, cope with them more effectively.
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KECERDASAN EMOSI MURID SEKOLAH MENENGAH

DI KOTA KINABALU
Christina Andin*, Lizra Danielle, Abdul Said Ambotang

*Corresponding author’s e-mail: christina@ums.edu.my
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini dijalankan untuk mengenal pasti hubungan antara kecerdasan emosi dan pencapaian akademik pelajar.
Kajian ini menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif dengan soal selidik sebagai instrument pengumpulan data. Kajian
melibatkan seramai 240 murid sekolah menengah yang terletak di kawasan Kota Kinabalu Sabah. Kecerdasan
emosi murid diukur menggunakan Schutte Self-Report Inventory dan juga model campuran kecerdasan emosi
Goleman. Seterusnya, pencapaian akademik diukur daripada keputusan Ujian Setara. Hasil menunjukkan
terdapat kolerasi positif yang signifikan antara EI dengan pencapaian akademik (r=.661; p‹0.01). Hasil kajian
juga menunjukkan murid hanya menunjukkan tahap kecerdasan emosi yang tinggi untuk domain motivasi diri
(Min 3.10) dan kesedaran diri (Min 3.01). Manakala, tiga domain berada pada tahap sederhana iaitu mengurus
emosi (Min 2.99), empati (Min 2.89) dan kemahiran sosial (Min 2.88). Kemahiran sosial menunjukkan nilai min
yang paling rendah antara lima domain yang dikaji. Sekumpulan ibubapa yang hadir semasa mesyuarat PIBG di
sebuah sekolah diminta memberikan pandangan terhadap kemahiran sosial. Ibu bapa berpendapat, masalah
kemahiran sosial ini ada kaitan dengan kurangnya generasi muda berkomunikasi dan berinteraksi dengan orang
sekeliling disebabkan minat lebih kepada media sosial. Hasil kajian ini boleh dimanafaatkan oleh pihak
berkepentingan untuk merangka program-program peningkatan kecerdasan emosi dalam kalangan murid sekolah.
Kata kunci: Kecerdasan emosi, pencapaian akademik, pelajar, sekolah
Kecerdasan emosi (Emotional Intelligent- EI) merupakan kebolehan seseorang untuk mengawal
perasaan serta emosi dalam diri sendiri dan orang lain untuk membantu seseorang berfikir dan
melakukan sesuatu tindakan (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Menurut Zeidner dan Matthew (2018),
perhatian terhadap dimensi baru pendidikan iaitu ‘noncognitive twenty first century skills’ memberikan
perhatian kepada kepentingan EI dalam Pendidikan yang sebelum ini hanya mengutamakan kecerdasan
intelek dan pencapaian akademik sebagai ukuran kejayaan pelajar. Dalam dimensi baru, seseorang
yang berpendidikan bukan sahaja mempunyai kelebihan akademik malah perlu elemen kecerdasan
emosi (Elias, Hunter, & Kress, 2001). Amalan Pendidikan pada era industri yang berfokuskan
pencapaian akademik sudah tidak relevan dengan keperluan masa kini (Dator, 2000). Fokus kepada
kemahiran kognitif bukan sahaja memberikan tekanan kepada pelajar, malah telah menyebabkan ramai
lepasan tidak dibekalkan dengan sumber sosio-emosional untuk berhadapan dengan ‘tests of life’
(Kautz et al., 2014). Menurut Goleman (2001) kecerdasan intelek dapat meramal apakah profesion
perkerjaan yang layak diceburi oleh seseorang, namun setelah seseorang mendapat perkerjaan,
kecerdasan emosi memainkan peranan penting samada seseorang akan berjaya berhadapan dengan
tekanan dan cabaran. Sejauhmana seseorang boleh maju ke hadapan berbanding dengan mereka yang
mempunyai kemahiran kognitif dan teknikal yang sama ada bergantung kepada EI seseorang (Davis,
2004). Oleh itu kecerdasan emosi dilihat sebagai pelengkap kepada kecerdasan intelek dan seharusnya
diberikan penekanan yang sama penting dalam pendidikan.
Keperluan untuk memberikan fokus kepada elemen kecerdasan emosi dalam pendidikan
semakin meningkat. Ini adalah ekoran daripada perubahan pesat dalam ekonomi, sosial dan teknologi
secara global telah mendedahkan generasi baru dengan pelbagai tekanan (Layard and Dunn, 2009).
Hasil kajian Program Minda Sihat Sekolah oleh Kementerian Kesihatan Bersama Kementerian
Pendidikan bagi menangani stress dan tekanan dalam kalangan murid sekolah membabitkan 30 000
murid yang disaring antara 2011 hingga 2015 menunjukkan dua daripada sepuluh murid sekolah
dikesan mengalami gejala penyakit mental kronik (Sinar Harian, Ogos 2017). Kajian Kesihatan dan
Mordibiti Kebangsaan (NHMS) pada 2015 menunjukkan masalah kesihatan mental yang paling tinggi
adalah dalam kalangan remaja iaitu berumur 16 hingga 19 tahun. Tinjauan NHMS 2019 pula
menunjukkan seramai setengah juta orang di Malaysia mengalami masalah kemurungan. Tinjauan ini
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juga melaporkan seramai 424 000 kanak-kanak mengalami masalah mental dengan 9.5 peratus berumur
10 hingga 15 tahun. Kajian Chan et al. (2016) ini mendapati remaja yang melaporkan kesunyian,
kebimbangan atau risau mempunyai risiko lebih tinggi untuk mendapat idea membunuh diri. Kajian-
kajian yang dijalankan oleh Salovey et al. (2001) dan Parker et al. (2004) mendapati masalah mental
ada kaitan dengan mereka yang mempunyai kecerdasan emosi yang rendah iaitu kurang perasaan
empati, kebimbangan, kemarahah dan menghadapi masalah dalam menguruskan emosi.
Masalah kesihatan mental yang boleh dikaitkan dengan kecerdasan emosi ini boleh
memberikan beban ekonomi kepada sesuatu masyarakat untuk menyediakan perkhidmatan rawatan
atau pemulihan (Belfield et al., 2015). Malah individu yang mempunyai masalah kecerdasan emosi
tidak dapat menyumbang kepada kesejahteraan sesuatu masyarakat kerana mereka tergolong dalam
individu bermasalah. Antara masalah berkaitan emosi dalam tinjuaan NHMS (2015) ada seperti
kemurungan, kehilangan minat dan keseronokan, kurang tumpuan, kurang keyakinan diri, idea untuk
membahayakan diri, gangguan tidur serta makan. Situasi seperti ini boleh menjejaskan matlamat
pendidikan ke arah melahirkan insan seimbang iaitu JERI dan modal insan kelas pertama, iaitu mampu
berhadapan dengan pelbagai cabaran dalam kehidupan secara amnya dan perkerjaan secara spesifiknya.
Maka itu di negara yang terkenal dengan sistem Pendidikan terbaik di dunia seperti Findland, misalnya,
perkembangan kecerdasan emosi merupakan salah satu tumpuan pendidikan seawal umur empat tahun
(Butler, 2016).
Kecerdasan emosi boleh dibentuk melalui pelbagai aktiviti (Goleman, 2001; Pablo, 2015).
Menyedari kepentingan kecerdasan emosi, pelbagai program intervensi yang memberikan fokus kepada
perkembangan kecerdasan emosi dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah di luar negara. Cefai et al. (2018),
misalnya membuat analisis tentang pendekatan spesifik yang dinamakan Social and Emotional
Education (SEE) di Eropah. Program SEE memberikan penekanan kepada pembangunan kebolehan
untuk memahami diri sendiri dan orang lain, mengurus emosi, membina perhubungan erat dengan
orang sekeliling, perasaan kekitaan, mampu menyesuaikan diri dengan perubahan semasa. Seterusnya,
Program Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) pula mula bertapak di US, dan kini telah terlaksana
secara global (Marcelino Botin Foundation Report, 2008). SEL adalah dirujuk sebagai satu proses
dimana kanak-kanak dan orang dewasa memperoleh dan mengaplikasi pengetahuan, sikap dan
kemahiran yang berkaitan degan pengurusan emosi, rasa simpati kepada orang lain, memperkukuh
hubungan dan membuat keputusan secara rasional (CASEL, 2017). Antara program berasaskan SEL
ialah Fast Track Preventation (USA), KidsMatter (Australia), dan Walk Talk Programme (Ireland).
Dalam kontek Pendidikan di Malaysia, perkembangan emosi merupakan salah satu daripada
empat komponen dalam modal insan seimbang disamping intelek, rohani dan jasmani. Walau
bagaimanapun, fokus terhadap aspek intelek lebih dominan dengan tumpuan kepada pembelajaran
masih lagi berorentasikan peperiksaan (Noorzeliana Idris, 2016). Walau bagaimanapun, dalam konteks
Malaysia, program-program intervensi berkaitan dengan kecerdasan emosi masih kurang walaupun
penekanan terhadap keperluan kecerdasan emosi terkandung dalam bahagian aspirasi murid pada Pelan
Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia 2013-2025 (PPPM 2013-2025) (Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia, 2012). Penekanan terhadap kecerdasan emosi ini juga membuka pintu persepsi yang luas
untuk pelaksanaan kerana tiada penerangan secara mendalam, malah hanya dinyatakan sekali sahaja
pada muka surat bertanda 2-5 dalam buku PPPM 2013-2015 (Halimah, Eow dan Chuan, 2016).
Untuk merancang program-program intervensi yang bersesuaian, maklumat mengenai

kecerdasan emosi pelajar perlu diketahui. Maka kajian ini dijalankan untuk memgenal pasti tahap
kecerdasan emosi pelajar mengikut lima domain iaitu kesedaran kendiri, mengurus emosi,
memotivasikan diri, empati dan kemahiran sosial. Kajian ini akan memberikan maklumat mengenai
domain yang perlu diberikan perhatian dalam perancangan program-program intervensi di sekolah
supaya lebih bersasar dan sesuai dengan keperluan pelajar.
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Sorotan Kajian
Kecerdasan emosi (Emotional Intelligence -EI) merupakan satu konstruk psikologi yang mula popular
pada awal 1990-an. Salovey and Mayer (1990) merupakan pelopor awal mengenai konsep EI dan
menerangkannya “the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate
among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions” (p. 189). Individu yang
mempunyai EI yang tinggi digambarkan sebagai berkebolehan mengawal dan menilai emosi bukan
sahaja diri sendiri, malah orang yang ada di persekitaran mereka. Sehubungan dengan itu mereka
berkebolehan untuk memahami emosi diri sendiri serta orang lain dan menggunakan kelebihan ini
untuk menghasilkan motivasi diri dan pemikiran yang rasional. Konsep kecerdasan emosi semakin
popular apabila Goleman (1995) menerbitkan buku beliau iaitu Emotional Intelligence: Why it can
more than IQ. Goleman menyatakan bahawa IQ hanya menyumbang 20% daripada kejayaan seseorang
dan selebihnya 80% ditentukan oleh kecerdasan emosi.
Terdapat dua perspektif yang mempelopori penerangan tentang EI iaitu model kebolehan dan
model campuran. Model kebolehan berpendapat bahawa EI merupakan satu bentuk kecerdasan yang
menekankan kebolehan berkaitan emosi. Ini dapat dilihat dalam model kebolehan kecerdasan emosi
oleh John Mayer dan Peter Salovey (1990, 1997). Model kebolehan menekankan EI sebagai satu bentuk
kebolehan mental yang tulen. Hubungan antara emosi dan kognisi dijelaskan melalui bagaimana emosi
berinteraksi dengan kognisi. Misalnya, individu yang mempunyai mood yang baik lebih cenderung
untuk berfikir secara positif dan sebaliknya (Mayer, 2001). Konsep kecerdasan emosi Mayer dan
Salovey adalah berdasarkan model kecerdasan tradisional (kognitif) dan cuba mendefiniskan
kecerdasan emosi dalam konteks standard kriteria bagi kecerdasan baharu (Mayer et al., 2003).
Menurut Stys dan Brown (2004) kecerdasan emosi telah dibahagikan kepada dua bahagian iaitu
experiential (kebolehan untuk menyedari, bertindak balas dan memanipulasi maklumat emosi tanpa
perlu memahaminya) dan strategik (kebolehan untuk memahami dan mengurus emosi tanpa mengalami
sesuatu emosi sepenuhnya). Setiap bahagian kemudian dibahagi kepada dua cabang yang merangkumi
proses psikologikal asas kepada proses yang lebih kompleks iaitu integrasi emosi dan kognitif. Model
kecergasan emosi Mayer dan Salovey (1997) ini dikenali sebagai model kebolehan empat cabang
kecerdasan emosi yang merangkumi persepsi emosi, fasilisati emosi, memahami emosi dan mengurus
emosi.
Model campuran pula merupakan gabungan kebolehan mental dengan ciri-ciri personaliti
(Mayer, 2009). Misalnya, model kecerdasan emosi oleh Reuvan Bar-On (1997) berdasarkan kepada
teori personaliti yang menekankan kebergantungan kepada aspek kecerdasan emosi dengan sifat
personaliti dan aplikasinya terhadap kesejahteraan peribadi. Manakala, model campuran oleh Goleman
(1995) lebih memberikan fokus kepada gabungan kebolehan dan personaliti seseorang dan aplikasi di
tempat kerja. Model Goleman menekankan bagaimana kemahiran emosi asas dapat meningkatkan
kebolehan seseorang untuk Berjaya dalam kehidupan melalui “literasi emosi” (Stys dan Brown, 2004).
Pada asalnya model Goleman (1995) mempunyai lima domain iaitu kesedaran kendiri, mengurus
emosi, memotivasikan diri, empati dan kemahiran sosial. Goleman (1998) telah mengkaji fungsi
kecerdasan emosi dalam pekerjaan dan merumuskan bahawa kecerdasan emosi merupakan peramal
kepada kejayaan kerjaya. Kecerdasan emosi ini juga tidak dibentuk secara semuajadi seperti
kecerdasan IQ, tetapi dibentuk dari semasa ke semasa. Model campuran kecerdasan emosi Goleman
(2001) yang terkini mempunyai 20 kompetensi yang dikategorikan kepada empat dimensi iaitu
kesedaran kendiri, pengurusan kendiri, kesedaran sosial dan kemahiran sosial.
Perbincangan mengenai EI dalam kontek Pendidikan banyak berpegang kepada andaian

bahawa EI membantu kepada keberkesanan pembelajaran di sekolah. Pelajar berhadapan dengan
pelbagai tekanan akademik seperti menghadapi peperiksaan, menyiapkan tugasan dan membuat
pembentangan serta terdedah kepada peristiwa seperti buli, peraturan sekolah, gangguan seksual dan
sebagainya (Hawkins, Smith, & Catalano, 2004). Mereka yang mempunyai EI yang tinggi akan lebih
mampu untuk berhadapan dengan segala tekanan tersebut dan ini membolehkan mereka dapat fokus
kepada pembelajaran. EI dikaitkan dengan kebolehan seseorang untuk berhadapan dengan tekanan
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persekitaran. Misalnya, individu yang mempunyai emosi yang positif seperti semangat dan
kebanggaan, mendorong pemikiran kreatif, dan merangsang pelajar untuk menyelesaikan tugas kerja
mereka dengan bersunguh-sungguh (Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005). Sebaliknya, emosi negatif seperti
ketakutan, dengki, dan kesedihan boleh memberi kesan buruk terhadap kemampuan dan motivasi
pelajar untuk fokus pada tugas sekolah mereka (Zeidner, 1998). Seterusnya, pelajar EI yang tinggi lebih
mahir mengatur emosi mereka sendiri dan orang lain untuk memupuk interaksi positif dengan rakan
sekelas mereka, yang menghasilkan iklim bilik darjah dan sekolah yang positif dan prestasi akademik
yang lebih baik.
Metod Kajian
Kajian ini menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif dengan soal selidik sebagai instrument pengumpulan
data. Melibatkan pelajar seramai 240 murid sekolah menengah yang terletak di kawasan Kota Kinabalu
Sabah. Soal selidik mengandungi dua bahagian utama iaitu demografi dan juga pencapaian akademik.
Pencapaian akademik adalah merujuk kepada keputusan Ujian Setara. Bahagian dua kecerdasan emosi
murid menggunakan Schutte Self-Report Inventory (Schutte at al., 1998) dan juga model campuran
kecerdasan emosi Goleman (1995). Terdapat lima konstruk domain kecerdasan emosi yang diukur
iaitu: kesedaran kendiri, mengurus emosi, memotivasi diri, empati dan kemahiran sosial. Keseluruhan
terdapat 33 item dengan pecahan mengikut konstruk seperti berikut: kesedaran kendiri (6 item),
mengurus emosi (9 item), memotivasi diri (5 item), empati (7 item) dan kemahiran sosial (6 item).
Maklum balas responden adalah dalam bentuk Skala Likert Empat Mata iaitu “Sangat Tidak Setuju-
STS”, “Tidak Setuju-TS”, “Setuju-S” dan “Sangat Setuju”. Analisis data mengunakan statistik
deskriptif, iaitu nilai min untuk membandingkan tahap kecerdasan emosi untuk setiap domain.
Manakala, analisis Kolerasi Pearson digunakan untuk melihat hubungan antara setiap domain dengan
pencapaian akademik. Pencapaian akademik diukur berdasarkan nilai purata nilai gred untuk
peperiksaan setara.
Dapatan Kajian
Kajian ini telah melibatkan seramai 240 orang responden, dengan seramai seramai 115 orang
merupakan lelaki dan selebihnya 125 orang (%) merupakan perempuan. Seramai 65% responden
adalah Bumiputera Sabah, Melayu (25%) dan lain-lain termasuk bangsa Cina dan India hanya 10 %.
Pencapaian Ujian Setara menunjukkan separuh daripada responden (53%) berada dalam julat markah
kedua rendah iaitu 40 hingga 59 markah. Hanya 1.6 peratus sahaja berada dalam julat 80 hingga 100
markah.
Tahap Kecerdasan Emosi
Jadual 1 menunjukkan tahap kecerdasan emosi untuk lima domain. Dari aspek tahap kecerdasan emosi,
tiga domain berada pada tahap sederhana iaitu mengurus emosi (Min 2.99), empati (Min 2.89) dan
kemahiran sosial (Min 2.88). Manakala dua domain lagi pada tahap kecerdasan emosi tinggi iaitu
motivasi diri (Min 3.10) dan kesedaran diri (Min 3.01).
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Jadual 1
Tahap kecerdasan emosi
Domain kecerdasan emosi Nilai Min Tahap kecerdasan
Motivasi diri 3.10 Tinggi
Kesedaran kendiri 3.01 Tinggi
Mengurus emosi 2.99 Sederhana
Empati 2.89 Sederhana
Kemahiran Sosial 2.88 Sederhana
Perbandingan antara domain menunjukkan kesedaran kendiri dan motivasi diri mencatat nilai min
melebihi 3.0. Ini memberikan gambaran bahawa responden berkebolehan untuk memahami perasaan
diri sendiri, mengawal tindakan diri dan mengambil inisiatif maju ke hadapan. Kemahiran sosial
mempunyai nilai min yang paling rendah (Min=2.88) berbanding dengan domain lain. Ini
mengambarkan responden kurang berkebolehan untuk mengurus, mempengaruhi dan menginspirasikan
orang dalam persekitaran mereka.
Hasil temu bual bersama dengan guru kaunseling mendapati beberapa faktor penyumbang
kepada masalah kemahiran sosial. Faktor pertama ialah pengaruh gadget, iaitu pada masa sekarang
budaya ‘melayan sosial media’ dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah, malah masyarakat mengurangkan
interaksi antara individu sama ada sesama ahli keluarga atau rakan. Ibu bapa pula sibuk berkerja,
menyebabkan anak-anak menghabiskan masa dengan gadjet tanpa kawalan dan ‘ketagih gadjet’ini
terbawa-bawa sehingga ke dalam persekitaran luar rumah.
Hubungan antara kecerdasan emosi dan pencapaian akademik

Jadual 2 menunjukkan kolerasi untuk keseluruhan EI dan juga sub-domain EI (Kesedaran kendiri,
mengurus emosi, memotivasi diri, empati, kemahiran sosial) dengan pencapaian akademik murid.
Dapatan menunjukkan terdapat kolerasi positif yang signifikan antara EI dengan pencapaian akademik
(r=.661; p‹0.01). seterusnya, terdapat hubungan kolerasi positif yang signifikan antara pencapaian
akademik dengan setiap sub-domian EI iaitu kesedaran kendiri (r=.712; p‹0.01),mengurus emosi
(r=.653; p‹0.01), memotivasi diri (r=.640; p‹0.01), (r=.661; p‹0.01) empati (r=.638; p‹0.01) dan
kemahiran sosial (r=.641; p‹0.01).
Perbincangan
Elemen kecerdasan emosi sangat penting ditekankan dalam pendidikan kerana elemen intelektual
sahaja tidak menjamin kejayaan seseorang dalam kehidupan. Berdasarkan hasil kajian ini, murid
didapati mempunyai motivasi serta kesedaran kendiri, namun kurang kebolehan dalam mengurus
emosi, empati dan kemahiran sosial.
Jadual 2
Hubungan antara kecerdasan emosi dan pencapaian akademik
r p**
Keseluruhan EI .661 .000
Sub-domain EI
Kesedaran kendiri .712 .000
Mengurus emosi .653 .000
Memotivasi diri .640 .000
Empati .638 .000
Kemahiran sosial .641 .000
Ini mungkin disebabkan elemen motivasi dan kesedaran kendiri ini diterapkan melalui program-
program motivasi untuk mencapai keputusan cemerlang yang kerap kali dianjurkan di sekolah. Kurang
kebolehan dalam mengurus emosi boleh menyebabkan pelbagai masalah kesihatan mental seperti
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kemurungan, kurang kawalan diri sehingga boleh menyebabkan kejadian seperti bunuh diri (Chan et
al. (2016).
Hasil kajian ini juga menunjukkan terdapat perhubungan yang positif antara kecergasan emosi
dengan pencapaian akademik murid. Hasil ini sejajar dengan banyak kajian. Kecerdasan emosi
menyokong pencapaian akademik kerana individu yang cerdas emosi akan dapat berfikir dengan lebih
baik (Mayer, 2000). Oleh yang demikian, program-program khas untuk pembangunan kecerdasan
emosi perlu diberikan perhatian sewajarnya di sekolah. Program intervensi di luar negara membuktikan
aktiviti-aktiviti yang dirancang mampu menyokong perkembangan kecerdasan emosi murid (Cefai et
al., 2018). Kecerdasan emosi berkembang melalui interaksi individu dengan persekitarannya (Saarni,
2008). Apabila memasuki sekolah menengah, murid terdedah kepada interaksi dengan maka melalui
program intervensi menyediakan persekitaran yang memberikan peluang kepada murid daripada
peringkat awal untuk membangunkan EI.
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MEDIATION STRATEGIES AND ITS ROLE ON PRETEENS’ MEDIA-

INDUCED RISK OF SOCIOEMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT
Crystal Ling* & Hon Kai Yee
Faculty of Psychology and Education, Universiti Malaysia Sabah
*Corresponding author’ e-mail: mp1911208t@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The digital world provides the platform for Malaysian youths to engage with the use of gadgets with ease. Pre-
adolescents start to explore their identity and social construct through social media. In the media-induced
environment, the children’s socioemotional aspect can be influenced. Excessive screen time can result in the
prospect of negative emotional and behavioral adjustment to the environment. As a result, parental mediation
strategies are adapted to manage the relation between children and media while promoting positive
socioemotional adjustment. The aim of the study is to investigate the association between parental mediation
strategies and children’s socioemotional adjustment. A random sampling of 177 Kota Kinabalu parents who have
9-to-11-year-old children participated in the study using the Google forms online questionnaire. The set of
questionnaire includes demographic information, Livingstone and Helsper (2008) parental mediation strategies,
and Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Among the strategies, the results displayed monitoring and
active co-use are significant predictors on children’s prosocial behavior; F (2, 174) = 14.393, p < .05. Monitoring
significantly reduced the risk of conduct problems; F (1, 175) = 5.267, , p < .05 and hyperactivity/inattention; F
(1, 175) = 13.920, p < .05. Active co-use was negatively associated with peer problems; F (1, 175) = 7.005, p
< .05. In summary, parents need to adjust themselves to manage children’s media use so that it can help build or
maintain their emotional behavioral context. Appropriate guidance about screen time and gadget use can benefit
the children to comprehend the rules and regulations in a positive manner. There is a need for further research
with diverse samples and perspectives to best understanding the mechanism.
Keywords: parental rules, pre-adolescents, socioemotional adjustment
Introduction
On the brink of the new ear of sophisticated gadgets, it encourages the upward trend of young users
to social media and the Internet. They also become owners of their individual gadgets to use for
entertainment/recreational, educational, and social purposes. Frequent screen time and gadget
exposure deprive the children’s interest from socializing and engaging with their environment (e.g.
Suhana, 2017; Ummah, 2018), leading to the negative risk of their emotional and behavioral changes
(Maryam et al., 2016).
In the media-induced environment, parents should regulate themselves in providing their

supervision, guidance, and plans. Their intentions to manage their children’s Internet and smartphone
use (Hsieh, Yen, & Chou, 2019) are encouraged. These strategies are generally referred to ‘parental
mediation’ (Shin & Huh, 2011). The significance of parental role in children’s media-related practices
can be associated with their children’s media induced socio-emotional development (Nikken &
Schols, 2015). Parental mediation strategies can help construct a tailor-made environment for the
children to use their gadgets in moderation and promote their appropriate socialization.
To understand parental mediation strategies influence on youth’s socioemotional adjustment,

only few researches are reflected to aim on this matter (e.g. Van Petegem et al., 2019; Hsueh & Chng,
2016; Gentile, Reimer, Nathanson, Walsh, & Eisenmann, 2014). In term of child adjustment, Van
Petegem et al. (2019) did not explore thoroughly such that their emotional and social outcomes can
be understood clearly. Active and restrictive parental mediation both are significantly associated with
self-regulatory competencies and impulsivity among teens (Hsueh & Chng, 2016). Parental
monitoring, though, notably influences on children’s social outcomes in term of prosocial and
aggressive behavior (Gentile et al., 2014). On the other hand, the study is deficient in comprehending
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distinct parental mediation strategies on the context of child’s emotional behavioral adjustment. In
Malaysian context, such research is also insufficient.
With parents integrating mobile devices into their life, it prompts the exposure of these
devices among Malaysian children. MCMC (2018) survey reported that a high rate of 90% among 5-
to-17-year-old children using the Internet. Among the states in Malaysia, Sabah was the third highest
percentage distribution of Internet users by state of residence (9.7%) (MCMC, 2017).
Preadolescents are characterized to have more sensible perspectives and behaviors with an
increased decision-making. Parents need to learn about the appropriate ways to deal with their
children and the media-related behaviors. Their increasingly active engagement in gadgets cannot
deviate from the parental rules and peer influence, but it can be challenging to forcefully impose these
rules on the children. Thus, this creates awareness in parents’ efforts to strategize the ways to mediate
their children’s media use as well as benefit the children’s emotional and behavioral adjustment. The
present study takes the opportunity to examine the significant influence of parental mediation
strategies (active co-use, interaction restriction, technical restriction, and monitoring) on emotional
behavioral adjustment among children aged 9-11 years old. Research questions are formulated as
follow:
RQ 1: Is active co-use a significant predictor to the contexts of socioemotional adjustment among pre-
adolescents?
RQ 2: Is interaction restriction a significant predictor to the contexts of socioemotional adjustment
among pre-adolescents?
RQ 3: Is technical restriction a significant predictor to the contexts of socioemotional adjustment
RQ 4: Is monitoring a significant predictor to the contexts of socioemotional adjustment among pre-
adolescents?
Methods
Research Design
The design of the research was in the form of quantitative research. The questionnaires were prepared
via Google form with parents as the targeted sample.
Research Population and Sample

The population consists of the parents with primary school children aged from 9 to 11 years old in
Kota Kinabalu, Sabah. The population is 40,620 as per the data in 2018 from Department of Statistics
Sabah at Kompleks Pentadbiran Kerajaan Persekutuan Sabah. Within the population, the sampling
method used in the study is random sampling via Excel. G*Power3.1 (Faul, Erdfelder, Buchner, &
Lang, 2009) is used to calculate the sample size, with medium effect size (f2 = .15) (Cohen, 1988). A
total of 178 respondents were required to achieve a power of .95. In the present study, 177 parents are
involved as the respondents.
Research Location
This research location takes place in the areas within Kota Kinabalu district. The target places are
mainly the primary schools.
Research Procedure
Before the study, the appeal to conduct the research was obtained from the Ministry of Education
Malaysia and Sabah Education Department as well as a few selected primary schools in Kota
Kinabalu, capital city of Sabah, Malaysia. The Google Docs link with the questionnaire was provided
to the parents with the help and consent of primary schools.
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Research Instrument
The questionnaires prepared for the representative sample were in trilingual (English, Malay, and
Chinese) translation. Each set comprises of three parts: demographic information, Livingstone and
Helsper (2008) Parental Mediation as well as Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)
(Goodman, 1994).
Demographic information comprises of items related to gender, age, religion, education level,
monthly income level of the family, employment status, and marriage status. Livingstone and Helsper
(2008) Parental Mediation includes 4 subscales: active co-use (9 items), interaction restriction (4
items), technical restriction (7 items), and monitoring (4 items). SDQ includes 25 items equally
divided among the subscales which are emotional problems, conduct problems, hyperactivity, peer
problems, and prosocial behaviors (Goodman, 1994; Hosokawa & Katsuma, 2015).
Results
Multiple Regression Analysis for the Subscales of Livingstone and Helsper (2008) Parental
Mediation (LHPM) on Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)
Table 1 indicates the results about the multiple regression analysis for the independent variables
(subscales of LHPM) and dependent variables (subscales of SDQ).
Table 1
Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis for the Subscales of LHPM on SDQ for Parents
Predictors β t p R2 F
Outcome: Emotional problems .025 .347
Active co-use -.115 -1.079 .282
Interaction restriction .029 .248 .805
Technical restriction -.008 -.084 .934
Monitoring -.087 -.780 .436
Outcome: Conduct problems
Active co-use -.016 -.189 .851
Technical restriction .077 .798 .426
Monitoring -.171 -2.295 .023 .024 5.267
Outcome: Hyperactivity
Active co-use -.080 -.945 .346
Interaction restriction -.011 -.121 .904
Monitoring -.271 -3.731 .000 .068 13.920
Outcome: Peer problems
Active co-use -.215 -2.915 .004 .046 8.497
Monitoring -.126 -1.479 .141
Outcome: Prosocial behavior
Active co-use .220 2.702 .008 .132 14.393
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Interaction restriction -.161 -1.468 .144

Technical restriction .004 .045 .964
Monitoring .215 2.643 .009 .132 14.393
β = Standard beta coefficient, t = t-test statistics, p = significant level.
Based on the outcome shown in Table 1, it shows that the monitoring subscale of LHPM
explained 2.4% of variation in the conduct problems, F(1, 175) = 5.27; 6.8% of variation in the
hyperactivity, F(1, 175) = 13.92; 13.2% of variation in the prosocial behavior, F(2, 174) = 14.39; p <
.05, with respect to the subscales of SDQ. Monitoring subscale was found to be a strong and
significant predictor to conduct problems, hyperactivity, and prosocial behavior subscale of SDQ.
Active co-use subscale was known to explain 4.6% of variation in the peer problems, F(1,
175) = 8.50; as well as, similar to monitoring, 13.2% of variation in the prosocial behavior subscale
of SDQ; F(2, 174) = 14.39, p < .05. Active co-use was denoted as a significant predictor on the peer
problem and prosocial behavior subscales of SDQ.
Nevertheless, interaction restriction and technical restriction do not significantly influence on

any subscale of SDQ. In addition, there is no significant influence of LHPM strategies on the
emotional problems subscale of SDQ. The research question testing results are summarized in Table
2.
Table 2
Results of research question testing
Research questions Level of sig. Outcome

RQ 1: Is active co-use a significant predictor to the Significant Accepted in the context of
contexts of socioemotional adjustment among pre- peer problems & prosocial
adolescents?
RQ 2: Is interaction restriction a significant Not significant Not accepted
predictor to the contexts of socioemotional
adjustment among pre-adolescents?
RQ 3: Is technical restriction a significant predictor Not significant Not accepted
to the contexts of socioemotional adjustment
RQ 4: Is monitoring a significant predictor to the Significant Accepted in the context of
contexts of socioemotional adjustment among pre- conduct problems,
adolescents? hyperactivity, & prosocial
Discussion
Among the strategies, monitoring is a significant predictor on the conduct problems, hyperactivity, and
prosocial behavior among 9-to-11-year-old children. Monitoring refers to parents’ routine examination
on the children’s media activities (Livingstone & Helsper, 2008). In Malaysia, parents practice
collectivist values and so, most of them tend to adapt authoritarian parenting as normative for rearing
their children (Keshavarz & Baharudin, 2009). Prior to this matter, the role of culture correspondingly
influences the parental mediation strategies among Kota Kinabalu parents.
Parents are responsible to check on their children’s usage of media in term of frequency and
content. They can be more aware of their children’s media activity through close inspection while have
control over their screen time. It would be effective if there is a moderation between strict discipline
style and indulgent parenting. With that, the children tend to adjust themselves under the parents’
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monitoring. From the result, it displayed that there was no significant influence of monitoring on the
emotional problems and peer problems context. The children are still accustomed with prioritizing the
collectivist values of social conventions and in-group (family) interdependence. The nature of
monitoring does not buffer the emotional relationship between parents and children. As for peer
problems, such problem behavior is reciprocally associated with parental knowledge predicted by
adolescent disclosure, rather than parental monitoring (Lippold, Greenberg, Graham, & Feiberg, 2014).
The results indicated that active co-use notably impacts on the peer problems and prosocial
behavior context of children’s adjustment. Parents spend quality time in using media simultaneously
with their children while discussing about the negative impact and appropriate use (Livingstone et al.,
2011). Schaan and Melzer (2014) explained that the form of active co-use (active-emotional co-use)
increases family ties through inter-generational interactions, which then prompts a resilience to reduce
the risk of problematic child behavior when they face challenging social situations. This can be
associated with lesser risk of peer problems and increasing prosocial behavior among the children.
Notwithstanding, the interaction and technical restriction do not reflect as significant predictors on any
content of the children’s adjustment. It would be harder for parents to implement interaction restriction
such that they ban their children’s social interaction apps, playing online games, and downloading items
online to address problematic activities (Livingstone & Helsper, 2008). This may put demand on the
parent-child relationship as well as conflict with the advance and adaptability of technology. As for the
technical restriction, filtering and monitoring software is adapted to keep track of the children’s online
activity (Daud, Omar, Hassan, Bolong, & Teimouri, 2014). Not all the parents are familiar or
knowledgeable with its utility. Thus, it, may be the reason why these two strategies less likely to
influence on the children’s adjustment.
Conclusion
In summary, monitoring and active co-use are significant predictors on the contexts of children’s
socioemotional adjustment with it being more corresponded with the nature of parenting styles in Kota
Kinabalu. These two parental mediation strategies also have similar effect on prosocial behavior
context. Monitoring significantly influences the context of conduct problems and hyperactivity while
active co-use notably predicts in the risk of peer problems. The findings noted of a few limitations and
among them is based on the utility of self-reported questionnaire. This makes it vulnerable to biases
and over- or under-estimation of the parents’ view of their mediation styles on children. In addition, it
is undeniable the presence of conceivable factors such as background factors influencing the
instruments, especially parent-report of SDQ. Aside from the children’s age set as controlled variable,
the other variables are not within control and may contribute as confounding factors on the findings.
Despite those limitations, the research took the approach to examine on different styles of parental
mediation and in-depth aspects of emotional behavioral adjustment among children.
Impact of Study
The study provides the contribution to the literature about the understanding of association between
parental mediation strategies and children’s socioemotional adjustment in the context of Malaysia. It
also creates the apprehension among Malaysian parents about the significance of parental mediation
strategies (monitoring and active co-use) on reducing the risk of children’s conduct problems,
hyperactivity/inattention, and peer problems as well as promoting prosocial behavior. Besides the
parents’ benefits, the knowledge can provide the insight among teachers and media professionals into
providing guidelines for children without conflicting with parents.
Future Recommendation
For future studies, a qualitative approach can be recommended as to better understand and comprehend
the context of parental mediation on children’s emotional behavioral adjustment. The inclusion of
qualitative data allows the researchers to be far more speculative and insights about the area of parental
mediation and its effect on children’s socioemotional aspect. The research can also include more ethnics
and cultural aspects to be studied for better generalization of findings as this field is still inadequate.
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FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH WDB AMONG MALAYSIAN PUBLIC

SERVANTS IN SABAH.
*Farah Mardiana Binti Radzali, Chua Bee Seok, & Ismail Maakip
Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: farah.mardiana.radzali@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Workplace deviant behavior exists when employees violate the organization’s norms and harm or intend to harm
organizations and/or its members. It has negative effects on the organization’s productivity and well-being. This
concern has led to numerous researches related to workplace deviant behavior and development of various
motivational programs to help employees work efficient and enhance their performances. Workplace deviant
behavior is a serious issue that can jeopardize organizational goals if it is not encountered. However, there are
limited studies that focus on the predictors of workplace deviant behavior. The objective of this paper is to identify
which independent variables (workplace spirituality, personality-based integrity, and job satisfaction) are most
important in predicting workplace deviant behavior. The participants of this study comprise of Malaysian public
servants in Sabah through simple random and cluster sampling procedures using self-administered questionnaires
through the drop and collect method. The data were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis.
The relationships between workplace spirituality, personality-based integrity, and job satisfaction with workplace
deviant behavior were negatively significant, it shows higher perceived workplace spirituality, personality-based
integrity, and job satisfaction lead to decrease workplace deviant behavior among the respondents. These results
also explained, between the three predictor factors (workplace spirituality, personality-based integrity, and job
satisfaction), workplace spirituality was achieved the higher value β=-0.961, p<0.001), compared to personality-
based integrity (β=-0.808, p<0.001) and job satisfaction, β=-0.784, p<0.001). It means that workplace spirituality
was the most influential in predicting workplace deviant behavior. The results also serve as evidence that job
stress, personality-based integrity and work engagement are related to workplace deviant behavior. The results of
this study are hopefully will contribute to the body of knowledge on workplace deviant behavior.
Keywords: organizational, psychology, behavior, well-being, personality
Introduction
Malaysia’s ranking in Corruption Perception Index (CPI) for 2020 falls to number 57 compared to
number 51 in 2019. According to Transparency International Malaysia (TI-M), across 180 countries,
Malaysia’s scored 51% compared to 53% in the previous year. The countries that falls in highest rank
in CPI are Denmark, New Zealand, Finland and Singapore. CPI in year 2020 among Islamic countries,
Malaysia falls in number 6 after United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar, Brunei, Oman, and Saudi Arabia.
Among ASEAN countries, Malaysia placed 3rd after Singapore which placed 1st with an 85% score and
placed 4th in the world ranking. Brunei placed second with score a of 60% which is the same in 2019
and remain at the 35th place in the world ranking. The declination of Malaysian’s CPI score shows the
need for research to be conducted especially in the public sector because it shows that the inefficiency
of public services becomes increasingly serious concerning issues of corruption, which is part of
workplace deviant behaviour (Omar, Awang & Manaf, 2012).
Past research found that workplace spirituality, personality-based integrity, and job satisfaction
are predictors of workplace deviant behavior (Chawla & Guda, 2010; Bazzy & Woehr, 2017; Czarnota-
Bojarska, 2015). Most workplace deviant behavior researchers concentrated on the consequences of
workplace deviance and few studies focus on the predictors of workplace deviant behavior. Thus, it is
significant to conduct this study given the evidence of deviant behavior at the workplace is on the rise
(Bowling & Gruys, 2010). Thirdly, even though workplace spirituality has gained recognition among
academicians, researchers, and practitioners (Gupta, Kumar & Singh, 2014) as an important predictor
of workplace behavior, still there is a lack of studies that have explored the relationship between
workplace spirituality and workplace behavior (Ahmad & Omar, 2014), particularly in Sabah. Although
Chawla and Guda (2010) found a negative correlation between workplace spirituality and absenteeism;
which is part of workplace deviance, research using the full framework of the workplace deviant
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behavior model should be conducted to understand the phenomenon better. Therefore, workplace
spirituality is chosen as one of the independent variables in predicting workplace deviant behavior. To
fill in this gap of knowledge, the present study was conducted to examine the relationship of workplace
spirituality, integrity, and job satisfaction as antecedent variables among Malaysian public servants.
Based on the problem described in the previous section, the paper is trying to answer is: Which
of the independent variables (workplace spirituality, personality-based integrity, and job satisfaction)
are most important in predicting workplace deviant behavior? Concerning the above research question,
the present study objective is: To identify which independent variables (workplace spirituality,
personality-based integrity, and job satisfaction) are most important in predicting workplace deviant
behavior.
Spillover Theory
Spillover theory is a theory that can explain the influence of spiritual and positive values, and
satisfaction on attitudinal outcomes such as workplace behavior. There are two types of spillover-
horizontal and vertical spillover (Kolodinsky, Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2008). According to Lee, Sirgy,
Efraty, and Siegel (2003), vertical spillover means satisfaction in one life dimension influences the
overall life satisfaction. While horizontal spillover means “satisfaction with one life domain influences
satisfaction of the others life domain” (Lee et al., 2003). It also can be said, when employees satisfy
with their spirituality at the workplace, it influences their work life.
In other words, spirituality will inhibit hostility at the workplace to occur. According to
Emmons (1999), spirituality helps to instill meaning into one’s work. This explains the relationship
between workplace spirituality and workplace deviant behavior. The same goes for personality-based
integrity and job satisfaction, the positive input will trigger the positive output which hinders the
negativity to occur. In this context of the study, when employees are considered to have personality-
based integrity, they will do the best in their job as the “spillover” the values of integrity into the
workplace context. In consequence, they are far from being misbehaving at the workplace. Also, if the
employees are satisfied with their job, they will be more productive and reduce the tendency of
misconduct in the workplace. Hence, this theory is chosen to explain the relationships between
workplace spirituality, personality-based integrity, and job satisfaction on workplace deviant behavior.
Factors Explaining WDB
Workplace Spirituality
There are growing interests in workplace spirituality areas over the last decade of the twentieth century
(Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003) and gaining recognition among academicians, business professionals,
and researchers (Gupta et al., 2014). Based on the theoretical assumptions, workplace spirituality might
postulate a positive impact on the organization (Jurkiewicz & Giacalone, 2004). Also, past research
conducted by Kolodinsky et al (2008) which comprises 74 students enrolled in graduate programs and
have working for their organizations for 1-5 years, concludes that workplace spirituality gives
significant outcomes towards a positive attitude. According to Gupta et al (2014), spirituality plays a
crucial role to overcome social issues as it is about being positive, both toward self and others.
Personality-based Integrity
Integrity is a decision to moral and ethical principles; reliability of moral character; and honesty. It is
an important aspect of personal characteristics that can be a powerful influence in any setting. Any
intimidation to integrity in the workplace may lead to a hostile environment that may be harmful to
other stakeholders. Steele (1988) proposed that self-integrity includes self-esteem, a sense of identity,
and a sense of control. Also, Cleary and Horsfall (2013) interpret it as a universal phenomenon that
joins personal characteristics, cognition, and interpersonal awareness. According to EAIC, integrity is
defined as individual and organizational norms that are perfect, have a core of noble values such as
honesty, true, trustworthiness, fairness, responsible, transparency, efficiency, and wisdom.
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Job Satisfaction
In general, job satisfaction refers to the employees’ views of their working atmosphere, relations among
coworkers, earnings, and promotion opportunities. It is a crucial aspect as it improves the organization’s
well-being (Girma, 2016). According to Locke (1976), job satisfaction is defined as a pleasurable or
constructive emotional state, which is resulting from an employees’ appreciation for his or her
occupation or work experience. It is expected for job satisfaction to negatively correlate with workplace
deviant behavior as positive emotion positively correlates with positive workplace behavior such as
organizational commitment behavior. Conversely, negative emotions from job dissatisfaction will lead
to negative workplace behavior such as workplace deviant behavior.
Theoretical Framework for the study of WDB
Workplace deviant behavior is usually associated with negative behavior that violates the organization’s
norms. Workplace deviant behavior occurs when the factors that lead to it exist. Based on the spillover
theory and support from previous research, these factors may lead to workplace deviant behavior.
Figure 1. Theoretical Framework-adapted from a general model of Workplace Deviant Behavior (Nair &
Bhatnagar, 2011)
Research Framework
The research framework was developed based on the spillover theory and as well as a review of past
literature regarding workplace spirituality, personality-based integrity, job satisfaction, and workplace
deviant behavior. Figure 2 shows the research framework which was developed to provide a better
understanding of the relationships between the independent variables and the dependent variable
involved in this study.
Figure 2. Research Framework
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Research Methodology
This study will employ the analytical cross-sectional approach to gather data at one point in time. This
study also will employ correlational research to investigate the relationships between the selected
independent variables and workplace deviant behavior among public servants in Sabah.
The sampling procedure used in this study is a multistage sampling. Multistage sampling splits
large populations into stages to make the sampling procedure more concrete (McBurney & White,
2009). It signifies a more complex form of cluster sampling in which larger clusters are separated into
smaller and directed groups. In this study, a combination of cluster sampling and simple random
sampling is used under multistage sampling.
Instrumentation
Workplace Deviant Behavior (24-item)

Consistent with past researches on workplace deviance, this study defined workplace deviant behavior
as voluntary behavior in a workplace that is against the organization, the employee, or both. To measure
workplace deviant behavior, this study used 24 workplace deviant behavior items are derived from
Robinson and Bennett’s (1995) study to suit the Malaysian context. Participants will be asked to rate
from 1 (never) to 7 (every day); to indicate their frequency of engaging the behavior according to the
statements. This scale includes four dimensions, namely; production deviance, political deviance,
property deviance, and personal aggression. Production deviance is a behavior that violates the formally
prohibited norms delineating the minimal quality and quantity of work to be accomplished such as
misuse of resources and funds.
Workplace Spirituality (22-item)

In this study, workplace spirituality is defined as the freedom of employees to find meaning and purpose
in their work, and the desire to connect with other employees and be part of society. Workplace
spirituality consists of 4 dimensions; compassion, mindfulness, meaningful work, and transcendence.
Compassion is defined as deep responsiveness and understanding of others (Twigg & Parayitam, 2006).
Mindfulness is defined as a state of internal awareness in which one is aware of one’s feelings and
actions moment by moment (Petchsawanga & Duchon, 2009). According to Duchon and Plowman
(2005), meaningful work generates a sense of happiness and dynamism at work. While the dimension
of transcendence in this study is described as “a positive state of vigour and energy, a sense of
excellence, and experiences of delight and enjoyment” (Kinjerski & Skrypnek, 2004). This construct
will be measured by the 22 items of the workplace spirituality measure developed by Petchsawanga and
Duchon (2012). Respondents will be asked to rate the level to which these statements describe them.
Response options with a 5-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 1 (completely not of me) to 5
(completely of me). The sample items are attached in Appendix A. The internal consistencies of
workplace spirituality instruments are 0.64 for compassion, 0.83 for mindfulness, 0.72 for meaningful
work, and 0.49 for transcendence. The internal consistency for the whole workplace spirituality
instrument is 0.76.
Job Satisfaction (20-item)

Job satisfaction refers to the employees’ perceptions of their working environment, relations among
colleagues, earnings, and promotion opportunities (Girma, 2016). In this study, job satisfaction is
operationally defined as an evaluative judgment of an individual’s satisfaction with several aspects of
his/her work or work environment as proposed by Weiss (2002). For the measurement of job
satisfaction, the 20-item Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, created by Weiss et al (1967) will be
used in this study. The items reflect how satisfied the employee about the aspect of his or her job is. A
5-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied) will be used.
The sample of items is attached in Appendix A. The internal consistency for job satisfaction is 0.78.
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Personality-based Integrity (20-item)

In this study, integrity is defined as the consistency of employees for being honest and truthful in their
actions and thought. The 20-item adopt from the Jackson Personality Inventory will be used to measure
personality-based integrity. According to Jackson (1994), the cluster labelled Dependable is most nearly
resembles the Big Five of Conscientiousness. For this reason, the cluster labelled Dependable is chosen
to measure conscientiousness as conscientiousness can be used to measure personality-based integrity
based on the justification as mentioned above. In this study, from the cluster of dependents, the subscale
of responsibility is chosen to measure personality-based integrity. According to Jackson Personality
Inventory Report, a high scorer for responsibility describe the person to have a strong obligation, to be
honest, and upright and also has a strong and inflexible conscience which reflects the most personality-
based integrity. The other subscales (i.e. traditional values and organization) are removed as they are
not the focus of this study. A 5-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 1 (completely not of me)
to 5 (completely of me) will be used. The sample of items is attached in Appendix A. The internal
consistency for personality-based integrity is 0.71.
Data Analysis and Result
A total of 400 questionnaires were distributed to potential respondents. Out of 384 responses collected,
31 responses that are considered as outliers, were excluded. Thus, 353 valid responses are used for the
final analysis, representing a response rate of 91.92 percent. The balance of 31 responses or 9% were
rejected due to the double marking on scaling and incomplete responses received from respondents.
Following Hair et al. (2010), minimum responses of 200 samples are acceptable to analyze the factor
loading through factor analysis.
Based on the two-stage approach suggested by Fornell, Larcker, Perreault, & Anderson (1988),
the validation of the measurement model was first conducted before testing the proposed structural
model using AMOS. The measurement model was assessed by using confirmatory factor analyses
(CFA) with the maximum likelihood estimation method, particularly by examining the goodness-of-fit
indices as well as the construct reliability and validity.
The model modification was carried out by following three steps. The steps include checking
the standardized factor loadings, standardized residual covariance matrix, and modification indices. The
rule of thumb of an acceptable factor loading is above 0.5 or ideally 0.7 (Hair et al. 2010), which
indicates that the value below 0.5 should be deleted to achieve a satisfactory model fit.
Convergent validity is the construct indicators that reflect a large amount of the mutual
proportion of variance among factors. It determines the amount of correlation, among the measures of
the same concept (Hair et al., 2010). Convergent validity deals with construct loadings, average variance
extracted (AVE), and construct reliabilities. As mentioned earlier, the threshold value for the factor
loading is 0.50. The average variance extracted is the sum of the square of standardized factor loadings
to represent how much variation in each item is explained by latent. The average variance extracted is
the average percentage of variation, explained by the measurement items in a construct. The standard
value of AVE is .50 or greater. Average variance extraction (AVE) cannot be computed through AMOS.
Therefore, AVE was calculated for validity. It shows the average variance extraction of each construct
and results showed that all the constructs have more than 0.50 of average variance extraction, which
shows all the constructs have enough convergent validity. The range of average variation extractions is
0.529 - 0.674.
An examination of the hypothesized relationships was performed through structural equation

modelling (SEM) using AMOS. Like the measurement model, the structural model is first checked on
the goodness-of-fit. The goodness-of-fit indices for the structural model are all within the accepted
thresholds. In particular, (df=397, p=0.000) is significant, Chisq/df=3.229 is below 5, GFI=0.941,
CFI=0.951 and TLI=0.932 are above 0.9 and, RMSEA=0.075 are lower than 0.08. Hence, the overall
model fit is adequate to test the proposed hypotheses.
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Analyzing the Effect of Predicting Factors (Workplace Spirituality, Personality based Integrity,
and Job Satisfaction) Towards Workplace Deviant Behavior
In this analysis, the researcher wanted to answer the following questions:
Which of the independent variables (workplace spirituality, personality-based integrity, and job
satisfaction) are most important in predicting workplace deviant behavior?
In particular, the effect of workplace spirituality (β=-0.961, p<0.001), personality-based integrity (β=-
.808, p<.001), and job satisfaction (β=-0.784, p<0.001) on workplace deviant behavior are significant.
The findings indicate that all the variables do have a significant relationship with each other. The results
conclude that workplace spirituality, personality-based integrity, and job satisfaction were the predictors
of workplace deviant behavior. The relationships between workplace spirituality, personality-based
integrity, and job satisfaction with workplace deviant behavior were negatively significant, it shows
higher perceived workplace spirituality, personality-based integrity, and job satisfaction lead to
decrease workplace deviant behavior among the respondents.
Based on Table 4.14, these results also explained, between the three predictor factors (workplace
spirituality, personality-based integrity, and job satisfaction), workplace spirituality was achieved the
higher value β=-0.961, p<0.001), compared to personality-based integrity (β=-0.808, p<0.001) and job
satisfaction, β=-0.784, p<0.001). It means that workplace spirituality was the most influential in
predicting workplace deviant behavior.
Table 4. 14. Summary of the Hypotheses Testing Related to Direct Effects

Hypothesized Path Expected Standardized Results
Direction Estimate
R2 (WDB)= 0.81
WS → WDB Negative 0.266*** Most influence predictor

PBI → WDB Negative 0.110*** Second influence predictor
JS → WDB Negative 0.080*** Third influence predictor
*Note: WDB – Workplace Deviant Behavior, WS – Workplace Spirituality, PBI - Personality based
Integrity, JS – Job satisfaction
Discussion And Conclusion
The main purpose of this study was to increase our knowledge of factors that influence workplace
deviant behavior in an organization. Spillover theory is a theory that can explain the influence of
spiritual and positive values, and satisfaction on attitudinal outcomes such as workplace behavior. It
was developed to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the individual factors that influence
deviant behavior among the employees.
Spirituality in the workplace according to Gupta, Kumar, and Singh (2014) is about employees
who have a common connection and togetherness with other colleagues in their work unit. Also, it is
about employees sharing and experiencing some common attachment, attraction, and togetherness with
each other within their work unit and the organization as a whole”. Through the findings of this research,
it was supported these previous empirical studies and proved that 81% of the variance was contributed
by these factors.
This is due to highly competitive environment, generally, every organization must attain a high
quality of services. Because of this pressure, employees are expected to work longer hours and to take
fewer holidays since employers are setting targets that are very high and unrealistic for their employees.
This situation results in greater anxiety and stress among employees which may, in turn, result in poor
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job performance, poor family and social relations, and poor health, which in turn reduce the level of
employee’s job satisfaction (Gupta, Kumar, & Singh, 2014). Employers have realized that employee
satisfaction does not depend on material rewards alone and that employees want more than that (Gupta,
Kumar, & Singh, 2014).
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A STUDY OF TWO GROUPS OF NAVY IN IDENTIFYING TYPE OF

EMOTIONS, REGULATING AND UNDERSTANDING EMOTIONS
Getrude Cosmas1* & Raja Nor Hanif Bin Raja Kamarulzaman2
1
2
Eastern Command Fleet Headquarters, Kota Kinabalu Naval Base
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: getrudec@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Emotion is one of the attitude elements which can affect they way people think and behave. People convey
messages through verbal cues and through emotions which is display via facial expression. In regard to this, not
all can identify the seven type of basic emotions and this sometimes brings about confusion and misunderstanding
in communication. Therefore, it is important to enhance the level of accuracy in identifying others’ emotional
expression which may help someone to regulate and understand others’ emotion well. The aims of the study is to
examine the differences between the experimental and control groups of Navy in terms of identifying types of
emotions, regulating and understanding other’s emotion (empathy). The participants were divided into two
groups; the experimental group (n=25) took part in the emotion management workshop, while the control group
(n=25) did not. All of them were selected randomly into the groups. A set of questionnaires consisting of four
parts was used; Part A measured demographic profile, Part B measured emotional regulation, Part C measured
empathy and Part D measured the identification of seven types of emotions. For the experimental group, the
questionnaire was given after the one day emotion management workshop. The study found that the the
experimental group could identify emotions more accurately compared to the control group as measured by seven
pictures portraying different type of emotions. Regarding emotional regulation and understanding emotions
(empathy), the two groups did not show any significant differences. This study showed that understanding and
differentiating various types of emotions may help enhance participants’ level of accuracy in identifying types of
emotions that are displayed through different facial expressions. For emotional regulation and empathy, although
both are innate, a comprehensive worskhop and training which allocates more time for participants to learn and
apply relevant skills in real life experiences might ne needed.
Keywords: Emotion, emotional regulation, empathy
Introduction
Sometimes, the communication of messages to another person is accompanied by our emotions, which
can be revealed through our facial expressions. When we indicate sadness or happiness, our facial
expressions will show these emotions. These two emotions are universal and thus exist across cultures.
They are easy to detect and differentiate because most people have experienced them. Other than
sadness and happiness, other basic types of emotions are fear, surprise, disgust, and contempt. Although
these basic emotions are common and universal, people may sometimes wrongly interpret them. This
misinterpretation might be due to the contradiction between emotional expression and emotional state.
As Sauter (2017) stated, emotional expressions do not always occur when an emotional state is
experienced. Conversely, some configurations of nonverbal behaviour occur despite an individual not
experiencing the emotional state onto which the expression supposedly maps. This situation may cause
confusion, leading to the misinterpretation of emotions.
According to Pogosyan and Engelmarin (2017), the ability to read emotions from faces is a vital
skill, and some even call it a superpower. It is a universal skill that people use to communicate. They
recognize and interpret facial expressions the same way because the part of the brain that understands
faces works similarly across cultures. Crivelli, a psychologist who conducted research on emotions and
facial expressions in Papua, New Guinea, in 2015, found that Trobriand Islanders recognized a
photograph showing a Western facial expression of fear (wide-eyed and mouth agape) not as a
frightened face but as an indication of threat and aggression (Meyers, 2018). According to Meyers
(2018), our expressions are less a mirror of what is going on inside us than a signal we are sending about
what we want to happen next. Many types of emotions influence how we live and interact with others.
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At times, it may seem as if we are ruled by these emotions. The choices and actions we take and the
perceptions we have can be influenced by the emotions we are experiencing at any given moment
(Kerry, 2021). For example, when we are happy, we tend to lend a helping hand to those in need. In
contrast, when we experience negative emotions, such as fear or anger, we may show a lack of interest
in helping others because we are overwhelmed by our negative emotions.
Correctly inferring emotions from others is an important component of social life (Jacob et al.,
2019). This is because it may help us understand their emotions, which is one of the important aspects
of human life. Conveying messages without emotion or with the wrong emotional signals might cause
confusion to the receiver processing the meaning of the message because emotion is one of the
attitudinal elements that can affect the way people think and behave. People convey messages through
verbal cues and through emotions, which are shown through facial expressions. However, not all people
can accurately recognize emotions, such as happiness, anger, sadness, disgust, fear, and surprise. People
sometimes become confused by these emotions. When people express their emotions, facial expressions
can vary greatly, and the actual emotions may be conveyed to a greater or lesser extent (Tarnawski et
al., 2017). For instance, some people might interpret surprise as fear, which sometimes leads to
confusion when communicating. It is therefore important to enhance the accuracy in identifying others’
emotional expressions, as that may help someone effectively understand and regulate others’ emotions.
Along with emotional recognition, understanding and regulating one’s and others’ emotions is
important to human social interaction. Identifying facial expressions does not necessarily mean that
people can understand and manage their own and other people’s emotions well. Recognizing emotions
without knowing ways of comprehending and controlling one’s and others’ emotions may interfere with
effective social interaction. For instance, if a person can only identify a friend’s expression of anger but
does not know how to understand and deal with the friend’s emotions, it may affect their social
interaction. Similarly, if a person recognizes another’s anger but does not know how to regulate and
understand their own emotions, it might disrupt their interaction with other people. These two skills,
however, need to be understood and learnt through experience and engagement in emotion management
or other relevant workshops. According to Rolston and Lloyd-Richardson (n.d.), all people feel and
experience both positive and negative emotions daily. Experiencing these emotions can sometimes
make people feel out of control, like they are on a roller coaster, and may lead to other negative
consequences, such as frustration, self-blame, guilt, and low self-worth. Besides recognizing emotions,
it is crucial to learn how to understand and regulate emotions. It leads to a better regulation and
understanding of emotions, particularly negative emotions.
In dealing with unexpected events, such as the Covid-19 pandemic, many of us might feel
overwhelmed with the new norms of living and fear of the virus contagion. People who were personally
affected, for instance, those who lost their loved ones, might be more affected by it. In this situation, it
is important to enhance our emotional recognition and regulate and understand emotions well, as these
skills can assist us in dealing with difficult, unexpected challenges in this post-modern era. Enhancing
navy personnel’s skills at identifying, regulating and understanding emotions is significant to their
careers. According to Harms et al. (2013), the military is an organizational culture characterized by an
unwillingness to display emotions or acknowledge personal weaknesses. The military is also a
profession involving many challenges that require consistently high mental and physical resiliency.
Work stress is also caused by specific job demands, such as special military operations at certain times
(Nor Lilyana & Mansor, 2010). According to McDougall (2019), today’s military leaders need to
properly understand, develop and apply empathy to build cohesive teams and make better decisions in
future operating environments. Besides empathy, military must identify their emotions and those of
others as well because these skills may help them make decisions and act accurately and rationally.
They face difficult situations when they engage in rigorous training and when they are in war zones.
Through effective emotional control, they can manage negative emotions, such as disappointment,
anger and sadness as well as positive emotions, such as happiness (Kadir et al., 2016). Based on the
preceding arguments, we focused on navy personnel by examining the differences between
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experimental and control groups of navy personnel in identifying various emotions and regulating and
understanding others’ emotions (empathy).
Literature Review
The recognition of emotional facial expressions is a central aspect of effective interpersonal
communication. Mancini et al.’s study (2018) revealed that happiness is the best-recognized emotion
during preadolescence. However, a significant decrease in recognition accuracy across age emerged for
fear expressions. Participants’ affective reactions elicited by witnessing happy facial expressions were
more pleasant and arousing than reactions elicited by other emotional expressions. Conversely, viewing
facial expressions of sadness resulted in the most negative affective reactions. Mancini et al.’s results
(2018) also revealed a developmental change in participants’ affective reactions to the stimuli of facial
expressions. They found that happy expressions were the most recognized emotions, followed by anger,
disgust and neutral expressions while sadness and fear were significantly less recognized than the other
emotions. A study conducted by Holder and Kirkpatrick (1991) observed how accurately children with
and without learning abilities interpreted emotions when restricted to information obtained from facial
expressions. Their study found that children with learning disabilities spend more time identifying
specific emotions and are less accurate in interpreting them. Younger participants also require more
time to interpret the emotions of fear and anger, and males spend more time interpreting happiness.
A study on emotional regulation conducted by Stallman et al. (2021) revealed that people use
healthy coping strategies when they are distressed and use increasingly unhealthy coping strategies
when healthy strategies are inadequate or unavailable to reduce overwhelming distress. Another study
by McClernon et al. (2011), which involved two groups of military aviation personnel (experimental
and control), found that stress training introduced for the acquisition of simulator-based flight skills for
the experimental group enhanced pilot performance during subsequent stressful flight operations in an
actual aircraft. Participants in the control group received identical flight skill acquisition training but
without stress training. The study indicates that stress training during the acquisition of flight skills may
enhance pilot performance in stressful operational flights. A study conducted by Kadir et al. (2016) of
479 Malaysian soldiers found that emotional intelligence, such as recognizing emotions, the self-
management of emotions and social skills, showed significantly negative relationships with
occupational stress. The higher their emotional recognition, self-management and social skills were, the
less likely they were to experience occupational stress. Previous studies have shown the importance of
identifying, regulating and understanding emotions not only in social interaction but also in work
performance. These three skills may help people to create communication effectively, thus enhancing
the quality of their relationships and job performance.
Methodology
Research Design
The study was based on a quasi-experimental design that compares the experimental group with the
control group. Each group consisted of 25 participants. The experimental group comprised navy
personnel who participated in an emotion management workshop conducted by the navy’s Psychology
and Counselling Department. In the one-day workshop, participants learnt different types of emotions
and components of emotions. They also differentiated different types of emotions through photographs
and were given information on various coping strategies, such as emotion-coping, problem-focused,
and relationship-focused strategies.Participants in the experimental groups were given a research
questionnaire after they had completed the emotion management workshop. The control group was
given a similar questionnaire. Participants were selected based on purposive and random sampling. The
inclusion criterion for the participants from both groups was navy personnel who worked at the same
naval base: the Kota Kinabalu Naval Base at Sepanggar Bay, Kota Kinabalu. Another inclusion criterion
for the experimental group was that they had to have completed the emotion management workshop.
The participants in the control group did not take the workshop.
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Participants
Participants in this study were navy personnel who worked at the Kota Kinabalu Naval Base at
Sepanggar Bay, Kota Kinabalu. They were divided into two groups: an experimental group (n = 25)
and a control group (n = 25). The experimental group consisted of navy personnel who were randomly
selected to join the emotion management workshop. The control group consisted of navy personnel who
did not participate in the workshop. The selection of navy personnel at the Kota Kinabalu Naval Base
was also random.
Research Instrument
A set of questionnaires consisting of four parts was used: Part A measured the demographic profile,
Part B measured emotional regulation, Part C measured empathy and Part D identified seven types of
emotions. For the experimental group, the questionnaire was given out after the emotion management
workshop. Each group of navy personnel answered a similar set of questionnaires, which consisted of
four sections. Their participation was voluntary and anonymous.
Part A: Demographic Profile of Participants
There were 10 items used to measure the participants’ demographics, including gender, academic level,
age, ethnicity, and occupation.
Part B: Emotional Regulation

This scale consists of two subscales: the cognitive reappraisal facet (items 2, 4, 6 and 9) and the
expressive suppression facet (items 1, 3, 5, 7, 8 and 10). Sample items for the cognitive reappraisal facet
are ‘When I want to feel more positive emotions (such as joy or amusement), I change what I am
thinking about’, and ‘When I am feeling positive emotions, I am careful not to express them’. Each
respondent answers each item on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7
(strongly agree).
Part C: Basic Empathy Scale

The Basic Empathy Scale (BES) is a 20-item scale developed by Jolliffe and Farrington (2006). The
participants had to give the following ratings on a 5-point Likert-type scale: 1 for ‘strongly disagree’, 2
for ‘disagree’, 3 for ‘either agree nor disagree’, 4 for ‘agree’ and 5 for ‘strongly agree’. The sample
items are ‘Seeing a person who has been angered has no effect on my feelings’, and ‘I can understand
my friend’s happiness when they do well at something’. In a two-factor model (Jolliffe & Farrington,
2006), nine items assess cognitive empathy (Items 3, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 19 and 20), and 11 items assess
affective empathy (Items 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 13, 15, 17 and 18).
Part D: Emotional Intelligence Quiz

This scale was adapted from the Emotional Intelligence Test (Greater Good Magazine, 2020). There
were seven types of facial expressions that the participants needed to identify. An accurate answer
received a score of one, and a wrong answer received no score. Participants were asked to name each
of the seven depicted emotions. Those who answered correctly received one mark, and those who
answered incorrectly received zero marks. For instance, photograph one displayed an expression of
happiness, and participants who recognized it as such were given one mark. If participants identified it
as an expression of surprise, they received no marks. Each participant had to identify seven types of
emotions (anger, sadness, happiness, fear, disgust, surprise, and contempt) that are common in everyday
life.
Results
The study showed that each scale had good reliability values ranging from .55 to .77. The demographic
profiles can be seen in Table 1. The mean age for the experimental group was mean = 34.48; SD = 6.65,
while the mean for the control group was 30.44; SD = 6.28. The majority of participants from both
groups were females, and the remaining participants were males.
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Table 1
The Demographic Profile of Two Groups of Participants (Experimental & Control Groups)
Variables Groups N Percentage
Gender Male 21 84
Experimental group Female 4 16
Control group Male 20 80

Female 5 20
Education level Postgraduate 1 4
Experimental group Undergraduate 10 40
STPM/Diploma 3 12
SPM/Matriculation 11 44
Control group Postgraduate 3 12

Undergraduate 4 16
STPM/Diploma 18 72
Types of activity Physical (sports, gardening) 16 64

Experimental group Non-Physical (watching TV, fishing) 9 36
Control group Physical (sports, gardening, working) 17 68

Non-Physical (watching TV, playing 8 32
video games)
Note.STPM – The Malaysian Higher School certificate; SPM – The Malaysian Certificate of Education
The Mann–Whitney analysis (see Table 2) showed that the experimental group could identify
emotions more accurately (mean rank = 34.98) than the control group (mean rank = 2013) with a z score
of -4.68; p = .00. This score was measured by using seven photographs portraying different types of
emotions. For emotional regulation and understanding emotions (empathy), the two groups did not show
any significant differences.
Table 2
Mann–Whitney Test Results for the Experimental and Control Groups’ Identification, Regulation and
Understanding of Emotions
Groups Type of Group Number of Mean z score sig.

Participants Rank
Identifying Emotions Experimental 25 34.98 -4.68 .00
Control 25 20.13
Regulating Emotions Experimental 25 25.80 -.15 .88
Control 25 25.20
Understanding Emotions Experimental 25 23.84 -.81 .42
(empathy) Control 25 27.16
Table 3 showed the number and percentage of wrong and accurate answers given by participants from
both groups. It showed that participants from both groups found it easy to detect angry and happy
emotions while they found it hardest to recognize sad emotions.
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Table 3
The Number and Percentage of Wrong and Accurate Answers for Identifying Seven Types of Emotions
Group category Types of emotions Wrong Answer Accurate answer
N (%) N (%)
Experimental Angry 7 (28) 18 (72)
Control 0 25 (100)
Experimental Disgust 2 (8) 23 (92)
Control 22 (88) 3 (12)
Experimental Fear 8 (32) 17 (68)
Control 16 (64) 9 (36)
Experimental Happy 7 (28) 18 (72)
Control 4 (16) 21 (84)
Experimental Surprise 12 (48) 13 (52)
Control 0 (0) 25 (100)
Experimental Shame 6 (24) 19 (76)
Control 24 (96) 1 (4.0)
Experimental Sad 22 (88) 3 (12)
Control 23 (92) 2 (8)
Discussion
Navy personnel’s Ability to identify emotions
The study showed that participants in the experimental group identified emotions depicted in displayed
pictures more accurately than the participants in the control group did. This difference might have been
due to participants in the experimental group having received more information about different types of
emotions through pictures displaying them than the participants in the control group did. The
participants in the experimental group also received information on how to identify emotions based on
expressions communicated through the eyes, eyebrows and mouth. According to Cuncic (2021), the
ability to understand facial expressions is an important part of nonverbal communication. If people only
listen to what others say and ignore what facial expressions convey, then they will not fully understand
what is being communicated to them. Often, words do not match emotions, and the face betrays what a
person actually feels. The value in understanding facial expressions is to gather information about how
other people feel and to guide one’s interactions accordingly. For example, if someone appears
disinterested, they might just be tired, and it thus might be time to end the conversation (Cuncic, 2021).
Many people across the globe have similar brain structures and use similar facial muscles to
express basic emotions, such as happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger and disgust. Many experiments
have shown that people’s ability to accurately recognize basic emotions, such as happiness, sadness,
anger and fear is universal. Other research, however, has shown cultural differences in the way people
read facial expressions. The latter finding makes sense when we consider that people of different
cultural backgrounds do not behave and think the same way (Pogosyan & Engelmarin,2017). Findings
concerning emotional recognition accuracy in preadolescents show that happy expressions are the best-
recognized emotions, followed by anger, disgust and neutral expressions while sad and fearful
expressions are significantly less recognized than other emotions (Cuncic, 2021). In this study,
participants from both groups found it easier to identify angry and happy emotions than sad emotions.
This finding is in line with past studies that have found that sadness is the least recognized emotion
(Chronaki et al., 2013;Holder & Kirkpatrick,1991).
Regulating and Understanding Emotions

This study found that there were no significant differences between the two groups of participants in
regulating and understanding emotions, for instance, empathy. Engaging in activities intended to
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regulate participants’ emotions, both groups (experimental and control) applied similar activities to
regulate their emotions. The physical activities were playing sports, gardening, and recreational
activities (e.g., hiking, picnic) and non-physical activities such as fishing, watching television, playing
online games and spending time with friends and family. Emotional regulation in this study refers to a
person’s ability to manage and respond effectively to their own and others’ emotions. We assume that
emotional regulation might be one of the reasons the two groups did not show any significant difference
in emotional regulation.
Another reason is that participants in the experimental and control groups were previously given
an emotion management course and training through the navy’s Psychology and Counselling
Department. This department’s role is to provide guidance and training, such as emotional management,
through talks and guidance, either individually or in groups (Raja Nor Hanif Bin Raja Kamarulzaman,
Leftenan, Sulaman Base Camp, 27 July 2021). The one-day emotion management workshop that the
participants in the experimental group took might not be sufficient for them to learn and apply the
suggested emotion-coping strategies to difficult situations they face in their daily lives. Nevertheless,
we believe that the workshop could enhance participants’ ability to identify different types of emotions
through facial expressions. Understanding emotional regulation and understanding emotions, though,
is not just based on a basic knowledge of emotions, such as identifying types of emotion. Understanding
components also include emotions and theories of emotion. In addition, participants must apply and
practice suggested coping strategies, which were not emphasized in the workshop. According to Rolston
and Lloyd-Richardson (n.d.), most people use a variety of coping strategies, such as emotion regulation
strategies, and apply them to different situations to adapt to the demands of their environments. Coping
strategies are classified as either healthy or unhealthy, depending on their likelihood of additional
unwanted adverse consequences. Healthy coping categories are self‐soothing, relaxing and distracting
activities; social support; and professional support. Unhealthy categories include negative self‐talk,
harmful activities (e.g., emotional eating, aggression, alcohol, drugs and self-harm), social withdrawal
and suicidality (Stallman et al., 2021).
Controlling and understanding others’ emotions is important for survival and well-being.
Imagine, for example, that two workplace colleagues are in the office talking about the movies they
watched last night while the other workers are completing their assigned office work. The two
colleagues are laughing and chatting and enjoying the conversation. Suddenly, one colleague’s facial
expression turns from smiling to scared, and their eyes abruptly shift from looking at the other colleague
to looking behind them. That colleague thus feels something is not right and turns around and follows
their gaze. What do they see? They see their manager staring at them because they are not working. In
this case, the ability to read a colleague’s emotions by facial gestures might help detect the presence of
a manager, leading them to resume working.
According to Matsumoto and Hwang (2011), basic research leads to training programmes that
improve people’s ability to detect emotions. However, the increased ability to read facial expressions,
or any nonverbal behaviour, is just the first step. Dealing effectively with emotional information about
others is a crucial part of the skill set people must have to interact with others effectively. Knowing
when and how to intervene, adapting behaviour and communication styles and engaging the support
and help of others are skills that are applied once emotions are read. These skills involve understanding
other people’s emotions, or empathy. Like other critical skills, people will become increasingly
empathetic by practice (McDougall, 2019), not merely by attending a short–term emotion management
workshop.
Conclusion
This study showed that understanding and differentiating various types of emotions may help enhance
participants’ accuracy in identifying the types of emotions conveyed by different facial expressions.
Accurately identifying emotions may be a relevant survival skill for the navy since the profession
requires that its personnel be prepared to deal with the job’s expected and unexpected demands.
Although both emotional regulation and empathy are innate, a comprehensive workshop and training
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programme that allocates more time for participants to learn and apply relevant skills in real-life
experiences is necessary.
Acknowledgements
We offer a special thanks to the participants in this study. Your generous contribution could help enrich
our understanding of emotions and the relevant literature.
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GADGET USAGE TRENDS: HOW PARENTAL RULES ARE

PROMINENT TO US?
Hon Kai Yee1*, Crystal Ling1, Chua Bee Seok1, Yap Chin Choo4, & Gan Su Wan5
1
4
Sunway University
5
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (Kampar Campus)
*Corresponding author’s e-mail:honkaiyee@ums.edu.my.my)
ABSTRACT
Being born into the digital world, Malaysian children and adolescents are exposed to and immersed with various
gadget usage. However, there are still limited research base as to how the gadget usage predominant the pre-
adolescents’ life in Malaysian context from the rural and urban perspectives. In the pre-adolescence stage, they
tend to associate their environment with personal and relational changes. The gadgets enable them to explore
their building identities and sense of belonging on a greater scale. However, with the gadget integrated
interaction, it may conflict with the parental rules about screen time and gadget usage control. There should be
an effective strategy as to how the parents mediate the children’s usage of gadgets on the daily basis. The aims
of the study include: (1) To understand the nature of gadget usage among rural and urban 9-to-11-year-olds. (2)
To figure out the parental rules in term of disclosure and comment as well as conditional constraints. 385 children
from rural and urban primary schools (3rd to 5th grade) in Sabah participated in the survey with the
questionnaires related to the nature of gadget usage and parental rules. From the results, majority of the children
preferred using smartphones for games/entertainments. Their behaviors exhibited prolonged time spent on
gadgets and lack of physical activities. There are still lack of awareness in parental rules related with disclosure
and comment disclosure (especially in identity and personal information safety) as well as conditional constraints
(especially after bedtime and in a certain social context) among the children. In conclusion, it is perceptible that
self-control and effective enforcement of parental rules still need to be addressed. It is important to moderate the
parents’ authority and control over the children’s gadget usage and encourage the children to practice healthy
gadget use behavior.
Keywords: children, conditional constraint, disclosure and comment constraint, gadget usage, health behavior
Introduction
The phenomenon of children and adolescents being gadget users or experts has become popularized in
Malaysian household. It can be reflected in the states whereby relatively higher frequency distribution
of online users as noted in Sabah. The young users of smartphones can range below the age of 12
(Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission, MCMC, 2017). Gadgets are known from the
technical perspectives to include laptops and smartphones and other technology devices.
Literature regarding the trends in the Malaysian context displays the understanding on the pre-
schoolers (Hamzah & Khiu, 2018), children, and adolescents (Bulgar & Burton, 2020). Despite that,
research on the 9-to-11-year-olds (pre-adolescents) and their gadget usage nature is still emergent in the
Sabah state. There is still a need to shine light on the issue. Pre-adolescents experience the changes in
their autonomy, identity formation, and interrelation management (Syed Esa, Md Nawi, & Sombuling,
2018). Gadgets can be related with forming their relationship with environment, but it can contribute to
an indirect challenge for the parents to manage the children’s gadget habit.
Banning gadget usage among children is not sound enough as they are constantly exposed in
the tech-induced environment at home and school. It would be more practical if the parents are able to
practice their roles to manage and guide the children in using their gadgets moderately and effectively.
Parents having the immediate influence on children are encouraged to build on their knowledge and
skills. Even so, the awareness of significance in enforcing the parental rules on gadget usage is still
limited. Brindova et al. (2014) identified presence of rules with reduced screen-based activities, but not
content restriction rule-establishing. There is a need to explore the types of parental rules executed at
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home among the children in rural and urban areas. From the child perspective, it can be noted about
how they view, understand, and experience the rules at home.
It can be concerning as to the impact of excessive gadget usage and frequent screen time on
children’s development. For example, from the physical development, they can experience impaired
quality of lifestyle, high level of sedentary behavior, and lack of physical activity. These factors can be
associated with children’s obesity (Dan, Mohd Nasir, & Zalilah, 2011; Teo, Nurul-Fadhilah, Aziz, Hills,
& Foo, 2014). Considering the negative impact, this matter draws in worries among parents, and it is
important for the effective strategies to address such matter.
Undeniably, it is necessary to take approach in considering that children who are at this
development stage and their parents who are unable to think of the right action for them. Prior to this,
there is a need to study in detail regarding the prevalence of gadget usage among rural and urban to
combat the issues. The research objectives were developed as following:
i. To find out the quantity, frequency, and intensity of gadget use.

ii. To find out the types of parental rules towards children’s gadget use.
Methodology
Research Design
The study was conducted with the in-person survey implemented among the 9-to-11-year-old children.
The survey adapted partially open-ended items for gadget usage and restricted items for parental rules
with the aim of having the participants (children) to provide feedback about their perspectives and
activities (Privitera, 2018). Due to its design, the survey is suitable for quantifying, describing, or
characterizing the prevalence of the children’s gadget usage and parental rules as an individual or a
group.

The population consisted of 9-to-11-year-old Sabahan children (N = 40,620 per the data in 2018 from
Kompleks Pentadbiran Kerajaan Persekutuan Sabah). The self-reported data were collected from 3rd-
, 4th-, and 5th-grade students in six Sabahan primary schools (three from urban area and another three
from rural/suburban area). 150 students were randomly selected from each grade to be the participants
and a total sample of 385 children was involved. The observed sample size needed is 178, achieved
through the G*Power calculation (Faul, Erdfelder, Buchner, & Lang, 2009) with medium effect size (f2
= .15) (Cohen, 1988) and an alpha of .05.
Research Instruments
The children’s self-report questionnaires include a series of questions adapted to measure the nature of
gadget usage and parental rules enforced among children. Each part with its title, content, and reference
are listed in Table 1 as follow:
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Table 1
Parts, Titles, Contents, and Reference Adapted to Develop Children’s Self-Reported Questionnaires
Parts Titles Contents References
Part Child’s demographic Gender, age, religion, academic level
A information
Part The types of gadget Number of laptop, tablet, and smartphone used at Hamzah &
B1 home, parent-owned and self-owned Khiu (2018)
Part The types of content Three examples of their favorite cartoon,
B2 in media use educational, game/entertainment, and music
Part Duration in using Time taken in weekdays, weekends, and school
B3 media holidays; estimated hours spent based on daytime,
nighttime, and midnight
Part Offline activities 7 items with “Yes” and “No”. Example: watching Goh, Bay, &
C television, … board games, card games Chen (2015)
Part Parental rules 9 items; scoring in 5-point Likert scale, “0 = Hiniker,
D towards child’s Never” to “5 = Very often” Schoenebeck,
gadget use Disclosure & Comment constraint items: 2, 5, 7, & Kientz
10, 12 (2016)
E.g., posting disrespectful comments or withhold
personally identifiable information.
Conditional constraint items: 1, 3, 6, 8
E.g., putting it away in certain social contexts or
after a time-limit has elapsed
Procedure
A few protocols were considered before proceeding with the study. First, approval by Jabatan
Pendidikan Tinggi Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, Jabatan Pendidikan Negeri Sabah, and
Universiti Malaysia Sabah ethics committee were obtained for funding and technical assistance which
contravenes general guidance and support for a survey. Next, six selected primary schools were
corresponded and addressed with the approval letters (Jabatan Pendidikan Tinggi Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia & Jabatan Pendidikan Negeri Sabah), the consent letters (the study aim
explanation & the parents’/guardians’ acknowledgement), and the children’s self-reported survey
questions. Data from the survey were collected from the 9-to-11-year-old children after gaining the
parents’ and principals’ consent. The raw data for demographic information, nature of gadget usage,
and parental rules were categorized into rural and urban and later, analyzed in term of frequency and
percentage.
Results
Demographic Information Analysis

Among the 385 child participants (rural = 185; urban = 200), 44.3% and 46.5% are male from rural
and urban while 55.7% and 53.0% are female from rural and urban, respectively. Majority of the
children (rural = 57.8%; urban = 87.0%) practice Islam religion. The age group mostly includes 4th
and 5th grade (10-to-11-year-old) students; 71.9% in rural and 75.0% in urban.
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Nature of Gadget Usage and Parental Rules Information Analysis
Table 2.1
Part B1 Frequency and Percentage of Types of Media (No. of Media Available) for Rural (N = 185)
and Urban (N = 200)
Part B1 Rural Urban
Types of No. of media Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Media available (%) (%)
Laptop At home 0 118 63.8 109 54.5
1 40 21.6 61 30.5
2 14 7.6 18 9.0
3 or more 13 7.0 12 6.0
Owned 0 127 68.6 120 60.0
by 1 34 18.4 53 26.5
parents 2 21 11.4 23 11.5
3 or more 3 1.6 4 2.0
Self-own 0 163 88.1 170 85.0
1 15 8.1 24 12.0
2 7 3.8 5 2.5
3 or more 0 0.0 1 0.5
Tablet At home 0 136 73.5 142 71.0
1 32 17.3 34 17.0
2 9 4.9 16 8.0
3 or more 8 4.3 8 4.0
Owned 0 157 84.9 159 79.5
by 1 15 8.1 25 12.5
parents 2 10 5.4 13 6.5
3 or more 3 1.6 3 1.5
Self-own 0 151 81.6 162 81.0
1 27 14.6 32 16.0
2 4 2.2 5 2.5
3 or more 3 1.6 1 0.5
Smartphone At home 0 59 31.9 44 22.0
1 42 22.7 33 16.5
2 12 6.5 18 9.0
3 12 6.5 28 14.0
4 17 9.2 24 12.0
5 or more 43 23.2 53 26.5
Owned 0 31 16.8 46 23.0
by 1 27 14.6 16 8.0
parents 2 89 48.1 92 46.0
3 6 3.2 23 11.5
4 14 7.6 14 7.0
5 or more 16 8.6 9 4.5
Self-own 0 67 36.2 102 51.0
1 89 48.1 79 39.5
2 19 10.3 11 5.5
3 3 1.6 4 2.0
4 4 2.2 2 1.0
5 or more 3 1.6 2 1.0
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Table 2.1 displays smartphone being the popularly owned by parents and children in rural and
urban areas. Most of the parents have two smartphones with 48.1% in rural and 46.0% in urban. For
the children’s self-owned smartphones, 36.2% rural children and 51.0% urban children have no
ownership. More rural children have at least one smartphone.
For laptops, having at least one at home is at 36.2% in rural and 45.5% in urban, owned by
parents is at 31.4% in rural and 40.0% in urban, and self-owned is at 11.9% in rural and 15% in urban.
Lastly, having at least one tablet at home sits at 26.5% in rural and 29.0% in urban, owned by parents
with 15.1% in rural and 20.5% in urban, self-owned with 18.4% in rural and 19.0% in urban.
Table 2.2
Part B2 Frequency and Percentage of Categories of Media Content for Rural (N = 185) and Urban
(N = 200)
Part B2 Rural Urban
Media Category of content Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Content (%) (%)
Cartoon Nil 32 5.8 51 8.5
English 187 33.7 255 42.5
Malay 137 24.7 133 22.2
Japanese 151 27.2 119 19.8
Other origins cartoon 17 3.1 7 1.3
Non-cartoon related 31 5.6 35 5.8
Education Nil 117 21.1 141 23.5
Languages 95 17.1 154 25.7
Arts & Music 13 2.3 20 3.3
Mathematics/M3 84 15.1 74 12.3
Science 51 9.2 39 6.5
History 35 6.3 34 5.7
Health-related/ 54 9.7 63 10.5
Religion-related
Programs 85 15.3 66 11.0
Others 21 6.7 9 6.5
Game Nil 69 12.4 57 9.5
Action 227 40.9 273 45.5
Adventure 34 6.1 44 7.3
Arcade 45 8.1 60 10.0
Casual 38 6.8 32 5.3
Puzzle 19 3.4 19 3.2
Programs/Social apps 57 10.3 84 14.0
Others 66 11.9 31 5.2
Music Nil 85 15.3 49 8.2
DJ 15 2.7 20 3.3
Funk/Hip hop 34 6.1 101 16.8
Pop 303 54.6 313 52.2
R&B 9 1.6 14 2.3
Rock 4 0.7 9 1.5
Programs/Collections 74 13.3 69 11.5
Others 31 5.6 25 4.2
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Table 2.2 shows that children mostly prefer using gadgets for music; 54.6% in rural and 52.2%
in urban enjoy mostly listening to pop music which revolves around the English pop (e.g., Dance
Monkey & Memories) as well as Korean pop (e.g., BTS & Blackpink). It was followed by the second
highest percentage of 40.9% in rural and 45.5% in urban children enjoyed gaming, especially action
category (e.g., call of duty, free fire, & Pubg). Lastly, 21.1% rural children did not prefer education,
but 25.7% in urban use gadgets for language education (English and Malay).
Table 2.3
Part B3 Frequency and Percentage of Time Taken on Weekdays, Weekends, and Holiday for Rural
(N = 185) and Urban (N = 200)
Part B3 Rural Urban
Weekday Time taken Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
(%) (%)
Daytime 0 102 55.1 131 65.5
≤ 30min 23 12.4 8 4.0
≤1hr 10 5.4 8 4.0
≤ 6hr 16 8.6 14 7.0
≤ 12 hr 2 1.1 4 2.0
≤ 24hr 2 1.1 1 0.5
Anytime 1 0.5 0 0.0
Others 29 15.7 34 17.0
Nightime 0 77 41.6 85 42.5
≤ 30min 30 16.2 13 6.5
≤1hr 28 15.1 24 12.0
≤ 6hr 31 16.8 29 14.5
≤ 12 hr 3 1.6 3 1.5
Others 16 8.6 46 23.0
Midnight 0 169 91.4 172 86.0
≤ 30min 3 1.6 2 1.0
≤1hr 4 2.2 3 1.5
≤ 6hr 3 1.6 7 3.5
≤ 24hr 0 0.0 1 0.5
25hr 0 0.0 1 0.5
Others 6 3.2 14 7.0
Part B3 Rural Urban

Weekends Time taken Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
(%) (%)
Daytime 0 52 28.1 69 34.5
≤ 30min 14 7.6 6 3.0
≤1hr 28 15.1 15 7.5
≤ 6hr 42 22.7 42 21.0
≤ 12 hr 6 3.2 10 5.0
≤ 24hr 3 1.6 5 2.5
Anytime 3 1.6 0 0.0
Others 37 20.0 53 26.5
Nightime 0 81 43.8 106 53.0
≤ 30min 17 9.2 5 2.5
≤1hr 19 10.3 14 7.0
≤ 6hr 39 21.1 25 12.5
≤ 12 hr 4 2.2 6 3.0
≤ 24hr 0 0.0 1 0.5
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Anytime 2 1.1 0 0.0

Others 23 12.4 43 21.5
Midnight 0 150 81.1 153 76.5
≤ 30min 8 4.3 3 1.5
≤1hr 4 2.2 4 2.0
≤ 6hr 10 5.4 14 7.0
≤ 12hr 4 2.2 2 1.0
Others 9 4.9 24 12.0
Part B3 Rural Urban

Holiday Time taken Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
(%) (%)
Daytime 0 59 31.9 69 34.5
≤ 30min 13 7.0 6 3.0
≤1hr 24 13.0 16 8.0
≤ 6hr 44 23.8 35 17.5
≤ 12 hr 2 1.1 6 3.0
≤ 24hr 2 1.1 6 3.0
Anytime 2 1.1 0 0.0
Others 39 21.1 62 31.0
Nightime 0 80 43.2 98 49.0
≤ 30min 12 6.5 8 4.0
≤1hr 27 14.6 17 8.5
≤ 6hr 38 20.5 33 16.5
≤ 12hr 6 3.2 2 1.0
Anytime 1 0.5 0 0.0
Others 21 11.4 42 21.0
Midnight 0 144 77.8 151 75.5
≤ 30min 8 4.3 5 2.5
≤1hr 6 3.2 2 1.0
≤ 6hr 13 7.0 14 7.0
≤ 12hr 2 1.1 1 0.5
Others 12 6.5 27 13.5
Majority in rural and in urban do not use gadgets be it daytime, nightime, and midnight in a
week, respectively. There are some recorded as ‘others’ being that the participants were not able to
provide the actual time taken. During the weekdays, the children spent time with their gadgets in
daytime within 30 minutes (12.4% in rural) and 6 hours (7.0% in urban). In weekday nightime, 16.8%
in rural and 14.5% in urban spend less and equivalent to 6 hours. Only few spend time in the midnight
using gadgets.
Weekends are the off-school period for children and their pastime using gadgets can increase
even more. As noted, it ranges less and equivalent to 6 hours in the day (22.7% in rural and 21.0% in
urban) as well as night (21.1%; 12.5%). In midnight, 5.4% children in rural and 7.0% in urban spend
about less and equivalent to 6 hours in media usage.
Lastly, during holidays, a high level of media time with less and equivalent to 6 hours was
noted in the day (rural = 23.8%; urban = 17.5%), at night (20.5% rural; 16.5% urban), and 7.0% in
rural and urban. A few reported staying up for less and equivalent to 12 hours and 24 hours or using
gadget anytime, ranging from 0.5% to 3.0%.
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Table 3
Part C Frequency and Percentage of Offline Activities for Rural (N = 185) and Urban (N = 200)
RURAL URBAN
YES NO YES NO
Frequen Percentag Frequen Percenta Frequenc Percenta Frequenc Percenta
cy e (%) cy ge (%) y ge (%) y ge (%)
C1 162 23 23 4 162 21 38 6
C2 118 16 67 12 124 16 76 12
C3 54 8 131 23 55 7 145 24
C4 72 10 113 20 54 7 146 24
C5 116 16 69 12 138 18 62 10
C6 102 14 83 14 121 15 79 13
C7 94 13 91 16 131 17 69 11
*C1 = watching television; C2 = playing outdoors; C3 = self-defence/martial arts; C4 = playing
traditional/modern musical instruments; C5 = art and craft; C6 = board games; C7 = card games
Table 3 indicated, rural children (23.0%) mostly engaged in watching television while only a
few (8.0%) participated in self-defence/martial arts. Playing outdoors (16.0%) and art and craft
activities (16.0%) were second most preferred by the rural children. 21.0% of urban children spend
time in watching television as their pastime while not being online. It was followed by 18.0% in art
and craft activities and 17.0% in card games. Activities such as self-defence and traditional/modern
musical instruments are only participated by 7.0% of urban children.
Table 4.1
Part D1 Frequency and Percentage of Parental Rules in Disclosure and Comment Constraint
Disclosure &
Comment Rural Urban
constraint
Never/ Sometime Often/ Never/ Sometime Often/ Very
Items Seldom s Very Often Seldom s Often
D2 48.1% 11.4% 40.5% 40.0% 12.5% 47.5%
D5 40.0% 11.9% 47.0% 37.5% 15.5% 47.0%
D7 29.2% 3.8% 65.9% 34.0% 2.0% 64.0%
D10 42.2% 11.4% 44.9% 40.0% 14.5% 45.5%
D12 36.2% 4.9% 57.3% 34.5% 17.0% 48.5%
*D2 = Protect identity and personal information
D5 = Ban on a site, game, activity, or device
D7 = No producing, sharing, or viewing sexually explicit media
D10 = No hurtful comments about others
D12 = No sexually explicit language or swear words
Based on Table 4.1, item D7 was agreed to be the most often implemented by the parents
among children in rural (65.9%) and urban (64.0%). This was followed by item D12; 57.3% rural
children and 48.5% urban children agreed on this rule being conducted by parents. Next, item D5 was
agreed by 47.0% rural and urban children for the frequent executed rule. 47.5% of urban children
agreed that D2 as the thirdly often implemented rule, but 48.1% rural children reported it being the
most never/seldom being executed. For item D10, more children agreed on the rule being applied
(44.9% rural and 45.5% urban).
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Table 4.2
Part D2 Frequency and Percentage of Parental Rules in Conditional Constraint
Condition
al Rural Urban
constraint
Someti Often/ Very Never/ Someti Often/Very
Items Never/ Seldom mes Often Seldom mes Often
D1 44.3% 20.0% 35.7% 38.0% 26.0% 36.0%
D3 45.9% 18.9% 35.1% 50.0% 20.5% 29.5%
D6 23.2% 13.0% 62.7% 26.0% 18.5% 55.5%
D8 34.6% 23.8% 40.5% 36.0% 19.0% 45.0%
*D1 = No technology at all in a certain social context
D3 = No technology after bedtime
D6 = No technology until certain obligations are fulfilled
D8 = Fixed time limits
According to Table 4.2, 62.7% rural and 55.5% urban children mostly agreed that item D6
being the rules implemented by their parents. 45.0% urban children agreed on item D8 as the second
most often implemented rule while 40.5% rural children reported in agreement of the third most often
rule carried out. A high percentage of 45.9% of rural children agreed that item D3 was never/seldom
executed. However, in urban, 29.5% agreed that item D3 was often implemented. For item D1, 44.3%
rural children agreed it being the second least often implemented but 36.0% urban reported this as the
third most agreed often/very often executed.
Discussion
Prevalence of gadget usage among children

The prevalence study indicated that smartphone was more favored among the parents and their children
in rural and urban. Likewise, previous findings displayed increased use of gadgets such as smartphones
in the household (e.g., Baboo, Pandian, Prasad, & Rao, 2013; Kabali et al., 2015). The current findings
reported that children mostly own and use their smartphones, but Kabali et al. (2015) differed that tablets
are more preferred by children of all ages.
Factors influencing the children’s increased gadget usage can be categorized into a few: (1)
children’s preference towards smartphones influenced by the sought-after use among parents and peers
(see Table 2.2). (2) its content-related features (Cha & Seo, 2018) such as the availability of social apps.
The rhythmic and appealing pop music (Aboozarian, 2019) as well as the adrenaline pumping
challenges and aesthetic graphic design prompts the children’s interests/hobbies in game/entertainment.
During weekends and holidays, there is an increment in the rate of online activities whereby
the children are engaged for up to 6 hours and even in the extreme cases (up to 12 hours and 24 hours)
or anytime they see fit. However, the prolonged screen time fails to follow the professional guideline
recommendations (Australian Government Department of Health, 2013; Canadian Society for Exercise
Physiology, 2012) which encourage not more than two hours in a day.
Television still remains as the children’s typical offline activities in urban and rural areas. For
outdoor activities, rural children are more active, and it may be due to the landscape difference enabling
more interactive opportunities without restraint. Excessive time on screen without physical activity can
lead to reduced sleeping duration. The psychological stimulation from media content and light effect
emitted from gadgets also can alter children’s sleep and circadian rhythms (LeBourgeois et al., 2017).
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Therefore, the current findings provide the understanding about preadolescents being
accustomed with smartphone usage. During the Covid lockdown, the children have a lot of time
spending at home and their exposure to the gadget usage can be prompted to increase. It is important
for the children to be self-disciplined in balancing the time using the gadgets and other offline activities.
There is a need to better comprehend how to adapt the appropriate rules on the smartphone use and to
repurpose its use in a positive manner. Time management skills need to be cultivated among children
to prevent the risk of excessive screen time. In other words, the study gives an insight of promoting
appropriate gadget usage, offline physical activities, and effective time management, especially during
the lockdown.
Disclosure and Comment Constraint Parental Rules
Prior to addressing the matter, it is necessary to understand about the types of parental rules regarding
gadget usage implemented on the children. From the findings, parental rules can be designated into
disclosure and comment as well as conditional constraint.
Disclosure and comment constraint refers to regulation of sharing individual’s private or sexual
information, exposing to online activities, and partaking in distressing comment. Most of the children
perceive that they are aware of the rules related with avoiding the act of engaging in sexual and violent
content, online activities ban, as well as expression of foul language and hurtful comments towards
others. In Sabah culture, the families practice Asian collectivist style and children are brought up
highlighting prosocial behaviors and appropriate interconnectedness among people. Namely, children
are instilled to avoid negative and insensitive behaviors since young.
From the findings, the rule on banning activities is not too practical as gadgets are integrated
into a part of children’s lives. The act of protecting identity and personal information is never or seldom
practiced among rural children. This could be affected by their lack of the knowledge, skills, and
experience in providing guidance and enforcing the rule among children.
It would be more effective when children learn and understand about the healthy approach to
using gadgets. This can encourage them to utilize social platforms in a positive manner (Tierney, 2018,
June 12). There is a possible difference in the degree whereby parents and children perceive issues as
‘personal’ and ‘prudential-conventional’ (Kloep, Hendry, Taylor, & Stuart-Hamilton, 2015). It is
significant for the children to comprehend the meaning behind the guidelines and parents show
understanding and respect of their children’s belief and decision-making authority.
Conditional Constraint Parental Rules

Another type of parental rule is assorted into conditional constraint which focuses on time limit,
obligation, bedtime, and social context. Unless the conditions are met, the children would not be allowed
to use their gadgets. From the results, the children are more likely to know about the rules having them
to fulfil certain obligations and within definite time limits.
Comparatively the rules, ‘no technology after bedtime’ and ‘at all in a certain social context’
are not well-received in the rural household. It may pose a problem if the children lack the self-control
and keep using their gadgets at late hours. Corresponding with Hiniker et al. (2016), it can be difficult
for children and parents to follow through the contextual constraints with enforcement. Some parents
do not emphasize on punishment or strict enforcement in their children’s gadget usage in a definite
setting such as family meal. It is important for preadolescents who can thrive on the social skill
development through the family time interaction.
Awareness of Parental Rules

It is still encouraging that parental knowledge and awareness can be instilled and practiced among the
children in rural and urban areas. To address the media-related issue, parents need to increase their
experience, competence, and skill to adapt the rules suitable for their children’s temperament and their
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cultural background. Parents should learn about how to be media cautious and teach the children to use
gadgets with self-control. They should avoid overwhelming the children’s gadget usage without proper
explanation and comprehension. There should always be a clear restriction and agreement so that
children do not get too engaged with gadgets. Simultaneously, children can gain self-control in using
their gadgets.
Besides that, the findings bring about the awareness and understanding of children’s
knowledge, views, and opinions on the parental rules at home. It is essential for the children to partake
in communicating their opinions on the extent of how often the media usage rules implemented at home.
In addition, the results also provide the chances to explore the parental rules in the aspects of disclosure
and comment as well as conditional constraints. This can prompt the awareness in executing specific
use to promote healthier families’ experiences and appropriate family rules. The effective strategies in
the module can be introduced in future study to enable the preadolescents to adapt to these rules during
the lockdown.
Conclusion
The popularity of smartphones has grown prevalent among the parents and children. Most of the
children are engaged in game/entertainment with the use of gadgets. It was noted that the time engaged
with gadgets increase during the weekends and holidays. In some cases, the children did not moderate
their time spent on gadgets. Their offline activities mostly take place indoor and watching television
has pinned the highest interest among children. In order to manage the screen time, it is vital to create
awareness in the enforcement of parental rules. From the study, it can be related to disclosure and
comment as well as conditional constraints. Not all the rules are practiced at home, and this can be due
to the lack of knowledge, awareness, and skills. Parents can struggle in explaining and executing the
rules effectively so that the children are able to grasp the concept and learn to manage the time spent in
gadget usage. Preadolescents tend to be more sensible with their decisions engaging with their gadgets.
Just as parents’ roles are significant, it is just as important as to avoid the helicopter parenting control
over the children’s gadget usage.
Therefore, future study can include the opportunity to design a module for children’s and
parents’ guidance. It is encouraging to understand effective and appropriate parental rules in the context
of disclosure and comment as well as conditional constraints regarding media usage. There are a few
recommendations to further studies such as the inclusion of various sample from different age group,
states, and perspectives in the Malaysian context. This can validate generalization of the results as
different perspectives are taken into consideration to allow better comprehension of the matter.
Acknowledgement
We would like to express our gratitude to Ministry of Higher Education for the fund (RACER 2019-1
Module for Appropriate Gadget Usage among Children). We also value Universiti Malaysia Sabah, for
the available opportunity to gain prospect on the gadget usage among children in Sabah.
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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LONELINESS, PERSONALITY

DIFFERENCES, MOTIVATION AND VIDEO GAME ADDICTION IN
THE CONTEXT OF GACHA GAMES IN F2P MOBILE GAMES: A
GLOBAL SETTING
Ida Farina binti Ismail*, Mimi Fitriana,Chan Li Chuin
International University of Malaya-Wales, Kuala Lumpur
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: farynaismail@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
As of recent years, the problem of video game addiction (VGA) as been on the rise amongst the youth. A new
type of genre, gacha games, have been fairly popular and even addicting for some personality types. This study
aimed to determine whether there exists a significant correlation between loneliness and VGA; in addition to
whether the same exists between one’s personality differences and their tendencies for VGA. Furthermore, it also
aimed to identify whether there is a significant correlation between the factors that motivate a player’s in-game
spending habits and VGA. An online survey was distributed to players of three gacha games on Reddit. The 377
participants were chosen using purposing sampling based on the pre-requisite of them being a university student.
Three questionnaires were used; the UCLA-Loneliness Scale (UCLA-LS), Big Five Personality Test (BFI-S) and
the Video Game Addiction Scale for Adolescents (GAS). The responses were analysed using Pearson’s
correlation. It was determined that there was a significant correlation between loneliness and VGA, high
neuroticism and high extraversion increased the tendencies for VGA and lastly, there was a significant correlation
between most of the motivational factors and VGA. Therefore, most of the hypotheses were accepted.
Keywords: gacha, video game addiction, loneliness, personality differences, motivation
As of recent years, video game games have become a popular form of entertainment for many. During
the infancy of the video game industry, it was not uncommon to hear of negative stigma being attached
to those who enjoy playing video games, however, said stigma is less thought of nowadays and became
a rarity. This could be due to factors such as the evolution of the genre. In addition to that, though
gaming is still widely popular in terms of home video gaming consoles, such as the Playstation and
Xbox, due to its hardware having been designed for the sole dedication of running video games with
high specs, handheld consoles have also become favourable for its portability in exchange for size and
memory storage.
With the increasing amount of time spent on video games (Kaiser Family, 2010), it was natural
to ponder towards the prevalence of video game addiction (VGA). According to the World Health
Organisation (WHO), VGA is a pattern of gaming behaviour that is defined by the lack of ability to
control in regards to gaming, giving higher priority towards it over other activities to the extent that it
interferes with others interests and daily activities along with the continuation or drastic increase in
gaming despite the presence of negative consequences (WHO, 2018). It must also persist for at least a
year. According to Fam, one in every twenty adolescents have an addiction towards video games and it
is known to have negative effects towards the individual. With smartphone-based video games
increasing in both numbers and popularity, it was natural to wonder about VGA prevalence in relation
to it (Fam, 2018). Mobile social games can be categorised into three types; download purchase model,
subscription and freemium model (Koeder & Tanaka, 2017). The freemium model, otherwise known as
free-to-play (F2P), is the most common as players could enjoy the game for free but are also given the
chance to obtain useful in-game items by paying actual currency (Shibuya, Teramoto & Shoun, 2015).
An example of a genre that uses this form of play is gacha games.
In brief, gacha is not a new concept. Its roots lie in the appearance of vending machines that
dispense children’s toys. The word “gacha” is an onomatopoeia that copies the sound of a crank on a
toy vending machine (Shibuya, Teramoto & Shoun, 2015). Gacha games share a similar concept
whereby players would spend an amount of in-game currency to gamble their chances of getting desired
characters or items from an allotted pool; chances depending on their rarity. Options of in-game
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purchases tend to be items, cosmetics and in-game currency. Via analysis reports, gacha consists of
several elements (Spicemart, 2016; Koeder & Tanaka, 2017):
i. It is not the game itself; merely a key game element

ii. It is paid using virtual in-game currency either by soft or hard currency (actual money)
iii. Revolves around game-of-chance
iv. A (virtual) reward is provided every time
v. The reward is:
a. Collectible
b. Non-monetary
c. Available in varying rarities
d. Offers tend to combine with real time events
vi. Its value solely lies within the game and it is important in the game’s ecosystem
vii. It is used to increase monetisation for the game company
There are a multitude of variations of gacha that differs in terms of mechanics. For example,
box gacha, discounted gacha, kompu gacha and so on. However, unlike the rest, kompu gacha was
banned due to its problem of unknown probability. The most commonly used forms of gacha were box
gacha and open or closed gacha (Koeder & Tanaka, 2017).
With the focus of gacha games in mind, this study had three objectives. Firstly, to determine
whether there is a significant correlation between loneliness and VGA. Next, to identify the personality
differences of individuals with a higher tendency for VGA. Lastly, to determine whether there is a
significant correlation between the factors that motivates a player’s in-game spending habits and VGA.
Literature Review
The Correlation between Loneliness and Video Game Addiction
One of the most defining patterns in VGA is the continuation or drastic increase in gaming despite the
presence of negative consequences. Although loneliness was not mentioned explicitly, it is a negative
consequence of the behaviour. Various studies were done on the topic and more often than not, positive
correlations were found (Erkoç, Özçakir & Erkoç, 2015; Eren & Örsal, 2018; Wang, 2018), especially
in that of male players. It could also be due to them having a larger interest in technology (Kanat, 2019).
Based on the displacement hypothesis within the context of internet usage, those who spend more time
in online settings tend to result in having negative effects towards their existing relationships (Wang,
Jackson & Zhang, 2011). Further support was found from the insufficient social skills theory; those
with insufficient social relations were more likely to form an addiction (Caplan, 2002). Though this
may be the case, there were a few studies that depicted contradicting results (Çelik & Ulusoy, 2019).
As such, the following hypothesis was put forth:
Hypothesis (1): There is a significant correlation between loneliness and VGA.
Personality Differences for the Video Game Addicted

Portard et al. (2020) stated that personality traits may have an impact towards the amount of time spent
on video games whereas specific traits of one’s personality could explain their preferences to not only
genre but also habits. For example, in creativity-driven games that involve activities such as building
and exploring, there was an association with high levels of conscientiousness (Worth & Book, 2015)
and high openness scores in relation to roleplaying games (RPG) and low neuroticism for action games
(Braun et al., 2016). Past literature showed a reoccurring theme of high neuroticism in those with VGA
(Jeong & Lee, 2015; Braun et al., 2016). This was supported by a study (Portard et al., 2020) which
determined that heavy video game players scored higher neuroticism scores than casual players
alongside higher levels of extraversion and conscientiousness. High neuroticism scores could be
credited towards being easier to influence in terms of feeling anxious and furious when confronted with
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hardships and thus, more likely to participate in virtual spaces to escape. From a cognitive aspect, there
were easier to arouse and had difficulty in emotional regulation in specific situations (Jeong & Lee,
2015).
In comparison, the remaining personality traits may not have an effect towards VGA with the
reason being that compared to other internet-related activities, some gameplays may require active
engagement in regards to their role and in-game missions. Therefore, flexibility is required and may
lead to different effects towards one’s personality traits (Jeong & Lee, 2015). Further support for this
could be seen in other studies (Braun et al., 2016; Aydin & Horzum, 2015). With the previous hypothesis
in mind, the following was put forth:
Hypothesis (2): Individuals with high neuroticism and low extraversion would have a higher tendency
for VGA.
Motivation for Gacha
In gacha games, players are given the opportunity to attain randomly allotted items and thus, players
would have different reasons for drawing gacha. Consequently, to maintain the playerbase, limited-time
events are regularly implemented. Limited-time events come in various forms; the most common being
limited-time gacha, followed by limited-time discounts and limited-time ranking (Shibuya, Teramoto
& Shoun, 2015). These events provide them opportunities to obtain rare and valuable characters that
are said to be easier to obtain due to increased rates of attainment for a specified period of time.
Regardless of whether actual money was invested in to the game, every player shares the desire to
collect characters but with slight differences. Paying players, after taking into account of high rarity and
limited-edition items alongside collectability, would have their purchasing behaviour be impacted
(Koeder & Tanaka, 2018). For F2P players, a determining factor would be whether they liked the
character but it does not ensure that they draw gacha. Rather, the degree of being able to obtain higher
rarity items as far as possible without paying. Furthermore, they are also affected by the effect of
probability notation (Hiramatsu, 2020).
To emphasise the importance of the characters in terms of drawing gacha would be through a
previously conducted (Hiramatsu, 2020). In the same survey, but in 2019, results differed slightly but
was ranked of higher importance compared to social connections. In this context, it showed that even
low probabilities may be less likely to deter the players. This was evident as F2P players found further
appeal in gacha by means of testing one’s luck (Koeder, Tanaka & Sugai, 2017). Unfortunate luck may
result in them either continuing to draw gacha until they are no longer able to or simply cut their losses.
However, the opposite reaction may occur in paying players (Nakamura, 2016). Based on a lacking of
research conducted on this, this study aimed to further explore using the followed hypothesis:
Hypothesis (3): There is a significant correlation between motivational factors that motivates a player’s
in-game spending habits and VGA.
In this study, operant conditioning by B. F. Skinner (1938) was used to explain the reasonings for
drawing gacha. According to Madigan (2015), there appeared to be a psychological reaction that is
triggered. With the presence of positive reinforcers, in this case, the personality differences of players
alongside the factor of loneliness; it could act as a catalyst to further enforce the behaviour. Furthermore,
the randomness aspect of the reward would then trigger a much stronger conditioning alongside stronger
brain reactions by means of releasing a rush of dopamine. This would then result in the ongoing
repetition of the behaviour of drawing gacha. The accompaniment of audible and visual stimuli could
also aid in the reinforcement of this behaviour (Magidan, 2015). The theoretical framework is as
illustrated in figure 1.
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Fig 1. Theoretical Framework of Drawing Gacha via Operant Conditioning
Methodology
Participants and Procedure

This study collected its data from 377 university students via sub forums of three gacha games on
Reddit. The gacha games in question were Fate/Grand Order (F/GO), Fire Emblem Heroes (FEH) and
Granblue Fantasy (GBF). The participants were given a consent form and asked about their gender, age,
country of origin and favourite video game genre via Google Forms. The data obtained after collection
was then analysed using SPSS version 26.
Measures
In this study, four questionnaires were used. Firstly, to determine the intensity of loneliness, the UCLA-
Loneliness (UCLA-LS) was used (Russell, Peplau & Ferguson, 1978), with a 4-point scale (α = 0.96,
test-retest correlation over a two-month period of α = 0.73; 20 items). Aside from that, a short version
of the Big Five Personality Test (BFI-S) (Lang et al., 2011) containing questions in reference to
openness (α = 0.63), conscientiousness (α = 0.60), extraversion (α = 0.66), agreeableness (α = 0.50) and
neuroticism (α = 0.60) using a 7-point likert sale to determine personality differences. Thirdly, the Video
Game Addiciton Scale for Adolescents (GAS) (Lemmens, Valkenburg & Peter, 2009) (α = 0.92 – 0.94;
21 items). In the context of GAS, a polythemic format implied that for a participant to be considered as
having a VGA, at least half of the criteria needs to be endorsed. An item was considered met when they
answered 3 (sometimes) on the 5-point likert scale. Lastly, a motivation for gacha questionnaire
(Hiramatsu, 2020) was also used. It consisted of 9 items, using a 6-point likert scale. Based on the
structural equation modelling (SEM), the questionnaire was deemed a good fit despite having never
been used in other studies as the topic of gacha is niche and still fairly new in the context of research.
Pilot Test
A pilot test was conducted using 30 participants and the results were analysed to compare the internal
validity with that of its original sources. It was determined that the UCLA-LS had α = 0.94, BFI-S had
resulted in α = 0.45 and α = 0.53 for neuroticism and extraversion respectively whereas GAS had α =
0.89. The participants were selected via purposive sampling.
Analyses
The hypotheses previously mentioned placed a focus on the correlation between the variables of
loneliness, personality differences and possible motivational factors for pulling gacha in relation to
VGA. As such, Pearson’s correlational analysis was used. This was used to determine whether the
correlations were positive, negative or simply non-linear.
Results
Sample Characteristics
The results showed that a large majority of the sample were male (81.2%) followed by female (15.1%)
and a small minority identifying themselves as neither gender (3.7%). Based on the prerequisite of the
participants being a university student, it was expected that most were either within the 17 to 20 and 21
to 24 age brackets; 41.3% and 41.9% respectively, with the percentage decreasing with each increase
in age group. In terms of the participants’ country of origin, the data was simplified by sorting it by
means of continents. The highest frequency of participants hailed from North America (46.2%),
followed by Asia (21.5%), Europe (20.2%), South America (6.4%), Oceania (5.0%) and lastly, Africa
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(0.8%). In terms of video game genre preference, a few suggestions of popular genres were suggested
alongside an option to state other genres. It was determined that most had a preference for RPGs.
However, 3 participants were not accounted for in terms of favourite video game genre due to
indications of being indecisive. The results are as depicted in Table
Table 1
Demographic Profile of the Participants
Measure Items n %
Gender Male 306 81.2
Female 57 15.1
Other 14 3.7
Age Group 17 – 20 156 41.3
21 – 24 158 41.9
25 – 28 50 13.2
29 – 33 13 3.5
34 and above 4 1.0
Country of Origin Sorted by Africa 3 0.8
Continent Asia 81 21.5
Europe 76 20.2
North America 174 46.2
South America 24 6.4
Oceania 19 5.0
Favourite Video Game Action-Adventure 41 10.9
Genre
First Person Shooter (FPS) 25 6.6
Roleplaying Games (RPG) 254 67.4
Puzzle 12 3.2
Open World 20 5.3
Other 66 17.5
Research Hypothesis 1
The first hypothesis that was put forth was that there would be a significant correlation between
loneliness and VGA. An internal consistency analysis was conducted on the UCLA-LS and GAS
questionnaires and reported α = 0.76 and α = 0.90 respectively. Based on the scores obtained between
loneliness (M = 21.8, SD = 11.8) and VGA (M = 66.1, SD = 17.3), it was found to have a significant
positive correlation. Therefore, the hypothesis was supported.
A focus was placed upon only two aspects of personality; neuroticism and extraversion. As such, it
was determined that the hypothesis was only partially supported. The alpha values were found to be
0.70 and 0.74 respectively. Based on the correlational analysis of the total scores for neuroticism (M
= 12.8, SD = 4.0) and VGA, it was determined that there was significant positive correlation between
the variables. However, in the case of extraversion (M = 9.1, SD = 3.8), it resulted in an insignificant
negative correlation. This implied that the higher the individual’s neuroticism score, the more likely
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they are to have VGA. In the case of the latter, insignificance aside, the more extroverted the
individual, the more likely they would have VGA.
The final predicted result of this study would be a significant correlation between the motivational
factors that motivates a player’s in-game spending habits and VGA. Pearson’s correlation was
conducted on each of the nine possible motivational factors for drawing gacha against GAS scores.
The total frequencies of agreed responses (scoring 4-6 on the likert scale) and the results are depicted
in Table 2. It was determined that the highest agreed upon statements were those involving characters,
except for one (“I think some rare characters (items) will hit someday”) and based on the correlational
analysis conducted, the hypothesis was mostly supported with the exception for getting the target
characters (items) and in the occasion of an increased probability event. The results for this
questionnaire are as summarised in Table 2 and 3.
Table 2
Total Frequency of Agreed Responses on the Motivational Factors for Gacha
Measure n %
I want new characters (items) 282 74.8
To get the target characters (items) 324 86.0
To clear games 170 45.0
To advance the game 189 50.1
To rank up 153 40.6
If there is a probability UP event 238 63.1
If limited-time characters (items) are 279 74.0
provided
If there are sale events such as price 187 49.6
reduction
I think some rare characters (items) will hit 190 50.4
someday
Table 3
Motivational Factors for Gacha
Measure M SD P r
I want new characters (items) 282 74.8 0.12 0.016
To get the target characters (items) 324 86.0 0.09 0.078
To clear games 170 45.0 0.13 0.010
To advance the game 189 50.1 0.14 0.005
To rank up 153 40.6 0.14 0.006
If there is a probability UP event 238 63.1 0.05 0.36
If limited-time characters (items) are provided 279 74.0 0.11 0.02
If there are sale events such as price reduction 187 49.6 0.14 0.006
I think some rare characters (items) will hit 190 50.4 0.15 0.004
someday
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Discussion
Loneliness and VGA

As predicted based on the findings of past literature (Wang, Jackson & Zhang, 2011; Erkoç, Özçakir &
Erkoç, 2015; Eren & Örsal, 2018) in addition to the data analysis, it was determined that there was a
significant positive correlation between loneliness and VGA. It was reported that the majority of
participants were found to be male. As stated by Van Rooij et al. (2014), generally, males spend longer
periods of time and with higher frequency on video games. In the same study, male participants in the
high problematic gamer group had lower psychosocial wellbeing scores, especially in regards to
depressive mood followed by loneliness, social anxiety and low self-esteem. This may explain the
gender imbalance in participants and findings on loneliness. Aside from that, the findings also aligned
with the previously discussed social displacement theory as loneliness is a form of negative effect of
having spent more time in online settings in contrast to offline. This may result in players experiencing
a decline in interest towards offline socialisation with the increased need to play video games (Kowert,
2013). Further explanation is that video game playing may help in terms of seeking temporary solace
from negative feelings associated with social deficiencies despite having little effect on facilitating the
development or maintenance of relationships in real life (Lemmens, Valkenburg, 2012). Instead, this
form of substitution may only worsen the deterioration of pre-existing social relationships and lead to
further increase in loneliness (Wang, Sheng & Wang, 2019).
Personality Differences and VGA

The findings on neuroticism could be explained by highly neurotic individuals being easier to influence
in terms of negative emotions (Jeong & Lee, 2015). The difficulty in video games tend to scale with
progression and with the added factor of gacha mechanics, it may either result in satisfaction or
frustration within the player. As a result, it was predicted that neurotic players would gravitate towards
gacha games due to the challenge aspect, be it something within or beyond one’s control.
In contrast, the findings of extraversion did not align with the typical findings for this topic,
however, there may be possible explanations for this. In reference to a previous study (Yilmaz, Yel &
Griffiths, 2018), heavy gamers enjoy talking about video games with other likeminded individuals in
contrast to being involved in social activities. Thus, it could be implied that such preferences in
combination with VGA may negatively affect one’s self efficacy.
Motivation and VGA

The results of this study showed that 25.2% of participants had VGA whereas the latter 74.8% did not.
This case is an example of the Pareto Principle, otherwise known as the 80/20 rule, which states that
most systems involving inputs and outputs, there exists an imbalance. The ratio is not to be taken
literally but is indicative that most results were the result of a minority of outputs (Powell & Sammut-
Bonnici, 2015). A derivative of this principle is the 80/20/5 rule which states that 80% of players do not
engage beyond the surface level of the game, 20% would search up and read more about the game and
5% would be so heavily engaged that they would post and communicate with other players about it.
Therefore, the responses obtained only represents those in the 20% and 5% category.
Similar to various gacha games, the ones in this study share the similarity of using an anime art
style. In anime culture, a handful of fans have a waifu, a female character one is attracted to, similar to
a wife; or a husbando, the male equivalent. According to Reysen et al.’s study (2014), 28.3% of fans
have a waifu or husband and reported having a stronger emotional connection with the character. It was
concluded that the associations observed in terms of one’s favourite character were similar to that of
found in real life relationships. Further support was found in a study dubbed “the waifu effect,” as it
was determined that extroverts had a slightly higher tendency to fall in love with fictional characters in
contrast to introverts. Although it was concluded to not be significant enough to provide a clear
explanation, it still served to be a possible explanation in this study, especially when considered with
the finding on extraversion in the previous hypothesis.
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In an interview from a previous study, one of the participants reported that their main
motivation for gacha purchase was to obtain limited-edition outfits for the in-game characters (Koeder
& Tanaka, 2018). This observation may be tied with the idea of collectability. Based on the researcher’s
own personal observations of gacha players on Reddit, it was a common trend for players to show off
their accomplishments in terms of character collection. In some games, such as FEH, building characters
with skills obtained from other characters is part of the core strategy of the game. As such, this feature
allows even easily obtainable characters to increase in arity due to the investment done. When the
collecting that belongs to a collector is deemed rare and of value, simply possessing just one object is
sufficient in motivating the individual to start collecting objects related to it (Gao, Huang & Simonson,
2014). This implies that once a player has obtained a character that is considered rare or valuable, they
would be more likely to continue collecting as to further build their collection of rarities. On the topic
of rarity, a possible explanation towards the lower frequency of agreed responses on characters that may
be useful someday, it could have been due to the factor of uncertainty on whether these characters may
actually be useful further down the line. With the factor of limited in-game currency, especially for F2P
players, the management of resources is very important. The evidence for collectability stems from the
researcher’s own knowledge and implied to be a possibility as no studies have been conducted in the
connection between collectability and gacha. Despite that, it opens up opportunities for future
exploration on this topic.
Limitations and Future Directions
Despite the notable findings obtained in this study, it came with several limitations. Firstly, this study
had the sole focus towards university students, which include both young and older adults. It is
important to emphasise that the results obtained from this age group may not necessarily represent how
younger players, such as teenagers, would opt to answer—especially in terms of decision-making
abilities. Secondly, the players were generalised in terms of playing style rather than being differentiated
between F2P and pay-to-win, otherwise known as P2W, players. This may have led to a lack of clarity
in terms of differences in motivational factors for drawing gacha when comparing the two groups. Next,
based on feedback given by some of the participants after the completion of the survey, it was reported
that the word choice in some statements may have been unclear or confusing to less fluent English-
speaking participants. Lastly, the study had only focused on three gacha games and all three shared the
same core genre of being a strategy game. Therefore, the results may not necessarily be representative
of every gacha game fanbase.
For future studies on gacha, in order to obtain a better and clearer understanding, it would be
strongly recommended that the study not be restricted to only a specific age group in order to obtain a
more varied response. Furthermore, it may also be more meaningful to differentiate the types of players
based on whether they had invested actual money into the game. Next, an exploration on gacha games
of varying core genres would also aid in better identification of shared responses. In terms of variables
related to the social life of players, it should aso be clearly defined by whether friendships are restricted
by only offline settings. In the occasion of both offline and online being considered, it should also be
clearly stated. Another recommendation to take into account, as inspired by Loton’s study (2014), is to
clearly distinguish the difference between players who are either considered to be highly engaged or
addicted to the game as to avoid overgeneralising.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the findings of this study were able to fill the gaps of previous literature on the topic of
gacha games and VGA. In reference to the findings, it was determined that there was a significant
positive correlation between loneliness and VGA. Furthermore, those with high levels of neuroticism
had a higher tendency for VGA, however, the same could not be said for the aspect of extraversion as
those with low levels of extraversion had similar tendencies, albeit deemed insignificant. Lastly, it was
determined that there was a significant correlation between the motivational factors that motivates a
player to partake in in-game spending in relation to VGA; with a strong emphasis on character-related
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factors having higher priority. The current study serves to not only be an extension to prior studies but
also as an opportunity for other possible avenues to be explored for a better understanding on VGA.
Acknowledgement
Firstly, I would like to thank God for blessing my life with opportunities to further deepen my
knowledge and giving me the strength to persevere. Aside from that, I would like to express my gratitude
to my family for the emotional support they gave me. Thirdly, I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr
Mimi Fitriana and miss Chan Li Chuin for their guidance. Last and not least, I would like to extend my
appreciation to my friends for giving the original idea for researching this topic.
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LOVE, TRUST AND COMMITMENT IN PRESERVING LONG-

DISTANCE MARITAL RELATIONSHIPS
Joki Perdani Sawai,1* Rezki Perdani Sawai,2Mahirah Masdin1
1
2
Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: joki@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
A study was conducted to investigate the role of love, trust, and commitment in preserving long-distance
relationships among married couples. The long-distance relationship factor focused on the extent to which the
three sentiments determine the preservation of marriages. The study was conducted on 110 long-distance married
couples. The three domains of love measured were intimacy, passion, and commitment. Trust was measured using
a single domain while the commitment domains involved the intention to persist, attachment and long-term
orientation. The love variable was measured using the Triangular Love Scale, trust was measured using the Dyadic
Trust Scale, and commitment was based on the Investment Model Scale (IMS) (Rusbult, Martz, & Agnew, 1998),
while marital maintenance was measured using the Relationship Maintenance Scale. The study found that passion
(r = .294 **, k <.002) had a significant positive relationship with marital maintenance while trust (r = .249 **, k
<.001) showed a similar relationship. Further, only the commitment domain for long-term orientation (r = .199*,
k <.002) showed a significant positive relationship with marital maintenance. Thus, the results indicate that
passion, trust and long-term commitment orientation are likely to enhance marital preservation among long-
distance married couples. The implications are that passion, trust, and long-term commitment orientation are
crucial to protect and strengthen long-distance marriage bonds among such couples.
Keywords: Love, Trust, Commitment, Marital Maintenance, Long-distance Marriage Couples
Marriage as a particular type of intimate relationship is the first attempt that brings partners together
in a way of being a family that contributes to the development of societies (Kublay & Oktan, 2015).
Though long-distance marriages impose particular burdens on relationships they are a reality for most
couples today. Such separation can be due to career needs, family anxieties, or other factors that
require couples to stay apart. Nevertheless long-distance marriages can still go well with appropriate
effort and communication between the partners. An important aspect of a long-distance marriage is
the strengthening of the relationship to ensure that it lasts. Studies on the preservation of marriage
were scarce in the early 2000s (Perlman, 2001). However, due to the increasing rates of divorce, the
focus on marital maintenance has gained attention and needs to be studied empirically.
Marital maintenance refers to “relationships that are beyond the initial stage and have not yet
reached the dissolution phase” (Dainton, 1994). Meanwhile, Duck (1994) defines it as “a shared
meaning system”, which refers to a system of relationships built between two individuals and sharing
meaning in the relationship. Dindia and Canary (1993) define marriage maintenance based on four
elements, namely (1) keeping the relationship in existence, (2) keeping the relationship in a specified
state or condition, (3) keeping the relationship in a satisfactory condition, and (4) keeping the
relationship in repair.
Dindia and Emmers-Sommer (2006) assert that ensuring the relationship always exists is
realized through love, affection, and commitment to the partnership. If a couple meets these
requirements, then satisfaction with the relationship can also be achieved. When couples are satisfied
with each other, then the marital relationship can be strengthened over a longer period. In other words,
maintaining a marriage can be described as a process of maintaining the quality of a relationship
especially at the level of satisfaction towards the couple.
The nature of long-distance marriages itself often tends to threaten marital maintenance
between couples. Love, trust and commitment are the factors that may influence the marital
relationship of long-distance married couples. Jenny Ratna Suminar and Siti Murni Kaddi (2018)
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emphasized that successfully maintaining a long-distance relationship takes commitment, openness,

mutual understanding, and trust between partners. Marital maintenance requires continuous efforts
between spouses to ensure that all conflicts are resolved amicably without jeopardizing the marriage.
Being in a long-distance marital relationship is different from having a long-distance romance

(Scott, 2002). For most individuals, love is the very foundation of romantic involvements in general
and marriage in particular (Berscheid & Peplau, 1983). Rubin (1970) defined love as an interpersonal
attitude that predisposes someone to think, feel, and behave in a certain way. Jurkane-Hobein (2015)
mention that love is not only more idealized but also more difficult to reach. Some spouses experience
substantial declines in their positive feelings for each other and may even go so far as to end their
marriage. Others are able to maintain comparatively high levels of marital satisfaction and love
(Valngelisti & Huston, 1994). Bauman (2000) argues that we live in a liquid modernity and love is
also liquid (Bauman, 2003). Liquid love means that love is unstable and unreliable where relationships
between individuals are loose and easily severed. Thus, to maintain a sound long-distance relationship,
couples need to regularly contact each other and show concern for their welfare.
Respondents in a study by McBride and Bergen (2014) reported that they didn’t need to be
close to each other to express their love, and that physical contact was not necessary. In order to
maintain feelings towards each other, couples utilize various media to develop their relationships
(Dharmawijati, 2016). The respondents talked to their partners almost every day on the phone. This
showed the commitment they had to each other and made them closer. Lack of daily contact and
sustenance of the relationship may lead to decreased intimacy (Scott, 2002).
Trust is another construct noted as essential to successful distance relationships (Bente,

Ruggenberg, Kramer, & Eschenburg, 2008). Amelia (2020) emphasized that distance has both
beneficial and negative aspects, but how couples handle it through communication and constant trust
determines how their relationship is preserved and make them feel close to each other. Relational
insecurity might constitute a crucial factor in determining the quality of long-distance relationships.
It may simply be harder to trust a relationship when the physical, emotional, and sexual availability
of the partner is very limited by the relationship conditions. Trust between the couple is very important
for the survival of the marriage (Kariuki, 2014).
Living far apart from each other contributes to uncertainty that can lead to jealousy as well as
lower the level of trust among partners (Dainton & Aylor, 2001), and this may contribute to problems
in maintaining a marriage. Suspicion between spouses is considered as one of the main causes of
marital conflict according to Pathan (2015). According to the Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT),
maintaining a relationship requires couples to manage their doubts and beliefs towards their partners.
Johnson and Moosath (2019) outline factors that harm trust in a marital relationship. These include
lack of love, doubts over the partner, breaks in trust, lack of sharing, lack of support, breaking promises
and lack of forgiveness. Mutual interaction (Johnson & Moosath, 2019) and constantly exchanging
information by couples is an important way to increase trust in each other (Dainton & Aylor, 2002).
A study by Pistole and Roberts (2011) notes that the lack of contact or communication with a partner
especially when needed can lead to negative thoughts and breed mistrust. However, the absence of
negative thoughts between couples, despite the lack of communication, can still contribute to a stable
marriage.
Commitment plays an important role in marital maintenance especially in a marital

relationship that is physically robust (Le, Loving, Lewandowski, Feinberg, Johnson, Fiorentino, &
Ing, 2008). The physical absence of a partner forces couples to be more independent in managing their
lives. Too much independence could lead couples to pay less attention and be less committed to their
partners. Although couples may trust each other and let their partners manage their own lives,
commitment to each other needs to be constantly reinforced. One means of such commitment is to
consistently or frequently meet each other. When couples meet rarely due to the busyness of their
careers, there is a high probability that the marriage union will be threatened. This is because the
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couple is too career-minded compared to being committed to their partners who, in turn, are also too
comfortable living alone without their partner (Stafford, 2005). By spending time together, partners
regain faith and trust in the relationship (Sahlstein, 2004). Kariuki (2014) emphasizes that for the
survival of their marriage, couples living far apart must remain truthful, committed, faithful and
emotionally connected to each other. Shared everyday decisions (SHARED) are more strongly linked
to commitment (Jimenez & Asendorpf2010). Rusbult (1983) found that changes in commitment
predicted the dissolution of relationships.
Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study were:

i. To investigate the relationship between love and marital maintenance among long-distance
married couples.
ii. To investigates the relationship between trust and marital maintenance among long-distance
married couples.
iii. To investigate the relationship between commitment and marital maintenance among long-
distance married couples.
Methodology
A. Study Design
Quantitative research was used for the survey in this study. The study samples comprised married
respondents living away from their spouses.
B. Respondents
The study was conducted on married couples in a long-distance marital relationship with a partner. A
total of 110 male and female respondents were involved comprising primary and secondary school
teachers in Sabah.
C. Instruments
Altogether four sets of standard questionnaires were used in this study to measure each of the variables
represented. The love variables were evaluated using Sternberg’s Triangular Love Scale (1988)
(STLS) which contain 19 items for measuring the three domains of love, namely intimacy, passion,
and commitment. The scale used was a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = agree). The
trust variables were measured using the Dyadic Trust Scale (DTS) (Larzelere & Huston, 1980). The
DTS research tool used in this study is a short-form questionnaire containing 8 items measuring trust
with a one-factor model. The Likert measurement scale comprised 7 points (1 = strongly disagree to
7 = agree).
The researchers used the Investment Model Scale (IMS) (Rusbult, Martz & Agnew, 1998)
containing 15 items to measure commitment. The measurement is based on a Likert scale of 0
(strongly disagree) to 8 ( agree). Finally, the dependent variable i.e., marital strengthening was
measured using the Relationship Maintenance Scale (RMS) (Chonody, Killian, Gabb & Dunk-West,
2017). The RMS contains 8 items measuring an individual’s level of effort in maintaining
relationships.
D. Procedure
The researchers obtained permission from the Ministry of Education in Malaysia and the Sabah
Education Department to conduct the study on school teachers. The duration of consent granted for
the study was six months. After receiving consent letters from the agencies, the researchers conducted
a simple rapport session with the principals of each school visited to identify the teachers who were
living in a commuting marriage. Based on the information received, the researcher left a set of
questionnaires for the respondents to be completed within one week.
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Data Analysis
Data were analyzed descriptively to identify the background of the respondents. The hypotheses of
the study were tested using correlation method. The IBM SPSS programme was used to analyze the
study data.
As seen in Table 1, the 110 respondents involved in this study consisted of 44 male (40%)
and 66 female (60%). Of the 110 respondents, 94 (85.5%) were first-time married couples while 16
(14.5%) were in their second marriages. Of their spouses, 80 (72.7%) and 30 (27.3%) mentioned it
was their first and second marriages, respectively.For duration of living in a long-distance marriage,
25 persons (22.7%) each reported being physically separated from their partners for less-than and 1
year, and 23 (20.9%) each reported being apart for 2 and 3 years. The longest duration apart for the
couples at 6 years was reported by 3 persons (2.7%). Interestingly, even though they lived separately
from their partners, only 18 persons (16.4%) said they had thought of ending their marriage while 92
(83.6%) reported no intention of divorcing.
Education-wise, 91 respondents (82.7%) had degrees and 19 persons (17.3%) had a diploma.
For partners, 35 persons (31.8%) had a diploma, 32 (29.1%) had certificates, 17 (15.5%) had degrees,
14 (12.7%) had achieved STPM level and 12 (10.9%) SPM. For job positions, all respondents reported
themselves as Grade 41 and above. For partners, 32 persons (29.1%) reported their employment status
as part-time workers, 28 (25.5%) worked in the private sector, 17 (15.5%) did not work, 10 persons
each (9.1%) were self-employed and Support III (Grade 1-16), 8 (7.3%) Grade 41 and above, 4 (3.6%)
Support I (Grade 27-38) and 1 person (0.9%) was in Support II (Grade 17-26).
Forty-four persons (40%) reported that family finances were managed by the wife while 23
(20.9%) said they were managed by the husband. Meanwhile, 43 persons (39.1%) said they managed
their own finances or incomes without partner intervention.
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Table 1
Background Information on Long Distance Marriage Couples in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah
___________________________________________________________________
Frequency (N) Percentage (%)
___________________________________________________________________
Gender
Male 44 40
Female 66 60
First Marriage
Respondent
Yes 94 85.5
No 16 14.5
Partner
Yes 80 72.7
No 30 27.3
Duration of Long-Distance Marriage

Less than 1 year 25 22.7
1 year 25 22.7
2 years 23 20.9
3 years 23 20.9
4 years 6 5.5
5 years 5 4.5
6 years 3 2.7
Intention to Divorce
Yes 18 16.4
No 92 83.6
Academic Level of Respondents

Diploma 19 17.3
Degree 91 82.7
Academic Level of Partner

SPM 12 10.9
STPM 14 12.7
Certificates 32 29.1
Diploma 35 31.8
Degree 17 15.5
Respondents’ Work Position

Grade 41 and above 110 100
Partners’ Work Position

Grade 41 and above 8 7.3
Support I (Grade 27-38) 4 3.6
Support II (Grade 17-26) 1 0.9
Support III (Grade 1-16) 10 9.1
Private Sector 28 25.5
Part-Time 32 29.1
Not Working 17 15.5
Self-Employed 10 9.1
Family’s Economic Manager

Husband 23 20.9
Wife 44 40
Manage Own Money 43 39.1
___________________________________________________________________
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Table 2
Results of Correlation Testing
______________________________________________________________________
Love
__________________________________________________
Intimacy Passion Commitment
_________________________________________________________
r Sig. r Sig. r. Sig.
______________________________________________________________________
Marital .059 .542 .294** .002 .037 .703
Maintenance
______________________________________________________________________
Trust
__________________________________________________
Marital r. Sig.
Maintenance __________________________________________________________
.249** .009
______________________________________________________________________
Commitment
__________________________________________________
Intention to Attachment Long-Term
Persist Orientation
__________________________________________________
r Sig. r Sig. r Sig.
__________________________________________________________
Marital .166 .084 .152 .113 .199* .037
Maintenance
______________________________________________________________________
r<.001**, <.05*
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As shown in Table 2, passion is correlated with marital maintenance among long-distance

marriage couples. Based on the results, it can be concluded that couples in such a situation need a sense
of passion towards their partner to ensure that the relationship can last. The positive correlation explains
that the higher the passion for the partner, the stronger the relationship. However, intimate love and
commitment do not correlate with marital maintenance, that is, intimacy and commitments of love do
not affect long-distance marital relationships. This is because such relationships require more passion
between couples despite living far apart. Valngelisti and Huston (1994) asserted that couples who are
able to maintain strongly positive feelings toward each other may be in a particularly advantageous
position to maintain their relationship over the longer haul. Those in long-distance relationships report
higher relationship quality in several domains (e.g., love for partner, fun with partner, and
conversational quality) compared to those in proximal relationships (Kelmer, Rhoades, Stanley, &
Markman, 2013).
Meanwhile, the analysis found trust to be correlated with marital maintenance. The
characteristics of a positive relationship indicate that the higher the trust among couples who live apart,
the more likely it can enhance and strengthen their relationship. In other words, even though they live
far apart and rarely meet physically, that level of trust plays an important role in protecting the well-
being of long-distance marital relationships. In a study by Kariuki (2014), respondents placed trust at
the top of the list of ingredients that strengthen relationships between couples.
A sense of trust in married couples who believe that neither partner will do things that could
damage that trust is a critical foundation for a sound relationship (Heller, 2000). Long-distance married
couples tend to give autonomy to their spouses in managing their personal lives due to the element of
living far apart. For example, the husband believes that the wife will take care of her own safety while
the wife believes that the husband will cater to his own meals which is traditionally performed by the
wife. Individuals who trust their partners in being able to effectively handle those responsibilities while
separated help promote marital maintenance between them (Mietzner & Lin, 2005).
Further, the study found that commitment factors are linked to marital maintenance among
long-distance marriage couples. That relationship is described specifically in the long-term orientation.
Based on a long-term relationship-oriented commitment, couples tend to see the relationship that they
are experiencing to last forever. The characteristics of such partners is to always imagine life together
during old age and assume that if their life as a couple does not last long, it will destroy their individual
lives. Thus, such a long-term approach tends to cause couples to strive to maintain their marital
relationships. Great efforts will be made to resolve problems or issues that could threaten their
relationship and not let them interfere with the strength of their marriage. In addition, couples will also
always ensure their total commitment to their partner especially when having time to spend together
(Jacobs & Lyubomirsky, 2013).
Conclusion
Living away from a partner can be extremely challenging for married couples. This is because distance
tends to generate issues and conflicts that can undermine the strength of a marriage. Therefore, having
a sound and lasting marriage relationship despite living apart requires couples to always ensure that the
feelings of passion and sense of trust between them remain strong. A sense of passion for the partner
must be there, especially for those who are far apart. If a partner feels less passionate towards his partner,
it will cause the individual to be attracted to others. The same goes to trusting and avoiding doubt in a
partner. Being separated or living apart can cause marital relationships to erode quickly. Finally,
individuals should always ensure that their commitment to each other is undivided and always accorded
the highest priority even though they may be living apart.
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CULTURE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL HELP-SEEKING ATTITUDE

Kesantini AthinarayananRao
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: kishantiniathinarayananrao89@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Local studies have revealed that counselling services still remain underutilized due to low psychological help-
seeking attitudes despite the spike in mental health issues. Many factors contribute to psychological help-seeking
attitude such as stigma, self-construal, individualism vs collectivism, and face-saving. While some factors are
empirically based, many are not evidence based. It is difficult to compare and evaluate psychological help-seeking
attitudes as different factors have varying measures. The objective of this paper is to propose the use of
instruments such as Loss of Face Scale (LOFS), Self-Construal Scale (SCS), Individualism vs Collectivism Scale
(ICS), Communal Orientation Scale (COS), The Perception of Stigmatization by Others for Seeking Help Scale
(PSOSH), and Self Stigma of Seeking Help Scale (SSOSH) as an outcome to measure culture in psychological
help-seeking attitude. This paper outlines the relationship between culture and psychological help-seeking
attitude measures, hence the use of the scales is an ideal outcome measure for cultural factors in psychological
help-seeking attitude. To discover the aim of this paper, previous studies using the abovementioned scales were
discussed. The reliability and validity of these instruments in measuring cultural factors and stigma in
psychological help-seeking attitudes were explored. Based on previous studies, instruments like the LOFS had
high reliability in studying the impact of it on both Asians and Americans. In past studies, it was found that both
SCS and COS indicated is sufficiently reliable and cross-culturally appropriate. Similar to that, the SSOSH is
proven to be sufficiently invariant across countries to self-stigma related to help-seeking behavior. However,
PSOSH showed limited reliability in which it was only reliable to study cross-cultural factors among 11 countries.
Further exploration is required by focusing on the aim to study cross-culturally related factors in psychological
help-seeking attitudes among students both local and international students in Newcastle Medicine University of
Malaysia.
Keywords: Psychological help-seeking attitude, culture, students, Malaysia
The underutilization of mental health services in Malaysia has become a vast study area among
researchers. While barriers of seeking psychological help are being studied, almost little to no studies
are conducted on suitable instruments to test scales pertaining to barriers of psychological help-seeking.
This study will therefore explore the suitability of various instruments in studying the influence of
stigma and cultural factors in psychological help-seeking. This research will also address the gap that
is deemed low or lack of study instruments measuring these factors in psychological help-seeking
especially among Asians. This concept is built upon the various findings that have been found by
previous researchers in the help-seeking field to bridge the gap of implementation or utilization of these
instruments in researching on psychological help-seeking attitudes and their barriers.
Need For Study
It’s a growing concern about mental health issues increasing amongst university students every year.
The Ministry of Health Malaysia reported in their Mental Healthcare Report 2016, that the highest
prevalence of mental health issues take place in an adult aged sixteen and above. Despite the expanding
services and needs, mental health services are still lacking in utilization. Previous literatures have
studied the prevalence, barriers and stressors in mental health among students. The literature and
findings from the scholars somehow failed to study on suitable instruments to study on underlying
factors in psychological help seeking attitudes. This study will therefore focus on the psychometric
properties of various instruments measuring cultural and stigma influence on psychological help
seeking attitudes, in which the reliability and validity of each instrument will be discussed in this study
based on previous researches.
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Objectives
The research paper seeks to achieve its general objectives of proposing the usage of instruments like
Loss of Face Scale (LOFS), Self-Construal Scale (SCS), Individualism Vs Collectivism Scale (IND-
COL), Public Stigma of Seeking Help Scale (PSOSH), Self-Stigma of Help Seeking Scale (SSOSH),
and the Attitudes Towards Psychological Help-Seeking Scale (ATPHSS) to measure the influence of
stigma and cultural factors in psychological help-seeking attitude by focusing on the following specific
objectives;
i. To explore the reliability and validity of the LOFS.

ii. To explore the reliability and validity of the SCS.
iii. To explore the reliability and validity of IND-COL Scale.
iv. To explore the reliability and validity of PSOSH Scale.
v. To explore the reliability and validity of SSOSH scale.
vi. To explore the reliability and validity of ATTPHS.
Research Questions
i. Does LOFS have high reliability and validity in studying the influence of cultural factors in
psychological help-seeking attitudes?
ii. Does the SCS have significant reliability and validity in measuring the influence of cultural
factors and stigma in psychological help-seeking?
iii. Does IND-COL Scale have high reliability and validity in measuring cultural influences in
psychological help-seeking attitudes among multicultural settings?
iv. Does the PSOSH have high reliability and validity in determining the influence of stigma in
psychological help-seeking attitudes?
v. Does the SSOSH have high reliability and validity in determining the influence of stigma in
psychological help seeking attitudes?
vi. Does the ATPHSS have high reliability and validity in studying the psychological help-seeking
attitudes among university students?
Hypothesis
i. The LOFS has high reliability and validity in measuring the influence of cultural
factors in psychological help-seeking attitudes.
ii. The SCS has low reliability and validity in studying the influence of cultural factors
and stigma in psychological help-seeking.
iii. The IND-COLL Scale has high reliability and validity in studying cultural factors and
influences in a multicultural population.
iv. The PSOSH scale has high reliability and validity in studying the influence of stigma
in psychological help seeking attitudes.
v. The SSOSH scale has moderate reliability and validity in determining the influence
of stigma in psychological help seeking attitudes.
vi. The ATPHSS has high reliability and validity in studying psychological help seeking
attitudes among university students
Research Methodology
The secondary data collection method will be used in this study. The study will collect psychometric
properties such as the reliability and validity data, which will be retrieved from previous studies which
have utilized these instruments in measuring psychological help-seeking attitudes. The relationship
between the independent and dependent variables will be explored through this method.
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Targeted Participants
400 students studying at Newcastle University of Medicine Malaysia, Iskandar Puteri, Johor. They will
be recruited through convenient sampling. These students are all undergraduate students. There will be
a combination of Malaysian and non-Malaysian students. Non-Malaysian students are labelled as
international students in this study.
Instruments
Self-Construal Scale
This scale was constructed by Singelis in 1994 to measure individual differences in self-construal
structures. It consists of 24 items. The items are scored on a 7-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree
and 7= strongly agree) as a means of measuring the “two selves'' of individual identity, namely the
independent self and the interdependent self. Inter-item reliability of the two subscales was often below
an adequate level with Cronbach’s alpha ranging from 0.53 to 0.90 (Cross et al., 2011). Cronbach Alpha
reliabilities with the 15 items have been ranging from the high .60’s to the middle .70’s. These
reliabilities are adequate considering the broadness of the construct and the wide range of thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors assessed by the scale.
Loss of Face Scale

The LOFS was developed by Nolan Zane in 2000. Using a rational development approach, a 21-item,
measuring loss of face was conducted, based on a list of 45 face-related behaviors and life-threatening
situations. The purpose of this scale is to measure the extent to which one avoids situations and
behaviors that are related to loss of face. For example, ‘I am more affected when someone criticizes me
in public than when someone criticizes me in private’ were selected for inclusion. Each statement was
scored on a 7-point Likert scale, from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 7 (Strongly Agree). All items were
scored in the direction of face of loss concern. The LOFS measure was internally consistent with an
alpha .83.
Individualism Vs Collectivism Scale
Triandis and Gelfland (1998) developed the individualism and collectivism scale to measure four
dimensions of collectivism and individualism namely vertical collectivism, vertical individualism,
horizontal collectivism and horizontal individualism. This scale consists of 16 items measuring
collectivism and individualism. All items are answered on a 9-point scale, ranging from 1= never or
definitely no and 9= always or definitely yes.
IND-COL addresses the equality and inequality among members in a cultural group.
Individuals scoring high on the vertical dimension tend to accept the existence of inequality and
emphasize achievement. Individuals scoring high on the horizontal dimension support notions of
equality, value the freedom to be themselves without comparison to others (Triandis & Gelfand, 1998).
They yield four constructs, namely, horizontal individualism (HI), vertical individualism (VI),
horizontal collectivism (HC) and vertical collectivism (VC).
HI people are unique and would want to be distinct from groups. Example of an item measuring
HI is ‘I’d rather depend on myself than others. The VI people are independent and strive to be the best.
An example of item measuring VI is ‘It is important that I do my job better than others’.HC people see
themselves similar to others. An example of an item measuring HC is; ‘If a coworker gets a prize, I will
feel proud’.VC people are people with group integrity. Example of an item measuring VC is, ‘Parents
and children must stay together as much as possible’.
Perceptions of Stigmatisation by Others for Seeking Psychological Help Scale
The PSOSH scale was developed by David L.Vogel, and Nathaniel G.Wade, who have conducted
research in the help-seeking and stigma area for more than 5 years and are licensed counselling
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psychologists who have worked with clients with stigmatization and fears of how others view them for
seeking psychological help. There are 21 items in this scale, to reflect on how the stigma associated
with seeking treatment influences the social reaction of others. Types of items reflect on behavioral,
cognitive and emotions. For example, behavioral items are like ‘Say something negative about you to
others’, emotional items, ‘be angry with you’ and cognitive items, ‘think you posed a risk to others.
Items are scored on 5-likert point scale ranging from 1(not at all) to 5(a great deal) and higher scores
indicated greater perceived stigma from those the individual interacts with.
Self-Stigma of Seeking Help Scale
SSOSH was developed by David L.Vogel in 2006. The 10-item scale assesses threats to one’s self-
evaluation for seeking psychological help. Items are rated from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly
agree), with five reversed scored items. A sample item is ‘I would feel inadequate if I went to a therapist
for psychological help’. This scale predicts attitudes and willingness to seek counselling. The internal
consistencies range from .86 to .90 in college samples (Vogel et al., 2006).
The Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Scale
The Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Scale (ATSPPHS) was developed by Fisher
and Turner in 1970 to measure attitudes towards seeking professional psychological help. This scale
consists of 29-point likert items such as, ‘Although there are clinics for people with mental troubles, I
would not have much faith in them (item 1), and emotional difficulties, like many things, tend to work
out by themselves (item 9). Participants will need to rate how much they agree with certain statements
regarding seeking help from a psychiatric or mental health professional on a 4-point scale (0 =
disagreement, and 3 = agreement). A high score indicates positive attitudes towards seeking
professional help in mental health services. It was found that the internal reliability was .83 (Fischer &
Turner,1970). This scale also demonstrated strong validity when known-group validity tests were run
(Fischer and Turner, 1970). Other studies have used this scale too (Duncan, 2003; Chian & Louis,
2009). Test-retest reliability among Malaysian samples showed strong correlation of r=.741(Chian &
Louis, 2009). Fischer and Farina (1995) noted that, in the 40 years of the ATSPPHS’s existence,
different studies have shown it to be a valid measure.
Findings
Self-Construal Scale
Previous studies have shown that self-construal significantly predicts a wide psychological outcome
(Jesus, 2015). Luo et al. (2011) found that interdependent self-construal is associated with mastery
approach and avoidance goals while independent self-construal was linked to performance approach
and avoidance goals among Singaporean students. A study on self-construal among Filipino showed
that the two-factor model showed good fit indices through cross validation and could reflect cultural
self-construal among Filipino samples. The independent and interdependent self-construal also showed
satisfactory reliability indices. The two-factor model yielded excellent fit indices and acceptable
Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients ,0.71 to 0.74(Jesus, 2015).
Past studies, however, have shown that this two-factor structured scale lacks validity (Levine
et al. 2003’ Lu and Gilmour 2004). Levine et al. (2003) believed that most instruments measuring
cultural self at an individual level tend to face this issue. Self-construal scale (Singelis 1994) had low
fit indices among American, Japanese and Korean samples. Asian samples on the other hand did not
score significantly higher on interdependent self-construal scale in contrast to theoretical assumptions
of cultural self-views. One limitation is the unique consideration of the two factor self-construal
structure whereas a three-factor structure could be a viable alternative (Gudykunst et al., 1996; Hardin,
Leong, & Bhagwat, 2004; Kim, Hunter, Miyahari, & Horvath, 1996)
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Loss of Face Scale
The LOF measures demonstrated adequate internal consistency so that estimates of validity could be
made without being compromised by differential reliability among measures (Zane, 2002). The scale
correlated positively with other-directedness, private self-consciousness, public self - consciousness,
and negatively with extraversion, acting as in the desire to perform before others, and White cultural
identity. It was only moderately correlated with social anxiety and social desirability. Similar results
were found when Asians and Whites were analyzed separately. These results suggested that the measure
is unidimensional. Results also show that this scale was an important ethnic discriminator. This means
that the measure is sensitive to ethnic or cultural differences involving Asians and whites and is reliable
in studying cultural differences (Nolan Zane and May Yeh, 2002).
Two studies utilizing the LOF scale were found. The first study was conducted Asian and White
students, to assess the validity and development of LOF. It was found through this study that the LOF
was internally consistent with an alpha of .83 without being compromised by differential reliability
among the measures. It shows a concurrent and discriminant validity. The scale was correlated with
other directedness, private self-consciousness, public self-consciousness, and social anxiety, and
correlated negatively with extraversion, acting before others and acculturation. The measure was
unidimensional. The results supported the reliability, construct validity, and incremental validity of the
LOF and suggested that the measure was sensitive to cultural differences.
The second study examined the loss of face scale as a possible explanatory construct for
unassertiveness among Asians. Cultural values in explaining ethnic differences in behavior were also
explored (Zane, Sue, Hu, & Kwon, 1991). The results explained that values reflecting concerns about
loss of face can explain much of the differences in assertiveness between Asians and Whites.
IND-COL Scale
The measure showed reasonable reliability coefficients. Singelis (1995) used further analysis to prove
convergent and discriminant validities, and found that the horizontal and vertical COL scales were
strongly correlated, but the horizontal and vertical IND scales were not correlated. The work by Triandis
and his colleagues has been well received and there is an increasing use if this measurement scale in
the literature (Chirkov, Lynch , & Niwa, 2005; Kemmelmier et al., 2003; Nelson & Shavitt, 2002; Ng
& Van Dyne, 2001 ; Park, Rehg, & Lee, 2005; Tjosvold, law, & Sun, 2003; Vorauer & Cameron, 2002)
. This scale has been tested in different cultures demonstrating a fair degree of robustness (Chirkov et
al., 2005; Wasti, 2003).
In a study by Lerzan Aksoy and Fuan Li (2007) between Turkey and US students, results
showed that individualism and collectivism are two different constructs and they represent two different
dimensions. The measurement between two cultures also showed that the items are valid indicators of
the underlying constructs in both samples, and most items measure the construct equally well in the two
cultures. These findings support the utility of the individualism and collectivism measurement scale in
cross cultural research.
PSOSH Scale
Vogel et al., (2009) found that all items are useful in measuring other’s stigma in seeking psychological
help, but believed that long measures are difficult to incorporate into survey research. They deemed
PSOSH as an adequate measure in terms of reliability, factor’s structure, and concurrent validity.
Ponterotto and Ruckdeschel (2007) also deemed that the scale was an excellent measure.
In another study, Vogel et al., (2017) found that the PSOSH was normed using samples from
the United States and, until the cross-cultural validity of this measure is established, it cannot reliably
be used within other countries (Miller & Sheu, 2008). They examined the cross-cultural measurement
invariance of the PSOSH using the sequential constraint imposition approach across 11
countries/regions. Overall, findings indicate that the PSOSH measures a meaningful construct (i.e.,
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configural and metric invariance) across the 11 countries/regions and that future cross-cultural research
could use the PSOSH to examine relationships between social network stigma and other variables.
Scalar invariance results also supported the examination of mean differences in Australia, Brazil,
Canada, Portugal, Turkey, the U.K., and the U.S., but not in Hong Kong, Romania, Taiwan, and UAE.
Choi and Miller (2014) in their study of Willingness to see a counselor among Asian, Asian
American, and Pacific Islanders students attending university in America found that culture could also
be measured through the PSOSH scale. Findings are significant and show that culture does impact
willingness to seek help from a therapist.
Surapaneni (2019) studied the role of parental stigma on self-stigma and help seeking intentions
among Asian American, and Caucasian Americans and found that the PSOSH scale was reliable and
valid in studying parental stigma in help-seeking.
SSOSH Scale
In U.S. college samples, estimates of the internal consistency ranged from .86 to .90 (Vogel et al.,
2006). SSOSH has also been previously used in Australia, and translated versions of the SSOSH have
been used in Brazil, Taiwan, and Turkey. In these international samples, the translated SSOSH scores
have reported internal consistency estimates between .73 and .88 (Baptista & Zanon,2016; Griffiths,
Mond, Murray, & Touyz, 2015; Vogel, Armstrong, et al., 2013)
The cross-cultural invariance of the psychometrics of the SSOSH scale has also been examined
in six separate studies from six different countries, namely England, Greece, Israel, Taiwan, Turkey
and the United States. This scale has shown a unidimensional factor structure and adequate reliability
among samples drawn around U.S. Internal consistency has been reported in previous research for
general samples of college students (.79 - .92). Middle Eastern American sample (.79; Soheilian &
Inman, 2009), samples of African American (.84), Asian American (.85), Latino American (.89; Vogel,
Heimerdinger-Edwards, Hammer, & Hubbard, 2011). Test-retest reliabilities among college students
were reported to be .72 (Vogel et al., 2006). SSOSH is therefore reliable for predicting attitudes toward
(r= -.65) and intention to seek (r= -.37; Vogel et al., 2006) psychological help. Through Vogel’s study
across six countries, it was found that the internal consistencies across country samples (.77 - .89) were
consistent with previous findings on college students (.79 - .92; Vogel et al., 2006) and non-majority
samples (.79 - .89; Soheilian & Inman, 2009; Vogel et al., 2011). This is evidence that the SSOSH
possesses a construct that can be used to measure cross-cultural groups. Although the findings show
that it maintained accuracy for cross cultural groups measurements, the SSOSH scale which was
developed in Western countries may seem individualistic and represent Western culture and
automatically underrepresent collectivistic notions of stigma (Vogel et al.,2013).
Sezer and Kezer (2013) in their study on the psychometric properties of the SSOSH among
Turkish samples found that the scale indicated high internal consistency, .90. Criterion validity
coefficient was found to be .71, which indicates the SSOSH scale is a valid and reliable tool in studying
self-stigmatization of individuals, especially in Turkish sample.
Choi and Miller (2014) administered the Willingness to See a Counsellor in Asian, Asian
American, and Pacific islanders’ samples. Findings showed that culture impacts willingness to see a
counselor. Asians who adhered to their cultural values showed less interest in help-seeking. The cultural
values were both influenced by public stigma and self-stigma. European-American student portrayed
higher levels of willingness but stigma still impacted their willingness. The usage of the SSOSH scale
in this study indicated that the scale is reliable in studying cultural factors and stigma in help seeking.
ATSPPHS
A local study on psychological help-Seeking Attitudes among Malaysian university and college
students conducted by Suradi Salim (2010) found that this scale showed good and moderately strong
consistencies, r=.86 (n=26), and r=.89 (n=47) throughout test-retest reliabilities. Four subscales were
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studied through this scale namely recognition of need for psychological help, stigma tolerance,
interpersonal openness and confidence in helpers.
In a study on stigma of mental illness and attitudes toward psychological help-seeking in

Jordanian University Students, Ahmad Rayan and Amani Jaradat (2016) found that this scale had
Cronbach’s α= 0.82. This scale measured variables such as gender, past experiences, specialty, and
stigma.
A study by G.J Palmer (2009) on the reliability and validity of the Attitudes Toward Seeking
Professional Psychological Help Scale among Jamaican Americans showed that the estimate of
Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for the overall ATSPPHS with the Jamaican American sample
was α = .87. This result represents strong reliability for the overall scores of the scale and shared similar
findings with Fischer and Turner’s (1970) original standardized population. Validity of the ATSPPHS
was not established with the Jamaican American sample. Concerning the reliability and validity of the
ATSPPHS, the research investigating Asian-Americans only referred to the original test-retest
reliability estimates of .83 (Fischer & Turner, 1970; Atkinson & Gim, 1989). However, no evaluation
of the ATSPPHS was made to demonstrate validation with use among the sampled group of Chinese
American, Japanese-American, and Korean-American students.
Zhang & Dixon (2003) examined acculturation and attitudes toward seeking psychological help
among Asian international students. The hypotheses stated that the four factors of the ATSPPHS
representing recognition for need, stigma tolerance, interpersonal openness, and confidence in
practitioners (Fischer & Turner, 1970), would all have a relationship with acculturation among Asian
international students (Zhang & Dixon, 2003).The study surveyed 170 Asian international graduate and
undergraduate students with the majority representing the nations of China, Korea, Japan, India,
Thailand, Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia, and a small percentage participating from Singapore, the
Philippines, and Nepal (Zhang & Dixon, 2003).Regarding the reliability and validity of the ATSPPHS
,Atkinson and Gim’s (1989) discussed the reliability generated from Fischer and Turner’s (1970)
findings resulting from the instrument’s standardization. Picco et al., (2016) stated that Malays were
significantly less likely to be open to seeking psychological help, whilst both Malays and Indians were
less likely to value seeking psychological help. These findings can be explained by various influencing
factors measured by this scale.
Results
Based on the findings, it can be concluded that the Loss of Face scale is a valid and reliable instrument
on studying cultural influences in psychological help-seeking attitudes. According to Zane (2002), this
instrument works as an important discriminator in measuring cultural factors that influences one’s
decision and attitude in seeking help. Therefore, this instrument can be utilized in future studies to study
cultural factors in help seeking especially among multicultural samples where there are various cultures
and beliefs that are one of the factors of psychological help-seeking attitudes. Although little studies
have been found in utilizing this instrument, the validity and reliability of past existing studies showed
that it has a good fit. The first hypothesis of the present study is therefore supported.
Findings show that the Self-Construal scale lacks validity (Levine et al., 2003). Except for
studies among Singaporean and Vietnamese-American samples, other studies among samples from
American, Japanese, Korean and Asian samples showed low fit. The findings in this study suggested
that this scale has low reliability in studying independent and interdependent factors among these
samples. Little studies have utilized this scale, but from the existing findings it can be hypothesized that
the scale shows low reliability and validity in studying the influence of cultural factors and stigma in
psychological help-seeking.Therefore, this hypothesis is supported.
The IND-COL scale has demonstrated a good fit in studying individualism and collectivism
among cultures, and demonstrated good validity and reliability based on previous findings (Chirkov et
al., 2005; Wasti, 2003). The third hypothesis in the present study is supported in which the IND-COLL
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scale (Singelis,1995) does have high reliability and validity in measuring cultural factors in their
influence in a multicultural population.
Findings show that the PSOSH is a valid and reliable scale in studying other’s stigma towards
psychological help-seeking. Although Miller & Sheu (2008) advised that unless cross-cultural validity
is established, the scale cannot be used in countries other than the United States, many researchers have
later on utilized the scale in other countries to prove its reliability and validity. One such was conducted
amongst 11 countries and the scale was deemed reliable, valid and an excellent measure to be used in
cross-cultural studies. Therefore, in the present study, the hypothesis states that the scale has high
reliability and validity in studying the influence of stigma in psychological help-seeking attitudes.
Vogel et al.,2013 reported that SSOSH underrepresented collectivism as it was developed in a

Western country. Studies using Asian samples (Choi and Miller (2014)) have also utilized this scale
and found that it measured cultural factors influence on stigma in psychological help-seeking.
Therefore, the hypothesis stating that the scale has moderate reliability and validity is not supported as
the scale has good reliability and validity in determining the influence of stigma psychological help-
seeking attitude.
The ATPHSS is widely used to study psychological help-seeking attitudes. As such, local
studies like Suradi Salim (2010) and Picco et al., (2016) discovered that this scale is a reliable and valid
instrument in studying psychological help-seeking attitudes among college or university students. It not
only showed good reliability coefficients in most studies, but also proved as a good measure in studying
psychological help-seeking attitudes among cross-cultural samples such as international students
(Zhang & Dixon, 2003). Therefore, this hypothesis in the present study stating that the ATPHSS has
high reliability and validity in studying psychological help-seeking attitudes among university students
is supported.
Limitation
Instruments are important measures in studying psychological help-seeking attitudes. Unfortunately,

many researchers, especially among the Asian studies using Asian population as samples tend to use
one widely utilized instrument. Therefore, an exploration of new and rarely used instruments are
required in order to explore the psychometric properties, reliability and validity amongst Asian samples.
The first limitation of the current study was to adapt the findings from previous researchers. The
findings are therefore limited to the time frame where the previous studies were conducted and not
updated thereafter. The second limitation is, many instruments that were adapted in this study were
tested and utilized in studies from Western countries. Therefore, the generalizability of the findings can
be considered as moderate.
Conclusion
Overall, this study confirmed that all the proposed instruments are reliable and valid in studying cultural
and stigma influence on psychological help-seeking attitudes. The targeted sample in the present study
will be a mixed sample, in which both Malaysian and International students who hail from different
countries. Therefore, these instruments are deemed to be suitable measures to be utilized in a study
culture and stigma influences in psychological help-seeking attitudes. Thus, the aim of the present study
which is to find suitable measures in studying both the independent and dependent variable has been
achieved. Future researchers should look into developing Asian-friendly instruments as there is a need
for cross-culturally valid instruments to assess stigma and culture influences, which play a critical role
in one’s psychological help-seeking attitudes.
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PENGARUH GAYA KEIBUBAPAAN DAN PENGETAHUAN

KEAGAMAAN KE ATAS KESEDIAAN MENGUBAH TINGKAH LAKU
DALAM KALANGAN REMAJA DI MALAYSIA DAN BRUNEI:
PERSEPSI SOKONGAN SOSIAL SEBAGAI PENYEDERHANA
Khairani Binti Kaharuddin1* & Mohd Dahlan Bin A. Malek2

Jabatan Pendidikan Tinggi, Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi, MALAYSIA
1
2
*Corresponding Author’s e-mail: khairani.kaharuddin@mohe.gov.my
ABSTRAK
Kajian dijalankan bertujuan untuk meneroka pengaruh yang dimainkan oleh gaya keibubapaan dan pengetahuan
keagamaan ke atas kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja di Malaysia dan Brunei. Dua jenis
gaya keibubapaan yang dikaji adalah perhatian dan kawalan. Kajian ini juga melihat peranan persepsi sokongan
sosial daripada tiga sumber iaitu individu signifikan, keluarga dan rakan sama ada sumber tersebut bertindak
sebagai penyederhana ke atas hubungan gaya keibubapaan dan pengetahuan keagamaan dengan kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Kajian ini menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif yang menggunakan set soal
selidik. Seramai 949 orang remaja yang dibahagikan kepada dua negara, iaitu Malaysia (702 orang) dan Brunei
(247 orang). Responden terdiri daripada remaja yang berumur 18 hingga 21 tahun. Soal selidik yang digunakan
adalah The Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) untuk mengukur gaya keibubapaan, alat kajian mengukur
pengetahuan keagamaan, Mutidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) untuk mengukur persepsi
sokongan sosial, dan Readiness for Change Assessment untuk mengukur kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku
remaja. Hasil kajian mendapati bahawa pengaruh ibu secara perhatian menyumbang kepada kesediaan mengubah
tingkah laku remaja di Malaysia, manakala di Brunei pula kawalan ibu yang menyumbang kepada kesediaan
perubahan. Bagi gaya keibubapaan bapa di Malaysia didapati dimensi perhatian dan kawalan keduanya
menyumbang kepada kesediaan perubahan, manakala di Brunei hanya kawalan bapa yang memberikan
sumbangan pengaruh. Pengetahuan keagamaan didapati tidak menyumbang secara signifikan ke atas kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku remaja di Malaysia dan Brunei. Kajian ini juga mendapati persepsi sokongan sosial
individu signifikan bertindak sebagai penyederhana dalam hubungan perhatian dan kawalan ibu dengan kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku remaja di Malaysia. Implikasi kajian ini menunjukkan kepentingan ibu bapa dalam
memilih gaya keibubapaan yang betul. Gaya keibubapaan yang diamalkan sangat berperanan penting ke atas
pemilihan tingkah laku atau kesediaan remaja untuk mengubah tingkah laku yang lebih baik.
Katakunci: Gaya keibubapaan, remaja, pengetuhuan keagamaan, sokongan sosial
Pendahuluan
Keremajaan merupakan peringkat penting dalam perkembangan manusia. Peringkat ini akan bertindak
sebagai penghubung di antara zaman kanak-kanak dan zaman kedewasaan. Pada peringkat
perkembangan ini, pembentukan dan perubahan akan memberi kesan yang konsisten apabila remaja
tersebut memasuki alam kedewasaan, termasuklah pembentukan dan perubahan tingkah laku remaja.
Hal ini yang menyebabkan remaja menunjukkan perubahan psikologikal yang ketara, khususnya kepada
proses pemikiran yang sangat berkait rapat dengan tingkah laku (St. Nurjannah, 2018). Golongan
remaja perlu berjaya beradaptasi dengan perubahan yang berlaku. Bagi remaja yang gagal melalui fasa
adaptasi dengan perubahan tersebut cenderung membentuk kepada tingkah laku maladaptif, atau
tingkah laku negatif. Kesannya kepada permasaalahan tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja menjadi
gelombang yang membimbangkan dalam kebanyakan negara, yang mana sekiranya isu ini tidak
diberikan perhatian yang sewajarnya boleh menjadi satu permasalahan kritikal dalam setiap negara.
Permasalahan ini, sekiranya tidak dirawat akan berlanjutan sehingga remaja itu memasuki alam dewasa
(Hofstra, Van Der Ende & Verhulst, 2000; Maughan & Kim-Cohen, 2005) dan menyumbang kepada
permasalahan yang lebih serius (Ford, Goodman & Meltzer, 2003; Mathai, Andersson Bourne, 2004;
Rodriguez-Hernandez, Betancort, Ramirez-Santana, Garcia, Sanz-Alvarez Cuevas-Castresana, 2012).
Oleh itu, salah satu langkah untuk membantu golongan remaja agar tidak terjebak atau melibatkan diri
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dengan tingkah laku berisiko adalah dengan membantu golongan tersebut untuk membuat perubahan
tingkah laku (Arnett, 1999).
Latar Belakang Masalah

Permasalahan tingkah laku remaja di Malaysia bukan lagi satu isu baru yang diberikan perhatian. Isu
ini telah lama dibangkitkan kerana ia memberi kesan yang signifikan ke atas kesihatan mental golongan
remaja yang terlibat (Rozaimah, A. B., Idayu Badilla, 2018). Satu kajian kebangsaan yang dijalankan
oleh Institut Kesihatan Umum, Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia pada tahun 2017 melaporkan bahawa
masalah tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja di Malaysia adalah membimbangkan (IKU, 2018).
Sebagai contoh, kajian mendapati 2 daripada 7 orang remaja di Malaysia berhadapan dengan ketagihan
internet, didapati sebanyak 17 peratus remaja di Malaysia terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan dadah seawal
umur 7 tahun, sebanyak 76 peratus remaja di Malaysia mengambil alkohol seawal umur 14 tahun,
sebanyak 7.3 peratus remaja di Malaysia telah terlibat dengan salah laku seksual, serta beberapa
permasalahan tingkah laku lain lagi yang dilaporkan (IKU, 2018).
Hal yang sama dengan remaja di Brunei Darussalam, remaja di negara tersebut turut
berhadapan dengan cabaran perkembangan keremajaan sehingga cenderung mengakibatkan remaja di
Brunei terlibat dengan tingkah laku berisiko seperti kesalahan khalwat, melakukan perkara-perkara
yang tidak sopan, pembuangan bayi yang tidak berdosa dan perbuatan zina (Nabilah Rosmasayu &
Mohd Al Adib, 2017; Masuriyati & Che Zarrina, 2016, Adnan. B 2008).
Oleh sebab itu, sebarang tingkah laku yang cenderung ditunjukkan ke arah negatif perlu diubah
kerana tingkah laku yang dieksperikan secara melampau dibimbangi akan menjadi konsisten khususnya
apabila remaja tersebut memasuki alam kedewasaan. Perkembangan tersebut bukan sahaja diperoleh
daripada apa yang dididik oleh ibu bapa atau golongan dewasa, tetapi juga berdasarkan pengalaman
remaja itu sendiri remaja (Khairani, 2015 & Shamsaadal & Abdullah, 2006). Menurut Vaos dan Kelley-
Baker (2008), tingkah laku kurang baik yang tidak diubah diperingkat remaja lazimnya akan menjadi
faktor berisiko meramal kepada psiko-patologi di peringkat dewasa kelak. Menurut Jessor (1998)
tingkah laku yang tidak diusahakan untuk diubah ke arah positif cenderung menjadi kronik sekiranya
tidak diberikan prevensi awal, iaitu di peringkat perkembangan remaja (Asmak, 2006).
Perubahan tingkah laku remaja yang berisiko ke arah lebih positif amat penting dan ianya perlu
bersesuaian dengan nilai dan kepentingan yang diamalkan dalam sesebuah masyarakat. Oleh itu,
sesuatu sikap atau tingkah laku yang ditunjukkan bertentangan dengan jangkaan masyarakat tersebut,
maka berlaku penolakan ke atas individu tersebut dalam masyarakat sehinggalah individu itu membuat
perubahan tingkah laku yang diterima (Berkowitz, 2005; DeJong, 2003; De Jong et al., 2006). Oleh itu,
membimbing remaja ke arah perubahan tingkah laku amat penting bagi memastikan remaja mempunyai
keinginan kepada perubahan tingkah laku agar dapat menjalani kehidupan secara lebih produktif,
menjadi dewasa yang positif dan mengamalkan nilai peribadi yang baik.
Dalam kajian ini, kumpulan individu yang dijangka memainkan peranan penting dalam
keinginan mengubah tingkah laku remaja adalah ibu dan bapa. Hal ini demikian kerana, ibu bapa
merupakan sumber sosial utama dan pertama yang dikenali oleh remaja melalui perapatan semenjak
dari peringkat bayi lagi (Bowlby, 1980). Hubungan baik antara ibu bapa dan remaja yang dibentuk
melalui perapatan menimbulkan rasa selamat kepada remaja serta kepatuhan kepada ibu bapa. Oleh itu,
perapatan antara ibu bapa dan remaja menyebabkan remaja cenderung mematuhi tingkah laku yang
diterapkan dan ditetapkan oleh ibu bapa (Nickerson & Nagle, 2005).
Seterusnya, kebanyakan pengkaji menyokong bahawa pengetahuan agama bertindak penting

dalam mempengaruhi keinginan mengubah tingkah laku remaja (Nabilah Rosmasayu & Mohd Al Adib,
2017; Masuriyati Yahya & Che Zarrina Sa’ari. 2016 & Adnan. B, 2008). Pengetahuan agama
merupakan norma yang unik kepada setiap individu. Hal ini demikian kerana, pengetahuan agama
bertindak sebagai satu dasar peraturan kepada tingkah laku yang betul atau salah mengikut peraturan
agamanya (Madjid, 1999). Remaja yang mempunyai agama adalah wajib mengetahui tentang peraturan
dalam agamanya dan menjadikannya asas dalam bertingkah laku (Widiyanta, 2005).
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Satu lagi elemen yang berperanan penting dalam mengubah tingkah laku remaja, iaitu sokongan
sosial. Sokongan sosial merupakan satu bentuk hubungan yang terhasil daripada interaksi sosial remaja
dengan individu dalam persekitaran. Snyder (2000) mencadangkan bahawa interaksi sosial berpengaruh
secara signifikan ke atas perkembangan remaja. Menurut Rogers. C (1961) bahawa perubahan tingkah
laku atau sikap individu memerlukan sokongan orang lain dan sokongan sosial boleh menyumbang
kepada perkembangan positif dalam kalangan individu (Oswald & Suss, 1994; Azmi Hussin & Ishak,
2016 & Isa, Ismail & Hassan, 2018). Sebagai contoh, Hagen, Myers dan Mackintosh (2005) mendapati
bahawa remaja mempelajari tingkah laku melalui sokongan sosial yang diterima daripada ibu bapa,
rakan sebaya dan guru. Hal ini demikian kerana, sokongan sosial mengandungi sifat-sifat yang
membuatkan remaja merasa disayangi, dihargai dan menjadi ahli dalam satu rangkaian sosial yang
konsisten (Cobb, 1976).
Pernyataan Masalah
Permasalah tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja di Malaysia adalah membimbangkan. Dalam kajian
Nor Afian & Khairul Anwar (2017) ada menyatakan laporan statistik jabatan perangkaan Malaysia yang
dibentangkan oleh Datuk Seri Ahmad Zahid Hamidi di dalam sidang Parlimen menunjukkan
sebanyak 751 kes juvana yang melibatkan kesalahan rogol pada tahun 2014, 674 kes pula
pada tahun 2015 dan 691 kes pada tahun 2016. Manakala kes jenayah ganas mencatatkan 2,907
kes pada tahun 2014, diikuti 2529 kes pada tahun 2015 dan 2,526 kes pada tahun 2016. Kes
yang melibatkan jenayah kecurian motosikal telah merekodkan angka 3,110 kes pada tahun 2014.
Kes menurun kepada 2,634 pada tahun 2015 dan meningkat sedikit pada tahun 2016 sebanyak 2,655
kes. Manakala kes yang melibatkan jenayah harta benda telah direkodkan sebanyak 6,386 pada tahun
2014, menyaksikan penurunan angka kes kepada 5,605 pada tahun 2015 dan 5,459 pada tahun 2016
(arkib Malaysiakini, 2017).
Merujuk kepada statistik Jabatan Pembangunan Masyarakat Brunei Darussalam dalam kajian
Dayang Hjh Ummi Fa’izah, Salasiah & Izzah (2016), dari tahun 2000 hingga 2006, sebanyak 1,388
orang remaja terlibat dengan kes buang bayi di bawah umur, kes penceraian dalam kalangan belia
berumur 25 hingga 29 tahun meningkat 40% dari tahun 2000 menjadikan 439 kes pada tahun 2006.
Sementara itu, menurut Mahmudah (2006), terdapat pelbagai jenis kegiatan tidak bermoral yang
melibatkan remaja berumur lingkungan 18 tahun telah dikenal pasti seperti sumbang mahram, rogol,
pecah rumah, penyalahgunaan dadah, memungut dan sebagainya. Manakala, statistik terkini daripada
Kementerian Kesihatan pada 23 November 2015 mencatatkan bahawa seramai lebih 200 orang remaja
yang mengandung luar nikah.
Permasalahan ini agak merisaukan pelbagai pihak, bukan di malaysia sahaja, malah termasuk
negara Brunei Darussalam yang berhasrat untuk menjadi sebuah Negara Zikir dan seterusnya berhasrat
untuk melaksanakan hukum syariah Islam sepenuhnya. Banyak kajian lepas yang menegaskan peranan
positif perapatan ibu bapa dalam membentuk dan mengubah tingkah laku remaja disebabkan bentuk
hubungan rapat dengan anak adalah bersifat secara semula jadi (Doyle & Moretti, 2000; Doyle, Moretti,
Brendgen & Bukowski, 2002; Moretti & Holland, 2003). Hal ini demikian kerana, perapatan antara ibu
bapa dan anak secara istimewanya berkait dengan perapatan emosi sebagaimana ibu bapa merupakan
individu pertama atau sumber sosial utama yang dikenali oleh remaja seawal usia bayi lagi (van
Ijzendoorn, 2005). Oleh sebab itu, hubungan secara emosi yang dibentuk daripada perapatan antara ibu
bapa dan anak menjadi kepatuhan penting yang perlu ada pada setiap ibu bapa kepada anak mereka
(Wambua, Obondo, Bifulco & Kumar, 2018). Tidak dinafikan memang banyak faktor yang
menyumbang kepada pembentukan tingkah laku dan perubahan tingkah laku remaja seperti faktor
kemiskinan, hubungan perkahwinan antara ibu dan bapa atau kurangnya sokongan daripada ibu bapa
dalam proses perkembangan (Muola, Ndung’u & Ngesa, 2009; Ndugwa, Kabiru, Cleland, Beguy,
Egondi, Zulu & Jessor, 2011). Akan tetapi, faktor hubungan antara remaja dengan ibu bapa khususnya
dari konteks perapatan memainkan peranan yang paling utama dalam tingkah laku remaja (Wambua,
Obondo, Bifulco & Kumar, 2018). Perapatan yang wujud antara ibu bapa dan anak menjadi asas selamat
bagi remaja apabila mereka meneroka diri dan dunia luar (Benoit, 2004). Maka dengan itu, kualiti
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perapatan antara ibu bapa dan anak menentukan kualiti perkembangan anak masa hadapan. Akan tetapi,
terdapat beberapa pengkaji yang menghujahkan bahawa peranan perapatan ibu bapa hanya memberikan
sumbangan yang sedikit atau tiada sama sekali dalam mempengaruhi bagaimana remaja membentuk
dan membangunkan tingkah laku mereka sendiri (Harris, 1995).
Faktor pengetahuan agama juga dijangka mempunyai pengaruh ke atas tingkah laku remaja.
Walaupun faktor pengetahuan agama berbeza mengikut budaya atau individu, aspek tersebut tetap
berpengaruh malah menjadi nilai dalam kehidupan setiap individu (Fisher, 2005; Hood, Spilka,
Hunsberger & Gorsuch, 2003). Pengetahuan agama merupakan konteks penting dalam perkembangan
individu kerana ia menjadi asas dalam sosialisasi seperti tingkah laku bermoral, di samping
menawarkan sokongan secara emosi kepada individu bermula dari lahir sehinggalah ke akhir hayat
(Hood, Spilka, Hunsberger & Gorsuch, 2003; Roof, 1999). Menurut Donelson (1999), oleh kerana
perkembangan kognitif yang aktif pada peringkat keremajaan berlaku, pengetahuan agama menjadi
nilai yang penting bagi membantu remaja berfikir secara abstrak dan memahami makna di sebalik
simbolik perkembangan. Walaupun penjelasan tentang peranan pengetahuan agama ke atas tingkah laku
remaja didapati konsisten, akan tetapi kurang diketahui tentang peranan tersebut dalam konteks yang
lebih luas (Stolz, Olsen, Henke & Barber, 2013). Smith dan Denton (2005) menjelaskan bahawa remaja
mengakui bahawa pengetahuan agama adalah aspek yang penting dalam kehidupan mereka, namun
pemerhatian mendapati bahawa remaja menolak andaian bahawa faktor pengetahuan agama sebagai
faktor pelindung daripada terlibat dalam tingkah laku yang berisiko. Menurut Sinha, Cnaan dan Gelles
(2007), pengetahuan agama cenderung dianggap sebagai salah satu komponen formatif dalam setiap
kehidupan individu termasuk remaja. Sebagaimana, remaja didedahkan dengan pendidikan, budaya
pop, perancangan kerjaya, pendidikan keagamaan juga menjadi satu pendidikan formatif yang asas
dalam perkembangan sebagai seorang remaja. Oleh kerana itu, penjelasan Sinha et al., (2007)
berkemungkinan relevan dalam mengandaikan faktor pengetahuan agama tidak berkaitan dengan
tingkah laku remaja. Satu contoh lagi, kajian yang dijalankan oleh Mahirah (2012) berkenaan faktor
menjaga kehormatan diri daripada terlibat dalam tingkah laku seksual sebelum nikah ke atas golongan
remaja beragama Islam, kajian tersebut menjelaskan bahawa faktor pengetahuan agama didapati tidak
berkorelasi secara signifikan dengan keinginan menjaga kehormatan diri remaja. Sebaliknya, kajian
tersebut mendapati bahawa faktor yang mempengaruhi keinginan remaja ke atas tingkah laku positif
tersebut adalah disebabkan oleh faktor hubungan rapat dengan ibu bapa (Mahirah, 2012).
Selain itu, faktor pengetahuan agama berkemungkinan tidak berkaitan dengan tingkah laku
remaja namun berkemungkinan lebih dipengaruhi oleh faktor kebudayaa atau adat resam yang telah
diterapkan semenjak kecil (Northover & Gonzalez, 1993). Sebagai contohnya, dalam masyarakat yang
mengamalkan kepentingan budaya atau adat resam di samping amalan keagamaan, sesuatu tingkah laku
yang ditunjukkan oleh remaja adalah sukar untuk dijelaskan sama ada tingkah laku tersebut dipengaruhi
oleh faktor budaya/adat resam ataupun faktor keagamaan (Regnerus, 2003; Smith, 2005; Stolz et. al,
2013). Situasi tersebut turut berlaku di negara Malaysia serta Brunei, yang mana kedua buah negara
tersebut meletakkan agama Islam sebagai agama Rasmi negara di samping setiap masyarakat telah
dididik dengan amalan kebudayaan semenjak daripada keturunan nenek moyang lagi. Oleh itu, sesuatu
tingkah laku yang dibentuk oleh remaja atau tingkah laku yang ingin diubah oleh seseorang remaja
tersebut adalah sukar dijelaskan sama ada ia dipengaruhi secara dominan oleh faktor keagamaan atau
kebudayaan.
Seterusnya, persepsi sokongan sosial juga dikenal pasti mempunyai perkaitan signifikan
dengan pelbagai aspek kehidupan remaja, termasuklah tingkah laku mereka (Malecki & Demaray,
2002; Yarcheski, Mahon & Yarcheski, 2001). Hal ini demikian kerana, persepsi sokongan sosial dilihat
sebagai faktor pelindung yang boleh melindungi remaja daripada melakukan kegiatan yang berisiko
(Feeney & Collins, 2015; Rebus, 2005). Tambahan lagi, persepsi sokongan sosial juga bertindak
sebagai benteng yang melindungi remaja daripada sebarang pengalaman negatif atau pengaruh negatif
yang boleh menyebabkan remaja bertingkah laku berisiko negatif atau kurang sihat (Cohen, Underwood
& Gottlieb, 2000; Hagen et al., 2005). Beberapa pengkaji telah mendapati bahawa remaja yang
melaporkan mereka mempunyai persepsi sokongan sosial yang rendah adalah cenderung terlibat dengan
tingkah laku yang berisiko atau mudah berhadapan dengan kesukaran sepanjang proses perkembangan
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(Anan & Barnett, 1999; Hagen et al., 2005; Lepore et al., 1996). Manakala, beberapa pengkaji
mendakwa bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial adalah paling berpengaruh kepada remaja terutamanya
yang berhadapan dengan peristiwa atau pengalaman negatif sepanjang proses perkembangan (Hagen et
al., 2005). Sebagaimana persepsi sokongan sosial yang positif daripada sumber sokongan yang
dianggap penting seperti ibu bapa, rakan sebaya dan guru membantu remaja membentuk tingkah laku
adaptif dan berdaya tindak (Hagen et al., 2005).
Dalam kajian Mahirah, Balan & Getrude (2018) menyatakan bahawa sokongan sosial
memainkan peranan penting dalam bertindak sebagai pengantara yang menyalurkan kekuatan sikap
optimis dan dapat membantu remaja daripada membentuk tingkah laku berisiko. Agbaria dan Natur
(2018) mencadangkan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial bertindak sebagai pengantara antara hubungan
pengalaman negatif remaja dengan tingkah laku berisiko. Pengalaman negatif yang dikhususkan dalam
kajian tersebut adalah hubungan negatif antara ibu bapa dan anak. Namun, berbeza pula dengan kajian
lepas yang mendapati bahawa hubungan tidak langsung yang dimainkan oleh persepsi sokongan sosial
adalah sebagai penyederhana (moderator) (Murthi & Espelage, 2005). Menurut Murthi dan Espelage
(2005), dalam proses perkembangan remaja persepsi sokongan sosial daripada ibu bapa dan kawan-
kawan bertindak sebagai penyederhana dalam hubungan pengalaman negatif seperti penderaan seksual
dengan tingkah laku remaja. Akan tetapi, menurut Grant et al., (2006) peranan yang dimainkan oleh
persepsi sokongan sosial sebagai penyederhana dalam hubungan dengan tingkah laku remaja adalah
kurang disokong secara kajian lepas dan teori.
Oleh itu, dalam kajian ini pengkaji memberi fokus kepada peranan persepsi sokongan sosial
sebagai penyederhana (moderator) dalam hubungan perapatan ibu bapa dan pengetahuan agama dengan
kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja bagi mengenal pasti sama ada hubungan tidak langsung
persepsi sokongan sosial sebagai penyederhana konsisten kurang memberi kesan sebagaimana yang
dijelaskan oleh Grant et al., (2006). Selain itu, kajian ini juga akan melihat perbezaan antara gaya
perapatan ibu dan bapa yang diterima oleh remaja di antara dua negara, iaitu Malaysia dan Brunei. Hal
ini demikian kerana, walaupun kedua negara tersebut merupakan dua rumpun yang sama iaitu negara
Asia, serta mengamalkan budaya kehidupan yang hampir sama, akan tetapi amalan kemasyarakatan
kedua negara tersebut mempunyai perbezaan. Sebagaimana Malaysia merupakan negara yang terdiri
daripada tiga budaya utama, iaitu Melayu, Cina dan India, manakala Brunei Darussalam merupakan
negara yang mengamalkan satu budaya yang utama iaitu budaya Islam secara keseluruhan.
Kebudayaan Malaysia sebagai sesuatu yang dinamik, sentiasa berubah-ubah melalui proses
penyerapan dan penyesuaian secara berterusan. Prinsip ini bertepatan dengan situasi penduduk
berbilang kaum yang mewarisi pelbagai budaya. Kesesuaian penerimaan dalam penyerapan ini adalah
bergantung kepada tidak wujudnya percanggahan dengan Perlembagaan dan prinsip-prinsip Rukun
Negara dan kepentingan nasional serta asas-asas moral dan kerohanian sejagat pada amnya dan pada
Islam sebagai agama rasmi negara khasnya.
Kewujudan dan keberadaan negara Brunei sebagai sebuah wilayah didiami orang-orang
Melayu telah bertapak sejak sekian lama berlandaskan bukti-bukti sejarah yang kukuh (A.Halim Ali,
Norazimah Zakaria & Ariff.2017). Setelah mencapai kemerdekaan lebih daripada 30 tahun, negara
Brunei Darussalam sama seperti Malaysia tetap berpegang kepada Agama Islam sebagai agama rasmi
walaupun penduduknya berbilang bangsa dan agama dengan berlandaskan falsafah negara Melayu
Islam Beraja.
Kini, Negara Brunei mengorak langkah ke depan dengan konsep Negara Zikir yang telah pun
dititahkan oleh Kebawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia sempena Hari Raya ‘Aidil Adha pada 9 Zulhijjah
1428H bersamaan dengan 19 Disember 2007 (Masuriyati & Che Zarrina, 2016). Walaupun
penduduknya berbilang bangsa dan agama, pentadbiran cara hidup negara Brunei adalah berlandaskan
Dasar-Dasar Kementerian Hal Ehwal Ugama yang diterap melalui visi “Memperkasa kerasmian dan
amalan ugama Islam sebagai cara hidup yang lengkap dan sempurna bagi mencapai Negara Zikir” dan
misi “Mendukung dan memelihara ugama Islam dan kerasmiannya serta memperkembangkannya
melalui dasar-dasar dan pentadbiran yang berkesan dan dinamik bagi pembangunan dan kesejahteraan
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Negara berdasarkan hukum Syara’, Perlembagaan, Undang-Undang dan Falsafah Negara Melayu Islam
Beraja” (KHEU, 2017). Oleh itu, penerapan kebudayaan yang diamalkan di setiap kedua negara
berkemungkinan memberi kesan ke atas pengalaman gaya perapatan ibu dan bapa ke atas remaja.
Dalam memastikan kelangsungan nilai-nilai Melayu Islam Beraja dapat terus diamalkan di
negara Brunei Darussalam, maka Sistem Pendidikan Negara (SPN) Abad 21 adalah memfokuskan
intipati nilai-nilai Melayu Islam Beraja sebagai pewarna yang mencorakkan dasar pendidikan negara.
Bagi memastikan kelangsungan cara hidup Melayu Islam Beraja, dengan hasrat supaya semua rakyat
dan penduduk negara ini memahami dan menghayati nilai-nilai Melayu Islam Beraja sebagai asas
perpaduan dan penyatuan rakyat Brunei (Haji Md Zain bin Haji Serudin, 1998), dasar pendidikan di
negara Brunei Darussalam dilaksanakan secara seragam. Tidak kira apapun latar belakang ugama,
budaya, kepercayaan, bangsa, dan taraf kedudukan sosialnya, Melayu Islam Beraja tetap menjadi satu
mata pelajaran yang diajar dan wajib di sekolah-sekolah kerajaan dan swasta sehingga ke peringkat
universiti. Dengan adanya proses penanaman nilai-nilai Melayu Islam Beraja, negara Brunei berharap
masyarakat dapat hidup dalam kerukunan dan kedamaian(Awang Mohd Jamil alSufri, 2008 dan 2009).
Remaja merupakan suatu kelompok sosial atau golongan yang cukup penting kepada
pembangunan semasa negara dan juga untuk masa depan. Sumbangan remaja, kelompok terbesar bagi
Malaysia dan Brunei, merupakan sumbangan yang kritikal dalam pembangunan masa depan negara.
Jesteru, remaja ialah pimpinan pelapis yang perlu dipupuk potensinya, satu kelompok sumber manusia
yang potensi produktifnya cukup tinggi, golongan pewaris budaya dan pemegang amanah bangsa dan
penjulang obor pembangunan masa depan negara.
Oleh itu, remaja adalah rakan bukan lawan. Mereka perlu diasuh, bukan dijadikan musuh.
Remaja merupakan generasi yang diberikan harapan masa depan dan bukannya beban. Oleh yang
demikian, adalah penting untuk mengawasi pembentukan tingkah laku remaja agar tidak menjurus ke
arah yang negatif. Maka, kajian ini dilakukan untuk meneroka faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi
tingkah laku remaja, khususnya keinginan mereka dalam mengubah tingkah laku.
Metodologi
Kajian adalah berbentuk kuantitatif melalui tinjauan yang menggunakan set soal selidik. Kajian
dijalankan ke atas kajian yang melihat fenomena suatu tingkah laku yang berterusan dan diuji secara
hipotesis (Toomela, 2010) ke atas 749 responden iaitu 702 responden di Malaysia dan 247 responden
di Brunei. Kaedah persampelan yang digunakan adalah persampelan strata pelbagai kepada empat
tahap, iaitu penentuan negeri/wilayah persekutuan di Malaysia, penentuan Politeknik daripada negeri
yang dipilih, penentuan program yang terlibat dan penentuan jumlah kelas daripada bidang yang dipilih.
Terdapat enam bahagian dalam set soal selidik yang digunakan, yang mana satu bahagian
merupakan maklumat latar belakang responden, manakala lima bahagian lagi merupakan set alat kajian
piawai untuk mengukur setiap pembolehubah kajian. gaya perapatan ibu (Bahagian B) dan bapa
(Bahagian C) secara berasingan. Alat kajian PBI mempunyai 25 item dengan dua dimensi iaitu
perhatian (12 item) dan penjagaan kawalan (13 item).
Seterusnya pengetahuan agama diukur menggunakan alat kajian yang telah dibina oleh Fauziah,
Norulhuda, Khadijah, Mohd Suhaimi, Noremy dan Salina (2012) yang melibatkan 10 item 12 item dari
Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) (Zimet, Dahlem, Zimet & Farley, 1988)
untuk mengukur sokongan sosial dan 22 item dari Readiness for Change Assessment yang dibina oleh
sebuah badan konsultansi True Growth Leadership untuk Kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja.
Hasil kajian rintis menggunakan perisian SPSS ( Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)
versi 21.0 dijalankan secara berasingan antara Malaysia dan Brunei menunjukan bahawa alat kajian
menunjukkan nilai antara .60 hingga .80 adalah baik dan boleh dipercayai mengukur konstruk yang
hendak diukur.
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Penjelasan merangkumi hasil analisis secara deskriptif pada latar belakang demografi
responden, nilai min dan sisihan piawai pada pembolehubah yang terlibat dan hasil analisis pengujian
hipotesis.
Hasil Kajian
Bahagian ini akan menjelaskan dapatan kajian yang diperoleh. Penjelasan merangkumi hasil analisis
secara deskriptif pada latar belakang demografi responden, nilai min dan sisihan piawai pada
pembolehubah yang terlibat dan hasil analisis pengujian hipotesis.
Analisis Maklumat Demografi pada jadual 1 menunjukkan seramai 949 responden dari
kalangan remaja yang terlibat dalam kajian ini. Seramai 702 orang daripada sampel Malaysia dan 247
orang daripada sampel Brunei. Remaja perempuan menjadi majoriti berbanding remaja lelaki dalam
penglibatannya bagi kedua-dua negara, iaitu melebihi 60 peratus daripada jumlah responden
keseluruhan. Begitu juga dengan demografi bangsa, iaitu melebihi 80 peratus remaja yang terlibat
adalah berbangsa Melayu. Bagi remaja berbangsa Cina, India dan lain-lain adalah menunjukkan jumlah
penglibatan yang rendah. Bagi maklumat agama pula, secara keseluruhannya responden yang lebih
ramai terlibat adalah remaja yang beragama Islam (86.5 peratus). Bagi sampel Malaysia, sebanyak 84.9
peratus remaja yang terlibat beragama Islam, manakala bagi sampel Brunei sebanyak 91.1 peratus.
Remaja daripada kumpulan agama yang lain seperti Buddha, Hindu, Kristian dan lain-lain menunjukkan
jumlah yang kecil dalam penglibatannya. Tidak ada remaja beragama Hindu yang terlibat dalam kajian
ini daripada sampel Brunei.
Secara keseluruhannya, jadual 2 menunjukkan skor min perhatian ibu adalah tinggi, iaitu
min=3.33 dengan sisihan piawai .44. Sebanyak 75.4 peratus responden melaporkan bahawa mereka
mempunyai gaya perapatan perhatian daripada ibu pada tahap yang tinggi. Hanya 0.9 peratus sahaja
yang melaporkan mendapat perhatian daripada ibu yang rendah. Hal yang sama pula pada perhatian
bapa, apabila sebanyak 61 peratus (min=3.13, S.P=.36) melaporkan pada tahap yang tinggi. Namun,
apabila diperhatikan pada penjagaan kawalan daripada ibu dan bapa, kedua-dua pihak tersebut
menunjukkan tahap yang sederhana, iaitu 77.2 peratus (min=2.32, S.P=.36) responden melaporkan
penjagaan kawalan yang sederhana daripada ibu, manakala 71.8 peratus (min=2.20, S.P=.41) penjagaan
kawalan daripada bapa.
Seterusnya, skor min yang ditunjukkan bagi pengetahuan agama adalah sederhana, dengan
mendapati seramai 78.9 peratus (min=3.37, S.P=.42) responden melaporkan bahawa mereka
mempunyai pengetahuan agama yang sederhana. Dari aspek persepsi sokongan sosial pula, persepsi
sokongan daripada individu signifikan (min=2.22, S.P=1.11), keluarga (min=1.97, S.P=.95) dan rakan-
rakan (min=2.25, S.P=.86) menunjukkan skor min yang rendah. Manakala, bagi kesediaan mengubah
tingkah laku pula didapati responden melaporkan tahap kesediaan yang tinggi (min=4.30, S.P=.72),
iaitu seramai 55.1 peratus responden melaporkan tahap kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku yang tinggi.
Berdasarkan skor min mengikut negara iaitu Malaysia dan Brunei secara masing-masing,
responden daripada kedua-dua negara melaporkan skor min yang tinggi bagi perhatian ibu (Malaysia;
min=.3.38, S.P=.42), (Brunei; min=3.17, S.P=.45) dan bapa (Malaysia; min=3.14, S.P=.50), (Brunei;
min=3.12, S.P=.56). Bagi penjagaan kawalan pula menunjukkan skor min yang sederhana bagi ibu
(Malaysia; min=2.33, S.P=.35), (Brunei; min=2.27, S.P=.40) dan bapa (Malaysia; min=2.31, S.P=.41),
(Brunei; min=2.24, S.P=.40).
Bagi pengetahuan agama, responden daripada kedua-dua negara melaporkan skor min yang
sederhana (Malaysia; min=3.36, S.P=.41), (Brunei; min-=3.42, S.P=.44). Seterusnya, bagi persepsi
sokongan sosial daripada individu signifikan, skor min yang ditunjukkan bagi kedua negara adalah
rendah (Malaysia; min=2.23, S.P=1.13), (Brunei; min=2.18, S.P=1.05). Begitu juga dengan persepsi
sokongan keluarga dan rakan juga menunjukkan tahap yang rendah bagi kedua negara. Bagi kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku didapati kedua negara menunjukkan tahap yang tinggi (Malaysia; min=4.30,
S.P=.74), (Brunei; min=4.30, S.P=.69).
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Kesimpulannya, skor min yang ditunjukkan bagi kedua-dua sampel negara dan secara
keseluruhan adalah selari dan sama. Hal ini di mana, remaja daripada kedua-dua negara menunjukkan
perhatian ibu dan bapa yang tinggi namun sederhana bagi penjagaan kawalan. Begitu juga dengan
pengetahuan agama remaja daripada kedua negara melaporkan tahap pengetahuan agama yang
sederhana. Apabila dilihat dari aspek persepsi sokongan sosial secara individu signifikan, keluarga dan
rakan, remaja daripada kedua negara melaporkan tahap persepsi sokongan yang rendah. Malah, remaja
daripada kedua negara juga melaporkan bahawa mereka mempunyai tahap kesediaan mengubah tingkah
laku yang tinggi.
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Jadual 1: Analisis Maklumat Demografik Responden Secara Kekerapan dan Peratus

_______________________________________________________________________
Demografik Total Malaysia Brunei

(N=949) (N=702) (N=247)
___________________________________________
K % K % K %
____________________________________
Jantina Lelaki 348 36.7 263 37.5 85 34.4
Perempuan 601 63.3 439 62.5 162 65.6
Bangsa Melayu 803 84.6 589 83.9 214 86.6

Cina 39 4.1 20 2.8 19 7.7
India 35 3.7 30 4.3 5 2.0
Lain 72 7.6 63 9.0 9 3.6
Agama Islam 821 86.5 596 84.9 225 91.1

Buddha 25 2.6 14 2.0 11 4.5
Hindu 28 3.0 28 4.0 - -
Kristian 67 7.1 61 8.7 6 2.4
Lain 8 .8 3 .4 5 2.0
____________________________________________________________________________
K = Kekerapan, % = Peratusan, N = Jumlah
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Jadual 2: Skor Min dan Sisihan Piawai Pembolehubah
Pembolehuba Tahap Total (N-949) Malaysia (N=720) Brunei (N=247)

h
K % Min S.P K % Min S.P K % Min S.P
Gaya Perapatan Ibu
Perhatian_I Tinggi 716 75.4 3.33 .44 557 79.3 3.38 .42 159 64.4 3.17 .45
Sederhana 224 23.6 140 19.9 84 34
Rendah 9 .9 5 .7 4 1.6
Kawalan_I Tinggi 26 2.7 2.32 .36 14 2 2.33 .35 12 4.9 2.27 .40
Sederhana 733 77.2 559 79.6 174 70.4
Rendah 190 20 129 18.4 61 24.7
Gaya Perapatan Bapa
Perhatian_B Tinggi 579 61 3.13 .51 438 62.4 3.14 .50 141 57.1 3.12 .56
Sederhana 681 71.8 246 35 95 38.5
Rendah 29 3.1 18 2.6 11 4.5
Kawalan_B Tinggi 31 3.3 2.2 .41 23 3.3 2.31 .41 8 3.2 2.24 .40
Sederhana 681 71.8 512 72.9 169 68.4
Rendah 237 25 167 23.8 70 28.3
Pengetahuan Tinggi 191 20.1 3.37 .42 134 19.1 3.36 .41 57 23.1 3.42 .44
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Keagamaan Sederhana 749 78.9 563 80.2 186 75.3
Rendah 9 .9 5 .7 4 1.6
Persepsi Sokongan Sosial
Individu Tinggi 53 5.6 2.22 1.11 42 6 2.23 1.13 11 4.5 2.18 1.05
Signifikan
Sederhana 243 25.6 180 25.6 63 25.5
Rendah 653 68.8 480 68.4 173 70
Keluarga Tinggi 29 3.1 1.97 .95 22 3.1 1.91 .96 7 2.8 2.14 .89
Sederhana 179 18.9 117 16.7 62 25.1
Rendah 741 78.1 563 80.2 178 72.1
Rakan Tinggi 24 2.5 2.25 .86 18 2.6 2.26 .89 6 2.4 2.23 .79
Sederhana 236 24.9 178 25.4 58 23.5
Rendah 689 72.6 506 72.1 183 74.1
Kesediaan Tinggi 523 55.1 4.30 .72 395 56.3 4.30 .74 128 51.8 4.30 .69
Perubahan
Sederhana 384 40.5 276 39.3 108 43.7
Tingkah Laku
Rendah 42 4.4 31 4.4 11 4.5
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K=Kekerapan, %=Peratus, S.P=Sisihan Piawai, Perhatian_I= Perhatian Ibu, Kawalan_I=Penjagaan Kawalan Ibu, Perhatian_B=Perhatian Bapa, Kawalan_B=Penjagaan Kawalan Bapa
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Jadual 3:
Analisis Regresi Pelbagai bagi Pengaruh Dimensi Gaya Perapatan Ibu ke atas Kesediaan Mengubah Tingkah Laku Remaja
Jadual 3 menunjukkan hasil pengaruh gaya perapatan ibu (perhatian dan penjagaan kawalan)
ke atas kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja bagi sampel Malaysia dan Brunei. Bagi sampel
Malaysia, didapati gaya perapatan ibu mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan ke atas kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku remaja (R² = 0.13, F Change = 4.771, p<.01). Nilai R Kuasa Dua menjelaskan
bahawa sebanyak 1.3 peratus sumbangan varians gaya perapatan ibu ke atas kesediaan mengubah
tingkah laku remaja di Malaysia. Namun, sekiranya dilihat pada sumbangan pemberat nilai Beta,
didapati hanya perhatian ibu yang memberikan pengaruh yang signifikan, dengan menjelaskan bahawa
perhatian yang rendah daripada ibu boleh menyumbang kepada kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku
remaja Malaysia.
Bagi remaja Brunei, terdapat pengaruh yang signifikan gaya perapatan ibu ke atas kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku remaja, dengan sumbangan varians keseluruhan sebanyak 4.4 peratus (R² =
0.044, F Change = 5.651, p<.01). Didapati pada pemberat nilai Beta, kedua-dua dimensi tersebut
memberikan pengaruh yang signifikan, namun menitikberatkan kepada penjagaan kawalan dan diikuti
dengan perhatian. Hal ini menjelaskan bahawa penjagaan kawalan yang rendah dan perhatian yang
sedikit daripada ibu mempengaruhi kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja di Brunei. Oleh itu,
berdasarkan hasil yang diperoleh, telah menyokong bahawa terdapat pengaruh gaya perapatan ibu
(perhatian) Malaysia, gaya perapatan ibu (perhatian) Brunei dan perapatan ibu (penjagaan kawalan),
manakala gaya perapatan ibu (penjagaan kawalan) ke atas kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja di
Malaysia adalah tidak disokong.
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Jadual 4:
Analisis Regresi Pelbagai bagi Pengaruh Dimensi Gaya Perapatan Bapa ke atas Kesediaan Mengubah
Tingkah Laku Remaja
______________________________________________
Jadual 4 menunjukkan hasil pengaruh gaya perapatan bapa ke atas kesediaan mengubah tingkah
laku bagi remaja di Malaysia dan Brunei. Bagi sampel Malaysia, secara keseluruhannya mendapati gaya
perapatan bapa mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan ke atas kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku, dengan
sumbangan varians sebanyak 1.5 peratus (R² = .015, F Change = 5.370, p<.05). Dilihat pada pengaruh
unik varians dimensi masing-masing serta pemberat Beta, didapati kedua-duanya tidak menunjukkan
perbezaan varians yang ketara, iaitu perhatian bapa sebanyak 1 peratus (.096*.096, beta = .086) dan
penjagaan kawalan bapa sebanyak 0.6 peratus (-.079*-.079, beta = .081). Berdasarkan pemberat beta
yang ditunjukkan menjelaskan bahawa gaya perapatan bapa secara perhatian dan penjagaan kawalan
yang positif dan tinggi adalah menggalakkan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku bagi remaja di
Malaysia.
Berbeza pula bagi sampel Brunei, didapati gaya perapatan bapa tidak mempunyai pengaruh
yang signifikan ke atas kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja (R² = 0.020, F Change = 2.505, p>.05).
Apabila dilihat pada pemberat Beta, didapati hanya penjagaan kawalan yang menunjukkan hubungan
yang signifikan dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja, namun nilai signifikan adalah negatif
yang menjelaskan bahawa penjagaan kawalan bapa yang rendah mempunyai kaitan dengan kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku remaja tetapi berkemungkinan tidak mempengaruhi mengubah tingkah laku.
Oleh itu, hipotesis Terdapat pengaruh gaya perapatan bapa (perhatian) dan (Penjagaan kawalan) ke atas
kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja di Malaysia adalah disokong, manakala pengaruh signifikan
gaya perapatan bapa (perhatian) dan (Penjagaan kawalan) ke atas kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku
remaja di Brunei adalah tidak disokong.
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Jadual 5:
Analisis Regresi Pelbagai bagi Pengaruh Pengetahuan Agama ke atas Kesediaan Mengubah Tingkah
Laku Remaja
______________________________________________
Jadual 5 menunjukkan hasil pengaruh pengetahuan agama ke atas kesediaan mengubah tingkah
laku remaja sampel Malaysia dan Brunei. Secara keseluruhan, didapati pengetahuan agama tidak
memberi pengaruh yang signifikan bagi kedua-dua negara, iaitu sampel Malaysia (R² = 0.002, F
Change = 1.581, p>.05) dan sampel Brunei (R² = 0.000, F Change = .039, p>.05). Oleh itu, hipotesis
terdapat pengaruh pengetahuan agama ke atas kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja
di Malaysia dan Brunei adalah tidak disokong.
Jadual 6:
Analisis Regresi Pelbagai bagi Pengaruh Persepsi Sokongan Sosial ke atas Kesediaan Mengubah
Tingkah Laku Remaja
______________________________________________
Berdasarkan Jadual 6 menunjukkan hasil pengaruh persepsi sokongan sosial ke atas kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku remaja sampel Malaysia dan Brunei. Bagi remaja sampel Malaysia, secara
keseluruhan persepsi sokongan sosial mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan ke atas kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku dengan sumbangan varians sebanyak 1.8 peratus ke atas pembolehubah terikat
(R² = 0.018, F Change = 4.295, p<.01). Jika dilihat pada nilai Beta bagi ketiga-tiga persepsi sokongan
sosial, didapati hanya persepsi sokongan keluarga yang mempunyai pengaruh signifikan dengan
sumbangan varians unik sebanyak 1.6 peratus (-.130*-.130). Hal tersebut menjelaskan bahawa persepsi
sokongan sosial keluarga yang rendah dapat menyumbang kepada kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku
bagi remaja sampel Malaysia.
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Bagi remaja sampel Brunei pula, persepsi sokongan sosial turut menyumbang secara signifikan,
iaitu sebanyak 4.2 peratus ke atas varians kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku (R² = 0.042, F Change =
3.558, p<.05). Nilai Beta menunjukkan hanya persepsi sokongan individu signifikan dan rakan yang
menunjukkan pengaruh signifikan, dengan persepsi sokongan individu signifikan lebih memainkan
peranan berbanding rakan. Sumbangan varians unik yang ditunjukkan juga menjelaskan persepsi
sokongan individu signifikan lebih mempengaruhi kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku iaitu sebanyak 1.7
peratus (-.132*-.132), berbanding rakan sebanyak 1.5 peratus (-.126*-.126). Pemberat Beta
menjelaskan bahawa persepsi sokongan individu signifikan yang rendah serta rakan yang sedikit akan
lebih menggalakkan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku bagi remaja sampel Brunei. Hasil analisis
mendapati hipotesis terdapat pengaruh persepsi sokongan sosial (keluarga) ke atas kesediaan mengubah
tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja di Malaysia, persepsi sokongan sosial (individu signifikan dan
rakan) ke atas kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja di Brunei adalah disokong,
manakala pengaruh signifikan persepsi sokongan sosial (individu signifikan dan rakan) dalam kalangan
remaja di Malaysia dan persepsi sokongan sosial (keluarga) dalam kalangan remaja di Brunei adalah
tidak disokong.
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Jadual 7 :
Analisis Regresi Hierarki Kesan Moderator Persepsi Sokongan Sosial Individu Signifikan dalam
Hubungan Gaya Perapatan Ibu dan Kesediaan Mengubah Tingkah Laku Remaja
______________________________________________
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Jadual 7 menunjukkan hasil bagi kedua negara dalam kesan moderator persepsi sokongan sosial
individu signifikan ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan ibu (perhatian dan penjagaan kawalan) dan
kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Bagi hasil sampel Malaysia, pada Model 1 menunjukkan
nilai Sig. F Change yang signifikan (R² = .013, F Change = 4.777, p<.01), menjelaskan bahawa terdapat
hubungan yang signifikan antara gaya perapatan ibu dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja.
Tetapi, apabila dilihat pada nilai pemberat Beta mendapati hanya gaya perapatan perhatian yang
menunjukkan hubungan yang signifikan dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model 2, nilai
Sig. F Change yang diperoleh juga adalah signifikan (R² = .021, F Change = 5.116, p<.05), yang mana
menjelaskan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial individu signifiikan (pembolehubah moderator) adalah
berkaitan dengan gaya perapatan ibu dan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model 3 apabila
pembolehubah kesan interaksi dimasukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change kekal signifikan (R² =
.033, F Change = 4.299, p<.05), yang mana menyimpulkan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial individu
signifikan adalah bertindak sebagai moderator ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan ibu dengan kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahawa kedua pembolehubah kesan
interaksi adalah signifikan, yang menjelaskan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial individu signifikan
bertindak sebagai moderator kepada hubungan gaya perapatan ibu secara perhatian (p<.05) dan
penjagaan kawalan (p<.05) dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Oleh itu, hipotesis
persepsi sokongan sosial (individu signifikan) signifikan bertindak sebagai moderator dalam hubungan
antara gaya perapatan ibu (perhatian dan penjagaan kawalan) dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku
dalam kalangan remaja di Malaysia adalah disokong. Rajah 4.1 dan Rajah 4.2 menunjukkan graf kesan
moderator persepsi sokongan sosial individu signifikan ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan ibu perhatian
dan penjagaan kawalan dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja sampel Malaysia.
Rajah 1: Graf Kesan Moderator Sokongan Individu Signifikan dalam Hubungan Perhatian Ibu dengan
Kesediaan Mengubah Tingkah Laku Remaja Sampel Malaysia
Berdasarkan graf Rajah 1 menjelaskan bahawa perhatian ibu boleh menurunkan kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku remaja sekiranya persepsi sokongan daripada individu signifikan adalah tinggi.
Akan tetapi, sekiranya persepsi sokongan daripada individu signifikan pada tahap yang rendah, maka
perhatian ibu akan meningkatkan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja sampel Malaysia.
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Rajah 2: Graf Kesan Moderator Sokongan Individu Signifikan dalam Hubungan Penjagaan Kawalan Ibu dengan Kesediaan
Mengubah Tingkah Laku Remaja Sampel Malaysia
Berdasarkan graf Rajah 2 menjelaskan bahawa penjagaan kawalan ibu boleh menurunkan
kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja sekiranya persepsi sokongan daripada individu signifikan
adalah tinggi. Akan tetapi, sekiranya persepsi sokongan daripada individu signifikan pada tahap yang
rendah, maka penjagaan kawalan ibu akan meningkatkan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja
sampel Malaysia.
Bagi hasil sampel Brunei pula, Model 1 menunjukkan nilai yang signifikan pada Sig. F Change
(R² = .044, F Change = 5.651, p<.01), dengan lebih khusus menjelaskan kedua-dua gaya perapatan ibu
mempunyai hubungan yang signifikan dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Walau
bagaimanapun, apabila pembolehubah moderator persepsi sokongan sosial individu signifikan
dimasukkan pada Model 2 mendapati bahawa nilai Sig. F Change adalah tidak signifikan (p>.05),
menjelaskan bahawa pembolehubah moderator tidak mempunyai kaitan sama ada dengan gaya
perapatan ibu atau kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model 3 juga mendapati nilai Sig. F Change
tetap tidak signifikan (p>.05), yang menyimpulkan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial individu signifikan
adalah tidak bertindak sebagai moderator dalam hubungan gaya perapatan ibu (perhatian dan penjagaan
kawalan) dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja di Brunei. Oleh itu, hipotesis hipotesis
persepsi sokongan sosial (individu signifikan) signifikan bertindak sebagai moderator dalam hubungan
dalam kalangan remaja di Brunei adalah tidak disokong.
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Jadual 8 :
Analisis Regresi Hierarki Kesan Moderator Persepsi Sokongan Sosial Individu Signifikan dalam Hubungan Gaya
Perapatan Bapa dan Kesediaan Mengubah Tingkah Laku Remaja
individu signifikan ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan bapa dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku
remaja. Bagi hasil sampel Malaysia, pada Model 1 menunjukkan nilai Sig. F Change yang signifikan
(R² = .015, F Change = 5.370, p<.01), menjelaskan bahawa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara
gaya perapatan bapa dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Apabila dilihat pada nilai
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pemberat Beta mendapati kedua-dua gaya perapatan perhatian (p<.05) dan penjagaan kawalan (p<.05)
yang menunjukkan hubungan yang signifikan dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model
2, apabila pembolehubah moderator iaitu sokongan individu signifikan di masukkan ke dalam model,
nilai Sig. F Change yang diperoleh adalah tidak signifikan (p >.05), yang mana menjelaskan bahawa
persepsi sokongan sosial individu signifikan (pembolehubah moderator) adalah tidak berkaitan dengan
gaya perapatan bapa dan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model 3 apabila pembolehubah kesan
interaksi dimasukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change menjadi signifikan (R² = .028, F Change =
3.038, p<.01), yang mana menyimpulkan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial individu signifikan adalah
bertindak sebagai moderator ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan bapa dengan kesediaan mengubah
tingkah laku remaja. Walau bagaimanapun, apabila dilihat pada kesan interaksi didapati kesan
moderator yang dimainkan oleh sokongan individu signifikan adalah hanya pada gaya perapatan bapa
berbentuk perhatian (p<.05). Oleh itu, hipotesis persepsi sokongan sosial (individu signifikan) bertindak
sebagai moderator dalam hubungan antara gaya perapatan bapa(perhatian) dengan kesediaan mengubah
tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja di Malaysia adalah disokong, manakala Persepsi sokongan sosial
(individu signifikan) bertindak sebagai moderator dalam hubungan antara gaya perapatan bapa
(penjagaan kawalan) dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja di Malaysia
adalah tidak disokong. Rajah 4.4 menunjukkan graf kesan moderator persepsi sokongan sosial individu
signifikan ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan bapa perhatian dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku
remaja sampel Malaysia.
Rajah 3: Graf Kesan Moderator Sokongan Individu Signifikan dalam Hubungan Perhatian Bapa dengan
Berdasarkan graf Rajah 3 menjelaskan bahawa perhatian bapa boleh meningkatkan kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku remaja sekiranya persepsi sokongan daripada individu signifikan adalah tinggi.
Akan tetapi, sekiranya persepsi sokongan daripada individu signifikan adalah rendah, maka perhatian
bapa akan menurunkan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja sampel Malaysia.
Bagi hasil sampel Brunei pula, pada Model 1 menunjukkan nilai Sig. F Change yang tidak
signifikan (p>.05), menjelaskan bahawa tidak terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara gaya perapatan
bapa dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Pada Model 2, apabila pembolehubah moderator
iaitu sokongan individu signifikan di masukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change yang diperoleh
adalah masih tidak signifikan (p>.05), yang mana menjelaskan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial
individu signifikan (pembolehubah moderator) adalah tidak berkaitan dengan gaya perapatan bapa dan
kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model 3 apabila pembolehubah kesan interaksi dimasukkan ke
dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change menjadi tidak signifikan (p>.05), yang mana menyimpulkan bahawa
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persepsi sokongan sosial individu tidak signifikan adalah tidak bertindak sebagai moderator ke atas
hubungan gaya perapatan bapa dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Oleh itu, hipotesis
Persepsi sokongan sosial (individu signifikan) bertindak sebagai moderator dalam hubungan antara
gaya perapatan bapa (perhatian dan penjagaan kawalan) dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku
Jadual 9 :
Analisis Regresi Hierarki Kesan Moderator Persepsi Sokongan Sosial Keluarga dalam Hubungan
Gaya Perapatan Ibu dan Kesediaan Mengubah Tingkah Laku Remaja
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keluarga ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan ibu dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Bagi
hasil sampel Malaysia, pada Model 1 menunjukkan nilai Sig. F Change yang signifikan (R² = .013, F
Change = 4.777, p<.01), menjelaskan bahawa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara gaya perapatan
ibu dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja.
Tetapi, apabila dilihat pada nilai pemberat Beta mendapati hanya gaya perapatan perhatian yang
menunjukkan hubungan yang signifikan dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model 2,
apabila pembolehubah moderator iaitu sokongan keluarga di masukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F
Change yang diperoleh adalah tidak signifikan (p>.05), yang mana menjelaskan bahawa persepsi
sokongan sosial keluarga (pembolehubah moderator) adalah tidak berkaitan dengan gaya perapatan ibu
dan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model 3 apabila pembolehubah kesan interaksi
dimasukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change menjadi signifikan (R² = .041, F Change = 9.981,
p<.01), yang mana menyimpulkan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial keluarga adalah bertindak sebagai
moderator ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan ibu dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja.
Walau bagaimanapun, apabila dilihat pada kesan interaksi didapati kesan penyerderhana yang
dimainkan oleh sokongan keluarga adalah hanya pada gaya perapatan ibu berbentuk perhatian (p<.05).
Oleh itu, hipotesis persepsi sokongan sosial (keluarga) bertindak sebagai moderator dalam hubungan
antara gaya perapatan ibu (perhatian) dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja
di Malaysia adalah disokong, manakala persepsi sokongan sosial (keluarga) bertindak sebagai
moderator dalam hubungan antara gaya perapatan ibu (penjagaan kawalan) dengan kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja di Malaysia. adalah tidak disokong. Rajah 4.3
menunjukkan graf kesan moderator persepsi sokongan sosial keluarga ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan
ibu perhatian dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja sampel Malaysia.
Rajah 4: Graf Kesan Moderator Sokongan Keluarga dalam Hubungan Perhatian Ibu dengan
Berdasarkan graf Rajah 4 menjelaskan bahawa perhatian ibu boleh meningkatkan kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku remaja sekiranya persepsi sokongan daripada keluarga adalah tinggi. Akan
tetapi, sekiranya persepsi sokongan daripada keluarga adalah rendah, maka perhatian ibu akan
menurunkan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja sampel Malaysia.
Bagi hasil sampel Brunei pula, pada Model 1 menunjukkan nilai Sig. F Change yang signifikan
(R² = .044, F Change = 5.651, p<.01), menjelaskan bahawa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara
gaya perapatan ibu dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Malah, apabila dilihat pada nilai
pemberat Beta mendapati kedua-dua gaya perapatan perhatian dan penjagaan kawalan yang
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Change yang diperoleh adalah masih signifikan (R² = .059, F Change = 3.830, p<.05), yang mana
menjelaskan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial keluarga (pembolehubah moderator) adalah berkaitan
dengan gaya perapatan ibu dan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model 3 apabila pembolehubah
kesan interaksi dimasukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change menjadi tidak signifikan (p>.05), yang
mana menyimpulkan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial keluarga adalah tidak bertindak sebagai
moderator ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan ibu dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Oleh
itu, hipotesis Persepsi sokongan sosial (keluarga) bertindak sebagai moderator dalam hubungan antara
gaya perapatan ibu (perhatian) dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja di
Brunei adalah tidak disokong.
Jadual 10:
Gaya Perapatan Bapa dan Kesediaan Mengubah Tingkah Laku Remaja
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Jadual 10 menunjukkan hasil bagi kedua negara dalam kesan moderator persepsi sokongan
sosial keluarga ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan bapa dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja.
Bagi hasil sampel Malaysia, pada Model 1 menunjukkan nilai Sig. F Change yang signifikan (R² = .015,
F Change = 5.370, p<.01), menjelaskan bahawa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara gaya
perapatan bapa dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Apabila dilihat pada nilai pemberat
Beta mendapati kedua-dua gaya perapatan perhatian (p<.05) dan penjagaan kawalan (p<.05) yang
Change yang diperoleh adalah tidak signifikan (p >.05), yang mana menjelaskan bahawa persepsi
sokongan sosial keluarga (pembolehubah moderator) adalah tidak berkaitan dengan gaya perapatan
bapa dan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model 3 apabila pembolehubah kesan interaksi
dimasukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change menjadi tidak signifikan (p>.05), yang mana
menyimpulkan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial keluarga adalah tidak bertindak sebagai moderator ke
atas hubungan gaya perapatan bapa dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Oleh itu,
hipotesis persepsi sokongan sosial (keluarga) bertindak sebagai moderator dalam hubungan antara gaya
perapatan bapa (perhatian dan penjagaan kawalan) dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku dalam
kalangan remaja di Malaysia adalah tidak disokong.
iaitu sokongan keluarga di masukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change yang diperoleh adalah
signifikan (R² = .041, F Change = 5.398, p<.05), yang mana menjelaskan bahawa persepsi sokongan
sosial keluarga (pembolehubah moderator) adalah berkaitan dengan gaya perapatan bapa dan kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model 3 apabila pembolehubah kesan interaksi dimasukkan ke dalam
model, nilai Sig. F Change menjadi tidak signifikan (p>.05), yang mana menyimpulkan bahawa
persepsi sokongan sosial keluarga adalah tidak bertindak sebagai moderator ke atas hubungan gaya
perapatan bapa dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Oleh itu, hipotesis persepsi sokongan
sosial (keluarga) bertindak sebagai moderator dalam hubungan antara gaya perapatan bapa (perhatian
dan penjagaan kawalan) dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja di Brunei
adalah tidak disokong.
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Jadual 11 :
Analisis Regresi Hierarki Kesan Moderator Persepsi Sokongan Sosial Rakan dalam Hubungan Gaya
Perapatan Ibu dan Kesediaan Mengubah Tingkah Laku Remaja
sosial rakan ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan ibu dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja.
perapatan ibu dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Namun, apabila dilihat pada nilai
pemberat Beta mendapati hanya gaya perapatan perhatian (p<.01) yang menunjukkan hubungan yang
signifikan dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model 2, apabila pembolehubah moderator
iaitu sokongan rakan di masukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change yang diperoleh adalah tidak
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signifikan (p>.05), yang mana menjelaskan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial rakan (pembolehubah
moderator) adalah tidak berkaitan dengan salah satu gaya perapatan ibu dan kesediaan mengubah
tingkah laku. Pada Model 3 apabila pembolehubah kesan interaksi dimasukkan ke dalam model, nilai
Sig. F Change menjadi tidak signifikan (p>.05), yang mana menyimpulkan bahawa persepsi sokongan
sosial rakan adalah tidak bertindak sebagai moderator ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan ibu dengan
kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Oleh itu, hipotesis Persepsi sokongan sosial (rakan) bertindak
sebagai moderator dalam hubungan antara gaya perapatan ibu (perhatian dan penjagaan kawalan)
dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja di Malaysia adalah tidak disokong.
Bagi hasil sampel Brunei, pada Model 1 menunjukkan nilai Sig. F Change yang signifikan (R²
= .044, F Change = 5.651, p<.01), menjelaskan bahawa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara gaya
perapatan ibu dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Apabila dilihat pada nilai pemberat
Beta mendapati kedua gaya perapatan perhatian (p<.05) dan penjagaan kawalan (p<.01) yang
apabila pembolehubah moderator iaitu sokongan rakan di masukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F
Change yang diperoleh adalah signifikan ((R² = .077, F Change = 8.587, p<.01), yang mana
menjelaskan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial rakan (pembolehubah moderator) adalah berkaitan
dengan gaya perapatan ibu dan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model 3 apabila pembolehubah
kesan interaksi dimasukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change menjadi tidak signifikan (p>.05), yang
mana menyimpulkan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial rakan adalah tidak bertindak sebagai moderator
ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan ibu dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Oleh itu,
hipotesis Persepsi sokongan sosial (rakan) signifikan bertindak sebagai moderator dalam hubungan
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Jadual 12:
Analisis Regresi Hierarki Kesan Moderator Persepsi Sokongan Sosial Rakan dalam Hubungan Gaya
Perapatan Bapa dan Kesediaan Mengubah Tingkah Laku Remaja
sosial rakan ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan bapa dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja.
perapatan bapa dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Apabila dilihat pada nilai pemberat
Beta mendapati kedua-dua gaya perapatan perhatian (p<.05) dan penjagaan kawalan (p<.05) yang
apabila pembolehubah moderator iaitu sokongan rakan di masukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F
Change yang diperoleh adalah signifikan (R² = .021, F Change = 3.929, p<.05), yang mana menjelaskan
bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial rakan (pembolehubah moderator) adalah berkaitan dengan gaya
perapatan bapa dan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model 3 apabila pembolehubah kesan
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interaksi dimasukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change menjadi tidak signifikan (p>.05), yang mana
menyimpulkan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial rakan adalah tidak bertindak sebagai moderator ke atas
hubungan gaya perapatan bapa dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Oleh itu, hipotesis
Persepsi sokongan sosial (rakan) bertindak sebagai moderator dalam hubungan antara gaya perapatan
bapa (perhatian dan penjagaan kawalan) dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku dalam kalangan
remaja di Malaysia adalah tidak disokong.
iaitu sokongan rakan di masukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change yang diperoleh adalah tidak
signifikan (p>.05), yang mana menjelaskan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial rakan (pembolehubah
moderator) adalah tidak berkaitan dengan gaya perapatan bapa dan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku.
Pada Model 3 apabila pembolehubah kesan interaksi dimasukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change
menjadi tidak signifikan (p>.05), yang mana menyimpulkan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial rakan
adalah tidak bertindak sebagai moderator ke atas hubungan gaya perapatan bapa dengan kesediaan
mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Oleh itu, hipotesis persepsi sokongan sosial (rakan) bertindak sebagai
moderator dalam hubungan antara gaya perapatan bapa (perhatian) dengan kesediaan mengubah
tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja di Brunei adalah tidak disokong.
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Jadual 13 :
Analisis Regresi Hierarki Kesan Moderator Persepsi Sokongan Sosial Individu Signifikan dalam
Hubungan Pengetahuan Agama dan Kesediaan Mengubah Tingkah Laku Remaja
sosial individu signifikan ke atas hubungan pengetahuan agama dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah
laku remaja. Bagi hasil sampel Malaysia, pada Model 1 menunjukkan nilai Sig. F Change yang tidak
signifikan (p>.05), menjelaskan bahawa tidak terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara pengetahuan
agama dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Pada Model 2, apabila pembolehubah
moderator iaitu sokongan individu signifikan di masukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change yang
diperoleh adalah signifikan (R² = .008, F Change = 4.228, p<.05), yang mana menjelaskan bahawa
persepsi sokongan sosial individu signifikan (pembolehubah moderator) adalah berkaitan dengan
pengetahuan agama dan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku. Pada Model 3 apabila pembolehubah kesan
interaksi dimasukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change menjadi signifikan (R² = .015, F Change =
5.030, p<.05), yang mana menyimpulkan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial individu signifikan adalah
bertindak sebagai moderator ke atas hubungan pengetahuan agama dengan kesediaan mengubah
tingkah laku remaja. Oleh itu, hipotesis persepsi sokongan sosial (individu signifikan) bertindak sebagai
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moderator dalam hubungan antara pengetahuan agama dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku dalam
kalangan remaja di Malaysia adalah adalah disokong. Rajah 5 menunjukkan graf interaksi kesan
moderator persepsi sokongan individu signifikan dalam hubungan pengetahuan agama dengan
kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja sampel Malaysia.
Rajah 5: Graf Kesan Moderator Sokongan Individu Signifikan dalam Hubungan Pengetahuan Agama
dengan Kesediaan Mengubah Tingkah Laku Remaja Sampel Malaysia
Berdasarkan graf Rajah 5 menjelaskan bahawa pengetahuan agama boleh meningkatkan

kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja sekiranya persepsi sokongan daripada individu signifikan
adalah tinggi. Akan tetapi, sekiranya persepsi sokongan daripada individu signifikan adalah rendah,
maka pengetahuan agama akan menurunkan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja sampel
Malaysia.
moderator iaitu sokongan individu signifikan di masukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change yang
diperoleh adalah tidak signifikan (p>.05), yang mana menjelaskan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial
individu signifikan (pembolehubah moderator) adalah tidak berkaitan dengan pengetahuan agama dan
persepsi sokongan sosial individu signifikan adalah tidak bertindak sebagai moderator ke atas hubungan
pengetahuan agama dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Oleh itu, hipotesis persepsi
sokongan sosial (individu signifikan) bertindak sebagai moderator dalam hubungan antara pengetahuan
agama dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja di Brunei adalah tidak
disokong.
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Jadual 14 :
Pengetahuan Agama dan Kesediaan Mengubah Tingkah Laku Remaja
sosial keluarga ke atas hubungan pengetahuan agama dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja.
Bagi hasil sampel Malaysia, pada Model 1 menunjukkan nilai Sig. F Change yang tidak signifikan
(p>.05), menjelaskan bahawa tidak terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara pengetahuan agama
dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Pada Model 2, apabila pembolehubah moderator iaitu
sokongan keluarga di masukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change yang diperoleh adalah tidak
signifikan (p>.05), yang mana menjelaskan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial keluarga (pembolehubah
moderator) adalah tidak berkaitan dengan pengetahuan agama dan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku.
Pada Model 3 apabila pembolehubah kesan interaksi dimasukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change
menjadi tidak signifikan (p>.05), yang mana menyimpulkan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial keluarga
adalah tidak bertindak sebagai moderator ke atas hubungan pengetahuan agama dengan kesediaan
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mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Oleh itu, hipotesis persepsi sokongan sosial (keluarga) bertindak
sebagai moderator dalam hubungan antara pengetahuan agama dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah
laku dalam kalangan remaja di Malaysia adalah tidak disokong.
moderator iaitu sokongan keluarga di masukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change yang diperoleh
adalah signifikan (R² = .023, F Change = 5.737, p<.05), yang mana menjelaskan bahawa persepsi
sokongan sosial keluarga (pembolehubah moderator) adalah berkaitan dengan pengetahuan agama dan
persepsi sokongan sosial keluarga adalah tidak bertindak sebagai moderator ke atas hubungan
pengetahuan agama dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Oleh itu, hipotesis persepsi
sokongan sosial (keluarga) bertindak sebagai moderator dalam hubungan antara pengetahuan agama
dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja di brunei Malaysia adalah tidak
disokong.
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Jadual 15:
Analisis Regresi Hierarki Kesan Moderator Persepsi Sokongan Sosial Rakan dalam Hubungan
Pengetahuan Agama dan Kesediaan Mengubah Tingkah Laku Remaja
sosial rakan ke atas hubungan pengetahuan agama dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja.
Bagi hasil sampel Malaysia, pada Model 1 menunjukkan nilai Sig. F Change yang tidak signifikan
(p>.05), menjelaskan bahawa tidak terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara pengetahuan agama
dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Pada Model 2, apabila pembolehubah moderator iaitu
sokongan rakan di masukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change yang diperoleh adalah signifikan (R²
= .009, F Change = 4.967, p<.05), yang mana menjelaskan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial rakan
(pembolehubah moderator) adalah berkaitan dengan pengetahuan agama dan kesediaan mengubah
sosial rakan adalah tidak bertindak sebagai moderator ke atas hubungan pengetahuan agama dengan
kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Oleh itu, hipotesis persepsi sokongan sosial (rakan) bertindak
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laku dalam kalangan remaja di Malaysia adalah tidak disokong.
Bagi hasil sampel Brunei pula, pada Model 1 menunjukkan nilai Sig. F Change yang
tidak signifikan (p>.05), menjelaskan bahawa tidak terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara
pengetahuan agama dengan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Pada Model 2, apabila
pembolehubah moderator iaitu sokongan rakan di masukkan ke dalam model, nilai Sig. F Change yang
diperoleh adalah tidak signifikan, yang mana menjelaskan bahawa persepsi sokongan sosial rakan
(pembolehubah moderator) adalah tidak berkaitan dengan pengetahuan agama dan kesediaan mengubah
sosial rakan adalah tidak bertindak sebagai moderator ke atas hubungan pengetahuan agama dengan
kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Oleh itu, hipotesis persepsi sokongan sosial (rakan) bertindak
laku dalam kalangan remaja di Brunei adalah tidak disokong.
Jadual 16 :
Ujian-T Sampel Bebas Perbezaan Gaya Perapatan Ibu Antara Malaysia dan Brunei
Berdasarkan Jadual 16 menunjukkan perbezaan gaya perapatan ibu yang diamalkan ke atas
remaja Malaysia dan Brunei. Hasil analisis yang dijalankan menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan yang
signifikan dalam gaya perapatan ibu secara perhatian di antara Malaysia dan Brunei (t(947)=5.907,
p<.001), yang mana menolak hipotesis nul yang telah dibina. Perbezaan nilai min yang diperoleh adalah
Min=1.80, dengan menyimpulkan bahawa remaja di Malaysia lebih merasakan gaya perapatan
berbentuk perhatian yang tinggi daripada ibu berbanding remaja di Brunei. Walau bagaimanapun, bagi
gaya perapatan penjagaan kawalan didapati tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan yang ditunjukkan
bagi remaja dari kedua negara. Maka, dapatan tersebut menjelaskan kemungkinan bahawa remaja di
Malaysia dan Brunei merasakan penjagaan kawalan yang sama daripada ibu. Oleh itu, hipotesis tidak
terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dalam gaya perapatan ibu (perhatian) di antara remaja Malaysia dan
Brunei adalah tidak disokong, manakala Tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dalam gaya
perapatan ibu (penjagaan kawalan) di antara remaja Malaysia dan Brunei adalah disokong.
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Jadual 17:
Ujian-T Sampel Bebas Perbezaan Gaya Perapatan Bapa Antara Malaysia dan Brunei
____________________________________________
Berdasarkan Jadual 17 menunjukkan perbezaan gaya perapatan bapa yang diamalkan ke atas
remaja Malaysia dan Brunei. Hasil analisis yang dijalankan menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan yang
signifikan dalam gaya perapatan bapa secara perhatian di antara Malaysia dan Brunei (t(947)=-1.050,
p<.01), yang mana menolak hipotesis nul yang telah dibina. Perbezaan nilai min yang diperoleh adalah
Min=-.407, dengan menyimpulkan bahawa remaja di Brunei lebih merasakan gaya perapatan berbentuk
perhatian yang lebih tinggi daripada bapa berbanding remaja di Malaysia. Dapatan ini berbeza dengan
gaya perapatan perhatian yang dirasakan daripada ibu, di mana remaja di Malaysia lebih merasakan
gaya perapatan perhatian ibu berbanding remaja Brunei. Maka, dapatan tersebut dapat merumuskan
bahawa remaja Malaysia lebih merasakan gaya perapatan perhatian daripada ibu, manakala remaja
Brunei pula lebih merasakannya daripada bapa.
Walau bagaimanapun, bagi gaya perapatan penjagaan kawalan didapati tidak terdapat
perbezaan yang signifikan yang ditunjukkan bagi remaja dari kedua negara. Maka, dapatan tersebut
menjelaskan kemungkinan bahawa remaja di Malaysia dan Brunei merasakan penjagaan kawalan yang
sama daripada bapa. Oleh itu, hipotesis Tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dalam gaya perapatan
bapa (perhatian) di antara remaja Malaysia dan Brunei adalah tidak disokong, manakala Tidak terdapat
perbezaan yang signifikan dalam gaya perapatan bapa (penjagaan kawalan) di antara remaja Malaysia
dan Brunei adalah disokong.
Perbincangan
Berdasarkan analisis kajian mendapati bahawa pengaruh gaya keibubapaan ibu secara perhatian
mempengaruhi kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja, manakala gaya keibubapaan
bapa secara perhatian dan kawalan kedua-duanya mempengaruhi kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku
dalam kalangan remaja. Dapatan ini bersesuaian dengan konteks peranan yang dimainkan oleh
golongan ibu, yang mana mereka cenderung memberikan perhatian yang penuh kepada perkembangan
anak. Ibu sinonim dengan pendekatan yang lebih bersifat penyayang dan prihatin ke atas remaja. Sifat
keibuan golongan ibu cenderung menyebabkan remaja merasa akrab dan selesa dengan ibu. Oleh itu,
remaja yang ingin mengekalkan keprihatinan yang diterima daripada ibu lazimnya cenderung bertindak
mengikut arahan dan kehendak yang ditetapkan oleh ibu, termasuklah mengubah tingkah laku kepada
yang lebih baik. Pada pandangan pengkaji ini berlaku kerana ibu adalah guru pertama kepada anak-
anak. Ianya bermula dengan kedekatan fizikal dan emosi yang berhubung antara ibu dan anak sejak
dalam rahim, penyusuan dan sifat keibuan yang menjadi faktor primer yang menentukan tingkah laku
anak-anak. Anak-anak belajar segala-galanya dari ibu. Menurut Smrekar dan Cohen-Vogel (2001), ibu
merupakan orang dewasa yang bertanggungjawab dan mengambil berat terhadap keperluan anak-anak
sama ada secara emosi, material (kewangan) mahu pun sokongan sama ada di rumah atau sekolah. Ibu
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juga memainkan peranan dalam memberi perhatian terhadap pendidikan anak-anak dengan cara
menghayati fitrah yang suci, penjagaan kawalan dengan mendisplinkan anak-anak sejak peringkat awal
menyediakan kemudahan dan sumber pembelajaran yang diperlukan, membantu anak-anak membina
matlamat, memberi motivasi, menggalakkan kejayaan, memperkayakan pengalaman anak-anak,
Memberi contoh yang baik secara tidak langsung akan menyemai keinginan anak remaja untuk bersedia
untuk berubah tingkah laku ke arah yang lebih baik.
Dalam kajian dijalankan, pengkaji mendapati banyak hasil kajian menunjukkan pengaruh ibu
terhadap perkembangan personaliti remaja. Malah ibu memainkan peranan penting dalam kesediaan
remaja untuk mengubah tingkah laku remaja. Ini bersesuaian dengan hasil kajian ini menunjukkan min
gaya perapatan perhatian daripada ibu pada tahap yang tinggi terhadap pengaruh kesediaan mengubah
tingkah laku. Pengkaji juga yakin bahawa seorang ibu mampu untuk mengambil alih tugas-tugas bapa
dalam membesarkan anak-anak untuk menjadi orang.
Berbeza dengan peranan bapa, yang mana bapa sebagai ketua keluarga bukan sahaja bertindak
dalam memerhatikan tingkah laku anak, tetapi juga dalam mengawal tingkah laku yang ditunjukkan
oleh anak remaja. Bagi pengkaji, bapa adalah sumber kekuatan yang memberi pendidikan kepada anak-
anak mengenai pengurusan kepimpinan, memberi pendidikan untuk anak-anak dalam membentuk sikap
tegas, menegakkan keadilan tanpa pilih yang salah. Oleh sebab itu, golongan bapa sebagai figura
penting lebih memberi impak berkesan dalam menentukan kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku anak.
Peranan bapa adalah sangat menonjol sebagai individu yang paling berkuasa dalam mempengaruhi nilai
kendiri anak (Hamidah, 2013). Hal ini demikian kerana, hubungan yang dijalinkan dengan anak sentiasa
diberikan perhatian serta berada dalam keadaan yang terkawal dan mendidik anak berdasarkan tindakan
yang sepatutnya. Menurut Mohd. Ismail Mustari (2006), fokus peranan yang dimainkan oleh bapa
adalah dalam membentuk disiplin dan peribadi anak-anak. Bapa yang gagal melaksanakan
tanggungjawabnya dengan sempurna cenderung akan melahirkan generasi yang pincang sahsiahnya.
Hal ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa perhatian dan perjagaan sepenuhnya akan membantu anak-anak
remaja bersedia untuk berubah tingkah laku.
Berbeza pula dengan situasi yang berlaku dalam kalangan remaja di Brunei, yakni gaya
keibubapaan ibu dan bapa secara kawalan yang mempunyai pengaruh ke atas kesediaan mengubah
tingkah laku dalam kalangan remaja. Hal ini berkemungkinan boleh dijelaskan oleh faktor budaya yang
diterapkan dalam masyarakat Brunei, yang mana golongan ibu bapa amat menekankan kawalan ke atas
tingkah laku anak agar tidak tersasar kepada tingkah laku yang negatif. Dapatan dapat dilihat dari 14
kes hasil rondaan Bahagian Penguatkuasaan Agama sera laporan Bahagian Perisikan yang mana salah
satu daripada kes tangkapan adalah aduan daribapa kepada pasangan tertuduh sendiri. Bapa kepada
tertuduh perempuan tersebut bukan sahaja melaporkan, malah beliau juga turut hadir dan membantu
berkuasa untuk membuat tangkapan ( Nabilah & Mohd Al-Adib.2017). Hal ini demikian boleh
dikaitkan dengan faktor implimentasi undang-undang Hudud yang dilaksanakan dalam sistem
perundangan jenayah di negara Brunei. Dalam undang-undang Hudud tersebut menekankan bahawa
individu yang melakukan kesalahan akan dijatuhkan hukuman secara Hudud, iaitu menerusi hukuman
Qisas. Hukuman Qisas merujuk kepada hukuman balas ke atas kesalahan yang telah ditetapkan dalam
al-Quran (Devers & Bacon, 2010; Schirazi, 1997). Sebagai contoh, individu yang melakukan kesalahan
zina/salah laku seksual akan dijatuhkan hukuman rejam, individu yang melakukan kesalahan mencuri
akan dijatuhkan hukuman potong tangan, atau individu yang melakukan kesalahan yang mendatangkan
mudarat ke atas orang lain akan dijatuhkan hukuman sebagaimana mudarat yang telah dilakukannya ke
atas mangsa.
Selaras dengan memenuhi keperluan menjadikan negara Brunei Negara Zikrullah, pengkaji
berpendapat gaya keibubapaan ibu dan bapa Brunei lebih kepada secara kawalan adalah kerana
persekitaran Brunei yang terdedah kepada pengaruh warga luar. 20.5 peratus dari jumlah penduduk
negara Brunei adalah penduduk sementara yang berbilang bangsa dari pelbagai negara yang bekerja di
pelbagai peringkat (JPES,2019). Sedikit sebanyak kehadiran warga asing mempengaruhi budaya remaja
di Brunei. Berbanding dengan Malaysia hanya 8.9 peratus penduduk merupakan penduduk warga asing
(JPM,2019).
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Walau bagaimanapun, kajian ini mendapati bahawa pengetahuan keagamaan tidak

mempengaruhi dalam kesediaan remaja untuk mengubah tingkah laku mereka. Hal ini berkemungkinan
kerana, pengaruh peranan yang dimainkan oleh ibu dan bapa lebih memberikan impak besar ke atas
anak remaja.
Menurut kajian yang dijalankan oleh Mahirah (2012), pengetahuan keagamaan tidak
berperanan langsung ke atas keinginan yang mempengaruhi remaja wanita dalam menjaga kehormatan
seksual. Sebaliknya, kajian tersebut menjelaskan bahawa faktor figura bapa yang menentukan sebarang
kehendak kepada pembentukan tingkah laku positif remaja, dan menjauhi tingkah laku yang berisiko.
Hal ini demikian kerana, sinonim dengan gaya keibubapaan di Malaysia yang menekankan gaya
ketimuran yang mana nilai peranan ibu dan bapa lebih memberi impak besar ke atas perkembangan
remaja berbanding faktor lain. Faktor ketakutan remaja ke atas disiplin dan peraturan yang ditetapkan
oleh ibu bapa dicadangkan dalam kajian tersebut kerana peranan tersebut menyebabkan remaja
menwujudkan kepatuhan ke atas norma yang ditentukan oleh ibu bapa.
Pandangan yang sama yang dilontarkan oleh Landor (2011) yang menyatakan bahawa faktor
pengetahuan keagamaan remaja tidak mempengaruhi pembentukan tingkah laku mereka. Sebaliknya,
aspek keagamaan yang lebih mempengaruhi pembentukan tingkah laku remaja adalah pengetahuan
keagamaan yang dipunyai oleh ibu bapa dan ditekankan dalam perkembangan anak. Akan tetapi, dalam
kajian ini faktor keagamaan yang dikaji tidak mengambil kira dari mana sumber pengetahuan
keagamaan itu diperoleh oleh remaja. Maka, penjelasan mengenai faktor pengetahuan keagamaan
remaja adalah relevan sebagai tidak mempengaruhi kesediaan remaja dalam mengubah tingkah laku
mereka.
Kajian oleh Stolz, Olsen, Henke dan Barber (2013) pula mencadangkan bahawa pengaruh
pengetahuan keagamaan ke atas tingkah laku hanya relevan kepada remaja yang mempunyai
pengetahuan keagamaan yang tinggi. Akan tetapi, jika remaja tersebut mempunyai pengetahuan
keagamaan yang rendah maka faktor tersebut tidak memberi pengaruh langsung ke atas perubahan
tingkah laku remaja.
Namun begitu, pengkaji berpendapat bahawa pengetahuan keagamaan mempunyai pengaruh

ke atas kesediaan mengubah tingkah laku walau pun tidak ditentukan sumber pengetahuan agama yang
diperolehi oleh remaja. Ini bersesuai dengan teori yang diperkenalkan oleh oleh Ryan (2009) yang mana
melalui pengetahuan agama akan menggalakkan individu bertingkah laku yang sihat dengan adanya
pengaturan dan kawalan kendiri. Melalui pengaturandan kawalan kendiri remaja dapat mengaplikasikan
pengetahuan dan kepercayaan untuk mengubah tingkah laku.
Melalui pengetahuan agama juga dapat membentuk kerohanian melalui penjagaan emosi,
mental dan fizikal. Penjagaan emosi, mental dan fizikal akan menjadi penentuan nilai baik atau buruk
terhadap tingkah laku seseorang. Keyakinan terhadap pengetahuan keagamaan yang diperolehi akan
menjadi motivasi kepada remaja untuk menjalani kehidupan yang lebih baik pada masa akan datang.
Kesimpulan
Dalam menghadapi perubahan dunia yang berlaku dengan pantas dengan pelbagai dugaan dan cabaran,
setiap individu perlu mempersiapkan diri untuk berubah dan menghadapi perubahan. Sehubungan itu,
untuk mempersiapkan diri dengan kesedaran untuk berubah, setiap individu perlu mengikut peredaran
zaman dengan pengenalan lebih banyak elemen positif berbanding negatif. Elemen positif perlu
diterapkan bagi mencapai matlamat kehidupan iaitu mencapai kemajuan atau pun boleh dikatakan
sebagai bergerak terus ke hadapan agar apa yang perlu dicapai menepati sasaran yang dikehendaki.
Oleh itu kesediaan untuk berubah tingkah laku amat penting bagi menjamin kesejahteraan hidup
individu khususnya remaja.
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Dalam usaha untuk membentuk generasi yang bersedia untuk berubah bukanlah satu perkara
yang mudah dan dapat dicapai dalam masa yang singkat. Pelbagai persoalan dan cabaran yang perlu
ditangani terutamanya dalam membantu remaja untuk mengenal diri yng sebenar dengan mengeluarkan
kehebatan dan mengatasi kelemahan, di samping menerima hakikat bahawa ada perkara atau masalah
diri yang perlu diatasi seperti suka berfikiran negatif, bersifat negatif atau mazmumah serta suka
bertangguh-tangguh. Kelemahan inilah selalunya mengganggu proses kesediaan untuk remaja berubah
ke arah yang lebih baik dan positif.
Justeru, kajian ini diharapkan dapat memberi sumbangan ilmu bermanfaat dan menjadi sumber
rujukan dan bahan bacaan bagi pengkaji akan datang khususnya dalam mengenengahkan isu remaja
dalam kesediaan untuk berubah tingkah laku bagi menjamin kesejahteraan dalam kehidupan semasa
dan akan datang.
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EFFECTS OF SPIRITUALITY ON RESILIENCE AMONG BORNEAN

INDIGENOUS YOUTH AMID COVID-19 PANDEMIC
Kong Eng Tong
Corresponding Author E-mail:grace.kong1213@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study is to identify the resiliency of the Bornean indigenous youth amid Covid-19 pandemic and
the resilience difference between Sarawak and Sabah indigenous youth. This study also aims to identify the effects
of spirituality and each of the spirituality domains (i.e., purpose and meaning in life, innerness or inner resources,
unifying interconnectedness and transcendence) on resilience among Bornean indigenous youth. A set of
questionnaires which consisted of three parts: demographic information, resilience and spirituality were
distributed via online platforms. A total of 151 youth who aged between 17 to 35 years old were selected as the
participants. The collected data was analyzed through conducting the descriptive test, independent sample t-test,
Pearson correlation test and simple regression tests.The results show that there was a significant difference
between Sarawak and Sabah indigenous youth in the terms of resilience with Sabahan averagely showing a lower
resilience level than Sarawakian. Overall, spirituality and each of its domains significantly predicted the
participants’ resilience level except for the domain of transcendence. This present study had shed light on the
indigenous literature about the effects of spirituality on resilience and provided helpful information for the
indigenous community and relevant organisations.
Keywords: Resilience, Spirituality, Bornean Indigenous Youth, Covid-19 pandemic
Introduction
In December 2019, a novel coronavirus that caused severe acute respiratory disease which later has
been named coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) was discovered in Wuhan, China (Guo et al., 2020).
Within months, the spread of Covid-19 goes beyond control and becomes a global crisis. By the month
of March in 2021, there were up to 3.8 million new cases and 64 000 global deaths reported weekly
across 180 countries worldwide (World Health Organization [WHO], 2021). Concerns of possible life
and health treat caused by Covid-19 as well as the daily life necessities, negative coping skills and
increased loneliness (Liu et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020) has exposed the youngster to a higher risk of
obtaining mental issues as many of their life aspects including education, occupation and social life
were affected during this period of pandemic (Aucejo et al., 2020; Chaturvedi et al., 2021). However,
the youth from rural areas, especially indigenous communities, might experience more challenges than
their counterparts (United Nations, n.d.).
Although the overall well-being among aboriginal people has shown certain improvements
(Cooke et al., 2007), they are still vulnerable to the impacts of Covid-19. The rising number of evidence
delineates the fact that the burden of the pandemic is not equally borne by each group in society.
Oftentimes, the life of the underprivileged has been affected greater than the others (Walker et al.,
2021). Many local tribes are being marginalized and forced to rely on their own communities' resources
that are mostly in lack of basic supplies (Power et al., 2020). Poor access to clean water, soups and other
sanitiser products make it hard for them to comply with basic preventive measures such as hand-
washing (Follent et al., 2021). Staying in an overcrowded household inhibits the practice of social
distancing and isolation (Goha et al., 2021). Together with less access to timely health care service,
most likely it will result in the widespread occurrence of infectious diseases like Covid-19 among these
rural area residents. In addition, a higher proportion of indigenous people reported experiencing worse
mental conditions than non-indigenous people, specifically about the increased level of depression,
anxiety and stress ever since the application of social distancing (Arriagada et al., 2020).
In Malaysia, the indigenous people or can be known as “Orang Asli” suffered from claiming
their possession over their land in the face of the private companies who had been granted logging
licenses (“In a first”, 2019). Similar consequences happened among the Bornean indigenous people.
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Even in the midst of the Movement Control Order (MCO) period, the timber and oil companies were
given permission from the Sarawak Government to continue land grabbing and logging among the
indigenous residential area (“Indigenous leaders question”, 2020). This ongoing operation exposed the
indigenous people to an immediate health threat as the virus could spread through the entering of
workers.
Meanwhile, another worrying issue for the indigenous youngster is the high possibility of losing
the elders during this Covid-19 situation and the language barrier that hinder the spread of critical
information about Covid-19 (The United Nations Children's Fund [UNICEF], 2020). Inevitably, the
educated youth have to bear the responsibility of taking care of their elders and relay accurate
information to the communities by using the indigenous language. Furthermore, the digital divide has
affected the education of rural area students who are pursuing their study in university or college due
to the closedown of institutes during the pandemic (Bennett et al., 2020). In Sabah, a native university
student from a rural area reported having trouble with the internet connection to sit for the examination
and hence had to spend the night on a tree to catch a stable connection (Lee, 2020).
According to the outlook of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
[OECD] (2019), compared to the other age cohort, the young generation that falls between the age of
15 to 29 years old were more likely to be involved in low-paid and insecure jobs. Moreover, for the
Bornean indigenous youth who originated from the native groups like Penan, one of the hunter-gatherer
tribes in Sarawak, the condition could be tougher for them as they possess inadequate occupational
skills for the outside world (World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, 2018b). Hence,
they are at greater risk of job crisis and income loss in this global crisis compared to the youngsters who
got the privilege to receive mainstream skill-training and education.
Although there is an increased vulnerability among Bornean indigenous youth to the impact of
Covid-19, fewer researches were focused on the current condition of this respective group. Hence, this
community has failed to receive sufficient attention and assistance from society. Several scholars from
Malaysia had recommended the researcher to prioritize the health and well-being of indigenous
communities in Malaysia during the epidemic in future studies (Verghis et al., 2020). This research
agenda highlighted resilience as an important factor related to physical and emotional stressors as well
as the motivation for indigenous students in the pursuit of education despite the challenge of the digital
divide. From past experiences, the role of resilience is undoubtedly vital in buffering the destructive
impact of stressful events (Lee et al., 2014).
Past studies indicated that resilience had a positive correlation with mental health, subjective
happiness and at the same time negatively related to depression and anxiety in the midst of the Covid-
19 pandemic (Karaşar & Canlı, 2020; Li et al., 2021; Satici et al., 2020; Setiawati et al., 2021). The
term resilience originates from the Latin word resilire, describing a pattern of rebound and the ability
to overcome the consequences whenever encountering aversive events (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013; Vella
& Pai, 2019). As indicated in Olsson et al. study (2003), there were numerous resources of resilience
that can be noticed at the different levels such as individual, family and environment. For the indigenous
communities, spirituality, which is a part of cultural resources, plays a crucial role in response to
traumatic events and historical grief (Fleming & Ledogar, 2008b). A systematic review of Schwalm et
al. (2021) that included more than 2000 articles that cover the topic of resilience and spirituality had
come out with a conclusion that there is a positive correlation between these two variables. They
explained this kind of correlation as the resilient individual might not necessarily be a person of high
spirituality, however a spiritual individual is more likely to be resilient.
Spirituality represents many aspects, for instance, the intrinsic human capacity for
transcendence which is a greater presence beyond our existence, the ability to find the meaning and
purpose of life as well as forming connections between self, others, nature and the Higher being (Chiu
et al., 2004). Together with traditional language, activities and healing, spirituality is often viewed as a
precious cultural heritage among the native residents that provide the youngsters with a sense of self-
continuity which forms community resilience (Fleming & Ledogar, 2008b). It is remarkable that the
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high score of cultural spiritual orientation and enculturation of traditional spiritual belief prevents the
aboriginal youth from participating in alcohol abuse and suicide attempts (Fleming & Ledogar, 2008a).
Besides, the experiences and concepts of spirituality interrelated with the socio-emotional wellbeing
among the natives (Poroch et al., 2009).
Although the study of Ford et al. (2020) showed that the indigenous people reported possessing
high resilience in the face of environmental changes such as earthquakes, tsunami, floods and so forth,
the situation of Covid-19 that lasts for more than one year might cause a different amplitude of impact
on the resilience of indigenous youth. Moreover, the information shown was unsaturated to generalize
the overall condition for the population staying in certain areas such as Borneo since most studies were
focusing on the residents of specific regions only.
Numerous past studies indicated that there was a significant correlation between spirituality and
resilience (Dewi & Hamzah, 2019; Fangauf, 2014; Smith et al., 2013b). Nevertheless, other factors, for
instance, positive interpersonal relationships with peers and family members, positive self-identity,
engagement in cultural activities and assessment of material resources also played an effective role in
building the resilience of indigenous youth (Toombs et al., 2016). There are some overlapping areas in
between these factors and spirituality. Moreover, most of the studies about the relationship between
spirituality and resilience were carried out before the occurrence of the Covid-19 pandemic. Therefore,
whether spirituality can be the main factor that impacts the overall resiliency of indigenous youth
especially in the midst of this global crisis still remains unclear. In addition to that, the past study of
Ingulli and Lindbloom (2013) demonstrated that not every domain of spirituality was showing a strong
correlation with resiliency. Therefore, there might be discrepancies shown in the effects of the four
spirituality domains (i.e., personal, communal, environmental and transcendental) towards the level of
resilience.
Although the Bornean native groups share similarities in the aspects of traditions, customary laws,
living patterns and religion (World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, 2018a), whether
the spirituality and resilience level is similar among indigenous youth of different regions on the land
of Borneo such as Sabah and Sarawak still remains unknown.
This study aims to identify the resiliency of the Bornean indigenous youth amid Covid-19
pandemic and the resilience difference between Sarawak and Sabah indigenous youth. Furthermore,
this present research intends to identify the effects of spirituality and each of the spirituality domains
(i.e., purpose and meaning in life, innerness or inner resources, unifying interconnectedness and
transcendence) on resilience level among Bornean indigenous youth amid the Covid pandemic. The
researcher hypothesized that there is no significant difference regarding the level of resilience between
the youth indigenous to Sabah and Sarawak. Meanwhile, the researcher also hypothesized that there is
a significant effect of the spirituality either in general or domains (i.e., purpose and meaning in life,
innerness or inner resources, unifying interconnectedness and transcendence) on resilience among
Bornean indigenous youth in the midst of the Covid-19 pandemic.
Methodology
Study Design and Participants
This present study was conducted using snowball sampling method as primary tool to collect the data.
A set of questionnaires which consisted of three parts: Demographic information, Resilience and
Spirituality was distributed among Sarawak and Sabah indigenous youth via online platforms. There
were certain criteria for the recruitment of participants in the present study. The very first criterion was
that the respondent must be of indigenous origin either of maternal, paternal or both sides as Sabah or
Sarawak Natives. Secondly, the respondent must be between 15 and 40 years old since the amendment
bill agreed by the Parliament of Malaysia about setting the limitation of youth age to 30 will only take
effect after the year 2021 (Zainuddin & Kaur, 2019). There were 161 participants responding to the
questionnaire at the beginning of the research. After the data screening and exclusion process, a total of
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151 participants were selected in the current study. The overall data collection process lasted for
approximately three weeks, from June 5, 2021, to June 24, 2021.
Measures
Basic personal information of the participants including gender, age, marital status, ethnicity,
employment status, religion, and staying area were included.
Brief Resilience Scale (BRS) was utilised as the assessment tool to determine the resilience of the
participants in this study. The scale was established by Smith et al. (2008) to assess the ability to recover
from stress. It consists of six items with three positive (items 1, 3 & 5) and three negative items (items
2, 4 & 6). These negative items also serve as reverse coding items. The examples for the positive and
negative items are “I tend to bounce back quickly after hard times.” and “I have a hard time making it
through stressful events.” respectively. However, in order to ensure the reliability of the scale, item 5
was removed in the actual study. This mainly due to its poor intercorrelation with other items in the
BRS scale which affected the Cronbach’s alpha scores to be below the suggested value of .60 (Ursachi
et al., 2015). Based on the suggestion of Tavakol and Dennick (2011), the item that show a low inter-
item correlation should be discarded if there was a low value of Cronbach alpha shown in the study.
After the restructuring of scale, the 5-items BRS showed an acceptable Cronbach alpha value, which
was .64 and hence illustrated a significant reliability for the present study.
Nevertheless, the scoring of the users was being assessed based on a 5-point Likert scale with
scoring 1= strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Then, the total scores were divided by five to obtain
the final score. The strength of the resilience among the respondents was determined according to the
total score range suggested by the developer which the score ranges between “1.00-2.99” indicates a
low resilience, “3.00-4.30” for normal resilience and lastly “4.31-5.00” for high resilience (Smith et
al., 2013a). In addition, the BRS assessment showed good reliability (Cronbach alpha = .93) and validity
in the Malaysian version (Amat et al., 2014).
Spirituality Assessment Scale (SAS) was used to assess the spirituality of participants in this
study. It was developed by Howden (1992) and consists of 28 items that are under four relative subscales
namely, “Purpose and meaning of life”, “Innerness or Inner Resources”, “Unifying Interconnectedness”
and “Transcendence”. The groupings of items were structured as items 18, 20, 22 and 28 for “Purpose
and meaning of life”, items 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 17, 23, 24 and 27 for “Innerness or Inner Resources”,
items 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 19, 25 and 26 for “Unifying Interconnectedness” and the rest of the items 3, 5, 11,
13, 15 and 21 for “Transcendence”. These items were measured with a 6-point Likert scale, with the
scoring “1” representing strongly disagree to scoring “6” representing strongly agree. Aligned with the
prior study of Bell (2006), the total score of 113 to 168 resembles a strong spirituality, 57 to 112
resembles a moderate spirituality and 28 to 56 shows evidence of low spirituality. The sufficient
reliability of this scale was supported by its high Alpha coefficients of .92. Besides, the significant
correlation shown between SAS and other relevant variables evidenced the sufficient validity of this
scale (Howden, 1992).
Data Analysis
The collected data were analysed using IBM SPSS version 27 (Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences) as the primary tool. In order to meet the objectives of the study, a descriptive test was carried
out to determine the mean scores of participants on the dependent and independent variables, in this
case, resilience and spirituality. Then, an independent sample t-test was run to identify the difference
between the resilience level of youth indigenous to Sabah and Sarawak. Moreover, the relationship
between resilience and spirituality among the participants was analysed using the Pearson correlation
test. After that, a simple regression test was conducted to investigate whether there is a significant effect
of spirituality and each of its domains on resilience among the target indigenous youth in the situation
of Covid-19. Prior to that, the normality, reliability, independence level, linearity, residual normality
and homoscedasticity of the collected data were examined to met the required assumptions of the
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planned tests. The results were discussed in detail by making explanations, interpretations and
comparisons with the past studies results.
Results
The demographic information of the participants are shown in Table 1. All the participants were
youth who aged between 17 to 35 years old (M = 23.29, SD = 3.50). The majority of the respondents
were females (n = 105) which occupied 69.5% of the sample with males as the minor gender group (n
= 46, % = 30.5). Moreover, the number of respondents who were of Sarawak Natives origin (n = 94, %
= 62.3) was more than the respondents of Sabah Natives origin (n = 57, % = 37.7).
Table 1
Demographic Information of Participants (N=151)
n %
Gender
Male 46 30.5
Female 105 69.5
Marital Status
Single 115 76.2
In a Relationship 18 11.9
Married 18 11.9
Employment Status
Full-Time Employees 37 24.5
Part-Time Employees 5 3.3
Self-Employed 5 3.3
Students 96 63.6
Unemployed 6 4.0
Others 2 1.3
Religion
Muslim 19 12.6
Buddhist 13 8.6
Christian 117 77.5
Others 2 1.3
Ethnicity
Sarawak Natives 91 60.3
Sabah Natives 60 39.7
Staying Area
Rural Area 52 34.4
Urban Area 99 65.6
Table 2 demonstrates that the participants were averagely showing a moderate resilience level
(M = 3.08, SD = .68) in the midst of Covid-19 pandemic with more than half of them (n = 82, % = 54.3)
scored between the range of 3.00 and 4.30, illustrating a moderate resilience level. As for the scores of
SAS, the mean score was 132.54 with a standard deviation of 14.42. This was mainly because of the
large number of participants showing a high spirituality (n = 135, % = 89.4) followed by moderate
spirituality (n = 16, % = 10.6). Interestingly, none of them showed a low spirituality in this study.
The results as shown in Table 3 indicated that there was a significant difference between the
youth of Sarawak (M = 3.18, SD = .62) and Sabah (M = 2.92, SD = .73) origin in the term of resiliency
( t(149) = 2.33, p < .05). The Sarawak indigenous youth reported an higher average resilience level than
Sabah indigenous youth in this study. In addition, the Cohen-d score in this test was .67, indicating a
moderate effect size (Cohen, 2013).
As referred in Table 4, the spirituality domains of purpose and meaning in life, innerness or
inner resources and unifying interconnectedness were positively correlated with resilience level among
the participant at a significance level (r = .34, r = .27, r = .18, p < .05). However, the correlation
coefficient between resilience level and the domain of transcendence was insignificant (r = .10, p > .01).
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Lastly, there was a significant positive correlation between the resiliency and general spirituality with
a r score of .25 at the significance level of .01.
The results of simple regression test was presented in Table 5. It shows that among the five
predictors, only one domain of spirituality, which was transcendence did not show a significant
prediction on the resiliency (β = .02, p > .05). The other spirituality domains including purpose and
meaning, inner resources and unifying interconnectedness significantly and positively predicted the
resilience among the participants (β = .09, β = .03, β = .02, p < .05). As a result, the spirituality in
general was found to show a significant positive prediction on the resilience among the participants (β
= .01, p < .01).
Table 2
Three Levels of Resilience and Spirituality (N =151)
n % M SD
Resiliency 3.08 .68
Low (1.00 ≤ x ≤ 2.99) 61 40.4
Moderate (3.00 ≤ x ≤ 4.30) 82 54.3
High (4.31 ≤ x ≤ 5.00) 8 5.3
Spirituality 132.54 14.42
Low (28 ≤ x ≤ 56) 0 0
Moderate (57 ≤ x ≤ 112) 16 10.6
High (113 ≤ x ≤ 168) 135 89.4
Table 3
Difference of the Level of Resilience between the Youth of Sarawak and Sabah Origin
Sarawak Natives Sabah Natives
M SD M SD t value p value Cohen’s d
Resiliency 3.18 .62 2.92 .73 2.33 .02 .67
Table 4
Correlation between Resiliency, Domains of Spirituality and General Spirituality among the Bornean
Indigenous Youth
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6
Purpose and Meaning in Life 1
Innerness or Inner Resources .60** 1
Unifying Interconnectedness .54** .69** 1
Transcendence .30** .72** .58** 1
General Spirituality .67** .93** .87** .81** 1
Resiliency .34** .27** .18* .10 .25** 1
Note. ** p < .01; * p < .05
Table 5
Simple Regression Analyses of the Effects of General Spirituality and Each of the Spirituality Domains
on Resiliency
Resiliency
Variables
R2 β F p
General Spirituality .06 .01 9.97 .00
Purpose and Meaning in Life .12 .09 19.48 .00
Innerness or Inner Resources .07 .03 11.53 .00
Unifying Interconnectedness .03 .02 4.98 .03
Transcendence .01 .02 1.56 .21
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Discussion
The present research was designed to determine the effects of spirituality on resilience among the
Bornean indigenous youth. Moreover, the study aimed to explore the situation of indigenous youngsters
who originated from Sabah and Sarawak regarding their resiliency in facing the Covid-19 global
pandemic and also tested for origin differences in the terms of resiliency.
The resilience level of the participating indigenous youth had achieved a moderate level
averagely amid this epidemic. This current finding is in line with the previous study (Ford et al., 2020)
demonstrated the ability of the indigenous people to navigate themselves through the hardships as a
response to unpredicted environmental changes. The indigenous community seemingly possesses
certain adaptive skills to recover after the disasters such as typhoons by learning how to cope and
transform the negative consequences of environmental stressors (Berkes et al., 2021). One indigenous
tribe of Sarawak named Sa’ban demonstrated their resilience towards climate change through practising
traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) such as observing the temperature changes and maintaining the
land fertility (Hosen et al., 2019).
The present findings suggest that the population of Bornean indigenous youth might be capable
of handling this novel disaster (i.e., the Covid-19 pandemic) unlike other natural disasters such as
earthquakes, typhoons and floods that usually last for a short period. This is in line with the situation of
indigenous communities in other regions such as Bangladesh where the traditional lockdown had been
practised to hinder the spread of the disease (Chakma, 2020). Moreover, past studies revealed that
despite the potential exacerbated challenges in this Covid-19 pandemic, such as temporal or permanent
job loss, reduced work hours (Arriagada; 2020), social isolation, poverty and health threats (Power et
al., 2020), indigenous people still can cope with these challenges through deploying traditional
knowledge as strategies (Lugo-Morin, 2021). In addition to that, many indigenous people were in
shortage of basic supplies (Power et al., 2020) and encountered digital inequities that resulted in
education difficulties and a sense of disconnection (Bennett et al., 2020; Walker et al., 2021).
However, it was also remarkable that a large percentage of the participants reported having a
low resilience level of which the number is notably larger than the group of high resilience in the present
study. This suggests that although the majority of the population is showing sufficient resiliency, it is
possible for the number of young people in the local communities who are less capable of bouncing
back from the stress during this situation of Covid-19 to be salient. Opposite to what the researcher had
predicted, the results show that the resiliency of indigenous youth in Sarawak and Sabah differs.
Interestingly, the participant in Sarawak indicated a higher resilience level compared to their
counterpart in Sabah of whom the average resiliency was reported as low and inadequate amid this
pandemic. The sufficient resiliency possessed by Sarawakians can also be noticed in other prior studies
by examining their way of adapting to the changes and facing threats (Hosen et al., 2020; Osman, 2000).
Instead of dealing with the logging activities alone, they tried to come out with a collective decision by
building blockheads and collaborating with other tribes in order to protect their land (Osman, 2000). In
addition to that, the indigenous communities in Sarawak value traditional indigenous knowledge (TIK)
from the basic knowledge such as music and dance that are accessible to all, to the sacred knowledge
such as the involvement of “spiritual intervention” that is often bestowed to specific recipients only
(Bolhassan et al., 2014). Sarawakian’s high resiliency could be attributed to the possession and sharing
of TIK as it was found as a crucial strategy in handling crises among indigenous people (i.e., Covid-19
pandemic) (Lugo-Morin, 2021). On the other hand, the past study of Cooke et al. (2011) contradicted
the present finding, revealing that the Sabah and Sarawak natives were showing similar adaptability to
the changes in the industry. The potential reason that might contribute to the current outcome is the
issue of poverty in Sabah.
Notwithstanding the high similarities shared by these two groups of indigenous youth in the
aspects of traditions, customary laws, living patterns and religion (World Directory of Minorities and
Indigenous Peoples, 2018a), the poverty rate in which the discrepancy lies in between Sarawak and
Sabah might serve as the catalyst of lower resiliency among Sabah natives. From the year of 1997 until
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the recent year of 2019, Sabah was ranked as the poorest state in Malaysia, with indigenous people
topping the list (Geraldine, 2020; Japan Bank for International Cooperation, 2001). The situation could
get worse because of the Covid-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the higher poverty level was found to be
associated with a lower resilience level in the past study (Matos et al., 2021). The plausible reason
underlying this negative correlation is that low-income households tend to experience more life
stressors including lacking material resources than the households of other socio-economic statuses and
hence prevent them from acquiring higher problem-solving skills, positive behaviour and tolerance that
are vital for the formation of resilience (Buheji, 2020).
At the beginning of the study, the researcher hypothesized that spirituality and each of its listed
domains included purpose and meaning in life, innerness or inner resources, unifying
interconnectedness and transcendence would have positive effects on the resilience amid the Covid-19
pandemic among the participants of Bornean indigenous youth. In other words, each of these stated
variables was expected to predict the variance of resilience. In the present study, purpose and meaning
in life is related to the process of searching for a sense of worth and meaning of living. Meanwhile, the
innerness and inner resources domain represents the ability to feel and utilise the inner strength in the
crisis. The domain of unifying interconnectedness includes connection to others, nature, the universe
and the Great-Beyond. Transcendence shows the willingness and capability of extending oneself
beyond physical limitations (Howden, 1992).
As predicted, spirituality, purpose and meaning in life, innerness or inner resources and
unifying interconnectedness were all positively correlated with the resiliency of Bornean indigenous
youth in the present study. Moreover, the regression results further suggest that spirituality and the three
stated domains have positive effects on the resilience among the participants and hence meet the
preliminary hypotheses. In other words, high spirituality might improve the resilience of the Bornean
natives. This could be explained by the special role of spirituality and how important this element is in
the life of Bornean indigenous youth. In the aboriginal communities of the land of Borneo, spirituality
manifested as part of their life, embedded in their ceremony, ritual, dances, chants and folktales
(Bolhassan, 2018). It is important to take into account that spirituality serves as an essential component
of indigenous knowledge as it could explain the how and why of the tradition and phenomenon
(Bolhassan, 2018). Although in recent times, most of the Sabah natives have converted to Christianity,
they still uphold some spiritual concepts, for instance, pray to kinoroingan or “God Most High” in
Christianity for the protection from the evil spirit and granted them with harvest (On & Pugh-Kitingan,
2015). Hence, it can be said that spirituality sustains as the root of the worldview of Bornean indigenous
communities from generation to generation and impacts their resilience through the implantation of an
abiding sense of hope that helps people to be centred in the worst of times (Scioli, 2007).
From the theoretical perspective, these results show consistency with the framework of Hodge
(2000) that illustrated spirituality increased resilience through the pathways of forming social support,
the meaning of life, acquiring religious schemata as part of cognitive thinking skills and practising
ritual. Furthermore, these present results are in alignment with the past studies (Schwalm et al., 2021;
Smith et al., 2013b; Morgan Consoli et al., 2015) that showed similar results about the positive
correlation between resilience and spirituality in general. Although the mainstream findings were in the
same direction, there was also prior literature (Harris, 2016) that indicated that there was no significant
correlation between spirituality and resilience. In addition, spirituality did not show a significant
prediction on resilience but thriving in the past study conducted among Latin undergraduate students
(Morgan Consoli et al., 2015). However, since these past studies were not targeting the population of
indigenous youth and emphasized the resilience towards daily non-traumatic stressors which was not
the focus of this present study, this disparity could be the result of demographic and study structural
differences.
Another interesting finding in this present study is that the domain of purpose and meaning in
life shows the greatest predicting value on resilience level among the participants, compared to other
spirituality domains. A past study (Sharma et al., 2015) that focused on numerous indigenous
communities also determined the significant association between resilience and meaning in life. The
prior indigenous literature often highlighted connection to the land and people which resembles the
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domain of unifying interconnectedness in the present study as the main protective resources of
indigenous people that enabled them to adapt to challenging situations (Chua et al., 2019; Hatala et al,
2020). Nevertheless, this present result suggested that knowing the personal purpose and meaning of
life could also serve as a crucial predictor of resilience among aboriginal youngsters. The possible
reason could be the importance of “acknowledging that life is meaningful” and “looking forward to the
future” in building up the resilience level so as to relapse from the difficulties in the midst of the
pandemic where the future seems to be full of uncertainties.
However, the results demonstrate that not every hypothesis had been met in this present study
since there was one variable, namely, transcendence failed to show significant prediction on the
resilience level. These findings were in contrast with the past studies (Nygren et al., 2005; Russo et al.,
2021) which resulted in a significant correlation between transcendence and resilience. In the study of
Russo et al. (2021), the transcendence value was found to promote resilience with hope as the mediator.
On the contrary, another research (Hanfstingl et al., 2013) studied the difference regarding the
prediction of transcendence on resilience between younger (i.e., 18 to 29 years old) and older samples
(i.e., 30 to 79 years old) posited that the domain of transcendence was showing effects on resilience
only among the older sample. However, this effect seemed to be absent among the youngsters
(Hanfstingl et al., 2013).
Hence, the possible reason underlying the discrepancy between present and prior studies might
be related to the age factor since the present research focused on the indigenous people of the younger
generation while the mentioned past studies targeted adults (Russo et al., 2021) and elders (Nygren et
al., 2005). This statement can be supported by the study of Büssing et al. (2010) indicating that the
importance and relevance of transcendence increased with age. It can be plausibly harder for the
indigenous youth to achieve a high level of transcendence. Based on the definition in this study, it
represents the capability to reach wellness and beyond regardless of the conditions that they are facing
and further allow it to impact their resilience level especially in the midst of this challenging pandemic.
This is because this kind of adaptation towards uncertainties in life is normally conditioned with
successful ageing (Hanfstingl et al., 2013).
Conclusion
The results of this study helped to fill the gap in the indigenous literature that addressed the relationship
between spirituality and resilience. Since the research saturation of this field was yet to be achieved,
the present findings shed light on how may each different domain of spirituality shows effects on
resilience. This provided a multidimensional review about the association between spirituality and
resilience which enriched the content of the study framework. For instance, this research suggested that
other than the connection to land and people, personal life meaning and purpose is also an impactful
resilience resource for indigenous communities.
Besides, this study benefited the indigenous communities by highlighting the importance of
resilience and spirituality amid this epidemic. A deeper understanding and awareness about the
association between these two variables can be acknowledged by the Bornean natives through this
research. Moreover, it provided information to whomever it may concern especially regarding the actual
adaptability of the Bornean aboriginal people to relapse to the normal state after encountering the
challenges in the pandemic. By acknowledging this, the related organizations and initiatives such as
Pusat KOMAS, and The Human Rights Commission of Malaysia (SUHAKAM) could generate aid
programmes that are tailored to the condition of the Bornean indigenous youth.
One of the major limitations of the present study was the relatively small sample size for the
generalization of the findings. The research only targeted the indigenous youth population in Sabah and
Sarawak and thus the reporting results might not be generalisable to the members of the overall Bornean
indigenous population especially for those in Kalimantan and Brunei. Hence, the future researches were
recommended to include indigenous peoples from these two regions in order to achieve the
generalisation of the results. Given the diversity of Bornean indigenous peoples and their dynamic
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resilience resources (Kirmayer et al., 2011), future studies were suggested to include a sufficient
number of samples across diverse contexts for a fuller understanding regarding the topic of indigenous
resilience in respect of the demographic differences such as gender, socioeconomic status (SES),
occupations, religion and highest education level.
Moreover, the cross-sectional method utilised in this research could not draw to the causal
relationship between spirituality and resilience. Another limitation of the present cross-sectional study
is the timing of the data-collection period in which the presented results might not be representative of
the situation among the same sample at other time phases such as different phases of MCO. Meanwhile,
this study could not further explain the resilience of Bornean indigenous youth in-depth and provide
detailed information about how spirituality would possibly influence the resilience level because of its’
setting as quantitative research. This is because compared with qualitative research, quantitative data
only allows the researcher to analyse the sophisticated data through numeric patterns (Ahmad et al.,
2019).
Besides, this study shows that the percentage of participants who reported a low resilience level
is remarkably high. Future studies should focus on the potential risk factors that will increase the
vulnerability of indigenous people to challenges (Chui et al., 2012). At the same time, the researchers
should explore more of the resilience factors that serve as a protector for Bornean indigenous people
against the stressors in life. With that, effective intervention can be structured for this target population.
Future studies should also reexamine the psychometric properties of the original BRS among the
indigenous communities to determine its validity and reliability for this particular population. In
addition, the researchers were encouraged to utilize multiple scales in their studies to consolidate the
findings. Instruments such as the 14-item Resilience Scale (RS-14), Strong Souls (SS) and Strengths
and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) which showed acceptable reliability and validity in the prior
indigenous studies could be taken into account in future resilience studies (Jongen et al., 2019).
In conclusion, the present study had successfully reached the objectives which were to
determine the resiliency of Bornean indigenous youth amid the Covid-19 pandemic, the origin
differences in the terms of resilience and lastly, the effects of spirituality on resilience among the target
sample. Although there were a few study limitations, the present study was still considered impactful
by providing novel perspectives of indigenous resilience and contributing unique implications at
theoretical and practical levels. In attention, several recommendations were given to the future studies
in order to explore the world of indigenous communities in a broader way. Last but not least, indigenous
communities are holding an important role at the very core position of the society and serve as the
cornerstone of their belonging nations. Through this study, the researcher wished to raise public
awareness towards the issues and topics which are crucial to the natives, especially in this challenging
time. Most importantly, we should all work together as a human society without being indifferent amid
this global crisis.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to Dr. Getrude Cosmas, the senior lecturer of the Faculty of Psychology and Education,
University Malaysia Sabah.
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THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN STRESS, LIFE SATISFACTION

AND SUICIDAL IDEATION IN KLANG VALLEY, MALAYSIA
Loong Baolynn* & Mimi Fitriana Zaini
International University of Malaya-Wales
*Corresponding Author’s Email: baolynn@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In Malaysia, the suicide rate is hair-raising. Several local online news reported an increase of suicide
from 6.8 per cent in 2012 to 6.9 per cent in 2017. The current research aimed to investigate the
relationship between stress, life satisfaction and suicidal ideation among university students in the
Klang Valley area. A quantitative approach with correlation and a cross-sectional design was used to
collect data from a total of 253 youths aged between 18 to 25 years old, in Klang Valley, Malaysia were
recruited by using convenient sampling techniques. The result showed that there was a significant
relationship between stress and Suicidal Ideation among the university students in Klang Valley
indicating that stress develops suicidal thoughts. The results also indicated a positive significant
relationship between low life satisfaction and suicidal thoughts. The findings also revealed the
prevalence of suicidal ideation, and a significant gender difference in PANSI-PI was indicated, while
no significant gender difference was found in PANSI-NI among the university students. The current
research revealed significant association between the studied variables and indicated the prevalence of
suicidal thoughts was shown in adolescents with low quality of life and mental health problems. The
study implied the development of suicide awareness programs and other program interventions as well
as workshop trainings provided by the professionals in different field for the adolescents to promote
positive orientation mechanisms living in adverse conditions.
Keywords: stress, life satisfaction, suicidal ideation, gender difference, university students
Suicide is a global public health issue. It defined as a death that caused by self-directed harmful
behavior with the intention of dying as a consequence of the action (Klonsky, May and Saffter, 2016).
According to WHO (2019), suicidal is the third leading cause of death globally in the age of 15 to 19.
There are getting more people trying to attempt suicide, and every 40 seconds one person will die from
suicide (WHO, 2019). Suicidal happens due to several reasons. For instance, mental health issues,
stress, life satisfaction, income etc. are the causes of committing suicide. (Dugas et al., 2015; Oginyi et
al., 2015). In Malaysia, local online news reported an increase of suicidal ideation among youths in
2012 to 2017 with 7.9% and 10% respectively (The Star Online, 2019).
Suicide ideation (SI) is a starting point of increasing the risk of suicide plans and suicide
attempts (Dugas et al., 2015). SI is known as a thought on about ending owns life (Mamiam, et al.,
2014). SI are commonly happened on people who are diagnosed with stress, anxiety and depression
are inclined to commit suicide (Oginyi et al., 2015). A specific data from The Befrienders KL said
there were 7,446 calls from people who have suicidal intentions in 2016, and 15 percent are aged 20
and below; 21 percent of them were aged 21 to 30; and 36 percent were unknown (New Straits Times,
2017). Hence, this explained the younger generation has a higher record of suicide thoughts compare
to late-middle-aged adult and older people in the Malaysian circumstances.
As university students are challenged with academic pressure, environment changes and
interpersonal relationships, so perceiving stress and poor life satisfaction are parts of the factors that
lead to suicidality. Research proved adolescents with low life satisfaction and high stress experienced
a higher rate of having SI (Wu and Yaacob, 2015). Another research in the US is also proving that
undergraduate students who experience pressure are more likely to be involved in SI (Anastasiades et
al., 2016).
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Besides, many studies have found that males have higher suicide attempts compared to female
(Ibrahim et al., 2017; National Health and Morbidity Survey, 2017). Such as males consistently commit
suicide more than three times as a group in the U.S. compared to women. (Tan et. al., 2011). So, to
assumed male will have a higher rate of SI as they are more likely to attempt suicide. In contrast, a
research claimed female had higher SI compared to male due to endorse high levels of depressive and
stress. (Whisman and Richardson, 2015). Therefore, this study is also to aim to gain further
understanding of whether either male or female will have a higher rate of suicidal ideation.
Problem Statement
Most of the researchers were mainly focused on the relationship of depression, academic stress and life
satisfaction among adolescents and university students from the Western countries but limited
evidences for Malaysia university students. This research is to emphasize on Malaysia university
students for a better understanding of perceiving stress and life satisfaction on suicidal thoughts.
WHO (2019) reported the rate of suicide death in Malaysia is 6.2% per 100,000 population for
all ages in both sexes. It also showed male has a higher percentage compared to female as of 8.7% and
3.7%, respectively (WHO, 2019). SI are common among the adolescent and youth at the age between
15 and 29 (Gebessemehlan et al., 2020). Yet, there is still limited past research studies and having an
imbalanced data on the demographic data (male and female) of university students towards suicidal
ideation (Tsirigotis, Gruszczynski and Tsirigotis, 2011; Caballero-Domínguez et al., 2020).
In the National Health and Morbidity Survey (2017), the rate of SI between 2012 to 2017 has
increased from 7.9% to 10.0% among adolescents. Even though the awareness toward suicidal is slowly
growing in the society, but there is still lack of awareness from Malaysia’s journalists to provide more
articles to inform the public, which only fifteen percent of articles highlighted suicide prevention
initiatives (Johari et al., 2017). Hence, in order to increase suicide awareness, it is essential to
understand the reason that causes suicidal ideation before they try to attempt suicide.
Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the relationship between stress and suicide ideation,
and also between life satisfaction and suicide ideation among university students. This study also aimed
to investigate what is the prevalence of suicidal ideation among university students, additionally, the
gender differences in the rate of suicidal ideations. This research hypothesized the significant
relationship between the studied variables to occur, the significant differences between genders on the
suicidal ideation, and the significant prevalence of suicidal ideation among the university students.
Literature Review
Suicidal Ideation
SI was defined as having thoughts or ever thoughts of suicide. It also refers to thoughts or consideration
and the willingness to commit suicide (Chan et al., 2016). Suicidal ideation and suicide attempting are
the most elemental of preventing suicidal happens (Klonsky et al, 2015) and it also view as a primary
indicator of potential suicide risk (Chen et al., 2016, Dugas et al., 2015). According to Normand &
Mishara (1992) study, there are at least 95% of children have a basic concept of suicide at the aged of
11. Studies from different countries such as UK (Akram et al., 2020), US (Wilcox et al., 2010) and
China (Zhang et al., 2016) found that more than 25% of university students reported suicidal ideation,
conversely in lower income country such as Bangladesh (Rahman et al., 2020) reported only 13.8%
having suicide thoughts during the past 12 months. However, in Malaysia only 6.3% was reported
having suicidal thoughts among young adults (Ibrahim et al., 2019). Usually in a develop country, the
highest suicide rate is among the elderly, yet in Malaysia, a developing country, young adults who aged
30 and below has the highest suicide rate (Armitage et al., 2015). Nevertheless, the past studies were
focused on depression, anxiety and stress (DASS) with SI, limited studies on life satisfaction and stress
as the factors. Hence, to assume there are university students is experiencing SI.
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Gender and suicide Ideation
From an emotional perspective, male and females have a significant difference when it comes to
thinking and handling their feelings (Blier & Blier-wilson, 1989; Brody et al, 1995). A research found
that usually more males completed suicide while females were more to attempting suicide (Simons &
Sarbadhikary, 1972). From the study, male have stronger suicide intention compared to female. There
is an argument saying there is no significant difference in the level of SI (Lamis & Lester, 2013).
Whereas, in Malaysia researchers found that male have higher SI compared to females among the
college students (Mustaffa et al., 2014). However, most of the studies have an imbalance in the number
of males and female participants, such as some studies have more males, some studies have more
females, so it may affect the result.
Stress and Suicidal Ideation

There are various factors that cause suicidal happened, such as, past suicide attempt, substance abuse,
physical and mental health issue and things that happened in life (Mustaffa et al., 2014). Feeling
stressful is part of the factors that are associated with suicidal thoughts (Ling & Yaacob, 2015). Stress
is referred to as the body's reaction to any physical, mental, or psychological form of external demand
or pressure (Naseem & Munaf, 2017). As students are facing challenges such as academic work,
maintaining good grade, financial issues et al, are the factor of causing them to increase the risk of
thinking suicide (Naseem & Munaf, 2017). In addition, staying away from home, relationship losses or
break-ups, were also regularly experienced by university students, hence it viewed as an importance
factor of predicting suicide ideation and behaviour (Anatasiades et al., 2016). So, when they are unable
to cope with the intensive of stress, they are more likely to think of committing suicide (Ang & Huan,
2006). Thus, students who are overwhelmed with stress are at risk of suffering suicidal ideation.
Life Satisfaction and suicide Ideation
Life satisfaction is also one of the factors that lead to suicidal ideation. In this study, life stratification
is viewed as rating one's own life in a self-report form such as one's needs and living environment
(Sousa and Lyubomirsky, 2001). In research of Schwarts and team (2010) reported that that suicide
was seen by participants as the consequence of abundant stressors such as unfavourable life experiences
and inadequate support from friends and family. Research shows there is a significant relationship
between perceived academic stress and SI among university students by using regression analysis
(Ogini et al., 2018). In addition, few studies proved that low life satisfaction was significantly related
with SI (Yao., et al, 2014; Hossain et al., 2016). Thus, to assumed that less satisfied with life may be
one of the factors of causing suicide. As most of the previous studies were mainly focused with other
factors, so there is limited study view life satisfaction as part of variable.
Interpreted Motivational-Volitional model (IMV) was used in this research to investigate the concept
of suicide behaviour. The pre-motivational phase and motivational phase were applied in this study.
This model was developed under the Ideation-to-Action theories by O’Connor (2011), also it is a new
model that was just published in 2011. Hence, there are still limited studies using this model. There are
three phases in this model, which are pre-motivational phase, motivational phase and volitional phase.
In the pre-motivational phase, it describe the biopsychosocial factor of which suicide thoughts
and behaviour may emerge (O’Connor & Kirtly, 2018). According to the researchers, diathesis was
referring to the genetic, biological, and cognitive vulnerability factor that may raise suicidal risk. For
example, decrease in serotonin is a factor of vulnerability for suicidal behaviour. The environment was
interpreted with the social context of suicidal risk and has a long history such as socio-economic
inequality and rapid societal changes. Then, negative life events or triggered events are also an
unambiguous suicide risk factor and it associated with genes epigenetic changes. To conclude this
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phase, the model is through their impact on the structures within the motivational and volitional
processes, the pre-motivational variables have their effect on suicide risk.
For the motivational phase, it is referring to the psychological factor that contributes to the
emergence of suicidal ideation (O’Connor & Kirtly, 2018). The whole concept of this phase is the
feeling of defeat and humiliation. Some of the factors to predict SI are people who are sensitive to
failure, a defeatist thinker and negative effector. Meanwhile, the entrapment referring to internal or
external concerns is being triggered. Such as having an internal feeling or cogitation, yet the external
entrapment are they trying to escape from the outer world. The final part of the phase is entrapment to
SI. In this part, motivational moderators are more likely to translate entrapment to suicidal ideation
(O’Connor & Kirtly, 2018). P]Like people who have feeling of burdensome, less social support are
more likely to increase the risk of entrapment turn into suicide ideation, and it work opposite way for
people who have a positive mindset.
Volitional phase (transition from suicidal ideation to suicidal behaviour) is the last phase of
this IMV model (Figure 2). The researchers believe there is suicide potential acquired when fearlessness
of death and improved tolerance of physical pain are involved (O’Connor & Kirtly, 2018). They also
indicated that of there is a self-harm history or attempted suicide, they considered it as Volitional
moderators. Hence, this model is to predicts that if they have a detail plan, then there is a high risk of
attempting suicide.
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Figure 1
The Interpreted Motivational-Volitional model
Figure 1. An ideation-to-action theory. Adapt from “The Interpreted Motivational-Volitional model”

by O’Conno, 2011 to serve as a main reference for this study.
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Figure 2
Transition from SI to suicidal behaviour.
Figure 2. An Volitional moderators between motivational and volitional phases.
Methodology
Research Design
This research employed quantitative research approach. This approach was widely applied when study
in the natural and social science (Bhandari, 2020). It was defined as a method of gathering and analyzing
numerical data, and to use as identify patters and average, test causal relationships, and generalize
outcomes to larger populations. (Sileyew, 2019)
Correlational design was used to measure a relation between combinations of variables

(MacIntyre, 2014); to analyse the degree of interaction, multicollinearity level and to represent the
advocating or abating status between two variables (Senthilnathan, 2019, p. 5) to answer the hypothesis
of this study.
A cross-sectional design was used as this study was aimed to compare the students who have
suicidal and non-suicidal ideation, and gender at the same time. The participants were selected based
on certain variable in order to analyses the outcomes and findings for the study at the same time (Setia,
2016). To conclude, this study was conducted as a quantitative correlation research using cross-
sectional design.
Research was conducted among the university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia, there are roughly
57 universities (StudyMalaysia.com, 2020). Convenience sampling was used to meet certain criteria
such participants' availability and willingness to participate (Etikan, 2016) through online survey due
to current pandemic situation in Malaysia.
As convenience sampling was used in this study, as a total of 253 of respondents were collected
with 121 males and 132 females.
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Research Instrument
Three set of surveys instruments were used to collect data in this study. All these instruments are widely
used in similar population and being tested in past studies (Ling & Yaacob, 2015; Nasee & Munaf,
2017; Vives et al, 2019 and many more). All the questions were used with no changes or amendment
in this study.
Positive and Negative Suicidal Instrument (PANSI; Osman et al., 1998). The PANSI contains
14-items that aim to identify the suicidal and non-suicidal group by using 5-likert scale. Scales range
from 0= none of the time to 5= most of the time. All items are keyed as students with SI had a higher
score in negative ideation (eg. “Considered killing yourself”) than the positive items (eg. “Felt that life
was worth living”). Meanwhile, students with higher score in positive ideation were keyed as without
SI. The reliability of this scale was 0.723.
Perceived Stress Scale-10 (PSS-10; Cohen ,1994). A self-reported questionnaire designed to

measure the extend of individuals evaluate life situation as stressful (Cohen et al., 1983). This
instrument contained 10-items with the aim of evaluating the degree of which student view their live
as stressful using a 5-Likert Scale format, range from 0= Never to 5= Very Often. Part of the questions
were included are “In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and stressed?” and “In the last
month, how often have you felt that things were going your way?”. There are seven positive items were
required to do a reverse calculation and seven negative items. Then sum up all the score, a higher score
shows a higher level of life stress. The reliability of this scale was 0.849.
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985). An instrument of measuring individuals’ life
quality based on own set of standards (Aishvarya et al., 2014). It included 5-items that use to
understanding the components of one’s life experience of satisfaction by using 7-Likert Scale format
ranging from 1= Strongly Disagree to 7= Strongly Agree. For example, “In most ways my life is close
to my ideal.” will be asked in the questionnaire. The higher the score, the higher satisfaction with life.
The reliability of the scale was 0.846.
Data Collection
The data collection was distributed through Google Form in social media. Next, informed consent was
attached in the Google Form before the participant start answering the questionnaire. In the informed
consent did inform the purpose of this study and potential risk. Followed by, all data of respondents
will remain anonymous due to ethic consideration and to avoid bias happen when analysing data.
Participants were informed that they are allow to leave at any time. This survey took approximal 20
minutes to be completed. Lastly, a pilot test (n= 30) was done before the questionnaire being distribute.
Data Analysis
The analysis of the data used the SPSS IMB version 26. A descriptive statistic was used to summarize
the data of students with suicidal ideation and without suicidal ideation. Follow by Independent T-test
was used to analyze the difference between male and female in SI. Lastly, a Pearson was used to analyze
the relationship between stress, life satisfaction and SI among university students, respectively.
Ethical Consideration
In this study, some of the ethical consideration was required to be to concern as it is importance for
researcher to accomplished the accuracy of the research findings. Some of the questions in the survey
might triggered respondents’ emotion, such as “Considered killing yourself.”, “Thought about killing
yourself because you felt like a failure in life.” and “Felt lonely or sad that you wanted to kill yourself
so that you could end your pain”. Hence, in the informed consent form was imbued that participant
have the rights to withdraw from the study at any time with no reason. A list of helplines was provided
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at the beginning and at the end of the questionnaire. Lastly, all the data were only used for this study
and data will be removing once the study is done.
Result And Findings

Overview of Result
A total of 253 respondents was collected. As table 1 shown the descriptive statistics analysis of
instrument were implemented – the PANSI, PSS-10 and LSS. It was reported that score mean of
PANSI- PI was m= 15.38 and standard deviation was 4.61, while for PANSI-NI was m= 11.38 and
standard deviation was 7.83. Follow by PSS and LSS with a mean score of m= 20.51and 21.97
respectively, and standard deviation of s.d= 7.09 and 6.29, respectively.
Table 1
Overview result of PANSI, PSS and LSS.
N Mean Std. Deviation

PANSI-PI 253 15.38 4.61
PANSI-NI 253 11.38 7.83
PSS 253 20.51 7.09
SWLS 253 21.97 6.29
Note. This table shows the Mean and Std. Deviation of all the instruments.
Demographic Background
The respondents of the study were from various universities students in Klang Valley, Malaysia. The
demographic section has covered respondents’ gender, age and level of education. Table 2 shows the
frequency of demographic of this study which include 47.8% (n= 121) male and 52.2% (n= 132) female.
The majority of the respondents were 22 years old (42.7%, n=108). Followed by the age group
of 21 (16.2%, n= 42); 20 (14.2%, n= 36); then 23 (8.3%, n= 21); 19 (5.1%, n=13); 24 (4%, n= 10); 25
(3.6%, n= 9); 18 (3.2%, n= 8) and 28 (0.8%. n= 2). While the least age group were 32, 34 and 47 with
total of 0.4% (n= 1), respectively.
Lasty, level of education of respondents was collected with Bachelor Degree occupied the
highest percentage (70%, n= 177), followed by Pre-u (17%, n= 43), Diploma (10.7%, n= 27) and
Postgraduate (2.4%, n= 6).
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Table 2
Demographic Background of Respondents
Variables Frequency (n) Percentage (%)

Gender
Male 121 47.8
Female 132 52.2
Age
18 8 3.2
19 13 5.1
20 36 14.2
21 42 16.2
22 108 42.7
23 21 8.3
24 10 4.0
25 9 3.6
28 2 .8
32 1 .4
34 1 .4
47 1 .4
Level of Education
Pre-u 43 17.0
Diploma 27 10.7
Bachelor Degree 177 70
Postgraduate 6 2.3
Note. This table shows the demographic background of respondents. N-253
A set of preliminary data analysis was done for the data collection in order to process for the
study and to have a better understanding of the research issues, the significant of the variables in the
study was statistically analyzed.
Internal Consistency
The reliability of the instruments was runed with a report of past, pilot and actual data in Table 3.
According to the result, PANSI’s Cronbach’s Alpha Value are 0.84, 0.848 and 0.723 for the past study,
pilot study and actual data, respectively. As for PSS, the Cronbach’s Alpha Value are 0.85 in the past
study, 0.709 in the pilot test and 0.849 for the actual data. Followed by, LSS with recorded value of
0.86 in past study, then computed 0.773 for pilot, and 0.846 for actual data. Hence, the questionnaire
of this study is reliable and accepted at the value of 0.70 and above according to Tavakol and Dennick
(2011).
Table 3
Internal Consistency of Cronbach’s Alpha Value
Cronbach’s Alpha Value
Instrument Total Items Past Pilot Actual
(n= 30) (n= 253)
PANSI 14 .84 .848 .723
PSS 10 .85 .709 .849
SWLS 5 .86 .773 .846
Note. This table shows the reliability test of three instruments with Cronbach’s Alpha value.
Normality Test
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A normality test was run for this study to find out the data collected within university students among
Klang Valley area as reported in Table 4. According to George & Mallery (2020), mentioned that the
acceptable range is -2 to 2, hence, the questionnaire of this study is normally distributed among all three
instruments. The Skewness and Kurtosis score of PANSI are 0.394 and 0.618 respectively. Follow by
PSS with the data of -0.092 and 0.093 for Skewness and Kurtosis score respectively. Lastly, LSS with
the Skewness and Kurtosis score of -0.210 and -0.509 respectively.
Table 4
Normality Test
PANSI PSS SWLS
N 253 253 253
Skewness .394 -.092 -.210
Kurtosis .618 .093 -.509
Note. This table shows the normality test of PANSI, PSS and LSS by using the Skewness and Kurtosis
Analysis of Research Hypothesis
Findings of Significant Relationship of Stress and Suicide Ideation Among University Students
a. Positive Items of Suicide Ideation and Stress
A Pearson correlation was computed to determine the relationship between positive items of
suicide ideation and stress among the university students (Table 5). There was a significant relationship
between positive items and stress, r (253)= -.427, p= < .001 and it is a negative correlated variable. This
suggested that when decrees in stress will increase in positive items of suicidal ideation.
b. Negative Items of Suicide Ideation and Stress
Another Pearson correlation was done to determine the relationship between negative items of
suicide ideation and stress. There was a significant relationship between two variables, r (253)= .625,
p < .001. Hence, negative items of suicidal ideation and stress are positively correlated which means if
there is an increasement in stress, the negative items of suicide ideation will increase as well.
Therefore, this statistical result proved that if an individual is more stress, they are more likely
to have suicidal thoughts, and the H1 is accepted.
Table 5
The Pearson Correlation Between Positive Items of Suicide Ideation and Stress
Positive Items of Suicidal Ideation Negative Items of Suicide Ideation

Stress Pearson Correlation -.427** Pearson .625**
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 Sig. (2-tailed) .000
Note. This table shows the correlation between positive and negative items of suicidal ideation and
stress
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). N= 253
Findings of Significant Relationship of Life Satisfaction and Suicide Ideation Among University
Students
a. Positive Items of Suicide Ideation and Life Satisfaction
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A Pearson correlation was computed to determine the relationship between positive items of suicide
ideation and life satisfaction (Table 6). There was a significant relationship between two variables, r
(253)= .476, p < .001. This is a positive correlated between positive items of suicidal ideation and life
satisfaction. So, this suggest that if increase in life satisfaction, the more positive items will be scored.
b. Negative Item of Suicide Ideation and Life Satisfaction
Followed by a Pearson correlation test between negative items of suicide ideation and life
satisfaction was calculated with the result of a significant related between two variables r (253)= -.440,
p < .001. However, this was a negative correlated between negative items of suicide ideation and life
satisfaction. This suggested that decrease in life satisfaction were related in increasing the negative
items score of SI.
Hence, both hypothesis 2a and 2b is accepted. To sum up this hypothesis, the data proved that
if an individual is dissatisfied with their life or having low score of life satisfaction, they are more likely
to have higher score on the negative item of SI.
Table 6
The Pearson Correlation Between Positive and Negative Items of Suicide Ideation and Life Satisfaction
Positive Items of Suicidal Ideation Negative Items of Suicidal Ideation

Life Satisfaction Pearson .476** Pearson -.440**
Correlation Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 Sig. (2-tailed) .000
Note. This table shows the correlation between positive and negative items of suicidal ideation and life
satisfaction
Finding of the Prevalence of Suicidal Ideation Among University Students.
A descriptive statistic as of Table 7 was run and has identified there was a significant
prevalence of suicide ideation among university students with the data of 33.2% (n= 84) of students
appeared to have SI as they have higher score on the negative item of suicidal ideation, and 66.8% (n=
169) of students were without SI. Hence, H3 is accepted.
Table 7
Descriptive statistic of prevalence of suicide ideation
N %
With Suicide Ideation 84 33.2
Without Suicide Ideation 169 66.8
Note. N=253
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Finding of Significant Difference Between Male and Female in Suicidal Ideation.
The differences between gender and suicidal ideation were compared in this study by using the
independent sample t-test. From the result (Table 8), there was a significant difference in the PANSI-
PI between male (M= 16.099, SD= 4.414) and female (M= 14.727, SD= 4.702), p < 0.05. In PANSI-
NI, there is no significant between male (M= 10.438, SD= 7.514) and female (M=12.242, SD= 8.042),
p= 0.067. However, in negative suicidal ideation, there is a similar P-value with gender. Hence, H4a is
accepted and H4b is not accepted.
Table 8
The Independent Sample T-test Between Gender and Suicidal Ideation
Group Statistics
Male Female
M SD M SD t-test df
(2-tailed)
PANSI-PI 16.099 4.414 14.727 4.702 .018 251
PANSI-NI 10.438 7.514 12.242 8.042 .067 -1.839
Note. M= Mean; SD= Standard Deviation; p= < .05
Summary
To sum up the results of this study (Table 9), these four statistical analyses were used to identify the
relationship between stress, life satisfaction and SI among the university students in Klang Valley. As
for the Hypothesis 1, there was a significant relationship between stress and SI among the university
students in Klang Valley which prove that stress will develop suicidal thoughts. Next, there was also a
positive significant relationship between low life satisfaction and suicidal thoughts. In addition, there
is a prevalence of suicidal ideation among university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Lastly, there
was a significant difference in gender and PANSI-PI, in contrast there is no significant difference in
gender and PANSI-NI.
Discussion
Discussion About Major Findings
The first hypothesis (H1) was to investigate the relationship between stress and the idea of suicide
among university students. The Pearson correlation coefficient was done to determine the relationship
between both variables with the statistical analysis of a positive correlation between PANSI-NI and
stress, r (253) = .625, p < .001. However, there was a negative correlation between PANSI-PI and stress,
r (253)= -.427, p= < .001, among the university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Consistently,
Hypothesis 1 is accepted.
From this data, stress was considered part of the factors that will develop SI among the
university students as they were commonly associated with negative life events and experiences. For
example, academic stress, financial and family issue, etc. This finding was in line with past study which
pointed out that multiple stressors have the ability to make an individual feel challenging in stress
managing and contribute to SI (Ibrahim., et al., 2014). The more stress an individual is facing, the more
likely to have suicidal symptoms as it might lead to one’s psychological well-being.
Additionally, a Malaysia study was conducted by Embing et al. (2020) found the other internal
factor of stress will also cause SI. Due to an individual felt burdened and ignorant from people around
them or unable to handle their personal problems will make them feel worthless and pointless to live in
this world among the university students. This finding was consistency with Ibrahim, et al. (2014) study
with the result of the higher level of stress were tend to have higher severity of SI. There are some other
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studies also supported the same finding, which included Rohtash and Hardeep (2008); Ahmad et al.
(2014), and Arun et al. (2017). Lastly, the motivational phase of IMV model explained psychological
factor contribute SI.
On the other hand, stress and positive items in the survey was tested as well with a significant
negative correlation result. This contributes a contrast result of PANS-NI which means, if an individual
is having lower stress level are reported to have lower risk of developing suicidal thoughts. Hence, to
have a good stress management and willingness to ask for help is importance in order to reduce the risk
of having suicidality. To conclude, Hypothesis 1 (a) and (b) are accepted as there is a significant
correlate with stress and SI.
The objective of H2 was to investigate the relationship between life satisfaction and the idea
of suicide among university students. A Pearson correlation coefficient was tested to identify the
relationship between both variables with the statistical analysis of a positive correlation between
PANSI-PI and life satisfaction, r (253)= .476, p < .001. Meanwhile, a negative correlation between
PANSI-NI and life satisfaction, variables r (253)= -.440, p <.001 among the university students.
Persistently, H2 is accepted.
Again, the level of life satisfaction is one of the factors that will lead to SI. As H2(b), if ones
are unsatisfied or unhappy about life, are more likely to have suicidal thoughts. A study from Sharma
et al. (2015) found decrease in life satisfaction was a major risk factor for SI. It may not be related with
violence factor but unhappiness is linked to suicidal ideation or even suicidal attempts. Some of the
examples of not being happy are towards the condition of their life, their unachieved goals, financial
burden or family issue (Nee., et al. 2016). Most of the youngsters are chasing after their own ideal life,
hence, this might be one of the impacts on having SI as life always goes ups and downs. Another study
also agreeing on this hypothesis as they found out poor life quality are corelated with suicidality among
the college students in China (Huang., et al., 2019)
Meanwhile, H2(a) gave a result of positive significant correlate between PANIS-PI and life
satisfaction. In Ling and Yaacob (2015) suggested to have a being life satisfaction program are
advisable to have it in order to increase one’s life satisfaction. From this, we can assume that when
people are able to handle life burden, good well-being, having a good social relationship and satisfied
with life are more likely have lower severity of suicidal thoughts. Hence, H2 (a) and (b) are significant
corelated and accepted.
H3 was aimed to understand what is the prevalence of SI among university students as variety
of factor associate with suicidality. So, a descriptive analysis was done with a result of there is 33.2%
(n= 84) of students appeared to have SI, and 66.8% (n= 169) of students were did not appear to have
suicidal thoughts. Therefore, H3 was accepted.
A national study was done by Eskin et al. (2016) found that among 5,572 university students
from 12 different countries, there are 28.8% of students evocated of having suicidal thoughts and 15.2%
(n= 1003) from Ghana (Owusu-Ansah et al., 2020). Both studies reported psychological distressing are
one of the components are positively related with suicide behaviour. Next, a study from Chine reported
the prevalence of SI among college students was 13.03% out of 69,790 students (Huang et al., 2019).
Elements that endorsed with SI were also poor quality of life and psychological disorder.
An additional study from Malaysia, there are 31.3% of adolescents out of 176 were reported to
have SI up to committing suicide (Ibrahim et al., 2019). To conclude, psychological distress are the
most common factors that associate with SI among university student and most of the studies were in
align with the purpose of this study.
H4 was aimed to identify the gender differences in the rate of suicidal ideations. An
Independent T-test was done with a statistical analysis of a significant difference in gender and PANSI-
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PI. In contrast, no significant difference in gender and PANSI-NI (p= 0.067). Hence, H4(a) is accepted
but H4(b) is not accepted.
According to Roothman et al. (2003) found that men were score higher in positive thoughts
compare to women. Another study also found men are more likely to be happier than women as they
are more oriented achievable and express more pride than women (Shamin & Muazzam., 2018). An
additional study was done in China, boy were more likely to have lower SI compare to girls (Zhang et
al., 2019). However, there are limited studied that support this hypothesis as they can argue that girls
are more likely to express their feeling to friends.
While for PANSI-NI, it was used to assume there was a significant between gender and
negative thoughts of suicide. Unlikely, the result shown there was no difference between both genders.
A study by Lamis & Lester (2013) mentioned there is no significant different in SI level among
university students. Yet, there are still lack of supporting evidence on negative suicidal ideation as most
of the studies was focus on the thoughts as a whole and there was significant difference between gender
and SI. Such as Mustaffa et al., (2014); Zhang et al., (2019) and Assarsson et al., (2019).
Implications of the Study
The aim of this study was to contribute if there is a significant relationship between stress, life
satisfaction and suicidal thoughts among the university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia. The
significant to the result of negative thought of suicidal is highly indicated that high level of stress and
low satisfied with life will develop higher severity of suicidal ideation. Hence, this research did
contribute a statistical data on SI towards university student as most of the studies were done among
the Western country and there are still lack of research in Malaysia context.
The finding of this research also helps to provide a strong guideline and procedures on
conducting intervention program for university students. Which we can focus on stress management
and life satisfaction related topic. Due to the circumstances as stated above, psychological well-being
is the hardest pan issue that led to suicidal ideation and stop normalizing suicidal behavior. Thurs, using
social media to promote suicide awareness as it reaches a bigger connection on receiving the
information by sharing the information to their own social group.
Meanwhile, from an educational perspective, the university can provide more suicide
awareness webinar or camping with professional guidance on how to identify one’s is having SI or how
to identify people who always look happy but deeply they are committing in suicide behavior. In
addition, the university could have a rule and policy in which each facility must have a representative
to be a part of the university peer helper’s unit and learn some basic psychological skills to help their
classmates.
Lasty, one of the findings did contribute on gender difference in suicidal ideation. As this
finding gave a result with no significant difference between male and female in negative suicidal
ideation, we can believe everyone should be treated equally. Because this is a mental health and suicide
related issue and it is always a serious matter. Hence, this study provided a significant result on stress
and life dissatisfied are one of the factors that associated with suicide issue among the university student
in Klang Valley, Malaysia.
Limitation and Recommendations
The first limitation of this study is this paper was focused on university students in Klang Valley,
Malaysia with a small number of participants. This paper cannot be representing the whole Malaysia
as the result was done in within Klang Valley area only. Hence, future researchers may investigate the
issue in different states in Malaysia.
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Next, this research did not cover on the positive and negative emotion of an individual which
having a challenge on justify are the significant difference between gender and the positive and negative
items from PANSI. Therefore, in the future may implement on the gender difference in suicidal ideation
to find out is there a gender difference in negative emotion and suicidal thoughts.
The last challenge of this study was completed in questionnaire form and it did not require
much time and effort to fill up; thus, some respondents might not be putting effort on answering the
questionnaire as it will led to dishonesty. Thus, this study may use a mix-method of both qualitative
and quantitative to get more detailed data.
Conclusion
Suicide is a global mental health issue, especially during this Covid-19 pandemic situation. The mental
health issues (eg. depression and anxiety) are getting higher due to isolation and lack of social
interaction. In addition, the suicide rate is slowly increasing in Malaysia due to financial issues,
unemployment and psychological issues. The study was conducted during the pandemic; hence, it can
be used as a reference for future studies among the university students’ context in Malaysia. The result
of this study contributes empirical evidence to the findings on stress and life satisfaction are correlated
with suicidal ideation. Therefore, strengthening the implementation of the interventions and prevention
programs can manage one’s pressure, low life satisfaction and suicidal ideation. Lastly, although there
is no significant difference in gender and PANSI-NI, the prevalence of suicidal ideation should be
treated equally to lower down the rate of suicide and getting professional support.
Acknowledgements
The researchers would like to express their gratitude to the participants who involved in the study and
those who assisted in making the research a success.
References
Ahmad, N., Cheong, S. M., Ibrahim, N., & Rosman, A. (2014). Suicidal Ideation Among Malaysian
Adolescents. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, 26(5_suppl), 63S-69S.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1010539514540746
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DISASTER MANAGEMENT OF EMERGENCY WORKERS:

PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Mohd Dahlan Hj. A. Malek*, Ida Shafinaz Mohd Kamil, Muhammad Idris Bahari
Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author’s E-mail: dahlanam@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
This paper discusses the concept of disaster, the level of disaster and how effective disaster management can be
implemented by emphasizing the psychological aspects of emergency workers. This paper will also discuss the
nature of disasters which is one of the most frequently encountered cases of individuals, communities and
countries where it is a universal phenomenon apart from discussing the role of the National Disaster Management
Agency (APBN), the Department of Social Welfare (JKM) in dealing with disasters . Natural disasters are events
or events that are caused by factors of natural destruction that can cause great damage, loss of property and loss
of life. Apart from the victims, emergency workers such as firefighters are sure to have psychological effects as
they carry out their duties. Therefore, a quantitative study was conducted to look at the relationship between stress
and psychological well-being among firefighters. In addition, how far they are prepared for the psychological
aspects of the disaster and rescue work of the victims and how well the psychological well-being and stress of the
emergency workers are involved in the emergency situation. The study was conducted in several areas represented
by the eastern zone in Kelantan, the northern zone in Kedah and the southern zone in Johor. The research tools
used are The American Institute of Stress (AIS) and the Scales of Psychological Well-Being. A total of 604
firefighters were involved in this study. The findings show that there is a link between stress at work and
psychological well-being among firefighters in Malaysia and that there should be a psychosocial management
module for disaster focused on the psychological aspects of disaster management.
Keywords: Disaster Management, Stress, Psychological Well-Being, Firefighters.
Introduction
This paper is specifically intended to discuss disaster, disaster management concepts and how effective
disaster management can be implemented. This discussion is an important reflection and lesson in the
events of the Kinabalu earthquake in Kundasang, Sabah as well as the floods that hit Kelantan in 2015
and the role of emergency workers in helping to carry out their duties as rescuers.
According to the post-economic crisis of 1997, almost every disaster occurred in our homeland
as well as neighbouring countries, especially Indonesia, small and large. Following on from natural and
social disasters, there have been alternatives such as Indonesian riots, West Kalimantan riots, Religious
Disputes in Poso, Religious Disputes in Ambon, Bombs in Bali, as well as Garuda Aircraft crashed in
the Bengawan Solo River and as well as the Indonesian aircraft QZ8501 crashed in the Java Sea as well
as the Malaysian Airlines Flight MH17 MH17 which was shot down in Ukraine. As well as Papandayan
Disasters, Landslides in Garut, Bombs at JW Marriot Hotel, Jakarta, Nabire and Alor earthquakes,
LION Air disasters and even the recent tsunami and tsunami disasters that hit Nangroe Aceh Darussalam
and North Sumatra and Mount Kinabalu, Kundasang, Sabah and landslides on the Karak Highway,
floods in Kelantan as well as various disasters and disasters that hit Malaysia and Indonesia and other
neighbouring countries (Adi Fahrudin & Mohd Dahlan 2015). Disaster issues are often discussed,
however, with efficient disaster management implemented both at the state and national level,
especially involving emergency workers such as Malaysian Fire and Rescue personnel.
If observed, disasters are events or events that occur beyond human control. Most of the
catastrophic catastrophes that cause loss, suffering and even loss of human life. The effects of this
disaster can also be felt by not only the individual but also the whole community (Adi Fahrudin, 2002;
2003; 2004). In addition, it is obvious that psychological effects can also affect the victim as well as
those involved such as emergency workers. So far there is no universally accepted definition of disaster.
The Oxford English Dictionary for example defines disaster as sudden or great misfortune; calamity;
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complete failure (Sykes, 1987). The question of this definition shows how complex disasters differ from
other forms of traumatic events (Green, 1996).
The word is derived from the Latin meaning of the star are evil. This province is contrary to the
general notion provided by earlier disaster researchers such as Kingston and Rosser (1974) who
suggested that the word disaster was used to describe the occurrence of massive collective stress. Norris
(1992) also suggests disaster as violent encounters with nature, technology or human kind (Adi
Fahrudin, 2002b; 2003).
According to the definition issued by the National Security Council, disasters are “An event
that causes disruption to the activities of the people and the affairs of the State, including loss of life,
damage to property, economic loss and environmental destruction beyond the capacity of the
community to address and require the mobilization of resources. extensive. "
(National Security Council Directive No. 20: Disaster Management Policies and Mechanisms - Review
2012)
The question of definition is not a new issue because it involves different types and forms of
disasters and how they are handled differently. Raphael (1986) argues that disasters are 'overwhelming
events', coming in all shapes and sizes (Adi Fahrudin, 2002b). Disasters can have short-term and long-
term impacts or impacts. It can also be large and small. But the catastrophic disaster can only be
attributed to the local population if human beings are involved and the victims are only 10 people. On
the other hand, disasters can cover vast geographical areas and can impact thousands of people. Gibson
(1991) states that the impact of disasters is not only on the residents involved but also their neighbours,
neighbours, or officials or volunteers involved in disaster social services as well as emergency workers.
In conclusion, all of the definitions of disaster presented are based on catastrophe and the same impact
on humans and the environment they need to deal with.
Rice (1999) classifies three types of disasters: natural disasters, technological disasters, and
social disasters. The term social disaster refers to events that are not caused by nature and technology,
but are caused by certain elements that cannot be anticipated and controlled and that affect human life.
Lyons (1999) also classifies disasters into natural disasters and man-made disasters. Lyons classifies
such disasters as natural disasters such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions or man-made disasters
that result from direct or indirect actions such as wars, population conflicts, terrorists, and technological
failures. However, the frequent occurrence of natural disasters has to do with human behaviour and
even political and economic decisions also affect the physical environment including weather, floods,
haze, and more.
In addition, disasters can also be classified on a scale based on the number of people involved
and the scale of incidents seen as large or small scale disasters based on the Richter scale. The Richter
Scale is a scale used to indicate the magnitude of an earthquake. The tool used to record the Richter
Scale is called SEISMOGRAPH. Berren, Biegel and Ghetner (1989) in Adi Fahrudin (2003) say that
small-scale disasters only involve the deaths of up to twenty people, while the medium-scale (medium-
scale disaster) involves more than one hundred deaths while scaling disasters the biggest disaster
involves the death of a thousand or more people. However, according to White, Little, and Smith (1997)
in Adi Fahrudin and Mohd Dahlan (2015) small or medium-scale disaster categorizations cannot be
attributed to national and international interests. In other contexts, Carter (1997) focuses on the impact
of two forms of disaster, namely natural disaster and man-made disaster. Natural disasters include
infrastructure damage and job opportunities. The impact of natural disasters is the loss of infrastructure
to prevent flooding and damage to the transportation system, and the inability of the authorities to
provide immediate relief. Man-made disasters are generally in the form of civil wars and internal
conflicts between two militant groups. It can be simply summarized that each form of disaster requires
its own mechanism and management of its disaster. However, this paper only discusses general disaster
management by focusing on natural disasters and how psychological factors such as stress and
psychological well-being are associated with emergency workers such as firefighters and Malaysian
rescuers.
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The Concept Of Disaster Management
The terms of Disaster Management are often discussed in the media and it is an emphasis that the
Malaysian government through the Public and Private Institutions of Higher Learning is actively
conducting disaster-related studies. This is evidenced by the special grant provided by the Ministry of
Higher Education. In addition, disaster education, particularly in the field of fire or in government and
private departments, has often been the focus of the program. The Ministry of Education Malaysia
(KPM) in collaboration with UNICEF and Mercy Malaysia has implemented programs such as the
Smart Support Team (SST MOE) and the School Watching Program in schools to increase volunteerism
among teachers and disaster risk management among school students. The Government of Malaysia
also welcomes the involvement of the private sector and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in
the management of National Disasters especially in helping with public awareness, disaster relief
assistance and relief assistance to disaster victims. For example, there are NGOs that provide awareness
and skills to students and the community in identifying environmental risks and ways of responding to
emergencies. During the disaster response, amateur radio associations, for example, provided radio
communication services from evacuation centres to flood relief rooms in flood-prone areas.
(http://portalbencana.ndcc.gov.my)
There are many definitions of disaster management. One said Disaster management may be
defined as the process of addressing an event that has the potential to seriously disrupt the social fabric
of a community. The phrase is much broader in scope than 'disaster mitigation' which involves fighting
the effects of such events, includes administrative decisions, and operational activities involving
prevention, preparedness, response, recovery and rehabilitation at all levels. Through disaster
management, it is possible to minimize the crisis through early warning and framework of rehabilitation
and post-disaster reconstruction. (Adi Fahrudin and Mohd Dahlan, 2015)
Disaster management can be defined as a process in determining an event that has the potential to cause
serious harm to society. This definition is broader than 'disaster mitigation', which involves efforts to
address the impact of incidents involving administrative decisions, and operational activities that
include prevention, preparedness, emergency response, recovery and rehabilitation at all levels.
Through disaster management, it also minimizes crises through self-preservation and creates
appropriate post-disaster rehabilitation and adjustment frameworks.
In Malaysia, the government has set up a National Disaster Management Agency (APBN) to
coordinate and manage disaster relief in the country more efficiently and effectively while the
Department of Social Welfare is tasked with the task of assisting disaster victims. The National Disaster
Management Division is an agency under the National Security Council (MKN), Prime Minister's
Department. The MKN serves as a focal point in the management of crisis and disaster both
domestically and abroad which includes prevention and mitigation, preparedness, response and
recovery and reconstruction. Crisis and disaster management involve coordination, regulation and
raising public awareness of disaster risk reduction.
When it comes to disaster management we should also not discuss emergency workers directly
involved in disaster relief missions and operations. Emergency workers are one of the important assets
of any country. Studies related to disasters have already been conducted by many researchers such as
Arbel & Bargur (1980), Burling and Hyle (1997), Alexander & Walker (2013), Brown and Campbell
(2011), Brown & Heidensohn (2001) but their studies have not which focuses on the psychological
aspects of emergency workers. The question is how well are they psychologically prepared to cope with
disaster and rescue work and how well do their psychological well-being and stress? Does disaster
management in Malaysia need to be improved by considering the psychological factors of disaster
management in Malaysia?
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Levels of Disaster Management
Referring to the guidelines issued by the Department of Social Welfare Malaysia (JKM) through their
official portal, they break down disaster management into three stages:
Stage 1 disaster
Controlled local events with no potential to spread. It is not very complex and may result in loss of life
and small property. This disaster also does not affect the daily activities of the locals. Authorities at the
Regional level have the ability to control and control these incidents through agencies at the District
level without or with limited external assistance.
Stage 2 disaster
More serious incidents include areas that are larger than two (2) Areas and have the potential to spread.
It may lead to loss of life and the destruction of property. The incident also destroyed infrastructure and
affected the daily activities of the community. It is more complex than the Stage 1 disaster and difficult
in terms of search and rescue efforts. Required and capable of operating by State Authorities without or
with limited external assistance.
Stage 3 disaster
The events that result from the Stage 2 disaster are more complex or cover a wider area or more than
two (2) states. Required and capable of being operated by Central Authorities without or without
assistance from overseas.
The Role and Responsibility of JKM in Disaster Management
As a member of the National Disaster Management and Relief Committee, the Department of Social
Welfare is responsible for the relief work and the recovery of disaster victims. As contained in the
National Security Council (MKN) Directive No. 20, The Social Welfare Department has four (4) key
roles and responsibilities:
1. Provide and maintain transfer centres.
2. Prepare and distribute food assistance, clothing and other necessities.
3. Carry out registration of victims for the purpose of disaster recovery.
4. Provide guidance, advice and counsel to victims.
According to Adi Fahrudin & Mohd Dahlan A. Malek (2015) the issue of natural disasters in
Indonesia has been addressed, but the earthquake and tsunami in NAD and Sumut some time ago,
alerted us that the disaster management system we have in place was ineffective. Where the decision-
making process and the assistance still cannot be carried out as quickly and efficiently as possible and
what happened at that time, the task force cannot efficiently perform its duties.
The same has happened with the recent floods in Kelantan. Based on a study conducted by
Mohd Dahlan A. Malek, Ferlis Bahari, Ida Shafinaz Mohd Kamil, Adi Fahrudin and Zatul Karamah
(2016) found that there was no consensus from the relevant parties as well as efficient management to
deal with the disaster in Kelantan. Notwithstanding the comprehensive review as well as the committees
appointed by the National Disaster Management Agency (APBN) and the results or findings from the
studies conducted, it is hoped that the problems raised earlier will not be resolved.
Learning from the experiences of disaster and Tsunami some time ago and because the scope
of disaster management is so broad that there is a need for more efficient mechanisms for disaster
management modules.
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Disaster management basically contains elements that are related to each other. These elements are:
1. Prevention
Planning includes activities to prevent disaster. These include mangrove development, fire prevention
programs with involvement from all parties, disaster prevention and prevention programs. The concept
of intermediate is better than cure and it needs to be applied in the education of the school again.
2. Preparedness
Measures include preparedness of buildings, effective logistical preparedness for disaster relief, early
warning system, education and public awareness, training, strategy development at all levels and most
importantly psychological preparation to emergency workers.
3. Mitigation
Monetization includes activities that can minimize the damage and harm caused by disasters. Effective
disaster mitigation planning requires technical equipment, management planning, conflict resolution
and resource management at all levels.
4. Emergency and Assistance

In the event of a disaster, there should be an organized plan to facilitate the operation of rescue
assistance operated by emergency workers.
5. Rehabilitation
Post-disaster time is the hardest time for victims. This issue should be emphasized by relevant parties
especially providing adequate training for emergency workers and there should be a management
module focused on psychological elements.
In addition, Resource Centres should be set up to coordinate disaster management programs.

All agencies responsible for disaster management should cooperate with each other and should be
coordinated based on the tasks agreed upon. Disaster Management agencies such as the National
Disaster Management Agency (APBN) need to cooperate with various parties in relief, rescue,
rehabilitation and so on. In this context, the psychosocial rehabilitation of children, women, and the
disabled also needs to be given equal attention (Mohd Dahlan A. Malek, Ferlis Bullare @ Bahari, Ida
Shafinaz Mohamed Kamil, Adi Fahrudin and Ahmad Baharul Ulum, 2017).
Modern Management Module In Emergency Workers
As discussed earlier, disasters are one of the most common phenomena of individuals, societies and
countries where they are universal phenomena. Studies related to disasters have been carried out by
many researchers such as Arbel & Bargur (1980), Burling and Hyle (1997), Alexander & Walker
(2013), Brown and Campbell (2011), and Brown & Heidensohn (2001). However, it is difficult to find
studies that focus on psychological aspects, especially for emergency workers consisting of firefighters,
members of the Civil Defense Department, police, military and even those directly involved in rescue
activities such as ambulance drivers and so on.
In the event of a disaster, comprehensive and efficient disaster management plays an important
role in addressing various issues faced by the disaster victims, families and the rescuers themselves.
Therefore, to produce effective and effective disaster management in addition to the coordination and
role played by the National Disaster Management Agency (APBN) a psychological management model
for emergency workers must also be developed. This is because emergency workers such as firefighters
are one of the important assets of any country to assist in disaster relief operations.
Studies related to disasters have already been conducted by many researchers such as Arbel &
Bargur (1980) in which they focus on disaster management and crisis occurring in the tourism industry,
while Burling and Hyle (1997) in their study focus on the role of leadership in management disasters
without looking at psychological factors.
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It is also recommended that there be modules that focus on emergency workers especially in
their psychological aspects. It is yet to be formulated by the relevant parties, especially the Department
of Public Services (PSD) whose Psychological Services at PSD are responsible for matters related to
employee psychology under the Public Service Department of Malaysia. Likewise, the Ministry of
Women Development and the families who monitor the counsellors under the Malaysian Counsellor
Board should also play their part in ensuring the well-being of the community's psychological well-
being. In addition, it is important for emergency workers to have a good preparation especially in
psychology and to identify appropriate strategies for their actions.
Most of the existing models focus only on the physical, preventive and healing factors that
affect the physical environment but still lack the model that focuses on the psychological aspects of the
victim, the victim's family and the rescuers themselves.
Is there a relationship between stress at work and the psychological well-being of firefighters
in disaster management in Malaysia? One study was conducted using cross sectional research design
using questionnaire. The study utilized The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and The Psychological
Wellbeing Scale involving 604 firefighters and rescuers involved as respondents in this study.
The study found that the majority of their stress levels were moderate (75.3%) followed by
15.4% of respondents. Respondents had good psychological well-being in which 604 majority
respondents were moderate (58.3%) and 41.7% were high. The study also found that there is a
relationship between stress at work and respondent psychological well-being, where Pearson correlation
test results found r = -1.77 which results in a negative relationship, which means if stress at work is low
then psychological well-being . On the other hand if stress in the workplace is low then psychological
well-being will be high.
The Effectsiveness Of Disaster Management
With the frequent disasters in Malaysia, Indonesia and other neighboring countries, we should be able
to learn how to avoid, prevent and overcome the disasters and consequences of these disasters. Based
on the research conducted, it is important for the relevant agencies to ensure that the psychology element
and also strengthen the role of emergency workers especially in the psychology aspects besides the
training and technical skills they have.
Although there has been a concerted effort by all parties to identify the causes, as well as
understand human behavior and environmental conditions, there are still important issues to be
understood and addressed in the past such as the Mount Kinabalu earthquake, The recent tsunami and
floods in Kelantan have not been accurately predicted. The location of the incident may have been
known to the best of its ability, but when and how much the disaster occurred, no body or agency and
expertise could determine it. Even countries with great expertise and equipment are unable to determine
when a natural disaster will occur. America cannot expect an earthquake in Los Angeles and Japan
cannot expect an earthquake in Kobe. The Philippines also did not suspect the Pinatubo volcano
suddenly erupted in lava, volcanic gas and so on in 1992.
The natural disaster management system should move away from the information about natural
disasters that would be catastrophic. This information is based on the results of research and in-depth
research on natural events. The results of the research using advanced science and technology should
be combined with existing expertise in society. For example, people on Simelue Island who have the
ability and expertise read natural signs after the earthquake and before the Tsunami (Adi Fahrudin and
Mohd Dahlan, 2015)
The most important lesson in the event of an earthquake is that an effective disaster
management module should be based on knowledge, expertise and various tools to explain natural
events. In addition, systems and mechanisms are required to make decisions and take action in a short
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time. This means that the system of communication and bureaucracy that has long been practiced should
be abolished so that no more expressions of disaster have occurred and many people have been killed,
but the parties are still unaware of the events. In this context, trained citizens are very much needed to
help in the event of a disaster around them without having to wait for volunteers from abroad and even
from abroad to come to their aid (Adi Fahrudin & Mohd Dahlan A. Malek, 2015).
Therefore, disaster management other than the emphasis on the psychological aspects of emergency
workers should be addressed especially in relation to:
1. Awareness management.
Disasters do not always occur but awareness and preparedness must be taken to prevent and reduce the
effects of disasters. Therefore, the Early Watning System needs to be developed and the disaster
response organization and the community need to be better prepared. Various policies and programs
need to be formulated and implemented correctly to prevent man-made disasters.
2. Disaster management.
There is a need for strengthening and improving the quality of emergency management that is met at
the time of the disaster and is intended to alleviate the suffering of the disaster victims. Its focus is on
providing safe temporary accommodation, health checks, meals and medicines. In this management
decisions should be made quickly because it should be avoided with bureaucratic questions and
coordination.
3. Rehabilitation management.
Rehabilitation management is needed to rehabilitate what is being destroyed by the disaster. Not only
rehabilitation of facilities and physical infrastructure, but also the recovery of ecological activities and
psychosocial recovery (Adi Fahrudin, 2003).
Conclusion
The important lesson to be learned from the earthquake and tsunami is that there is an need for efficient
disaster management and coordination between all parties involved. Therefore, coordination and
information channels need to be done and social media in the face of disaster needs to be prioritized.
However, attention to social problems caused by disasters is given to those in charge of the Social
Welfare Department in Malaysia and Indonesia. Indonesia government needs to emulate the Malaysian
government which has set up the National Disaster Management Agency (APBN), this agency which
is a new agency under the Prime Minister's Department (JPM) will assume the role and role of the
National Security Council (MKN) in disaster coordination and management.
In addition to emergency workers especially firefighters and rescuers also need to be given
training and emphasis on psychological aspects. This is based on the findings of the study found that
they are exposed to stress in the workplace and tend to have high levels of stress. Similarly, the
psychological well-being of the majority is moderate and high. Hypothesis testing results show that
there is a significant negative relationship between work stress and psychological well-being among
them. Based on this finding it is suggested that the stress and psychological well-being of firefighters
and rescuers should be taken into consideration. There is a need to develop a module that firefighters
and salespeople can use to cope with stress. With a module that focuses on the psychological elements
of emergency workers, they are able to perform their duties more effectively with the help of Standard
Operating Procedures (SOPs) coordinated by the National Disaster Management Agency.
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CABARAN KEBOLEHPASARAN DALAM KALANGAN PELAJAR TAHUN AKHIR

SEPANJANG PANDEMIK COVID-19
Mohd Faqhrullah Khamis*& Getrude Cosmas

*Corresponding author’s e-mail: mohdfaqhrullah@gmail.com
ABSTRAK
Pandemik COVID-19 memberi kesan kepada sektor ekonomi dan ramai pekerja yang telah hilang
pekerjaan. Hal ini menyebabkan kerisauan dan kebimbangan kerjaya dalam kalangan pelajar universiti
tahun akhir yang akan berhadapan dengan cabaran untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan selepas bergraduasi.
Bagi mengatasi cabaran ini, pelajar tahun akhir perlu bersedia dengan menyertai program
kebolehpekerjaan seperti program upskilling yang dapat membantu mereka bersedia untuk bekerja dan
berdaya tahan dalam menghadapi cabaran pekerjaan. Kertas kerja ini membincangkan kesan
penglibatan pelajar universiti tahun akhir dalam program upskilling dan kebimbangan kerjaya terhadap
kesediaan bekerja dan ketahanan kendiri dalam mengatasi cabaran kebolehpekerjaan dalam tempoh
pandemik. Metod yang digunakan untuk meneroka kajian lepas yang berkaitan adalah berdasarkan
ulasan naratif. Kajian lepas yang memfokuskan kesan program upskilling dan pengaruh kebimbangan
kerjaya terhadap kesediaan bekerja dalam kalangan pelajar tahun akhir dan ketahanan kendiri dalam
menghadapi cabaran kebolehpekerjaan diterokai. Kajian ini merangkumi kajian dalam konteks
tempatan dan global. Kajian lepas menunjukkan penglibatan dalam program upskilling dapat
meningkatkan kesediaan bekerja dan ketahanan kendiri pelajar dalam berhadapan dengan cabaran
pekerjaan seperti mencari dan mendapatkan pekerjaan yang lebih baik. Di samping itu, kebimbangan
kerjaya dapat mengurangkan kesediaan bekerja dan daya tahan. Berdasarkan isu-isu kebolehkerjaan
yang dibincangkan, adalah perlu dikaji isu-isu kebolehpekerjaan dengan memfokuskan kepada pelajar
universiti tahun akhir di universiti tempatan dan swasta di Sabah terutamanya semasa pandemik.
Kata kunci : Program Upskilling, kebimbangan kerjaya, ketahanan kendiri, pandemik COVID-19,
Pelajar Universiti Tahun Akhir
Latar Belakang
Pandemik COVID-19 sememangnya memberi kesan yang mendalam kepada masyarakat global
termasuklah Malaysia. Pandemik ini juga menjejaskan beberapa sektor di Malaysia terutamanya sektor
ekonomi. Ekoran daripada penularan wabak COVID-19 melanda seluruh dunia, pandemik ini telah
menyebabkan kebanyakan pekerja hilang pekerjaan dan menganggur (Anuar Shah, 2020). Bukan itu
sahaja, kadar pengangguran di Malaysia juga turut meningkat akibat daripada peluang pekerjaan yang
ditawarkan adalah terhad. Terdapat juga beberapa buah syarikat terpaksa menutup perniagaan mereka
dan memberhentikan pekerja akibat tidak mampu menampung kos dan pembayaran gaji pekerja.
Peluang pekerjaan yang terhad juga menyebabkan kebanyakan pelajar tahun akhir di universiti mula
bimbang dan gelisah terhadap kerjaya mereka selepas bergraduat kelak.
Akibat daripada penularan wabak COVID-19 ini, jumlah pengangguran di Malaysia setakat
bulan Februari 2021 adalah sebanyak 777.5 ribu orang (Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia, 2021).
Tambahan pula, berdasarkan Sistem Insuran Pekerjaan (SIP) seramai 99,696 orang pekerja direkod
diberhentikan kerja daripada Januari 2020 sehingga November 2020 akibat daripada penularan wabak
COVID-19 (Mohd Azlim, 2020). Pertambahan jumlah pekerja yang diberhentikan telah mencetuskan
sedikit kerisauan dan kebimbangan kerjaya dalam kalangan pelajar tahun akhir di Universiti. Hal ini
kerana jumlah graduan yang dihasilkan oleh Universiti dan Kolej adalah sebanyak 200,000 orang dalam
masa setahun (Institute for Research & Development of Policy (IRDP). Persaingan dalam mendapatkan
pekerjaan juga semakin meningkat kerana tawaran pekerjaan adalah terhad kepada individu yang
berkelayakan.
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Jumlah pengangguran yang meningkat dan tawaran pekerjaan yang terhad menyebabkan
kerisauan dan kebimbangan pelajar tahun akhir terhadap kerjaya mereka pada masa hadapan semakin
tinggi. Secara umumnya, kebimbangan adalah satu perasaan risau yang melampau. Menurut American
Psychiatric Association dalam DSM-5, kebimbangan adalah berkaitan dengan mana-mana tiga
simptom daripada enam simptom berikut iaitu kegelisahan, mudah penat, sukar untuk menumpukan
perhatian, mudah marah, ketegangan otot dan gangguan tidur. Kebimbangan ini juga akan
menyebabkan tekanan atau kemerosotan dalam sosial, pekerjaan dan banyak lagi. Manakala menurut
National Institute of Mental Health, terdapat beberapa jenis kecelaruan kebimbangan. Antaranya
kecelaruan kebimbangan umum (Generalised Anxiety Disorder), kecelaruan kebimbangan sosial
(Social Anxiety Disorder), kecelaruan kebimbangan Kompulsif (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder),
kecelaruan Panik (Panic Disorder), kebimbangan Post-Trauma (Post Traumatic Stres Disorder), fobia
dan kemurungan.
Kebimbangan ini ditambah lagi dengan kesukaran graduan untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan
dalam tempoh pandemik. Hal ini pastinya akan mempengaruhi kesediaan mereka untuk menceburi
bidang pekerjaan. Hal ini jelas di mana menurut Mohd Shafry (2020), bakal graduan perlu bersedia
untuk menghadapi cabaran seperti persaingan untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan dan juga kreativiti mereka
untuk menempuh cabaran pasca pandemik ini. Di samping itu, pelajar juga hendaklah mengenalpasti
kemahiran baharu yang diperlukan dalam industri untuk dijadikan sebagai satu nilai tambah untuk
dipilih bekerja di dalam sesebuah syarikat. Kebimbangan kerjaya masa hadapan juga memberikan kesan
yang mendalam kepada pelajar tahun akhir di Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (IPT). Menurut Muhammad
Wafi dan Sharifah Rohayah (2020), kebimbangan pelajar tahun akhir terhadap kerjaya masa hadapan
dipengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor antaranya kehidupan yang mencabar dan persaingan antara satu sama
lain.
Kerisauan dan kebimbangan pelajar tahun akhir dapat dikurangkan sekiranya mereka sering
menyertai program-program yang dapat meningkatkan kemahiran insaniah mereka. Dengan menyertai
mana-mana program yang berkaitan dengan kebolehpekerjaan, pelajar akan lebih bersedia untuk
mendapatkan pekerjaan. Sebagai contoh, penganjuran Program upskilling, pelajar akan memperoleh
pengalaman dan lebih bersedia untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan dan mereka mempunyai tahap ketahanan
kendiri yang tinggi dalam menghadapi cabaran kebolehpasaran. Program upskilling adalah satu proses
untuk mendapatkan kecekapan yang relevan dan baharu yang diperlukan dalam pekerjaan pada hari ini
dan masa akan datang.
Justeru itu, dalam usaha untuk melengkapkan pelajar dengan kemahiran kebolehpekerjaan,
Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi (KPT) juga telah memperkenalkan beberapa program upskilling
(peningkatan kemahiran) dan juga reskilling (latihan semula) untuk membantu para pelajar
meningkatkan kemahiran kebolehpekerjaan seperti kemahiran berkomunikasi, pemikiran kritis dan
beberapa kemahiran insaniah yang lain. Antara inisiatif yang dilakukan oleh pihak KPT untuk
membantu mengurangkan kadar pengangguran di Malaysia iaitu melalui Program PENJANA KPT-
CAP. Program ini bukan sahaja dapat membantu mengurangkan lambakan graduan yang tidak bekerja,
malah program ini juga dapat membantu graduan untuk meningkatkan kemahiran mereka dan dapat
melahirkan graduan yang bersesuaian dengan pasaran kerja.
Selain itu, para pelajar juga hendaklah sentiasa peka dengan program yang dapat meningkatkan
nilai tambah pelajar dengan menyertai program-program yang telah dijalankan oleh pihak universiti
dan KPT bagi memastikan setiap pelajar bukan hanya mendapat pendidikan akademik semata-mata
tetapi juga dapat meningkatkan kemahiran pekerjaan. Menurut Md. Asrul (2020), dalam berhadapan
dengan dunia yang semakin mencabar, pelajar tidak boleh hanya duduk diam dan bergoyang kaki dalam
zon selesa dengan bergantung sepenuhnya berlandaskan ilmu dalam kuliah semata-mata.
Graduan perlu menyertai program kemahiran kebolehpekerjaan untuk mendapatkan

pengalaman dan mempelajari kemahiran kebolehpekerjaan yang baharu. Kemahiran baru yang
dipelajari sedikit sebanyak dapat membantu pelajar untuk mengaplikasikan ke dalam kehidupan yang
semakin mencabar seperti program keusahawanan. Dengan menyertai program sedemikian sedikit
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sebanyak dapat membantu pelajar selepas bergraduat untuk mencipta perniagaan sendiri untuk
menampung kehidupan ketika musim pandemik ini. Pihak kerajaan dan juga swasta juga sedikit
sebanyak membantu pelajar lepasan universiti untuk menjalani latihan program kerjaya dan intensif
seperti PENJANA, MYStep, Protegee dan banyak lagi. Program sebegini dapat membantu para graduan
untuk mendapatkan latihan dan kemahiran yang secukupnya.
Pelajar tahun akhir hendaklah bijak dalam mencari pengalaman dan meningkatkan kemahiran
insaniah sesuai dengan permintaan pihak organisasi. Kemahiran ini dapat membantu mereka
beradaptasi dengan dunia pekerjaan dan memberikan peluang yang baik untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan.
Kebanyakan organisasi memerlukan pekerja yang mempunyai kemahiran insaniah yang baik seperti
mahir dalam berkomunikasi, kreatif, berfikiran kritis dan dapat berkolaborasi dengan orang lain.
Penularan pandemik COVID-19 juga membuatkan pihak organisasi akan lebih spesifik dalam
pemilihan pekerja dalam usaha untuk mengurangkan kerugian kepada organisasi. Hal ini kerana
pengambilan dan pemilihan pekerja dalam sesebuah organisasi merupakan fungsi yang amat penting
untuk menjamin kejayaan pengurusan sumber manusia (Zafir & Fazilah, 2007).
Menurut Md Zain et al. (2007), graduan perlu menguasai kemahiran insaniah seperti kemahiran
kerja berpasukan, kemahiran memimpin, kemahiran berkomunikasi sama ada secara lisan dan
penulisan, kemahiran berfikir secara kritis dalam menyelesaikan masalah, mempunyai keyakinan yang
tinggi dan kesedaran terhadap penjagaan alam sekitar. Kemahiran tersebut amat diperlukan oleh
graduan untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan pada masa kini (Mohd Zaid et al., 2008). Kemahiran insaniah
amat penting selain kemahiran teknikal untuk dijadikan sebagai kriteria untuk mendapatkan peluang
pekerjaan.
Pemilihan pekerjaan bukan sahaja dipilih berdasarkan akademik yang cemerlang namun ada
juga faktor lain yang di lihat oleh majikan seperti penguasaan dalam kemahiran insaniah dan digital.
Cemerlang dalam bidang akademik bukan penentu kepada masa hadapan yang cerah. Kekurangan
penglibatan pelajar dalam program upskilling juga merupakan faktor yang akan memberikan kesan
kepada pelajar untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan selepas menamatkan pengajian. Selain akademik, aspek
lain juga perlu dilihat bagi menentukan kehidupan pada masa hadapan iaitu kemahiran insaniah pelajar
(Mohd Ashari, 2017). Kebanyakkan pelajar mula sedar betapa pentingnya kemahiran pada pasaran kerja
pada masa kini. Di samping itu, menurut Khairil dan Ros (2019), dengan melakukan kerja sambilan,
pelajar dapat meningkatkan kemahiran insaniah yang terdiri daripada aspek kepimpinan, komunikasi,
keusahawanan, pemikiran kritikal dan sebagainya. Hal ini seiring dengan keperluan pekerjaan atau
majikan pada masa kini yang lebih memilih graduan yang menguasai bidang akademik dan juga bidang
kemahiran insaniah. Hal ini, akan menyebabkan kebimbangan terhadap kerjaya masa hadapan adalah
rendah dan akan menyebabkan pelajar tersebut mengalami kegagalan dalam mendapat pekerjaan.
Namun, terdapat juga isu kurang penguasaan kemahiran insaniah dalam kalangan pelajar.
Menurut Nurita et al. (2007), kekurangan dan kelemahan graduan IPT adalah kurang penguasaan
kemahiran insaniah. Kemahiran insaniah yang tinggi dapat membantu para pelajar untuk mendaptkan
pekerjaan kelak (Moaz, 2018). Menurut Majlis Penasihat Ekonomi Negara (MPEN, 2010), isu
lambakan graduan dalam pasaran buruh disebabkan oleh kekurangan dari segi kemahiran insaniah dan
kebolehpekerjaan, kemahiran berbahasa Inggeris dan juga kurang kreativiti. Ini jelas membuktikan
bahawa kemahiran insaniah dan kebolehpekerjaan penting untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan kelak.
Menurut Christina (2008) pula, graduan universiti dan juga kolej yang diperlukan oleh majikan untuk
bekerja secara profesional dipilih berdasarkan beberapa kemahiran seperti kemahiran berpasukan,
berkomunikasi, penyelesaian masalah dan kebolehan pemikiran secara kritis.
Seterusnya, kesediaan bekerja dipengaruhi oleh kebimbangan pelajar tahun akhir untuk
mendapatkan pekerjaan dalam bidang yang diceburi. Menurut Kamro (2012), antara faktor yang
mempengaruhi kesediaan pelajar untuk menceburi kerjaya adalah minat, pengetahuan, informasi
daripada media massa, situasi pekerjaan dan banyak lagi. Kebimbangan ini ditambah lagi dengan
kesukaran untuk mereka mendapatkan pekerjaan dalam tempoh pandemik. Hal ini pastinya akan
mempengaruhi kesediaan mereka untuk menceburi bidang pekerjaan. Hal ini jelas di mana menurut
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Mohd Shafry (2020), bakal graduan perlu lebih bersedia untuk menghadapi persaingan untuk
mendapatkan pekerjaan dan juga kreativiti mereka untuk menempuh cabaran pasca pandemik ini. Di
samping itu, pelajar juga hendaklah mengenalpasti kemahiran baharu yang diperlukan dalam industri
untuk dijadikan sebagai satu nilai tambah untuk dipilih bekerja di dalam sesebuah syarikat.
Kesediaan pelajar Tahun akhir sebelum melangkah ke dunia pekerjaan apabila bergraduat kelak
perlu ditekankan agar mereka dapat mendepani fasa kesukaran mencari pekerjaan lebih-lebih lagi dalam
tempoh pandemik ini. Hal ini penting kerana menurut Sulaeman (2016), graduan yang memiliki
kemahiran dan kualiti yang baik dianggap lebih bersedia untuk memasuki ke alam pekerjaan. Hal ini
juga disokong oleh Halim dan Sahid (2020) yang mendapati bahawa kemahiran kesediaan bekerja
mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan dengan efikasi kendiri. Para pelajar juga digalakkan untuk
mengenalpasti potensi mereka dalam meningkatkan kesedaran mereka terhadap program yang
melibatkan kemahiran-kemahiran tertentu. Hal ini kerana majikan pada hari ini bukan sahaja melihat
keputusan akademik semata-mata tetapi juga menitikberatkan kemahiran pekerjaan yang diperoleh
menerusi latihan seperti dalam program upskilling. Perkara ini disokong oleh Siti dan Rosmanjawati
(2017) di mana majikan lebih berminat dalam mengambil graduan yang cekap dalam bidang mereka
sebagai pekerja.
Seterusnya, menurut mantan Menteri Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia, Program Kebolehpasaran

Graduan Industri 4.0 KPT-MTDC telah berjaya menghasilkan sebanyak 80 peratus peserta iaitu kira-
kira 243 peserta daripada 303 graduan yang ditawarkan tempat secara perantisan menerima tawaran
pekerjaan secara tetap. Program ini ternyata dapat meningkatkan kesediaan pelajar untuk memperoleh
pekerjaan dan ini pastinya dapat membantu meningkatkan ketahanan diri mereka untuk berhadapan
dengan cabaran dalam mendapatkan pekerjaan. Program tersebut telah dijalankan pada tahun 2018 dan
disertai oleh graduan IPT di seluruh Malaysia.
Seterusnya, kebimbangan pelajar tahun akhir terhadap kerjaya masa hadapan juga dipengaruhi
oleh ketahanan kendiri pelajar. Konsep kendiri yang positif akan menghasilkan keyakinan diri yang
tinggi, dan mempengaruhi kejayaan diri seseorang pelajar. Individu yang mempunyai tahap ketahanan
kendiri yang tinggi mempunyai kecenderungan untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang mereka lalui.
Sebagai contoh, pelajar tahun akhir yang melibatkan diri dengan program kemahiran dapat membantu
mereka meningkatkan kemahiran pekerjaan dan lebih berkeyakinan untuk menunjukkan kesediaan
untuk bersaing dalam dunia pekerjaan (Azizi & Norlaily, 2010).
Dari segi peranan ketahanan kendiri, bagi pelajar yang mempunyai ketahanan kendiri yang
tinggi, sekiranya mereka mengalami kebimbangan pada tahap yang tinggi, mereka akan dapat
mengawal kebimbangan mereka dan mempunyai kesediaan yang tinggi untuk bekerja. Seterusnya, bagi
pelajar yang terlibat dalam program upskilling pula, kekerapan dalam penglibatan dalam program
upskilling dan disertai dengan ketahanan kendiri yang tinggi maka kesediaan mereka untuk bekerja
akan lebih tinggi. Namun, sekiranya pelajar kurang atau tidak terlibat dalam program upskilling dan
mempunyai ketahanan kendiri yang rendah maka kesediaan mereka untuk bekerja adalah rendah.
Ketahanan kendiri dari perspektif psikologi menurut Bonanno et al. (2015) adalah daya ketahanan
kendiri yang menjadikan seseorang individu itu mampu menghadapi perubahan dalam hidup mereka
dan menganggap perubahan itu sebagai satu peluang yang lebih baik untuk kehidupan mereka.
Ketahanan kendiri yang kukuh dalam kalangan mahasiswa perlu diberi perhatian yang cukup
bagi mempersiapkan diri mereka agar dapat menghadapi pelbagai cabaran dalam kehidupan sama ada
sepanjang berada dalam pengajian di kampus mahupun meneruskan kehidupan yang penuh dengan
dugaan dan rintangan kehidupan. Hal ini kerana pelajar yang melanjutkan pengajian di peringat
universiti tidak terlepas daripada berhadapan dengan pelbagai bentuk cabaran yang menguji
kemampuan dan ketahanan diri mereka (Zainah et al., 2013). Sebagai contoh, dalam era pandemik ini,
semua pembelajaran dibuat secara dalam talian dan terdapat beberapa cabaran yang dihadapi seperti
masalah internet, pembelajarayang kurang kondusif di rumah dan banyak lagi.
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Objektif Kajian
Kertas kerja ini membincangkan tentang kesan penglibatan pelajar tahun akhir dalam program
upskilling dan kebimbangan kerjaya masa hadapan terhadap kesediaan bekerja dan ketahanan kendiri
dalam menangani cabaran semasa pandemik COVID-19.
Metodologi Kajian
Kajian ini dijalankan untuk meneroka kajian lepas yang memfokuskan kepada pembolehubah utama
kajian dengan menggunakan pendekatan ulasan secara naratif. Kajian lepas yang membincnagkan kesan
program upskilling dan pengaruh kebimbangan kerjaya terhadap kesediaan bekerja dalam kalangan
pelajar tahun akhir dan ketahanan kendiri dalam menghadapi cabaran kebolehpekerjaan diterokai.
Kajian ini merangkumi dapatan kajian daripada konteks tempatan dan juga global.
Hasil Dapatan
Kajian lepas mendapati program upskilling dapat membantu graduan universiti untuk lebih bersedia
bekerja. Hal ini kerana, kemahiran yang ditekankan pada era IR 4.0 ini amatlah penting bagi membantu
para pelajar khususnya pelajar tahun akhir sebelum masuk ke sektor pekerjaan. Tidak dinafikan bahawa
ada juga pelajar di universiti yang mengamalkan konsep mahasiswa ‘3K’ iaitu kuliah, kafe dan katil.
Pelajar yang mengamalkan konsep sebegini sememangnya kurang terdedah kepada program yang dapat
meningkatkan kemahiran insaniah. Menurut Mohamed et al. (2007), mahasiswa yang mempunyai
kemahiran insaniah yang tinggi dapat membantu mereka untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan dalam tempoh
yang singkat. Kemahiran tersebut adalah seperti kebolehan bekerja sendiri, kemahiran teknologi
maklumat (IT), kepimpinan, mudah menyesuaikan diri, kemahiran intelektual dan tindakan awal yang
diambil.
Selain itu, dalam berhadapan dengan era IR 4.0 dan pandemik COVID-19, pelajar perlu
memantapkan kemahiran kebolehpekerjaan mereka. Dalam era ini, pihak majikan menekankan empat
kemahiran berkaitan pekerjaan antaranya komunikasi, pemikiran kritis, kolaborasi dan kreativiti.
Menurut Getrude et al. (2020), keempat-empat kemahiran ini penting dan dapat dikaitkan dengan tret
personaliti pelajar dalam berhadapan dengan permintaan industri khususnya dalam era IR 4.0 ini.
Sebagai contoh, kajian mendapati dua tret personaliti daripada Big-5 trait personality iaitu
agreeableness dan openness (keterbukaan) mempunyai hubungan yang positif dengan empat kemahiran
yang ditekankan dalam IR 4.0.
Seterusnya, kajian lepas juga mendapati kebimbangan kerjaya masa hadapan memberi
pengaruh terhadap kesediaan bekerja. Terdapat segelintir pelajar tahun akhir yang tidak bersedia untuk
menghadapi dunia pekerjaan kerana bimbangkan persaingan yang sengit untuk medapatkan pekerjaan
apabila mereka tamat pengajian kelak. Lambakan graduan juga merupakan faktor yang menyebabkan
peningkatan kadar pengangguran dalam kalangan siswazah (Nooriah et al., 2007). Sumber maklumat
dan pengetahuan yang terhad juga merupakan kebimbangan pelajar tahun akhir terhadap kesediaan
bekerja. Menurut Ishak Yusoff et al. (2008), pelajar tahun akhir memerlukan maklumat, bimbingan dan
motivasi yang cukup agar dapat membantu mereka untuk memilih kerjaya yang bersesuaian dengan
minat mereka
Kekurangan pengalaman bekerja juga merupakan salah satu faktor yang mewujudkan
kebimbangan yang seterusnya mempengaruhi kesediaan mereka untuk bekerja. Pengalaman bekerja
merupakan antara perkara utama yang dilihat ketika ingin memohon sesebuah jawatan. Pengalaman
daripada latihan industri juga membolehkan mereka untuk merasai situasi sebenar dalam dunia
pekerjaan. Kajian oleh Ismail (2012) mendapati pengalaman kerja merupakan kriteria penting bagi
memudahkan graduan untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan. Kajian ini juga disokong oleh Arsat dan Rashid
(2010) dimana pengalaman dapat memberikan keyakinan terhadap kerjaya masa hadapan. Selain itu,
pengalaman dan kemahiran merupakan penghalang terbesar graduan untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan
(Himle et al., 2015).
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Bagi memastikan graduan-graduan universiti sentiasa bersedia dengan cabaran yang mereka
akan hadapi kelak, ketahanan kendiri yang tinggi disertai kelengkapan diri dengan pelbagai kemahiran
amat perlu. Kemahiran pekerjaan yang diperoleh menerusi penglibatan dalam program upskilling akan
dapat membantu meningkatkan ketahanan kendiri pelajar dalam berhadapan dengan kesukaran dan
cabaran dalam mendapatkan pekerjaan lebih-lebih lagi dalam tempoh pandemik. Diani et al. (2017)
pula dalam kajian mereka mendapati kebanyakan pelajar universiti bukan sahaja berhadapan dan
tekanan pembelajaran sepenuhnya tetapi mereka juga berhadapan dengan daya saing yang tinggi demi
memenuhi tuntutan dunia pekerjaan.
Sekiranya ketahanan kendiri pelajar tahun akhir akhir lemah dan rapuh, ia akan memberi kesan
yang negatif kepada kesediaan mereka untuk menceburi dunia pekerjaan. Pemerolehan kemahiran
kebolehpekerjaan dan kawalan kebimbangan, perlu disertai dengan ketahanan kendiri yang tinggi bagi
membolehkan graduan bersaing dalam dunia pekerjaan. Graduan yang rendah dari segi ketahanan diri
cenderung untuk berfikir dan bertingkah laku dengan cara yang salah (Noran Fauziah et al., 2009).
Pemikiran dan tingkah laku yang salah akan mendorong pelajar untuk melakukan tindakan yang tidak
rasional seperti pengambilan bahan terlarang.
Seterusnya, dalam proses kesediaan untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan, ketahanan kendiri antara
pelajar tahun akhir dari universiti awam dan swasta mungkin berbeza disebabkan persekitaran
pembelajaran sebagai contoh. Kajian oleh Norasmah (2017) mendapati terdapat perbezaan ketahanan
kendiri yang signifikan antara pelajar universiti awam dan juga swasta. Walaubagaimanapun, perbezaan
di antara ketahanan kendiri pelajar universiti awam dan universiti swasta adalah sama atau hampir sama.
Kajian beliau juga mendapati tidak ada perbezaan ketahanan kendiri antara pelajar universiti awam dan
universiti swasta dari segi kemahiran sosial, penyelesaian masalah, optimis dan humor. Namun,
ketahanan pelajar universiti awam dan juga universiiti swasta dari segi autonomi dan kerohanian
didapati terdapat perbezaan antara keduanya. Kajian Norasmah (2017) selari dengan kajian oleh Wahid
(2013) yang mendapati ketahanan kendiri pelajar universiti awam dan universiti swasta adalah sama.
Hal ini kerana cabaran yang mereka hadapi sepanjang berada di universiti adalah sama walaupun
berbeza organisasi dan persekitaran. Menurut Zhoa (2012) pula, jenis IPT tidak boleh dijadikan sebagai
indikator bagi menentu karakter graduan di sesebuah universiti.
Berdasarkan kajian lepas yang dibincangkan menunjukkan kemahiran kebolehpekerjaan

penting bagi meningkatkan kesediaan bekerja sama ada di organisasi kerajaan mahupun swasta.
Kemahiran kebolehpekerjaan dititikberatkan oleh majikan kerana mereka inginkan pekerja yang cekap
dan mahir dalam bidang yang berkaitan seperti kemahiran teknologi maklumat, kemahiran berfikir dan
kemahiran menyelesaikan masalah. Justeru, kemahiran kebolehpekerjaan ini juga amat penting untuk
dijadikan nilai tambah sebelum pelajar tahun akhir melangkah ke alam pekerjaan. Nilai tambah ini akan
dapat mengurangkan kebimbangan pelajar tahun akhir dalam mendapatkan pekerjaan dan ini secara
langsung meningkatkan kesediaan graduan untuk bekerja.
Kajian lepas juga menunjukkan program upskilling membantu pelajar untuk lebih bersedia
dalam berhadapan dengan cabaran kebolehpekerjaan seperti mencari dan memperolehi pekerjaan yang
lebih baik. Hal ini pastinyan akan dapat mengurangkan kebimbangan kerjaya masa hadapan dan
meningkatkan kesediaan bekerja dan ketahanan kendiri pelajar tahun akhir di universiti. Merujuk
kepada peranan ketahanan kendiri, pelajar yang mempunyai ketahanan kendiri yang tinggi, sekiranya
mereka mengalami kebimbangan pada tahap yang tinggi, mereka akan dapat mengawal kebimbangan
mereka dan mempunyai kesediaan yang tinggi untuk bekerja. Seterusnya, bagi pelajar yang terlibat
dalam program upskilling pula, apabila penglibatan mereka dalam program upskilling adalah tinggi dan
disertai dengan ketahanan kendiri yang tinggi maka kesediaan mereka untuk bekerja akan lebih tinggi.
Namun, sekiranya pelajar kurang atau tidak terlibat dalam program upskilling dan mempunyai
ketahanan kendiri yang rendah maka kesediaan mereka untuk bekerja adalah rendah.
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Kesimpulan
Berdasarkan isu-isu kebolehkerjaan yang dibincangkan pada kertas kerja ini, diharap pihak berwajib
akan dapat meneliti isu-isu ini menerusi kajian empirikal yang menggunakan pendekatan psikologi. Ini
boleh dilaksanakan dengan memfokuskan kepada pelajar universiti tahun akhir di universiti tempatan
dan swasta di Sabah. Kajian secara berfokus yang menyasarkan pelajar tahun akhir universiti akan dapat
membantu pihak universiti dan pihak berwajib untuk meneroka lebih mendalam lagi pembolehubah
utama yang dibincangkan iaitu kesediaan bekerja, kebimbangan kerjaya dan juga ketahanan bakal
graduan dalam berdepan dengan cabaran kebolehpekerjaan dalam Revolusi Industri 4.0 dan juga
pandemik COVID-19.
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SUSTAINABILITY OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL

TRAINING EDUCATION BASED ON INSTRUCTORS’
COMPETENCE
*Mustal bin Makmud & Mohd Khairuddin @Jerry Abdullah
*Corresponding author’s e-mail : mustal2000@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This Concept Paper discusses topics that focus on the competence of instructors to implement the sustainability
of Technical and Vocational Training Education (TVET) in the Training Institution of the Department of
Manpower (ILJTM). The application of sustainable development elements in the TVET system is a very important
aspect of the principles of sustainable development. TVET instructors need to understand the goals and in-depth
concepts of the theory and practice of sustainable development in meeting the changing needs of the world of
work for the 21st century. To ensure the effectiveness in the implementation of TVET sustainability planned by
the country is achieved, the competence of the teaching staff is the most important element to be emphasized.
Thus, the teaching staff is the main leader in ensuring the direction of the implementation of TVET in ILJTM can
be realized effectively. In this regard, the competence of the teaching staff, especially in the aspects of vocational
knowledge, functional skills, values and professionalism on the implementation of TVET sustainability should
be given due emphasis. This study was conducted to identify the influence of instructors’ competence on the
sustainability of TVET program in ILJTM. This study uses a non-experimental survey method by using a
questionnaire. The study population will involve a total of 2198 ILJTM instructors nationwide by distributing 322
questionnaires to selected instructors after going through several combinations of random sampling such as
stratified sampling method, cluster sampling and finally simple random sampling. A pilot study will be conducted
at the Miri Industrial Training Institute (ILP) before the actual study is implemented. The findings of the
quantitative study will be analyzed using IBM SPSS statistical analysis software version 26.0. It is hoped that the
results of the study will be able to determine the influence of instructor competence on the implementation of
TVET sustainability in ILJTM.
.
Keywords: Sustainability of Development, Competency, Technical and Vocational Education
Training and Instructors.
Introduction
The concept of sustainability in all areas of learning was declared in December 2002 in South Africa
during the 57th United Nations General Assembly launching of the Decade for Education for
Sustainable Development (ESD) (UNESCO, 2005). All levels of education around the world would
mobilize efforts to make changes in educational programs to incorporate elements of sustainability in
vocational subjects (Elias, 2006). Combes (2005) and Gadotti (2008) also agree that, vocational
training institutions need to nurture and be able to play its function of adapting sustainability in learning
for sustainable development. The main goal of this concept of sustainability is to improve the
development of community life, especially for students and teachers to have knowledge, skills and
values that support sustainable behavior, competitive and have a better quality of life (Kevany, 2007;
Kaprawi et al., 2009; Azroai, 2010; and Minghat, 2012).
Currently, the TVET system in Malaysia is undergoing a systematic change towards the
implementation of sustainability programs in accordance to UNESCO recommendations. This is a
mainstream process that becomes the approach of the Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE). The
goal is to provide a highly skilled and adaptable workforce to produce innovative, creative and
competitive employees (MOE, 2012). TVET transformation is an effort to re-engineering the existing
TVET institutional system framework until the construction of a new TVET system that can contribute
to Malaysia's transformation agenda as a high-income country (EPU, 2015).
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In order to form an Education framework to achieve the process of transformation of the

education system to a higher level that is more effective and efficient, the Education Development Plan
(PPPM) 2013-2025 has been formulated (KPM, 2014). Increasing human capital through teaching
transformation, restructuring of TVET system, as well as application of several initiatives and
culturalization of TVET organizations will be able to have an impact in the development of countries
that will be able to face challenges and critical thinking in a globalized world (MOE, 2014). The
Ministry of Education is determined to transform the education system towards sustainability to ensure
that PPPM 2013-2025 can be achieved by equipping human resources with 21st century knowledge
and skills by focusing on mainstreaming TVET institutions to become sustainable global players and
achieve educational development goals sustainability (EPU, 2015).
Research Background
Issues of expertise and skills of TVET instructors are often raised such as the competency gap between
current technology and the expertise they have, namely the experience of instructors in related
industries. It is relatively limited and also instructors have less skills in the latest technology. In
addition the absence of a comprehensive centralized instructor data profile system also contributes to
the difficulty of determining the competency gap of TVET instructors (EPU, 2015). To ensure TVET
contributes through the implementation of sustainable education development to human resource
development and reduces the competency gap between the academic environment and industry needs,
it is very important to analyze current and future expertise needs (Ahmad Rizal et al., 2008; Kim Peng
et al., 2020). There is a need for high involvement from all parties involved including government,
public sector, private sector and others to minimise competency gaps and expertise differences (Hart,
2018). Organizations and employees should be sensitive and prepared for the transition to workforce
efficiency demands (Hamdani & Ramdhani, 2019). It is important to bridge the disparity gap in
required competencies as it will lead to more training for employees.
According to Nor Hayati Ramlan, Zuraidah Abdullah & Sufean Hussin (2017), training is
something that is critical and dynamic in ensuring the success or failure of TVET organization. It
allows instructors to acquire the necessary competencies along with the rapid pace of technology to
improve and maintain the quality of teaching and learning. (Enke et al., 2018; M'mboga Akala, 2021).
As technology evolves at a very rapid rate, some existing competencies will become obsolete and will
create other new competencies that will be in greater demand (Sirotová, 2016; Jailani et. al, 2017;
Norhayati, 2018). Thus, a more flexible education program that is able to adapt to the changing
demands of the labor market can best support competent workers. Next, it will ensure that TVET
programs remain relevant. A broader skills base and a more flexible TVET program must include the
need to restructure and shifting from conventional approach towards more focusing on work
organization and work-related mechanism (Jailani, 2017). Technical and vocational training education
(TVET) needs to be designed to suit the demand of the workforce (MOE, 2014).
The quality of the graduates produced is related to the acceptance of training received by the
graduates as well as the competence of the instructors. The effectiveness of the training received is
influencing the quality of the students produced (Norhayati, 2018). The educational policies carried
out are still unable to bring out truly dynamic human capital for the needs of stakeholders (Sulaiman
et al., 2015). This problem is also related to the lack of appropriate training for instructors to be
competent in the job (Peculea, 2015; Glass & Metternich, 2020). The Lifelong Learning Seminar
Resolution was implemented to enhance the competence of lecturers in the aspect of teaching through
continuous training. With the skills improvement training provided, it will be able to provide the most
relevant training and in turn increase the marketability of students (Ismail & Hassan, 2013; EPU, 2015;
Mamat et al., 2019). Along with the results of a study by Wan Kamaruddin & Ibrahim (2010) who
found that lecturers in institutions of higher learning need to continue to improve skills and be given
continuous training to improve the level of skills competence in line with rapidly changing technology.
Students need to be given the latest skills and knowledge as a requirement to competent lecturers
(Jailani, 2017; Norhayati, 2018; Kim Peng et al., 2020).
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Apart from the literature highlights above, through observation and research in the reports, it
was also found that the issue of instructors’ competence in ILJTM is raised and closely related to the
filling of instructor posts and staff expertise development planning (BKT JTM, 2019). Among the
factors that cause the issue of TVET instructors at ILJTM competence being often raised are because;
i) the expertise of ILJTM instructors cannot be maintained when there is a promotion due to the
teaching position is shared under the Vocational Education (DV) scheme; ii) there is no centralized
data on the competency information of all ILJTM instructors coordinated by JTM itself for the purpose
of training planning to improve the expertise of instructors. ILJTM relies heavily on information
provided by CIAST through e-Profilling; iii) insufficient operating and development budget in
preparing training plans mapping out for instructors; and iv) lack of instructor’s experience in industrial
training especially related to new technologies such as IR 4.0. CIAST provides industrial attachment
training (LSI) to instructors but participation is very limited compared to the large number of ILJTM
instructors. Thus, all the factors that cause competency issues among ILJTM instructors will have a
significant direct impact on the elements of staff development and industrial relations in the
development of sustainable education at ILJTM.
.
Problem Statement
TVET institutions in Malaysia cannot be implemented based on the real goal of sustainable education
development. Based on the report of nine strategies papers, transforming TVET in the 11th MP, it was
found that there are seven ministries that operate and administer TVET institutions in the country. This
causes redundancy of functions and activities as well as an increase in the need for large financial
allocations (EPU, 2015). Based on the EPU report (2015), there are still challenges that need to be
addressed although efforts to mainstream TVET have been successfully implemented such as non-
integrated delivery system, lack of recognition of technological careers and teacher competency gaps
compared to current technology. Based on the Malaysian Qualifications Framework, there are two
different agencies that have the authority to regulate the governance of TVET, namely the Malaysian
Qualification Agency (MQA) and the Department of Skills Development (JPK). All programs under
the vocational and technical sectors offered by institutions such as Polytechnics, Community Colleges
and educational and training institutions under MARA are accredited by MQA which is placed under
KPM. Meanwhile, skills training programs offered by institutions such as the Industrial Training
Institute (ILP), High Technology Training Center (ADTEC) and the National Youth Skills Training
Institute (IKBN) and several other skills institutions are regulated by JPK under the Ministry of Human
Resources (KSM). The implementation of TVET program accreditation by these two different agencies
has raised many doubts on the part of the industry and the community regarding the quality of training
as well as the graduate certification evaluation system. In addition, the situation under different
accreditation systems have posed many problems involving the relatively limited mobility of students
to connect to TVET education in TVET institutions in the country (EPU, 2015). These are among the
issues and challenges for the global community of policymakers, researchers, lecturers and
administrators to operate the contribution that TVET can make in sustainable development (Krönner,
2005; UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2010; Jailani et al., 2018).
The transformation of TVET programs is a challenge for Public Skills Training Institutions
(ILKA) to provide graduates with appropriate skills for the 21st century (Ismail & Hassan, 2013; Salleh,
Khalid, et al., 2015; Nam & Kim, 2016). Along with the opinion of Minghat et al. (2016) and Enke et
al. (2018) that, instructors are a determining factor to the success of a sustainable TVET institution,
various instruments, curricula and materials have been developed to facilitate the incorporation of the
concept of sustainable development in the TVET curriculum. However, the specific role of TVET is
not provided in the training needs of TVET instructors and students (Minghat & Yasin, 2010).
According to Majumdar (2009), Minghat et al. (2014) and Okubo et al. (2021) success in making
changes in the practices and competencies of educators in TVET institutions is relatively less. In the
context of making Malaysia an information-based industrial country, the role of TVET institutions is
very important in building a sustainable society and is also responsible in introducing the concept of
sustainable workers to students (Minghat et al., 2016). This is reinforced by the results of the study of
Rahim (2011) and Amdan et al. (2016) that, instructors in TVET institutions need to have the latest
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knowledge, be industry oriented and have enduring and sustainable competencies to produce graduates
who meet the criteria that meet the needs of the current industry. The main factor of failure to produce
quality graduates is because TVET instructors have lack of sustainability skills, marketability skills and
soft skills (Ahmad Rizal et al., 2008; Norhayati & Hussin, 2017; Kim Peng et al., 2020).
Sustainable Development
The term sustainable development gives different meanings depending on the individual and the
organization. The term has provided various interpretations and criticisms openly (IUCN, WWF,
UNEP, 1991). Different definitions of sustainable development are used by different organizations,
taking into account political perspectives and institutional purposes. Sustainable development as a
dynamic process, which allows everyone to realize their potential and improve their quality of life by
protecting and enhancing the Earth’s life support system (UNESCO, 2005; Pavlova Magrita, 2009).
Although there are differences in definition and meaning, according to Leal Filho et al. (2009) a group
of experts have agreed that sustainable development is as follows; i) sustainability refers to the long -
term prospects for ecological, political, economic and societal implications; ii) sustainability is a
dynamic process, the implementation of which depends on due consideration of the social processes in
which involvement and participation are essential elements; and iii) in order to be implemented globally,
sustainability depends on union efforts and cannot be based on action by a few countries alone
(Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2019). Based on the concept that has been formed by
UNESCO (2002), there are three pillars that must be adhered to namely; environmental, social and
economic as in figure 1.0.
Economy
Quality of Life
Social
Environment
Figure 1.0 Principles of Sustainable Development
Based on the model outlined by UNESCO-UNEVOC (2004) there are seven strategies in
sustainable educational development (ESD) namely; i) national support and vision, ii) support to review
national TVET policies, iii) guidelines for planning and implementation, iv) capacity building and
training programs, v) support for the development of learning materials, resources and equipment, vi)
forging relationships and partners share in TVET, and vii) ongoing monitoring, evaluation and research.
Development of Sustainable Education
The importance and need for the integration of the sustainability component at the global level covers
the primary pre-institutional level up to the tertiary education level as a mechanism to train students in
particular and society in general to be more sustainable. One of the important levels is organizations
that offer vocational education that emphasize the application of knowledge, skills and attitudes
required for employment in a particular industry in any field of social and economic activity other than
in the academic field. For this study, the TVET program should prepare individuals to be responsible,
independent and mature, equipped not only with appropriate skills and the latest technical and
technological knowledge, but accompanied by deep human values and spiritual values with self-esteem
and dignity. Therefore, orienting sustainability in TVET is the main focus of this study to provide
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students with sustainable work skills to be able to act as human capital with appropriate values to ensure
they acquire TVET skills and sustainability. Accordingly, in this study the researchers focused on the
sustainability of TVET based on indicators such as; i) training infrastructure, ii) curriculum design, iii)
industrial relations, iv) staff development and v) quality assurance (Ahmad Zainal, 2016).
Based on the model outlined by UNESCO-UNEVOC, Minghat & Yasin (2010) have produced
a Sustainable Development Framework for Technical and Vocational Training Education in Malaysia
as shown in figure 2.0 below. A total of 20 TVET sustainability indicators have been set, namely
instructors’ knowledge, instructors’ technical skills, counselors, management commitment, staff
development programs, internships and industry cooperation, networking and partnerships, articulation,
soft skills, skills-based training, lecturer teaching methods, entrepreneurship, industry input,
recognition, lecturer creativity, lecturer innovation student inclinations, student creativity, student
innovation and ICT skills.
Figure 2.0 TVET Framework Model in Malaysia
Instructors Competence
In the Ice Berg Competency Model Macclelland (1993) and Hay Mac Ber Group (2005) stated that
there are two types of competencies, namely i) General Competencies (Generic Competencies), and ii)
Specific Competencies (Functional Competencies). General competencies are the knowledge, skills and
personal characteristics as well as the code of conduct that must be possessed by a member in a service
as shown in Figure 3.0 below. While specific competencies are specific knowledge, skills and personal
characteristics to carry out duties and responsibilities.
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Figure 3.0 Ice Berg Competency Model
Based on the Ice Berg Model illustrated by Hay Mc Ber (2005) and Saedah & Mohd Sani (2012)
shows that the competency component is the skills and knowledge that can usually be acquired through
courses or training and can also be associated with academic qualifications. Therefore, to achieve
successful development of personal characteristics of an instructor is more challenging and should be
given special emphasis through development and training.
To improve knowledge systematically and effectively, knowledge is the ability of the instructor
to improve self-performance to be more effective. To implement pedagogy in teaching, an instructor
must have the knowledge and mastery of the lessons taught. The objectives that have been set can be
achieved if the teaching and learning process can be implemented effectively. This is because a
sustainable teaching and learning process cannot be implemented if the instructor does not have
knowledge of the topic (Ismail et al., 2017). Norhayati (2018) also stated that if the instructor does not
master the knowledge of the lessons to be taught, then the teaching process will not be able to be
implemented effectively.
TVET instructors need to have vocational knowledge that is knowledge in the technical field
on the use, operation and specific equipment of various types of equipment and machines. Among the
equipment commonly used by TVET instructors are such as hand tools, CNC machines, portable or
stationary machines, automotive and electrical machinery equipment. Safety is an important aspect that
needs to be considered before the equipment is used. Therefore, TVET instructors need to know the
actual procedure of using the equipment so that it can be explained well to the students before the
training begins. With sufficient vocational knowledge, then the teaching process can be carried out well
and accidents can be avoided (Norhayati, 2018).
In order to achieve the lestri sustainability of education development lestri, TVET instructors
need to perform the teaching duty effectively and be successful in utilising knowledge and skills along
with the ability they personally have. A TVET instructor should possess functional skills in carrying
out responsibility as a Vocational Training Officer (PLV), Assistant Vocational Training Officer
(PPLV) or Teaching Assistant Vocational Training Officer (PPPLV) in the aspects of planning and
development as well as training management at ILJTM. Functional skills is also the skills that develop
students’ potential which should be owned by every TVET instructor to ensure the effectiveness of the
knowledge being delivered. To develop the teaching skills better, TVET instructors must always have
their teaching plan, implementation and reflection. Hence, the success of a student undeniably
depending much on the ability, knowledge and skills of an instructor.
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TVET instructors needs to take on board the values and behaviors in carrying out
responsibilities. To educate and nurture students to become a cultural and knowledge heritage for the
future progress of the country is the trust and responsibility of instructors (Batjo et al., 2019). High
ethics and personality are important for an instructor to ensure that they can carry out their duties as
educators effectively and perfectly. Three aspects of noble characteristics that must be possessed in
every TVET instructor are good personal qualities, behavior and exemplary role model such as
professional qualities.
Professionalism refers to the accountability, level of competence, and responsibility that an

instructor should hold. Professionalism is also associated with quality, moral, and ethical work
practices. Professional work practice encompasses professional behaviors such as commitment and
adherence to ethical requirements, reflection on teaching assignments, and a willingness to learn and
grow continuously. It also includes active and proactive involvement in promoting the professionalism
of an instructor (Aizat et al., 2020). Teaching for the better is a standard or standard for the
professionalism of a TVET instructor. Things that go beyond culture such as sharing ideas,
understanding of the teaching task and a deep awareness of the norms of professionalism in the task is
the professional quality of an instructor. According to Spöttll (2011) and Androniceanu et al. (2015)
being professional, owning or demonstrating a culture of professionalism, professional workforce and
being involved in professional development is part of the definition for professional TVET instructors.
ESD requires a different and more constructive focus in teaching. Instructors need to gain
insight through constructive experience, that acquiring competence is a self and an active process that
can be nurtured but not created. In the Dynamic Model of ESD Competence by Sleurs (2008) there are
three competencies namely; i) Teaching, ii) Reflecting / Insightful, and iii) Networking.
In a study conducted by Sleurs & Willy (2008), they developed the CSCT Project in response
to the challenge of the Minister of Environment (UNECE) in 2003 for Sustainable Development
Education in curricula from pre-school, higher education and adult education. In 2002, the international
organization ENSI developed the “Comenius-3 SEED” project aimed at identifying implicit and
explicit definitions of the values of Environmental Education as used to guide, support or award Eco-
Schools involved in incorporating the principles and actions for sustainability throughout the school
plan. The study is also involved in identifying and documenting innovative case studies in the
discipline. The information published in the publication is a Comparative Study on Eco-school
Development Process (Morgenstern & Mayer, 2005). Enlightened by a comparative study, a proposal
for quality criteria for ESD in schools was published later under the title Quality Criteria for ESD-
Schools, Guidelines to enhance the quality of Education for Sustainable Development (Breiting, Mayer
& Morgenstern, 2005).
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Figure 4.0 Dynamic Model of ESD Competence
Based on figure 4.0 above, communication is the first competency in the model, emphasizing
on the balance of dialogue between instructors and students and between fellow students. This means
that the traditional tasks performed by instructors such as teaching, instructing and communicating will
change as ESD develops. The second competency has a greater emphasis in ESD, as ESD should be
done taking into account future orientation as well as local and global orientation. Insights and creating
new perspectives considered as an important task because the role of educational transformation is a
key issue in ESD. ESD creates a learning environment with a continuous loop that contains, sees, plans,
acts and reflects. ESD requires the creation of learning opportunities in society.
In teaching and learning for ESD, the five domains are; i) knowledge, ii) thought systems, iii)
emotions, iv) ethics and values, and v) action need to be applied to each professional dimension and all
these dimensions relate to all the overall competencies of the instructor. Knowledge is a specific feature
for ESD, it relates to time (past, present and future) as well as to space (local and global). Knowledge
is built by each individual and has evolved with all the experiences in each life and needs to take into
account the knowledge of social structure. The capacity of knowledge determines its quality. Today
viability must be linked to responsibility for nature and critical thinking is essential. The complexity
and interconnectedness of today’s world requires thinking in systems. There is a view that analytical
thinking and reductionist thinking are not sufficient to envision a sustainable future or to solve current
problems. Different types of systems are addressed: biological, geographical, ecological, political,
economic, social, psychological including the relationship between time and space. This implies
consciousness to be part of the earth’s living system in space and time. Thinking, predicting, evaluating,
making decisions and acting are inseparable from emotions.
Therefore, emotional competence is essential for the commitment and process of ESD.
Empathy and compassion play an important and interconnected role with the world as the basis for
intrinsic motivation in ESD. Norms, values, attitudes, beliefs and assumptions drive perceptions,
thoughts, decisions and actions and also influence our feelings. The main guiding principle of ESD is
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equity i.e. social, intergenerational, gender, community, equality and nature is included in some
concepts of ESD. Action is a process, in which all the competencies of the other four domains combine
meaningful participation and networking in ESD. It requires special addition of practical skills, abilities
and competencies in the areas of project management and collaboration. All four levels of action should
be considered for ESD i.e. actions make it possible to experience conflicts of interest, change, learn
from mistakes, synergy and success. All of these can increase motivation for further learning and
continuous action. Action allows for the application of solidarity developed through empathy and
compassion.
For each of the five domains of competence are at three different levels namely; i) instructors
as individuals are concerned with reflection and vision, ii) instructors in educational institutions are
concerned with teaching and communication, and iii) instructors in society are concerned with
collaboration and networking. Sleurs & Willy (2008), prioritize expertise in the field and assessment
while Ahmed (2011) in his study explained that individuals need to have high value in pedagogical
knowledge and assessment. However, the teaching staff in TVET institutions can use in the form of
visual media, audio, text and graphics in generating students' minds. In addition, educators can also make
transformations or create something new, either in resources or methods related to teaching and learning
(P&P) to generate students’ minds to receive the knowledge and skills taught. Instructors need to be
innovative including the ability to modify existing techniques or methods for better ways.
As reported by Yahaya & Jaafar (2005), responsibility is one aspects of leadership personality
in enhancing the professionalism of TVET instructors. Increasing responsibilities require them to have
some skills in addition to interpersonal and intrapersonal skills. The interpersonal aspects of TVET
instructors, they need to understand the interests of students and know their weaknesses. Effective
instructors in interpersonal relationships are refered as those who can build relationships with students,
where the formation of feelings of closeness, security and trust. Instructors also provide vital support,
encouraging community values and love in the classroom, which creates quality relationships and can
motivate students to be more successful in their academics and social life.
Therefore, the competence of ILJTM instructors is one of the important elements that must exist
in performing duties and responsibilities with excellence. If the teaching staff does not have good
competencies in terms of knowledge, skills, attitudes and professionals it will hamper the goals of the
country. This is because instructors are one of the foundations for the country in terms of education. By
having professional competencies among instructors, the quality of the country will be able to be
improved. The key that every instructors needs to have is competence. Competence is a set of teaching
knowledge and skills in performing professional duties so that educational goals can be achieved well
(Yahaya, 2006 and Davis et al., 2009).
The Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of this study is based on the constructs and dimensions that have been
obtained from the document analysis that is the literature review. In this study, the independent variable
is competence and the dependent variable is TVET sustainability. Dimensions for competence are
vocational knowledge, functional skills, values and professionalism (Kaprawi N, Razzaly W. & Zainal
A., 2019). While the dimensions for TVET sustainability are training infrastructure, curriculum design,
industry relations, staff development and quality assurance (UNESCO, 2005; Minghat & Yasin, 2010).
The conceptual framework of the study on the influence of instructor competence on the sustainability
of TVET is as in figure 5.0 below.
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Competence;
• Vocational Knowledge TVET Sustainability;
• Functional Skills • Training Infrastructure
• Values • Curriculum Design
• Professionalism • Industrial Relations
. • Staff Development
• Quality Assurance
Figure 5.0 Conceptual Framework of Adaptation Study from Adaptation from Minghat (2010)
and Ahmad Zainal (2015)
Methodology
The study was conducted later using a non-experimental type of study design. A set of questionnaires
was used as a research instrument in the survey method on the study sample which aimed to obtain
information from part of the population related to the variables in this study. This quantitative approach
is used to facilitate data acquisition and to ensure the reliability, validity and descript ability of the data
to be obtained. Questionnaires are distributed to the study population, namely TVET instructors at the
Training Institutions of the Department of Manpower (ILJTM) throughout the country. Probability
sampling techniques will be used involving stratified random sampling methods, cluster random
sampling and finally simple random sampling. Based on a combination of several sampling methods,
finally the number of samples targeted in this study is determined given the location involving all 32
ILJTMs throughout the country as shown in Table 1.0. According to Sekaran (2016), simple random
samples have the lowest level of bias and offer the highest level of generalization.
After the questionnaires are obtained from TVET instructors throughout ILJTM selected
through simple random sampling, then the data are analyzed using statistical analysis software using
IBM SPSS version 26.0. Among the analysis involved in this study are descriptive statistical analysis
and inferential statistical analysis.
Multiple Regression Tests are used to identify changes in two or more factors (independent
variables) that contribute to changes in a dependent variable (Chua, 2021). Therefore, this study uses a
regression test of various stepwise solution procedures to analyze the dimensions in the instructor
competence component that are predictors to the sustainability of TVET in ILJTM. Multiple regression
analysis has been widely used in research (Hair et al., 2019). Before a researcher conducts correlation
analysis and multiple regression analysis, several pre-requisites need to be met for each independent
and dependent variable namely linearity test and normality test (Hair et al., 2019; Patricia Leavy, 2017;
Robert Burke Johnson, Larry B. Christensen, 2016).
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Table 1.0.
Population Table and Sampling Techniques used in the selection of the study sample
Combined Random Sampling Method

Stratified Cluster Simple
North Territorial Zone
(658 instructors)
JMTI (114)
ADTEC Kulim (72) JMTI (114)
ADTEC Taiping (77) ILP Kangar (69)
ILP Kangar (69) ILP Kepala Batas 247
ILP Kepala Batas (64) (64)
ILP Nibong Tebal (61)
ILP Jitra (93)
ILP Ipoh (108)
Central Territorial Zone
(347 instructors)
Adtec Shah Alam (107) ILP Kuala Langat
58
ILP Kuala Lumpur (112) (58)
ILP Kuala Langat (58)
ILP Pedas (70)
South Territorial Zone
(420 instructors)
Adtec Batu Pahat (68)
32 ILJTM ILP Pasir Gudang
ADtec Melaka (72)
(2198 (96) 154
ILP Pasir Gudang (96)
instructors) ILP Mersing (58)
ILP Tangkak (69)
ILP Mersing (58)
ILP Selandar (57)
East Coast Territorial
Zone
(403 instructors)
ILP K. Terengganu
Adtec Jerantut (60)
(95) 191
Adtec Kemaman (55)
ILP Kuantan (96)
ILP Kota Baharu (97)
ILP K. Terengganu (95)
ILP Kuantan (96)
East Territorial Zone
(370 instructors)
Adtec Bintulu (54)
ILP Kota Kinabalu
ILP Kota Kinabalu (74)
(74) 131
ILP Sandakan (57)
ILP Sandakan (57)
ILP Labuan (73)
ILP K. Samarahan (52)
ILP Miri (60)
Total sampling N = 322
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Instruments
The format of the questionnaire is in the form of a Likert Scale where the respondent can choose the
answer criteria related to the respondent himself. The questions are assessed on a five (5) item scale,
from a scale of one (1) representing strongly disagree to a scale of five (5) meaning strongly agree. In
this study, two independent variables were selected namely instructors’ competence. While the
dependent variable is the sustainability of TVET. To measure the independent variables of instructors’
competence and the dependent variables of TVET sustainability, researcher uses a questionnaire
developed by Ahmad Zainal (2015) and Kaprawi et al. (2019) based on The Education for Sustainable
Development Toolkit McKeown (2002), Competencies for ESD Teachers Sleurs (2008) and the
Sustainable Education Development Framework for Technical and Vocational Education in Malaysia
by Minghat & Yasin (2010). The instrument used for the independent variable was used by Kaprawi et
al. (2019) in their study entitled Sustainability of Sustainable TVET Lecturers’ Competencies. While
the instrument used to measure the dependent variables was used by Ahmad Zainal (2015) in a study
entitled TVET Program Sustainability Model based on Instructors’ Competence and Sustainable
Practices of Vocational Colleges.
The Importance of Study
The results of the study and the information obtained are important as reference material as well as a
guide to the authorities, especially to TVET practitioners in Malaysia. This study will produce various
interests in terms of theoretical and practical aspects which can increase knowledge and understanding
of the concept of TVET program sustainability in Public Skills Training Institutions (ILKA), especially
in the Department of Manpower Training Institutions (ILJTM). It is hoped that the findings at the end
of this research and study is the suitability of a TVET sustainability model in ILJTM which will be a
reference for all TVET practitioners at every level whether curriculum development personnel,
instructors, facilitators, policy makers and so on.
In general, the findings of this study can detail some of the theories and models that underlie
this research and will be used in this study such as the theory and Model of Education Sustainable
Development (ESD) by UNESCO (2005), Dynamic Model of ESD Competence (2008) and The Ice
Berg Model (Macclelland, 1993; Hay Mc Ber, 2005). It is hoped that the findings at the end of the study
can verify the suitability of the best boundary model that can show the influence and relationship of
each dimension and sub-dimensions identified and the values for Fitness indexes are high and reach the
desired value.
Conclusion
This concept paper is expected to provide an understanding of the concept and goals of sustainable
education development to help improve the effectiveness of the implementation of TVET sustainability
in the country in general and ILJTM in particular. This is because based on the views and ideas of the
UNESCO organization, the concept of sustainable education development (ESD) is needed to ensure
a better quality of life and impact TVET graduates to become sustainable workers. It can be concluded
that, in order to develop knowledge and skills that support economic development and enable the
community to improve their quality of daily life, then integrating ESD into TVET programs based on
instructor competencies is very important. Therefore, in order to increase the level of sustainability
effectiveness of TVET, some suggestions for improvement in terms of training infrastructure,
curriculum, industry relations, instructor expertise and training quality assurance must be taken action
by all involved in its implementation.
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DIFFERENCES IN SOCIAL SUPPORT BASED ON DEMOGRAPHIC

FACTORS AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS DURING THE
COVID-19 PANDEMIC
Norsimah Dasan, Balan Rathakrishnan, Muhammad Idris @Ferlis

Hj.Bahari, Laila Wati Madlan & Norkiah Arsat*
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: Norkiah.arsat@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The Covid-19 pandemic has led to the emergence of a new norm among university students. The movement
control command for breaking the Covid-19 chain has resulted in the online platform being fully used by
instructors to deliver courses to students. Meanwhile, students also need to make sure active participate in the
new teaching and learning environment and at the same time adhere to the SOPs which have been set.
Accordingly, social support is assumed to play an important role in ensuring the continuity of the role of
university students in completing academic assignments as well as socially responsible individuals. Social
support is categorized into 3 important aspects namely family support, peer support, and
significant individual support to studen This study was to identify the differences of these three social supports
based on the student’s place of residence during the pandemic period and the student’s gender. A quantitative
study was conducted by survey method on 590 samples of University Malaysia Sabah students who were
selected at simple random. The instrument used is the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support
(MSPSS). The results of the study found that peer support had significant differences based on where students
lived during a pandemic. Meanwhile, family support, and significant individual support, did not show significant
differences. Moreover, family support, peer support, and significant individual support had no significant
differences based on student gender. The implications of this study can offer new advice to the field of
psychology especially in increasing social support during pandemic periods. University authorities and
policymakers can use the statistics of this study for the construction of appropriate new modules or programs.
Keywords: Social support, Covid-19, a university student
In Malaysia, Movement Control Order (MCO) was first enforced on 18 March for a period of 2 weeks
before it was subsequently extended. The MCO, or also commonly known among international media
as a as a "lockdown" or "partial lockdown" (Sukumaran, 2020) is a cordon sanitaire implemented as a
preventive measure by the federal government of Malaysia in response to the COVID-19 pandemic
(Bunyan & John, 2020).
This was an attempt to protect people from getting infected by the virus as well as ensuring
local healthcare facilities from being overburdened by the uncontrollable cross-infections that could
result from free mingling among people. The measure comes in the form of nationwide closure of every
business chain including government and private premises except those involved in essential service,
suspension of all religious activities, prohibition of mass gathering and socialization, as well as local
and international travel ban, which creates problems later on.
MCO also tightened the implementation of teaching and learning in educational institutions.
Online learning is becoming the primary method of academic resources for students living outside of
their university. Physical contact restrictions are enhanced by practicing Standard Operation Procedures
such as social distancing, and hygienic sanitation practices.he university also implements a variety of
strategies so that students' studies can continue without receiving a greater impact due to the
implementation of the MCO. In addition, various courses and seminars related to social support and
awareness to students to remain resilient during a pandemic.
To be more precise this period of pandemic requires social support from various parties in order
for them to consistently perform their responsibilities as students. At the same time, they become
members of the community who are equally responsible for breaking the Covid-19 virus chain,
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behaving positively and adhering to community norms. Therefore, social support such as the support
from family, friend and significant others needs to be focused at this time.
Literature Review
The development of human life from childhood to the end of life is surrounded by the support of natural
and formal support systems. natural support gained through family, friends and significant others. This
support can be manifested through face-to-face meetings and online meetings as well (Wright, 2016).To
students' life, their presence is important as a support provider in performing academic assignments. In
fact, their support is essential to prevent any psychological illness (Aydin et al., 2016; Gayer-Anderson
& Morgan, 2012; Münzer et al., 2017).
According to relationship rule theory by Lakey and Orehek (2011), the well -being of an
individual is among others derived from the high level of social support in social networks. In fact, it is
also considered a protective factor from being affected by stress (Han et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2014).
Students in university typically perceive lecturers as formal social support (Azila-Gbettor & Abiemo,
2020). Furthermore, Ratelle et.al (2013) states other students' friends are romantic couples who can be
significant people to students as well .
Gender and Social Support

Previous studies have shown low social support from family, friends and significant others are more
likely to experience psychotic symptoms (Gayer, Anderson & Morgan, 2012). On the other hand, a
sense of belonging and unity can be achieved if high social support is obtained (Sippel et al., 2015).
To ensure that social support remains at a high level, then its relevance to demographic factors
needs to be identified. Study showed that women had a larger social network than men did (Caetano et
al., 2013). In the area of depression, social support played a more important role among women than
among men (Kendler et al., 2005).It is also supported by Zhang et.al (2018), female students receive
psychological distress when associated with social support. While the findings by Bahar et.al (2010)
were quite different when his study found perceived friend support and perceived social support from
someone special do not predict academic success. Studies that focus on peers as important social support
have found a dual role of interpersonal relationships - as stressors and as a source of social support.
Adolescents use sources of support that are familiar, mature, friendly, and most importantly worth
trusting.Their most appreciated type of support is emotional, although there should be a match between
the need and the help offered.(Camara et.al, 2017).
Students’ residency and social support

Previous studies have shown that residency factors have a diverse effect on social support among
students. As we all know, living on campus is considered a hallmark of engaged college life. Residing
in university housing predicts stronger academic outcomes, including first-year GPA and retention into
the second year of college (e.g. Schudde, 2011; Turley & Wodtke, 2010). However, study found that
students in low income families have benefited less from their friends support on campus (Schudde,
2016). Differential effects could reflect financial constraints faced by low-income students that make
them unable to engage as frequently with their peers.
Based on the findings of the study described then it is clear that the role of demographic factors
has different effects on social support. However, previous studies have not linked it to the time
background of the pandemic. Since it is considered a gap in the study obtained then social support
during a pandemic becomes the focus in this study.
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Objectives of study
i. To identify the differences of social support based on gender.

ii. To identify the differences of social support based on students’ residency.
Research questions
i. Is there any significant difference in social support based on gender?

ii. Is there any significant difference in social support based on students’ residency?
Hypothesis
Ho1: There is no significant difference in social support based on gender.

Ho2: There is no significant difference in family support based on student’s residency.
Ho3: There is no significant difference in friend support based on student’s residency.
Ho4: There is no significant difference in significant other support based on student’s residency.
Methodology
Research Design
This study is a field study that uses survey as the research method. Questionnaires were distributed
online for respondents to answer questions. The ease of answering online is also appropriate in times of
pandemic.
Sampling
According to Hair et.al (2010), the minimum sample size is 150 when considering models containing
seven or fewer constructs, each with more than three items. The participants are recruited by using
simple random sampling. A total of 590 students which is more than minimum sample size as stated by
Hair was applied. Respondents are from 10 faculties of Universiti Malaysia Sabah.
Instruments
The researcher uses the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS). The instrument
was developed by Zimet et.al,(1988). It use to measure the family support (e.g., “I get the emotional
help and support from my family”), friends support (e.g., “I can talk about my problems with my
friend”), and significant others support (e.g., “There is a special person who is around).
The questionnaire is composed of 20 items and uses a 7-point scale ranging from 1 = very
strongly disagree to 7 = very strongly agree. There are four items for each dimension. The mean score
for each dimension ranging from 1 to 2.9 represents low support; from 3 to 5 represent moderate support
and from 5.1 to 7 represent high support. MSPSS has good reliability. Cronbach's alpha value is 0.89
(Ng et al., 2010) and .91 in the research of Wongpakaran and Wongpakaran (2012).
Findings
Anova analysis method was used to determine the predicted hypotheses. The findings are shown in the
tables below.
Table 1 shows the significant value of dimensions in social support. Family support shows
F(1,588)=1.65, p>.05). Meanwhile friend support shows F(1,588)=2.47, p>.05) and significant other
support shows F(1,588)=0.39, p>.05). The data for the three dimensions shows there are not significant
differences in social support based on gender among respondents. It means Ho1 was accepted. The
results also mean that social support has not different for male and female students during pandemic.
Next are the findings of social support differences based on student residence as shown in
Table 2.Based on table 2, results were obtained through Anova. Friend support has difference
significantly, F (5,584) =3.07, p <05). It means Ho3 is rejected. Meanwhile family support
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[F(5,584)=1.37,p>0.5)] and significant other support [F(5,584)=1.67,p>0.5)] shows none of them have
significant differences based on student’s residency. Therefore, Ho2 and Ho4 are accepted.
To identify residential types that contribute to significant differences in friend support, the pair
comparison results after controlling for Type 1 errors using the Bonferroni method were use and as
shown in Table 3.
The mean value of friend support for students living in university hostel, and relatives house
(mean difference = 3.62, p <.05) was significant. Similarly, friend support for those living in university
hostel and parents' house (mean difference = 1.90, p <.05). This means that the overall difference above
is due to the difference of the three types student residence. Figure 1 shows the graph of mean value of
students living in university hostel was higher indicating that friend support in university hostel are
higher than other residence.
Table 1:
Significant Difference between Male and Female in Family Support, Friend Support and
Significant Other Support
GENDER
MALE FEMALE
M SD N M SD N F df p
Family support 5.66 1.34 138 5.49 1.28 452 1.65 219.6 .56
Friend support 5.12 1.31 138 5.31 1.19 452 2.47 210.4 .15
Significant Other Support 5.46 1.37 138 5.37 1.45 452 .39 238.0 .14
Table 2:
Significant Difference in Family Support, Friend Support and Significant Other Support based on
student’s residency
MS F p R2
Family support 36.7 1.37 .23 .012
7
Friend support 71.5 3.07 .01 .026
0
Significant Other Support 54.6 1.67 .14 .014
4
Table 3:
Pairwaise Comparison for Friend Support
Mean Diff. SE Sig
Rental house 1.3346 3.6203 1.000
Universit
Relatives house 3.6203 1.18939 .037
y Hostel Parents house 1.8982 1.18939 .023
Rental room 3.6203 2.22743 1.000
Others 3.6203 1.79325 .458
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Figure 1. Mean value of students living in university hostel
Discussion
As noted in the above findings, gender factors did not significantly affect social support during
pandemic. it means the Covid-19 pandemic situation did not result any changes in support from family,
friends and those who were significant to students.
There are several possible reasons to explain why this finding was obtained. A potentially
deadly pandemic situation forces all parties to focus on security factors. This also involves the social
network of students in university. For parents, friends and significant others, support being given
regardless of gender. It is quite different in a situation without a pandemic. Usually, female students
always get focused from various parties. They are present higher levels of family-related protective
factors. For example, the social control of female students appears to be stronger and more intensive
than is the case for male students (Weerman et al,2015), female students have stronger bonds with their
parents (e.g., Svensson, 2003), and the high level of parental monitoring towards female students
(Norsimah et.al 2014). It is different during a pandemic. Safety factors become paramount. Male and
female students found that social support from family, friends and significant others showed no
difference in ensuring they live in good and safe life (Alghamdi,2021).
The findings also showed friend support showed significant differences than family and
significant others based on student residency. Although in times of pandemic, the university has allowed
students to return to their families, but there are still some of them stay in university hostels with strict
standard operation procedures control, houses and rented rooms, relatives' houses and others. Since the
social circle of students during a pandemic was among of their friends living close to the same hostels,
then support from friends was most relevant at that time. This is in line with Bronfrenner’s ecological
systems theory asserting that the functionality of an individual is formed as a result of systems that exist
in the individual’s environment (Bronfrenbrenner, 1999).
As a student, they still need to pursue academic assignments that require cooperation from
group members and the student community. Group discussions, assignment presentations, academic
exercises and other task given by the course in university require physical as well as visual interaction.
This means that proximity factors have the expected effect in ensuring the successful achievement.
These findings support the results of a study conducted by Tomas-Miguel,(2021) which confirmed that
the particular degree to which students are in university determines the influence of this proximity factor
on the dynamics of academic relationships.
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Conclusion
The Covid-19 epidemic had a major impact on the lives of the entire population of the world. The effect
is also felt by students at the university. They need to have social support to ensure academic
achievement and also control their behaviour in order to avoid themselves from Covid-19 virus. This
study also proves that during this pandemic, social support does not differ based on student demographic
factors such as gender, and student residency. everyone took the pandemic seriously and did not
differentiate their emotional and psychological support to university students.
Acknowledgements
This study was conducted with the support from Special Grant Scheme, Universiti Malaysia Sabah
(SDK-0287-2020).
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAM AND ITS EFFECT ON YOUTH’S

ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE ENVIRONMENT
Nur Syazana Binti Aziz* , Nurul Afiqah Binti Mohd Nazzi, Cossicca Binti Tenggok@Lee
Eliysia Mohiding, Sonita anak Buyong, Samantha Mae Lim Wee Ping, Getrude Cosmas
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: bp18110131@student.ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The environment is a precious possession that showcases the earth's beauty. However, the condition of the
environment has deteriorated in the past decade due to human activities and inability to appreciate the
contribution of the environment in our lives. Environmental awareness should be publicized to ensure the earth's
sustainability. Therefore, it is important to instill positive attitudes towards the environment. One way to instill
a positive attitude towards the environment is by organizing the environmental program by referring to the Yale
Model. This may help to create environmental awareness and lead to positive attitudes towards the environment.
The study aims to examine youths' attitudes and each of the attitude components (i.e., affective, behaviour, and
cognitive) towards the environment before and after the environmental program. The participants were youths
aged 15 to 20 (N=29). A set of questionnaires comprising two parts was used. Part A measured the participants'
demographic profile, while Part B measured the attitude towards the environment and each attitude component.
A similar set of questionnaires was given to participants for the pre- and post-study (i.e., before and after
participants completed the one-day program). The Paired Sample t-test showed no significant difference in
participants’ attitudes, and each attitude component before and after participants took part in the environmental
program. The outcomes of this study are elaborated in the discussion section. The study showed that in
organizing an environmental program, the organizers need to identify external factors that might enhance the
effectiveness of the attitude change program, besides the Yale Model. For instance, time duration, participants’
ability to access the online environmental program, and the program’s content might affect the effectiveness of
the environmental program.
Keywords: Attitude, attitude change, environment
Introduction
Environmental problems have become a crisis for all humans. People have seen the connection between
environmental disasters and quality of life. Quality of life has been affected by climate change. The EPA
(2016) reported several impacts of climate change, such as the increase in temperature, changes in
precipitation, increases in the frequency of extreme weather events, and rising sea levels. The WHO
(2016) estimated and predicted that between 2030 and 2050, climate change will cause approximately
250,000 additional deaths per year from malnutrition, diarrhoea, and heat stress. Climate change cannot
be ignored, as these issues will continue to arise. Human activities, such as urbanisation, deforestation,
and pesticide and insecticide use, have resulted in an imbalance in the environment, including air and
water pollution.
One of the factors contributing to environmental problems is a lack of awareness among public
for taking care of their environment. For instance, there are still many people who do not fully engage
in the recycling programme or adhere to the zero use of plastic bag campaign. Lack of awareness may
lead to negative attitudes toward taking care of and preserving nature. Cherry (2021) defines attitudes
as beliefs and behavior toward a certain event, person, or information. Attitudes can be learned through
various sources such as observational, classical, and operant conditioning. In observational learning,
people may observe others taking care of their environment such as their family members, neighbors,
and society. Lack of awareness among a community for taking care and preserving nature may influence
one’s attitudes. In contrast, if people around them showed great concern and worry for the environment
and engaged in green activities, other people might also behave in similar ways. Thus, people can
change their attitude to match their behavior and change the community’s behavior toward a certain
object such as the environment.
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In addition to observational learning, people’s positive attitude towards protecting the

environment can also be learned through environmental education or programmes. For example,
environmental activities or programmes that have been conducted by the government or non-government
agencies can help raise awareness among communities to preserve the environment as well as change
the community’s attitude towards the environment.
In this study, the main objective was to instill positive attitudes towards the environment among
youths. This may create awareness of the importance of preserving and taking care of the environment.
In addition, the participants' attitudes towards waste management issues were also explored by using the
error-choice items method.
Literature Review
Past studies revealed that an environmental education workshop can help to instill a positive attitude
towards the environment. For example, an environmental education workshop held in Belgrade that
emphasized the basic aim of environmental education enhanced the knowledge, understanding, attitudes,
skills and awareness of individuals and social groups towards protecting the environment (UNESCO
UNEP IEEP Environmental Education Series 6, 1990). Environmental education programmes are not
just a subject of education but an expansion of its whole philosophy recognizing our environment as
continuous with ourselves and in need of the same case and understanding we give our personal and
social well-being (Smyth,1995). Many researchers or educators have pointed out that a solution to the
environmental crisis will require environmental awareness and its proper understanding, which should
be deeply rooted in the education system at all levels of the education system. Increasing environmental
awareness and education can be performed through teaching programmes (Shukla, 2001).
Generalising environmental education programmes into schools as a regular part of the

curriculum can increase public environmental awareness and exhibit a commitment to environmental
protection. Environmental education can be taught as early as primary school, whether it is integrated
into existing disciplines, taught as a subject, or introduced into adult education programmes. Soryte and
Pakalniskiene (2019) showed the importance of caring for the environment from the perspective of
children. Caring for the environment is vital to ensure that the earth is sustainable for living creatures.
If the environment is not protected, the world will become more polluted, and this will affect people’s
health and well-being. A polluted environment can cause various health problems in which unattended
environmental cleanliness and safety may lead to multiple diseases, such as breathing difficulties and
itchiness, in humans and disrupting the habitat of flora and fauna. In addition to health factors, caring
for the environment can also preserve the earth's beauty and resources. Damage to the environment can
cause destruction to the earth. For example, open burning in forests or dry places can cause large fires,
which can destroy human, animal, and plant habitats.
A study conducted by Tan and Lau (2010) revealed that rapid economic growth and the nature
of consumer behaviour are also causes of environmental degradation. Consumerism is an ongoing
problem, especially in developed and developing countries. However, there are some countries that are
reviving the green movement to generate environmental awareness. Tan and Lau (2010) also revealed
that there were no significant differences between males and females regarding their attitudes towards
‘green’ products. Their study also found that personal norms or attitudes are the most important
contributors in emphasising protection towards the environment.
Attitude Change Module
To implement an attitude change programme that focuses on the environment, an attitude change module
was designed, referring to the Yale model (Hovland et al., 1953). This model emphasises the practical
question of “who says, what, in which channel, to whom, and with what effects.” This refers to the source
of messages, the content of messages, and the target audience, i.e., those who are being persuaded
(Bordens & Horowitz, 2002) and the effects. These variables were included in an attitude change
programme focusing on the environment.
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In terms of the source of the message, a person should possess both expertise and trustworthiness
to increase the source credibility, which is the extent to which the persuader is believable (Bordens &
Horowitz, 2002). To ensure that attitude change is more successful, the committee decided to invite a
speaker that was credible to deliver a talk on environmental actions (Jain & Posavac, 2001). In this
programme, the speaker was a lecturer from the Institute of Tropical Biology and Conservation (ITBC)
of the University Malaysia Sabah. One of the missions of this institute is to strive for environmental
conservation (Azrie, 2020). With such an academic background, the speaker demonstrated his expertise
in environmental conservation. In this programme, the speaker did not gain any personal benefits. This
may add to his trustworthiness as a speaker, which in turn raises his credibility as a significant source in
delivering environmental messages.
Apart from the source element, another factor that greatly affects the outcome of attitude change
is the content of the message. The founders of the Yale model revealed that the messages that elicit a
small amount of fear are more persuasive than those messages that are highly fearful (Hovland et al.,
1953). In the attitude change programme, fear was present, but it was not overwhelming. Through the
presentation of videos, our programme showed the participants some of the negative consequences that
arise from environmental issues, such as the rise in global temperature and seawater acidity, which can
affect everyone. Furthermore, the presented consequences were destructive, but they were not
immediate, and there is still time for them to make a change. While fear was present, some useful
suggestions were also provided to mitigate the consequences (Petty, 1995). Moreover, the environmental
programme contained several activities that offered the participants’ advice on environmental
conservation.
Another factor of Yale's attitude change approach is the target audience. The audience strongly
affects how likely someone is to be persuaded. There are some features that can affect persuasion,
including attention, intelligence, self-esteem, and age. According to Rhodes and Wood (1992), people
with lower intelligence are more easily persuaded than people with higher intelligence, whereas those
intermediate in self-esteem are more easily persuaded than those who have lower or higher self-esteem.
Similarly, young adults that are 18 to 25 years old are easier to persuade than older adults. Younger
people are more susceptible to persuasive messages or advertisements than the elderly. The targeted
audiences in this programme were young adults between the ages of 15 and 20, as they were more likely
to be persuaded on how to take care of the environment. Moreover, these young adults should spend and
connect themselves with nature so that they will be more willing to care for the environment.
The effects of the source, the message, and the audience on attitude change are mediated by
attention, comprehension, and acceptance. According to Hovland and Janis (1959), attention and
comprehension determine what the audience will learn concerning the content of the persuaders’
messages, and the other process involving changes in motivation is presumed to determine whether the
audience will accept or adopt what they learn. Therefore, this programme strove to catch the attention
of participants and provide them with comprehensible messages on environmental conservation to
generate a new attitude, thereby achieving the objectives of this programme.
Methodology
Participants
There were 29 participants who responded to the questionnaire, which measured their attitude towards
the environment. Most of the participants were females (83.33%), while only 16.67% were males
(16.67%). The mean age of the participants was 17.60 years old. They were mostly from secondary
school in Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia, and some of them were from the University of
Malaysia Sabah. The participants were of different ethnicities, which included Malay (23.3%), Chinese
(13.3%), Indian (13.3%), Iban (40.0%), and Kadazan (10.0%). The questionnaire was distributed to the
participants through Google Form via social media and online platforms.
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Location
Since face-to-face meetings were prohibited due to the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic, the online
platform Google Meet was selected as the main medium for the programme to be conducted. As there
were fewer limitations for space and time using the online platforms, the invitation link and the event
poster were spread throughout Malaysia via social media, including Facebook, Instagram, and
WhatsApp, to reach a larger number of potential participants.
Instruments
In this study, a set of questionnaires, consisting of two parts, was used to obtain data. Part A recorded
demographic information. Part B measured attitudes towards the environment based on the three
components of attitude (emotion, cognitive, and behaviour). The attitude scale uses a 5-point Likert scale
to determine the level of agreement, with 1 indicating strongly disagree and 5 indicating strongly agree.
Overall, there were 32 items in the set of questionnaires. In addition, this questionnaire was designed
using both English and Malay translations to ease the process. A pilot study was conducted to determine
the validity and reliability of the questionnaire. Then, it was transferred to Google Form and distributed
to the participants. The Google form survey was sent twice to measure participants’ attitudes towards
the environment before and after they had completed the environmental programme.
Research Design
The research design applied to this study was a pre- and post-study design. Pre- and post-study design
compares the incidence of an outcome before and after implementing a specific intervention (Thiese,
2014). In this case, the implementation of the programme “Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Rethink” was
used to raise awareness regarding environmental issues and promote actions in helping to overcome
these issues by focusing on attitude, especially among secondary students. The pre-study questionnaire
was distributed the day before the programme was held, and then a post-study questionnaire was again
distributed to the participants after the programme. According to Baldwin (2018), the pre- and post-
study design allows the researcher to determine the effects of the programme compared to a post-test
only design.
Procedure
In this study, consent was obtained from all participants, and then a pre-test questionnaire was distributed
to the participants the day before the programme. The programme was conducted through the Google
Meet platform with a notable speaker and the participation of students from secondary school. Once the
programme ended, the participants were asked to answer the post-study questionnaire. The pre- and post-
programme questionnaires were similar and distributed through a Google Form survey. Data from the
Excel template of the Google Form survey was transferred to the SPSS (v. 27.0) template for final
analysis.
Results
Table 1 shows the Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficients of the attitude scale and each of its
components pre- and post-study. According to Ozdamar (1999), if the internal consistency coefficient
of Cronbach’s alpha is within the range of 0.80 < α < 1.00, the scale is highly reliable. Therefore, the
reliability values for the attitude scale were acceptable and reliable.
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Table 1
Reliability Values for Pre- and Post- Study
Time Cronbach’s Alpha
Pre- study emotion .85

Post-study emotion .90
Pre- study behavior .92

Post-study behavior .91
Pre-study cognitive .88

Post-study cognitive .93
Pre-attitude .96
Post-attitude .97
Regarding the participants’ demographic characteristics, the respondents were high school
students between 16 and 20 years old. Most participants were female 25 (86.2%), and only 4 males
participated (13.8%). In terms of religious background, the majority of participants were Muslims (11;
37.9%), followed by Christians (9; 31.0%), Buddhists (4; 13.8%), Hindu (4; 13.8%), and other (1; 3.4%).
Table 2 shows the analysis of the paired sample t-test. There was no significant difference between the
pre- and post-study assessments regarding respondents’ attitudes towards the environment. The score
means pre-study (before the programme) were 4.04 (SD = 0.58), and post-study (after the programme)
were 3.95 (SD = 0.63; t(28) = 0.898, p > 0.05). Thus, the alternative hypothesis was rejected.
Table 2
The Analysis of Paired Sample T-test to Examine the Attitude Towards the Environment Before and After
Program
Attitude Mean SD t df Sig.

towards the value
environment
Before 4.04 0.58

program .89 28 .37
After 3.95 0.63

program
A paired sample t-test was also conducted to examine the difference pre- and post-study for each
attitude component. There were no significant differences in any of the attitude components before and
after the environmental programme (Table 3).
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Table 3
Paired Sample T-test Analysis to Examine Attitude Components Towards the Environment Before and
After the Programme
Attitude Before After t value df Sig.
Mean SD Mean SD
Behavior 4.0 0.64 3.97 0.59 0.36 28 .72
Emotion 4.0 0.56 3.96 0.65 0.49 28 .63
Cognitive 4.1 0.59 3.93 0.71 1.65 28 .11
Regarding respondents’ attitudes toward waste issues in Malaysia, an error-choice method was
used to examine participants’ implicit attitudes. The error-choice question was “In 2020, the municipal
solid waste in Malaysia has increased.” Respondents were only given two choices of answers: ‘25%’ or
‘75%’ (Table 4). Eight respondents answered ‘25%’ (27.6%). Meanwhile, the number of respondents
who answered ‘75%’ was 22 (72.4%). The cumulative percentage of respondents was 100%. This
indicates that only 27.6% of respondents showed positive attitudes, while the other 72.4% of respondents
showed negative attitudes towards waste management.
Table 4
Participants’ Attitudes Toward Waste Issues Based on the Error-Choice Method
In 2020, the municipal solid waste in Malaysia has Frequency Percent (%)
increased
25% 8 27.6
75% 21 72.4
Total 29 100
Discussion
The study showed that there were no significant differences in terms of respondents’ attitudes or each
attitude component towards the environment before and after the environmental programme. There are
several possible explanations for this situation based on past studies. A single several-hour programme
might not suffice to observe changes in environmental attitudes. A longitudinal study by Major et al.
(2017) revealed that university students’ environmental attitudes in Serbia increased throughout their
undergraduate years. Incorporating natural science and methodological elements into the curriculum
plays a large role in developing students’ positive attitudes toward environmental sustainability. This is
supported by Hijar et al. (2013), who performed a 3-month intervention programme on youths, including
high school students, and showed positive changes after the intervention programme. This demonstrates
that significant positive attitude changes toward the environment require more time and exposure to
develop.
To develop positive attitudes towards the environment among youths, it has been suggested that
environmental activities should be included in school, as stated by Yalcinkaya and Cetin (2018).
Environmental activities at school and the teacher's attitude may influence the student’s awareness of
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the environment. Gokce et al. (2007) also found that students showed positive attitudes towards the
environment because of the environmental education applied in school. Environmental education can
help students rethink the correlation between humans and the environment, begin to understand their
environment, be aware of environmental problems, and consider environmental issues related to their
lives (Lai, 2018). It can indirectly help students change their consumer mentality, perception, and
worldview about environmental issues.
In Malaysia, the Environmental Protection Society of Malaysia (EPSM) can influence students'
attitudes towards the environment. Environmental advocates have an important role to play in raising
awareness about environmental issues among students and the community. In contrast, individual
personalities also have a direct link to a positive environmental attitude. Openness traits (e.g., open to
new things and experiences) significantly predicted pro-environmental behaviour, climate change
acceptance, and ecological self-concept, while the agreeableness trait was predictive in the latter two
constructs (Gibbon & Douglas, 2021). Therefore, students’ attitudes towards the environment may be
innate. However, through engagement in green activities and exposure to people around them who
concern about the environment can change students’ perceptions towards the environment.
In the present study, participants were given some advice on sustainable environmental
practices, such as those for waste management, water conservation, and energy conservation.
Environmental knowledge and awareness might not be adequate to promote pro-environmental attitudes
among participants. Regarding behaviour, Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) argued that behaviour is likely to
be modified when individuals are aware of a given social norm and, more crucially, accept this norm.
Chan (1998) studied recycling in Hong Kong and highlighted the importance of subjective norms in
encouraging others to participate in green activities. In terms of emotion, past studies on attitude
emphasised the importance of affective or emotional components (Breckler & Wiggins, 1992). Affective
components work together with the cognitive process, or the way we think, about an issue or situation.
Past findings showed that positive emotion impacts consumers’ ‘green’ behaviour (Lee, 2009). Hoyer
and MacInnis (2004) stated that thoughts (cognitive function) and feelings (affective function) are
directly impacted by the attitude people show, therefore impacting their overall perception of purchase-
related behaviour. Ottman (1992) reported that consumers accepted ‘green’ products when their primary
need for performance, quality, convenience, and affordability were met and when they understood how
‘green’ products could help to solve environmental problems.
In this study, participants’ attitudes towards the environment were also measured using the error-
choice technique. This method was used because the error-choice items can explain a systematic
responses pattern, while participants’ responses are partially attitudinal and are positively resistant to
socially desirable responses (Potter, 2010). In addition, the item is suggested to be disguised as a
knowledge test to hide the real purpose of measurement intention (Potter, 2010). The error-choice
method may also provide direct attitude instruments while yielding less biased data (Antonak & Livneh,
1995). In this study, the error-choice technique suggests that participants’ choice of answer could be
aligned with their attitude. Thus, when participants chose option ‘25%,’ they may initially project a
positive attitude towards waste management and the environment, but the lower percentage hinted at
their low contribution to the increase of local municipal solid waste. The same could be explained for
the ‘75%’ option, in which the higher percentage choice was related to their personal attitudes that
contributed to more waste production. The results showed an obvious percentage difference, indicating
that participants who practice a good environmental attitude towards waste issues are suggestively lower
than those who do not.
Due to this concern, the environmental programme focused on ways to organise and manage
waste efficiently to educate participants. Several possible attitudes that result in waste mismanagement
include food choosiness, forgetting to update food stocks, and overbuying (Gaiani et al., 2018). A recent
study demonstrated that using the perspective of future generations has a positive effect on attitudes
towards solid waste management (Pandit et al., 2020). Additionally, cooperative mechanisms, green
packaging, and education on waste sorting are recommended to enhance positive attitudes towards the
environment, specifically solid waste (Ye et al., 2020).
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Conclusions
The main goal of this environmental program is to effectively influence youth’s attitude regarding
environmental matters and empower the youth to protect and care for the environment by providing
relevant activities and talk. Although there were no significant effects of the environmental program on
youths’ attitude towards the environment, we believe that this program can help to create awareness and
instill positive attitudes toward the environment among participants. In addition, the environmental
program that was carried out can be an initial impetus to their steps in taking care of their environment.
Acknowledgements
This programme would not have been possible without the support of the committee members and from
the relevant sources who shared their experiences and views in taking care of the environment. Many
thanks to the lecturer who helped us supervise the programme and offered guidance.
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POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN THE REFUGEES: LIFE

EXPERIENCES AND CHALLENGES DURING THE COVID-19
PANDEMIC
Philiya Mary Thomas & Mimi Fitriana Zaini

*Corresponding author’s e-mail: philiyathomas22@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The COVID-19 pandemic has burdened and worsened the lives of the refugees residing in Malaysia, causing a
negative impact on their overall mental health. This research was conducted to examine how the refugees live
their traumatic lives during the pandemic, and their coping mechanisms dealing with the crisis. The research was
also to explore the refugees’ posttraumatic growth depleting their traumatic experiences with the present
challenges living in the current adverse condition during the pandemic. The mental healthcare services provided
to the refugees by the Government and a few other NGOs in Malaysia, during the crisis period, were also exposed.
Qualitative approach with phenomenological design was utilised in the study and semi structured interviews were
conducted to 7 refugees of different settings, based on the purposive sampling technique. Data was collected to
generate the themes by using the approach of thematic analysis with open and axial coding procedures. The
findings of this study revealed that past and present experiences of refugees affect their psychological well-being
significantly. However, the state of psychological well-being of the refugees varies, based on the dimensions.
Findings indicated refugees’ current psychological well-being is influenced by their past traumatic experiences
and is more imbalanced during the pandemic. Findings also indicated refugees’ perseverance coping with the
current COVID-19 pandemic challenges to increase their well-being despite being traumatised. Their
posttraumatic growth as coping mechanisms is exposed through their problem-focused and emotion-focused
strategies. Other themes were generated to expose the refugees’ mental capacity in self-acceptance, positive
relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life and personal growth as the components
in their psychological well-being. This study revealed the importance of posttraumatic growth of the refugees’
experiences during the COVID-19 crisis. The study implied significant traumatic life experiences among the
refugees to the development of mental health awareness and services that could be further analysed by the
professionals in different fields for their community and humanitarian aid to the refugees, especially during the
crisis period.
Keywords: Refugee; trauma; coping; well-being; challenges
Introduction
Persecution and oppression of individuals have led to major human rights issues where the rights of
individuals to live in one’s own country are threatened. Fear drives these individuals to seek refuge in
foreign countries. These individuals are known as refugees (Pittaway et al., 2018). According to The
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR] - The UN Refugee Agency (2020a),
Malaysia provides protection for the refugee community with the assistance of UNHCR. Based on the
statistics, there are reportedly 178,140 refugees and asylum-seekers registered with UNHCR in
Malaysia as of August 2020 (UNHCR - The UN Refugee Agency, 2020a). Although the refugees
originate from different countries, the reasons behind seeking refuge are similar globally, namely, war,
violence, abuse, injustice and famine (Morabia & Benjamin, 2015). These traumatising experiences, as
a result, have placed the refugees in a vulnerable position to mental health issues. This can be stated as
such because studies revealed the existence of psychological issues among refugees, particularly, post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety and depression (Shaw et al., 2018; Low et al., 2018; Riley et
al., 2017).
Moreover, the Covid-19 pandemic crisis has further aggravated the situation of refugees in
different parts of the world. Host countries that are not only responsible for citizens are to also take
measures to assist refugees in their country in the treatment of Covid-19 if contracted with the virus.
This raises a need for healthcare and overall raises the burden of the country (Truelove et al., 2020).
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The UNHCR - The UN Refugee Agency (2020b) reported rising cases of mental health issues
among refugees in the midst of Covid-19 pandemic. This concern warrants serious attention due to the
fact that the refugees, although having been able to cope either positively or negatively (Kok et al.,
2016) with past traumatic experiences, are facing an inevitable crisis with the consequences of Covid-
19 pandemic that is undeniably posing a greater mental health risk (Alemi et al., 2020).
In Malaysia, research had been conducted to examine the mental health and coping ability of
refugees, however the scale was limited (Kok et al., 2016; Low et al., 2018; Shaw et al., 2018).
Additionally, the majority of the studies conducted were quantitative in nature, as such, a detailed
understanding of refugee experiences are significantly lacking and attention was consistently given to
the mental health issues such as PTSD and depression (Low et al., 2018; Shaw et al., 2018; Kaur et al.,
2020). As such, this study was conducted in order to examine the posttraumatic growth of refugees
which is indeed reflected in the findings of this study that reveals the psychological well-being and
coping mechanisms of refugees during the Covid-19 pandemic.
This study significantly provided the knowledge for researchers to explore critical areas that relate to
refugees in Malaysia, exposing the life and struggles of refugees in Malaysia. Besides, this study enables
social workers, psychologists and counsellors to understand the critical circumstance of refugees in
Malaysia and thus provide aid to reach out and offer psychological support to refugees in need. It will
also indeed provide researchers an understanding into the posttraumatic growth of refugees especially
as this community endures unending challenges. This will prove significant as it urges individuals and
society to look beyond and understand the life of refugees.
Literature Review
Refugees are a group of community exposed to violence, torture, and all other forms of injustices which
as a result impact their psychological functioning. According to Perreira and Ornelas (2013) and
Phoenix Australia (2019), traumatic events that are commonly endured by refugees include witnessing
the death of family or friends due to massacre or murder, witnessing or experiencing abuse, rape or
torture, forced separation from loved ones, deprivation of basic human rights, experiencing loss of
status, nationality, possessions and livelihood. These indeed are some among the factors that contribute
to citizens leaving their country of origin as refugees.
Despite fleeing, refugees further encounter other forms of challenges during the process of
migration and resettlement. The reasons for this state can be attributed to separation from family in
home country, uncertainty about future in host country, unemployment, discrimination, difficulty in
adapting to the new culture and language of host country and concerns related to obtaining the refugee
status and lack of opportunities (Kirmayer et al., 2011; Nungsari et al., 2020). As a result, refugees
indeed become vulnerable due to the negative impact of the experiences on mental health (Schilling et
al., 2017).
Research identified several common mental health disorders prevalent among refugees due to
the stress and trauma encountered, namely, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety disorders,
and somatization (Bapolisi et al., 2020; Zbidatet al., 2020; Lau & Thomas, 2008). Although majority of
the findings point to the negative impact of mental health, a research study conducted by Owens-Manley
and Coughlan (2000) among Bosnian refugees in upstate New York revealed that refugees expressed
satisfaction with their lives in the face of difficulties. This indeed contradicts the common findings
which imply negative psychological states. To note, the term mental health does not only imply the
absence of mental illness. It also implies the positive aspects of an individual’s mental health, which is
the psychological well-being (Hernández-Torrano et al., 2020).
Impact of Trauma on Psychological Well-Being
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According to the World Health Organisation [WHO] (2020), mental health is defined as a state of
well-being whereby every individual recognises one’s own potential, possesses the ability to cope with
stressors, is able to work productively and is capable of contributing to society. This definition of mental
health reveals that an individual’s psychological well-being is closely related to the positive mental
health of an individual.
Walther et al. (2020) stated that refugees face the risk of developing a low level of psychological
well-being due to past traumatic experiences as well as challenging circumstances endured in host
countries. This is further evident in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic that has tremendously affected
refugee experiences. This statement is supported by the fact that changing demands and unpredictable
context of refugees places them in a state of being unable to manage surrounding struggles, challenges
or difficulties (Miller et al., 2002). For instance, the environmental demands required to be managed by
refugees in the midst of the Covid-19 pandemic places the refugees in a difficult situation to manage
struggles (Park et al., 2021). As such, it is necessary to note that past traumatic experiences and present
challenges can indeed influence the psychological well-being of refugees.
Another perspective that can be derived on the psychological well-being of refugees is that
refugees do hold certain characteristics that reveal a strong personality of making bold decisions. A
study by Zagor (2015) contended that refugees are to be regarded as autonomous beings due to the
intentionality of refugees in making dangerous choices, to flee their country of origin, and thereby place
refugees at risk of enduring physical and legal consequences. It is explained as the unwavering will of
an individual to make choices deemed right by one’s own moral standards. This indeed indicates the
relationship between psychological well-being and autonomy, suggesting that an individual’s autonomy
can reflect the psychological well-being of an individual. Nevertheless, it is to be noted that there are
instances whereby the opposite possibly occurs, such that, disadvantaged communities or individuals
choosing to remain silent in the face of persecution. This can be noted in the study by An and Bramble
(2017) among migrant workers, a disadvantaged community facing similar struggles to that of refugees.
Furthermore, Sleijpen et al. (2016) found that encountering traumatic experiences and difficult
life circumstances can possibly bring about positive changes in an individual, indicating growth from
experiences. The study conducted by Mohamed and Thomas (2017) revealed refugees have a high
resilience that encourages positive coping mechanisms when faced with stressors. It indicates a high
level of psychological well-being. Similar findings were also obtained by Fabio and Palazzeschi (2015).
Additionally, Umer and Elliot (2019) found that refugees rely on feelings of hope as a way to cope with
inevitable challenges. This is because hope holds a therapeutic quality that enables individuals to strive
forward in life. The studies thereby provide an understanding of the mental well-being of refugees in
the midst of crises.
Although it cannot be denied that certain experiences can bring about positive changes, the
truth of how trauma impacts an individual negatively cannot be overlooked. Slaninova and Stainerova
(2015) found that trauma causes individuals to have lower levels of self-acceptance and this is
influenced by the interaction one has with one’s environment. Self- acceptance is indeed a dimension
within psychological well-being (Ryff & Singer, 2006). Apart from that, the International Society for
Traumatic and Stress Studies (2016) found that traumatic experiences also develop feelings of distrust
and fear for safety in relationships. Consequently, traumatised individuals do not build close
relationships easily.
Furthermore, the Covid-19 pandemic has brought about a whirlwind effect on the mental health
of communities globally (Fitzpatrick et al., 2020; Kizzilhan & Nol-Hussong, 2020; Rees & Fisher,
2020). Specifically, individuals with a refugee background are highly affected due to the outbreak of
Covid-19. This is stated as such because evidence suggests that the Covid-19 pandemic worsened the
mental health status of refugees as past traumatic experiences of refugees are triggered which is also
further impeding the functioning ability of refugees (Rees & Fisher, 2020). The reason for this situation
can be attributed to the higher levels of control implemented by authorities in an effort to curb the spread
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of Covid-19. For instance, as found by Rees and Fisher (2020), the policy of lockdown and the effort
to ensure the implementation of it through military and police control could be viewed as a threat
situation for refugees as it causes refugees to reminisce past experiences of oppressive regimes by the
authorities in their country of origin.
Similar to the finding by Rees and Fisher (2020), Kizilhan and Noll-Hussong (2020) also
explains the exacerbated mental health condition of refugees due to the Covid-19 pandemic as it further
added on to the psychological suffering among refugees in the Iraqian camp. The study indicated a rise
in the rates of suicidal tendencies, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, somatoform
disorders and dissociation as compared to before the Covid-19 pandemic. Other studies also report a
rise in the prevalence of mental health disorders as a result of the pandemic (Xiong et al., 2020;
Brickhill-Atkinson & Hauck, 2020). Despite these explorations, Brickhill-Atkinson and Hauck (2020)
stated that literature on refugees is lacking, especially in relation to Covid-19 pandemic. This raises the
need for contribution to this area of study among refugees.
Malaysia, on the other hand, does not have studies exploring refugee experiences in the midst
of the Covid-19 pandemic. Nevertheless, an article by Daniel and Jeffrey (2020) reports that the living
conditions of refugees in Malaysia have in fact worsened especially as the source of income of refugees
became unstable with the pandemic due to the lockdown and movement control orders affecting the
continuation of businesses. This, thereby, indicated the need to conduct research understanding refugee
experiences and how the experiences impact refugees’ psychological well-being.
Coping Mechanisms of Refugees
In the event of challenging and traumatising experiences, it is common for refugees to develop different
coping patterns in order to deal with the losses suffered (Gladden, 2012). Lazarus and Folkman define
coping as the constantly changing behavioural and coping strategies that individuals adopt in order to
manage specific internal and external demands that are perceived to be overwhelming or taxing (as cited
in Gladden, 2012). According to Alzoubi et al. (2017), the coping patterns are in fact determinants of
the mental health status of an individual. In short, individuals who cope negatively will have a higher
predisposition to developing mental health disorders compared to those who cope positively.
In the study by Alzoubi et al. (2017), it was stated that Syrian refugees in Jordan mainly cope by
seeking social support through family and community. This finding was also consistent with the
assessment report produced by the International Medical Corps (2017). Through this, it can be deduced
that Syrian refugees strive to maintain strong relationships that will aid in preventing isolation and
rejection (Alzoubi et al., 2017). The International Medical Corps (2017) also reinstated that the primary
coping mechanisms of the Syrian refugees are collectivistic in nature whether positive or negative.
Similar patterns were also observed among Afghan refugees whereby social support is an important
factor that helps refugees overcome mental health problems (Ahmad et al., 2019). In addition to this,
Liberian refugees in Ghana coped similarly, that is, seeking social support, however, additional coping
strategies that the refugees relied on included prayer, participation in religious gatherings and by
engaging in small business activities to produce income (Dako-Gyeke & Adu, 2016). Based on the
studies, it can be deduced that in the refugee community, the main form of coping strategy that keeps
refugees moving forward would be the social support system of the refugees.
In Malaysia, Palestinian refugees dealt with the previous traumatic experiences by turning to
religion and spirituality, maintaining close knit connections with families in the conflict zones, formed
positive thoughts within themselves about the present living conditions as it is better compared to the
previous living condition in Palestine and by continuing to be hopeful despite the hardships in Malaysia
(Eid & Diah, 2019). Consistent with the findings of this study, Rohingya refugees in the United States
also turned to religion and spirituality and sought social support (Amat et al., 2019). Additionally, this
study revealed that an individual’s personality traits also strongly determine how the refugees respond
to past and present circumstances. It found that traits such as patience, respect and a strong mind aided
the Rohingya refugees to cope with the present stressors. Similar patterns of coping were also
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determined among the Myanmar teenage refugees in Malaysia, which are problem-focused coping
strategies. According to Kok et al. (2016) this style of coping involves help-seeking behaviours and by
fostering adaptive attitudes such as by turning to religion. Negative coping patterns such as avoidance
and spending long hours watching television have also been identified among the refugees (Kok et al.,
2016).
Wadworth (2016) addressed a lack of understanding on how and why individuals develop
maladaptive coping mechanisms. In the case of refugees, this is imperative to be considered due to the
high level of stressful experiences encountered. Although studies have shown how refugees commonly
cope, it is yet to be discovered as to how the already affected psychological well-being impacts coping
mechanisms of the refugees. Overall, the findings aforementioned summarises that the coping
mechanisms adopted by refugees could either be adaptive or maladaptive (Kasi et al., 2012).
Theoretical Background
The six-factor model of psychological well-being developed by Carol Ryff in the year 1989 was utilised
in order to understand the positive psychological functioning of individuals (Gao & McLellan, 2018).
This model consists of six dimensions, namely, a) autonomy, which entails whether the individual lives
in accordance with the conviction of the individual without being influenced by the expectations and
judgements of others in making decisions, b) personal growth, explains whether the individual
experiences continuous development of self and whether the individual recognises the potential within
and makes good use of it without lack of interest or stagnation, c) positive relationships refers to the
extent to which the individual shares a strong sense of trust, empathy and intimacy with significant
others, d) environmental mastery refers to whether the individual is competent in managing personal
affairs or difficulties faced, e) purpose in life refers to whether the individual finds meaning and purpose
in one’s own life as well as having a strong sense of direction and f) self-acceptance refers to the extent
to which the individual has a positive outlook towards self, that is being aware and accepting oneself
without feelings of disappointment and dissatisfaction (Ryff & Singer, 2006). These dimensions are
considered important due to the fact that it gives insight into the psychological functioning of refugees
specifically as the community continually experiences different forms of stressors.
Furthermore, this model is able to explain the important role of psychological well-being in
relating trauma and present challenges of refugees with the coping mechanisms adopted by refugees. It
can be stated that the psychological well-being model is a key component that affects the way in which
refugees cope with traumatic experiences and present challenges (Turashvili & Turashvili, 2015). Freire
et al. (2016) states that if an individual’s psychological well-being is healthy; the individual’s coping
mechanism would be adaptive rather than maladaptive. This indirectly posits that the model of
psychological well-being developed by Ryff is suitable in understanding how refugees cope with
stressors and why refugees cope in particular ways. Based upon this, it can therefore be stated that the
model is clearly in line with the purpose of this study.
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Figure 1
Six-Factor Model of Psychological Well-Being
Note. The figure shows the six dimensions of psychological well-being (Blaskova, 2016, p.20).
Methodology
Qualitative approach with phenomenological design was utilised in this study in order to obtain in-depth
understanding of the experiences and coping mechanisms of refugees. According to Austin and Sutton
(2015), qualitative studies allow researchers to explore the meaning that the research participants place
on the experiences encountered. It will further help researchers understand why and how the participants
behave in specific ways. The phenomenological design adopted in this study will also allow researchers
to empathetically understand the subjective experiences of participants (Austin & Sutton, 2015).
Semi structured interviews were conducted to 7 refugees of different settings, based on the
purposive sampling technique. The purposive sampling technique was used in order to select
participants based on certain criteria. This technique was used due to the reason that the sample,
refugees who experienced trauma, were referred to by the Education Director of the refugee centre
located in Klang, Malaysia. The inclusion criteria’s include; a) refugee, b) aged 18 and above and c)
able to understand and speak the English or Malay language. On the other hand, the exclusion criteria’s
are a) Malaysian citizens or foreigners who are not refugees, b) below the age of 18 years old and c)
does not speak or understand the English or Malay language.
The three research questions which were employed to the 7 participants were; 1) How have
the past traumatic experiences and present challenges impacted the psychological wellbeing of the
refugee community residing in Klang, Malaysia?, 2) How are the refugees coping with their past
traumatic experiences and challenges encountered in Malaysia in the midst of Covid-19 pandemic?, 3)
How have the government and non-governmental organisations extended mental healthcare in the midst
of Covid-19 pandemic to the refugees residing in Klang, Malaysia?
Data Collection Procedure
Permission was obtained to interview the refugee participants who were referred by the Education
Director of the refugee centre located in Klang, Malaysia. The centre was informed of the nature of
research, objectives of research and was clarified on the ethical aspects of the study. Upon obtaining
the approval and consent, the person in charge referred the participants to the researcher following the
inclusion and exclusion criteria’s of the study. Following this, the date, time and location for interview
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was discussed and agreed upon. Copies of the informed consent form were given to the participants to
read and review before beginning the interview session.
Participants were informed on the purpose, objectives and nature of the study, guaranteed
confidentiality of data that will be collected, the freedom to withdraw if the interview leads to the
participants feeling mentally or emotionally disturbed and consent from the participant to audio record
the session was obtained before beginning the interview session. Once participants were briefed on the
research study, the interview process began. The duration for the interview sessions ranged from 25-50
minutes. The interview was audio recorded. Then, the interview was transcribed and the collected data
was analysed.
Data Analysis
The data collected in this study was analysed using the thematic analysis approach. This analysis
method produced a rich analysis of data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Open coding and axial coding was
used to identify the themes in this research study.
Findings
The current research generated several themes from the main research questions. The generated themes
from the first research questions indicated the refugees’ past traumatic experiences and the challenges
in the current pandemic. The generated themes were shown in table 1 below.
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Table 1
Themes and subthemes of research question 1
RQ1 THEMES SUB-THEMES EXAMPLE
Attitude to self P7, P3

How have the past Self-
traumatic experiences and Acceptance Feeling towards past experience P1
present challenges
impacted the psychological Impact of present life
P4
well-being of the refugee circumstance on attitude
community residing in Relationship with others P3
Klang, Malaysia? Positive
relations Willingness to share P4, P6
with others Trust P7
Care and concern for others P1
Decision making P6
Fear of expression P4
Autonomy
Influence of social pressures on
P7
personal standards
Controlling difficulties P6
Helplessness P5
Environmen
tal mastery Adapting with community P7
Satisfaction with life in the midst
P1
of crisis
Wishes and hopes P3, P7
Personal beliefs about life P7
Purpose in
Life Meaning of past and present life P1
P7
Personal goals
Personal Growth in personality P3

growth Approach toward opportunities P1, P2
Note. The table lists the themes and subthemes that have been generated based on research question 1.
Theme 1: Self-Acceptance. The expressions of refugee participants are as follows based on the
subthemes that have been determined in this dimension:
Sub theme 1: Attitude to self. Participants generally accept themselves and are generally satisfied with
the way in which they perceive themselves. However, the participants expressed uncertainty on how
they personally view themselves. The responses of participants revealed a mixture of feelings and
thoughts, such as uncertainty and moderate satisfaction.
“P3: I think I am okay lah. In the past, I used to always think about my problems. I always held on
to my pains and kept it within me. Now, I am a little better”.
“P7: Uh, I have one, I would say, uhh, I don't know. I'm still learning to, uh, how to say, to
take myself first. Yup”.
Sub theme 2: Feelings toward past life. Most of the participants revealed feelings of struggle, fear and
disappointment due to difficult and unpleasant past experiences. For instance, participant one expressed
memories of fear when recalling past life, indicating fear as the feeling associated with the past. Based
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on the overall understanding, it is reasonable to state that all the participants generally held a negative
feeling toward past life.
“P1: When we go to school, our village from the school there, a bit far. So we are scared
that we will meet them when we travel to school. We are really scared because they are very powerful.
So, when they (referring to army) come to our village, they ask for money. They ask to come and we
have to do something. we very scared about our safety because they don't care about woman”.
Subtheme 3: Impact of present life circumstance on attitude. Participants revealed a mixture of

feelings, thoughts and ideas. Each of the participants expressed different thoughts, however, it should
be noted that most of the participants revealed being able to tolerate and manage present life conditions
in awareness of unpredictable dangers and circumstances in Malaysia.
“P4:Here..we have a lot of ways to make a living. We can work at factories, we can ask them for
work or sometimes at houses. We can get money, right. Can lah. We can get money. Even if it is a little,
the important thing is we get some money. As long as we can eat lah”.
Theme 2: Positive relations with others. In this theme, the excerpts are as follows based on the
subthemes generated: Generally, the refugee participants had good relationships with others especially
family and friends and demonstrated a high level of care and concern for others. However, in terms of
willingness to share and trust, the participants expressed caution instead of openness.
Subtheme 1: Relationship with others.

“P3: I think my relationship with others is good and happy....I always give importance to the
important days, like birthdays, for everyone to come together and celebrate.
Also, I call everyone to come together to pray....Anyone’s birthday or anything, I will cook for everyone
and call everyone to come and eat together. So, everyone is happy”.
Subtheme 2: Willingness to share. Some of the participants were unwilling to open up feelings to
others while some others opened up only to those who are close and considered as family.
“P4: No lah. I keep to myself. More lah if it’s like family problems, don’t want to share it with
other people”.
“P6: ohhh, got lah. I tell my friends like if it's hard or anything. It's like an older brother, younger
brother kind of relationship, like one family”.
Subtheme 3: Trust. All the participants' responses revealed caution when it came to trusting others.
“P7: And then like a couple of times, it's happened, you know? Like, but from the beginning they
see you, they like, “hey, hi friend, how are you?, where you stay?” like that. Like really friendly, like
act like they are friendly. So you also open up, you know, like really, but then ah towards the end, wahh,
they just bash you...Uhh, before, I used to trust easily”.
Subtheme 4: Care and concern for others. All the participants expressed care and concern for others,
especially in terms of concern for welfare and meeting the needs of family members.
“P1: Sometimes I worry, about my sister, my nephew because I can fight by myself. For my sister
and nephew, it is very difficult. So when about that, I very worried because my sister is still a bit young”.
Theme 3: Autonomy. In this theme, it can be stated that the participants have a moderate level of
autonomy. The expressions of participants are as follows:
Subtheme 1: Decision making. A common pattern observed among the participants when it came to
decision making is that careful thought was put into before making final decisions. The participants
revealed acceptance toward good views and rejected wrong views.
“P6: Ohh okay. So, firstly, if my friend has a different opinion like saying that is good or this
is good, if it is okay, then I will follow. I will try. For example, we can do this or buy that, but it costs a
certain amount. I will have to think about my family too. Just because I like it, I cannot. I have to think
about my family too”.
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Subtheme 2: Fear of expression. All the refugees revealed resistance toward voicing out opinions due
to reasons such as refugee status and in order to prevent conflicts and arguments.
“P4: Very difficult. No, because here is not our country. So we have to feel down. People look
down also, we have to feel. We cannot fight. We are refugees. So, I must protect myself, like this”.
Subtheme 3: Influence of social pressures on personal standards. On this dimension, the refugee
participants had differences in opinion, such that some participants did not resist social pressure while
some other participants strongly opposed conforming to social pressure. Nonetheless, most of the
participants are influenced by the social pressure to think and act in specific ways.
“P7: I just let it be lah. Yeah, because it's almost like for me, I see it like even if I think this is right
and everyone here, it's like the majority carries everything. There is nothing much you can do, right.
So, I just…”
Theme 4: Environmental Mastery. The responses of participants based on the subthemes determined
are as follows:
Subtheme 1: Controlling difficulties. In this subtheme, all the participants revealed being able to
manage the difficulties encountered. However, at the same time, the participants reasoned it by stating
that the condition or context at which it is presumed to be manageable also matters.
“P6: Like when the covid started, the first three months, it was lockdown right? So it was like
sometimes got work, sometimes no work. Salary also not enough to support family. Because before we
could at least do something, like support and manage household expenses, although not enough. But
covid time...really!(strong emphasis). Because we don’t receive help like how people here get help. Like
they get help from the government,but we don’t. So it's difficult lah”.
Subtheme 2: Helplessness. An important subtheme that can particularly be derived in this theme is
helplessness. This is because all the participants expressed helplessness with being able to change or
improve circumstances.
“P5: Now ah, ohhh, when lockdown, a lot of problems. Now, okay, can work. When lockdown,
cannot work. That time, I get only a little work, like cleaning house. Hard to give the school money also
at that time. My husband also work at that time, if one month got 30 days, work sometimes only for 10
days. No much food to eat also”.
Subtheme 3: Adapting with community. The participants' responses revealed that adapting with the
surrounding community was only moderately easy. Each participant revealed reservations when
expressing about being able to adapt easily with the surrounding community.
Mostly, the participants believed that adapting depends on the type of person one encounters.
“P7: It's a kind of mixed feeling. Sometime you come across people, they are nice, they are kind,
but majority of the time when we go out, there are a lot of things people say, people use like abusive
words, people see you and being an African, the first thing they say “Oh, you're a criminal”. Yeah”.
Subtheme 4: Satisfaction with life in the midst of crisis. Participant one expressed being distressed due
to being faced with stigma. This indeed indicates that satisfaction with life is only moderately tolerable.
Similar distress was also expressed by other refugees who participated in this study.
“P1: Yeah, I feel the problems are too much. I just...like if I can go to other country, better for us
or not. Yeah, because if other people see us, this is from Myanmar, they look down on us and sometimes
it is very difficult. We cannot say, but we feel very difficult”.
Theme 5: Purpose in life. The expressions of participants based on the subthemes identified are as
follows:
Subtheme 1: Wishes and hopes. The participants expressed wishes and hopes for changes in life
conditions and opportunities. A common wish participants had was to attain financial stability and have
the opportunity to migrate for better future prospects.
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“P3: I want to go to America, want to be able to buy a house, make some money, buy a car. That
sort of things lah”.
Another wish that was expressed was a wish of wanting to lead a normal life without discrimination
and as a fellow human being.
“P7: That one of these days, hmm...this refugee title thing will be taken off, for me to be seen as a
normal human, being treated just like any other person”.
Subtheme 2: Personal beliefs about life. The participants had strong perseverance and belief in God
that enables the participants to strive and move forward despite difficulties.
“P7: Actually, God has been keeping us safe a lot. And because of the hope we have in God or trust
we have in God, it's really helpful for us to overcome a lot of things”.
Subtheme 3: Meaning of past and present life. Most of the participants did not place any meaning to
past life. The participants only expressed past life as being difficult and struggle filled. Nevertheless,
participants expressed gratefulness and satisfaction while communicating about present life.
“P1: That time I was still a student. Our parent is very difficult. Meaning is everything is difficult
lah, about school, study, everything is not easy. Everything is different from here....Now is a lot better
because now we can relax”.
Subtheme 4: Personal goals. Most of the refugees did not hold personal goals, but held onto wishes
and hopes. The participants generally waited for changes to come rather than set a goal plan to achieve
a change.
“P7: Basically, we don't expect anything. We just, how to say, uh, we are just surviving,
right...when growing up, you actually find, “Oh, I want my future to be like this. I want this to be that”.
And all those things never happen simply because you are limited because you are a refugee and you
cannot do so many things. Right. So basically there's nothing to plan”.
Theme 6: Personal Growth. This theme identifies two sub themes, namely, growth in personality and
approach toward opportunities. Interview with the participants generally revealed growth and
improvement in the personality of participants rather than stagnation. Nevertheless, in terms of
approaching opportunities, participants showed uncertainty and reduced trust toward chances for new
opportunities. Overall, it is reasonable to state that the participants have a moderate level of personal
growth.
Subtheme 1: Growth in personality. Almost all the participants expressed changes and growth in self
and behaviour over time. The participants acknowledged weaknesses and strive toward making useful
changes in personality.
“P3: I’ve changed a lot. I have more experiences and I have learnt a lot over the years like working,
taking care of children. Now, I am handling so many things on my own.Yes, like in terms of my
personality. In the past, I used to get very angry easily and react to fight back. Now, I don’t do that.
I’ve learnt to have self-control and be calm”.
Subtheme 2: Approach toward opportunities. Some of the participants expressed doubt and
resistance toward new experiences and opportunities.
“P1: Um, no, No, it's very, how to say,...about thinking, it's very close (close-minded). Yeah.
Sometimes, about money. We don’t know what will happen tomorrow. We can trust or not, we cannot
say”.
Although this is such, some other participants revealed a more positive approach toward opportunities,
some awaiting opportunities.
“P2: Yeah I'm interested in trying new things. Opportunities. I felt good and bad at the same time
because like new things are fun but you can also miss the old things”.
The current research also exposed the coping mechanisms of the refugees with their past
traumatic experiences and challenges encountered in Malaysia with COVID-19 pandemic. Table 2
below showed the themes and sub-themes generated for the research question two with examples.
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Table 2
Themes and subthemes of research question two
RQ2 THEMES SUB-THEMES EXAMPLE

Problem Focused Active coping P3, P1
How are the Coping Planning P2
refugees Seeking social support for instrumental P3
coping with reasons
their past Suppression of competing activities P1
traumatic Restraint Coping P7
experiences
Emotion Focused Turning to religion P1
and
Coping Acceptance P4
challenges
Seeking social support for emotional P1, P7
encountered
reasons
in Malaysia
in the midst Less Useful Coping Mental disengagement P4
of Covid-19 Focus on and venting of emotions P5
pandemic? Denial P7
Behavioural disengagement P7
Note. The table lists the themes and subthemes that have been generated based on research question 2
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Theme 1: Problem-Focused Coping. The expressions of participants based on this theme are as
follows:
Subtheme 1: Active coping. Upon analysis, it was determined that only a few of the refugee
participants’ actively utilised ways to solve problems when the refugees were in their country of origin.
Further into the interview, it was also determined that some of the participants maintained an active
coping strategy in Malaysia in the midst of Covid-19 pandemic. This helped the participants to remain
calm and controlled in the face of the pandemic..
“P3: In Myanmar, it was very tough. In my schooling days also, we never had enough money or
sometimes even no money. Usually I just help out by cleaning and making
some money for my family”.
“P1: That is we have to, stay at home is very important but every time we go outside or we go
anywhere, we have to protect ourselves, what they say we have to follow up. Every time we have to
clean our hands. We have to follow everything about teaching”.
Subtheme 2: Planning. From among the participants, only two participants adopted planning as a
coping strategy in order to deal with problems. An example is cited below:
“P2: I think about the problem, then I wait to solve it”.
Subtheme 3: Seeking social support for instrumental reasons. In this dimension, only participants
two and three adopted this strategy such as seeking support from others to deal with problems. Only
certain participants adopted this method.
“P3: I usually share with my sister. After I share with her, she will tell me what to do or how to
deal with it. Then, I feel much much better”.
Subtheme 4: Suppression of competing activities. In terms of this dimension, only participant one
adopted this method as a way to deal with the past. This is done by focusing on current problems instead
of delving in past troubles or troubles that are out of the participant’s control.
“P1: I make myself to be strong because when think about Myanmar, I very painful. I have to first
think about our safety, health...I have to take care ourself first, then I can take care others”.
Subtheme 5: Restraint coping. Only one participant coped by awaiting the right moment and context
in order to deal with the problems encountered.
“P7: I would say it's almost like one day at a time and there's not too much to actually decide on
major things. Uh, and it's almost like when you get to the bridge, you figure it
how to cross it. So there is nothing like we have like a specific plan”.
Theme 2: Emotion Focused Coping. In this theme, three sub themes are identified. Participant
responses are as follows:
Subtheme 1: Turning to religion. Majority of the participants sought God as solace in order to cope
with negative emotions of the past and present that trouble the participants.
“P1: I just read the Bible and pray to God. That time only I can relax. I can feel better. If I see one
side, I want to cry about everything nowadays. A lot of troubles about our
country or about, our future. So every time I read the Bible and I pray about that.. after that I very free,
very peace”.
Subtheme 2: Acceptance. A few of the participants accepted the past and recognises the uncontrollable
aspect of changing that which is already done and accepts present difficult circumstances as it is and
adjusts accordingly.
“P4: I don’t want to think lah. It’s done lah”.
Subtheme 3: Seeking social support for emotional reasons. Some of the participants mentioned that
in order to cope with negative emotions, methods such as reinterpreting and viewing the negative
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situation in a different light, learning to grow as an individual through the experience and by finding
emotional comfort by relating and helping others who had similar experiences.
“P1: The bad thing, we just leave it. So the good thing we have to keep inside, the bad thing is just
little bit. So our life also very important things nowadays. Our country also, I am very troubled and
very painful, but we cannot hate everything”.
“P7: One of the things that also like really, I'll say encouraging me and then really helping me a
lot, is coming to school every day. Um, like most of the children I can relate with their story. I can relate
with whatsoever that is happening to them and coming here every day, just doing our best to teach them
in the way that we can and like a form of fulfilment. It gives you a kind of joy”.
Theme 3: Less-Useful Coping. In this theme, four sub themes have been identified, namely, mental
disengagement, focus on and venting of emotions, denial and behavioural disengagement.
Subtheme 1: Mental disengagement. Most of the participants used found ways to distract thoughts on
the problems encountered.
“P4: I just don’t think about it because if I think about it, then STRESS! Also, when at home, I take
care of baby, when I face the baby, no stress..unless like, if I’m alone...don’t know what to do, then
headache. But since got baby, we can play with the child and all”.
Subtheme 2: Focus on and venting of emotions. In this dimension, only one participant had an
increased awareness of the emotions the participant felt toward the past and present experiences.
“P5: I was very sad lah because…if the country is good, we will also like it but now, we have family
there. Like my father and mother are old now, like if they fall sick or anything and need to go to the
hospital, they cannot because now the hospitals there are occupied by the soldiers. It is up to this level
in my country. So, I’m really sad. I miss them lah but I cannot do anything. I couldn’t meet them since
2008. Hmmm, sometimes, when we go out, we can get caught by police and all. That one is very hard.
My heart feels sad lah when I think about these matters”.
Subtheme 3: Denial. In this dimension, one participant expressed that pretence enabled one to deal
with issues, that is, presuming nothing has happened and convincing oneself to believe it.
“P7: um, there is nothing I can do. Right. So you just have to cope with it. You just have to try to
ignore, act as if nothing happened. So basically sometimes it's almost like you're living on pretence
because people say things and if you react, people only see your reaction”.
Subtheme 4: Behavioural disengagement. Also, one participant revealed to cope using behavioural
disengagement methods.
“P7: So most of the time I don't really go out. I don't even go anywhere. We just prefer to stick
inside because most of the time you're already in your own mood and then people will say things, and
it's not only upset you, it's also day and it’s also night, like it's can even go as far as one week, because
you know, words are something that when you sit by yourself also, it keeps on coming, right”.
Discussion
The current research exposed the refugees' past traumatic experiences and their development of the
posttraumatic growth during the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia. The posttraumatic growth in the
refugees was developed through their coping mechanisms in living with adversity during the pandemic.
Based on the two main research questions, the current study explored their posttraumatic growth in
several generated themes.
Self-Acceptance
With regards to the research question, the trauma and present living challenges due to Covid-19 have
indeed negatively impacted the way in which the participants view self, feel toward past life and how
participants’ present living circumstance impacted attitude. In terms of attitude toward self, most of the
participants revealed feeling uncertain or moderately satisfied with self. Other than that, in the
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dimension of feelings toward past life, all the participants responded by expressing negative feelings
toward past life and did not express any positive attitude toward the past. However, when participants
expressed thoughts on the dimension of impact of present life circumstance on attitude, differences in
views were observed. Participants expressed satisfaction and tolerance toward present life
circumstances despite the difficulties. However, this alone does not imply a high level of self-
acceptance. Indeed, it highlights that experiences impact the self-acceptance of participants (Slaninova
& Stainerova, 2015).
Gea, Wulandari and Barbara (as cited in Mualifah et al., 2019) stated that an individual with
positive self-acceptance would express feelings of happiness about self, have encouraged and motivated
feelings and would accept personal strengths and weaknesses. Although the participants in this study
acknowledged strengths and weaknesses, the general expression of feelings revolved around
uncertainty, fear, and disappointment and lack of motivation. To reinstate further, Slaninova and
Stainerova (2015) found that experience of trauma resulted in lower levels of self-acceptance. The study
explained that one’s concept about self is generally developed through the interaction with the
surrounding experiences. In the case of the participants in this research study, it is therefore reasonable
to point out that the participants generally had a moderate to low self-acceptance rather than high levels
of self-acceptance and the reason for this can be attributed to the experiences of the participants.
Positive relations with others
The findings revealed that participants generally had a positive relationship with others and increased
care and concern toward others. However, in terms of willingness to share and trust, the participants
expressed caution and distrust. According to the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies
[ISTSS] (2016), trauma indeed affects relationships negatively. It was reported that experiences due to
refugee circumstances can indeed affect the relationship with others as the victims are accustomed to
believing that chances of betrayal and potential harm is high, thereby not easily trusting. This is indeed
true as this research study has also identified similar findings within the dimension of trust, that refugee
participants do not trust others easily. ISTSS (2016) also stated that individuals who have experienced
trauma will have difficulty expressing positive emotions about relationships. This, however, was not
entirely true as this study found that the participants did express positive emotions about relationships.
This is evident in the dimensions of relationship with others and care and concern for others.
Autonomy
In terms of the sub theme of decision making, participants revealed to stand firmly on personal
decisions. According to Zagor (2015), refugees are described as “quintessentially autonomous human
beings” (p.378). To further explain the description, Zagor (2015) stated that refugees made dangerous
choices despite threats and physical and legal restrictions chose to flee the country of origin at the risk
and threat of personal lives in search for what is good for self and family. Thereby, refugees are
categorised as autonomous individuals. In view of the findings of this study, in the dimension of
decision making, refugees are indeed independent in matters related to decision making despite
opposing thoughts and perspectives. Nevertheless, in the sub theme of influence of social pressures on
personal standards, more participants conform to social pressure while a smaller number of participants
do not and firmly oppose conforming to societal pressure, indicating that there are circumstances in
which refugees do conform to societal pressure.
Furthermore, in terms of the sub theme of fear of expression, the participants indeed expressed
refusal and hesitance in voicing out opinions freely. The reason behind this was in order to avoid
confrontation and arguments with others. A study by An and Bramble (2017) found that migrant
workers who are disadvantaged or in difficult circumstances use silence as a survival strategy. In
relation to the findings of this study, considering the circumstance of refugees in Malaysia, it is
undeniable that refugees are indeed a disadvantaged population, consequently emphasising the reason
behind choosing silence as a method to survive in the midst of threats. Based upon these findings, it is
reasonable to interpret that the autonomy of refugees is only independent depending on the context and
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circumstances. Based on the definition of autonomy in the psychological well-being model developed
by Carol Ryff, it is safe to state that refugees, to a certain extent, are independent and self-regulatory
(De-Juanas et al., 2020).
Environmental Mastery
According to the psychological well-being model, environmental mastery is defined as an individual’s

ability to control a complex environment (Ryff & Singer, 2006). In the dimension of controlling
difficulties, refugees revealed being able to manage and tolerate the difficulties encountered.
Meanwhile, in the helplessness dimension, refugees expressed being unable to change or improve
surrounding circumstances especially with the implementation of lockdown policies in the midst of
Covid. The study by Miller et al. (2002) indicated a lack of environmental mastery among refugees due
to the changing demands and adaptations necessary for refugees to adjust to. This can be related to
environmental demands needed to be met with the sudden change in lifestyle as a result of the Covid-
19 pandemic (Park et al., 2021). With the Covid-19 pandemic, it can be stated that refugees were
expected to immediately manage the significant change in lifestyle, which might be a factor contributing
to helplessness in changing or improving surrounding circumstances.
Meanwhile, in terms of the sub themes of adapting with community, participants expressed
experiencing reservations in adapting easily with community, although not entirely. In terms of the
dimension of satisfaction with life in the midst of crisis, participants expressed to be moderately
satisfied. Similar findings were obtained in the research study conducted by Owens-Manley and
Coughlan (2000) among Bosnian refugees in upstate New York, such that, refugees were indeed
satisfied with their lives, however, at the same time acknowledging the difficult living conditions.
Purpose in life
In the sub theme of wishes and hopes, all the participants expressed wishes and hopes in wanting a more
stable and affordable lifestyle and a hope to migrate to a different country for better opportunities.
Nevertheless, in terms of the sub theme of personal goals, this study found that the participants do not
hold onto setting goals and achieving goals. According to Umer and Elliot (2019), hope is significant
for refugees who are a population confronted with various challenging situations. It indeed holds a
therapeutic quality that allows refugees to cope with inevitable and unpredictable challenging life
situations by making peace in the present and moving forward with hope in the future. This indeed also
holds true in justifying the findings obtained within the subtheme of personal beliefs about life, such
that, the participants strong will to move forward and trust in God enables the participants to find
meaning in the future.
Also, although the participants held onto wishes and hope, participants generally had a negative
perception toward goals. The reason behind this was due to the constant wait for opportunities among
refugees in Malaysia, consequently not setting goals as the participants do not believe that it is attainable
or reachable. Umer and Elliot (2019) stated that individuals who are experiencing low emotional level
will show a lack of interest in goal setting. Considering the circumstances and experiences of refugees,
it is reasonable to justify the findings of this study as the circumstances of refugees did contribute to
refugees feeling disappointment and lack of expectation for immediate positive changes. This is also in
line with the sub theme of meaning of past and present life, whereby refugees expressed disappointment
recalling past life, however, are content and grateful for present life despite the challenges. Similar
results were also obtained by Umer and Elliot (2019), which found that refugees, although expressed
negative feelings toward past life, expressed having contentment with life in their host country.
Personal growth
In this theme, within the sub theme of growth in personality, participants revealed to observe changes
and improvement in behaviour, traits and attitudes. The quantitative study conducted by Sleijpen et al.
(2016) revealed that experiencing trauma and difficult life circumstances may possibly lead to positive
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changes in an individual. This indeed is true and this research study justifies this finding as this study
revealed that the experiences of the participants have led them to observe positive changes in self and
personality.
Meanwhile in terms of the sub theme of approach towards opportunity, participants generally
expressed varying thoughts toward it, such that some expressed hesitance and doubt while others
expressed acceptance and eagerness. In relation to the model of psychological well-being by Carol Ryff,
it is reasonable to state that the participants experience stagnation with matters related to opportunities
as the options for opportunities are limited to none for refugees in Malaysia, as such justifying the
participants mixed feelings toward approaching opportunities (Ryff & Singer, 2006; Nungsari et al.,
2020).
Problem-Focused Coping
In the study conducted by Kok et al. (2016), it was found that Myanmar teenage refugees cope using
problem focused coping methods. This included mechanisms such as help seeking behaviours and
fostering adaptive attitudes. Consistent with this finding, this research study also found that refugees
indeed use problem focused coping strategies in order to deal with past traumatic experiences and
present challenges. Specifically, within the sub theme of active coping, participants mainly used this
coping strategy in the past, that is, when the participants lived in their country of origin. However, the
frequency of using this form of coping decreased in the present circumstance and living conditions of
refugees. The other sub themes include planning, seeking social support for instrumental reasons,
suppression of competing activities and restraint coping. All of these problem focused coping strategies
are indeed adaptive coping strategies used by refugees in order to deal with past and present experiences
of trauma and challenges (Kasi et al., 2012).
In order to understand why refugees cope using problem focused coping strategies, it can be
deduced that in relation to the psychological well-being of refugees, such that Freire (2016) stated that
when individuals have a high level of psychological well-being, it is more likely that the individuals
would adopt adaptive coping strategies. This indeed is true and undeniable because in the findings
obtained when examining the impact on psychological well-being of refugees, within the themes of
autonomy and environmental mastery, the sub themes of decision making and controlling difficulties
respectively, showed the efforts undertaken by refugees to manage, control and deal with problems and
crises that arise.
Emotion focused coping
In this theme, the refugee participants mainly utilised strategies from within the sub theme of turning
to religion. This is followed by utilising methods within the sub themes of seeking social support for
emotional reasons and acceptance. These coping mechanisms are indeed commonly utilised by refugees
in order to deal with present challenges. This is evident in the studies conducted by Eid and Diah (2019)
among Palestinian refugees and Amat et al. (2019) among Rohingya refugees in the United States. It is
also categorized as adaptive coping strategies as mentioned by Kasi et al. (2012). Also, Pahud et al.
(2009) stated that emotion focused coping strategies are commonly used when individuals intend to
manage distressing emotions. This is true as the findings in this study do reveal that participants utilise
emotion focused coping strategies when the problematic situation at hand is uncontrollable and no
immediate option is available.
In relation to the psychological well-being of refugees, this study found that participants do
seek out social support when needed. This implies and points to the theme of positive relations with
others, whereby some participants acknowledge having positive relationships with others, specifically
family and friends. Consequently, it is safe to conclude that due to the reason that participants have
positive relationships; participants seek out mechanisms within the dimension of seeking social support
for emotional reasons.
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Furthermore, the study by Amat et al. (2019) also indicated that personality traits play a key
role in determining the response of participants to past and present experiences. As such, in order to
justify the use of coping mechanisms within the dimension of turning to religion and
acceptance, it can be related to the sub themes of hopes and wishes, personal beliefs about life, meaning
in past and present life within the theme of purpose in life and the sub theme of growth in personality
within the theme of personal growth. All these indicated positive personality traits among refugees that
enabled the refugee participants to survive across multiple challenges.
Less-Useful Coping
In this theme, it was found that participants utilised coping mechanisms within the sub themes of denial,
mental disengagement, behavioural disengagement and focus and venting of emotions. These coping
mechanisms are identified as maladaptive coping mechanisms (Kasi et al., 2012). The study by Alzoubi
et al. (2017) revealed that the way in which individuals cope determines the mental health status of an
individual. As such, in relation to this, considering the first research question on the impact on
psychological well-being of refugees, it is reasonable to deduce that in the sub themes of helplessness
and adapting with community within the theme of environmental mastery, participants revealed distress
and negative feelings due to the experiences encountered, as such, pointing to having low level of
psychological well-being in these aspects. Thereby, choosing to use maladaptive coping mechanisms
in order to deal with the distress and numb self from experiencing the negative emotions.
Also, within the sub themes of trust and willingness to share, participants demonstrated doubt
and caution toward others. This thereby points to the fact that the participants did not have a high level
of psychological well-being, as such, used maladaptive coping mechanisms to deal with the mistrust
and doubt about others. For instance, using denial to avoid the reality of problematic situations and
pretending that everything is good. This is indeed evident in the findings of this study and thereby
further emphasises how refugees cope with past traumatic and present challenging experiences and also
provides an insight on why refugees cope in specific ways and reveals how it impact the growth of
refugees’ mental well-being.
The findings of this study contributed to the understanding on the impact of past traumatic experiences
and present challenges on psychological well-being of refugees, coping mechanisms of refugees and
mental healthcare services provided for refugees.
A study by Ryff (as cited in Aziz, 2017) found that there was a significant lack of studies
examining the psychological well-being of individuals living in stressful circumstances. In view of this,
this study indeed contributed to developing and expanding this field of study by examining the impact
of experiences of refugees on psychological well-being. This addition to the field of psychological well-
being will allow future researchers to examine in depth and understand the psychological well-being of
refugees. Also,
Besides, the findings of this study indeed provided insight into how and why refugees cope in
specific ways, that is by drawing connections between psychological well-being and how it can impact
the way in which refugees cope. This was a research gap that was identified in chapter two of this paper,
and the findings have been able to fill in this gap of study. The question of how and why individuals
cope in specific ways can thereby be answered (Wadworth, 2016). Understanding this will also allow
therapists and counsellors to study and understand refugees in terms of positive mental health aspects,
thereby allowing refugees to understand the strengths and weaknesses possessed in a positive way. Most
significantly, this study was able to bring about a deeper understanding into the posttraumatic growth
of refugees.
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Limitations of Study
Several limitations have been identified during the course of this research study. One of the limitations
was the time consuming nature of this study such that the time taken to collect data and develop
interpretations was time consuming. This indeed is a characteristic of qualitative research papers
(Queirós et al., 2017). Despite this, this research was completed within the set period of time and
sufficient information and analysis was obtained.
Besides, another limitation that was derived from this study is that the limited number of
samples cause issues related to the generalizability of findings to the whole population of refugees
(Rahman, 2016). This is stated as such as the sample of this study totals to seven, which is a small
sample size. Nevertheless, sufficient information was collected from participants.
Also, the current research involved a time constraint factor whereby limited time due to the
pandemic prevented the researcher to involve more in further details of interview questions to
deliberate. In addition, the sample representative was able to respond to the limited time of interview
sessions where many other factors would have been investigated. Therefore, future studies are
recommended to conduct research on the refugees and their mental health issues.
For future research purposes, it is recommended to explore experiences of refugees in terms of the
demographic characteristics of refugees as this can provide a more detailed outlook on how the
background of refugees can influence the mental health of refugees. This is important as refugees from
different countries of origin experience trauma and challenges differently, with varying levels of
severity.
Besides, it is recommended to increase the sample size of refugees in order that the output or
findings of future studies in this area can be generalised to a larger population. This study is also
recommended to be conducted quantitatively among the refugee population, thereby increasing sample
size, and allowing the possibility of generalisation to a wider community of refugees.
Finally, for future research purposes, further exploration on psychological well-being and
coping mechanisms is recommended in order to obtain a clearer picture and understanding on the
relationship dynamics between these two aspects. This will indeed provide insight into how an
individual’s psychological well-being can indeed impact the way in which an individual copes with
stressors and vice versa. As such, examining this in-depth will provide a broader insight into
understanding the how and why surrounding these topics.
Acknowledgement
The researchers would like to express their gratitude to several significant persons who contributed to
the success of the research; the participants for their willingness to involve in the interview session with
their sincere expression and the Education Director and staff of the refugee centre that provided
assistance and guidance in making it possible for the researcher to interview the referred refugees.
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIFE SATISFACTION AND WORK READINESS

AMONG UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS
Phyleecia Chong Sze Jing & Guan Teik Ee*
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: guanteikee@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The 21st century workplace calls for graduates who are responsive to the demands of a highly technological
society, one that is constantly changing. Employers look forward to graduate students who are equipped with
competencies and generic skills such as communication, interpersonal, problem-solving, and applied skills, and
are able to overcome challenging problems and complex situations in the workplace. Work readiness is
increasingly gaining attention because it is used to predict graduate students’ potential job achievement and career
advancement. Literature review shows life satisfaction influences work readiness. Life satisfaction, whether
positive or negative is an essential but subjective component of well-being and contributes to students’ holistic
development. Therefore, it influences work readiness. However, there is still a scarcity of research related to both
variables among university students, especially in Borneo. Thus, there is a need for a study to be carried out in
this area. This study is carried out to examine the relationship between life satisfaction and work readiness. Two
questionnaires were used to collect data in a public university in Borneo. The instruments were the Satisfaction
with Life Scale (SWLC) and Work Readiness Inventory (WRI) and A random sampling technique was used
to recruit 265 participants. The Pearson correlation was used to analyze the relationship between life satisfaction
and work readiness. Results showed that there were positive relationships between life satisfaction
and work readiness across these aspects: responsibility, flexibility, skills, communication, health and safety. Only
self-view showed a negative relationship with life satisfaction. It is important that undergraduate
students are well prepared before entering the work environment in order to enhance their job performance and
be productive in their field.
Keywords: life satisfaction, work readiness, undergraduate students
Introduction
Most of the undergraduates can be classified as late adolescents and adults, starting from the age of
18. Super’s life-span Theory of Late Adolescent and Adult Career Development utilizes two major
concepts, which are life role and life stage (Super, 1969). Super views the important roles for an
individual to be studying, working, community service, home and family, and leisure activities (Sharf,
2013). Many students enter university without selecting a career path and benefit from career
exploration. Some students might begin gathering information and exploring career options at an
earlier stage while others may wait until their final year in the university. Each year a large number
of students graduate with bachelor degrees from the universities. Students may feel anxious about the
prospect of leaving school and starting a career as they approach graduation.
The world of work is transforming profoundly, at a time when the global economy is not
creating an adequate number of jobs to buttress the available workforce (International Labour
Organization, 2015). Lately, the increasing rate of unemployment, especially among graduates, is
expected to worsen in the years 2020 and 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Not only are
organizations competing in downsizing or outsourcing, they are making strategic choices in
harnessing their human capital. Organizations make selection and hiring decisions based on the
credentials and competencies that are predictive of the job success of potential employees. It is
important to look at the work readiness of undergraduate students as work readiness is defined as the
extent to which graduates are perceived to possess the skills and attributes that make them prepared
or ready for success in the rapidly changing work environment (Caballero & Walker, 2010).
Addressing areas of concern can help to improve work readiness, which in turn can lead to greater
job success and satisfaction.
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As for life satisfaction, it is defined as a process of judgment, in which individuals assess

their quality on the basis of their own unique set of criteria (Shin & Johnson, 1978). This judgmental
process however, is based on how people deem their life should be and related to how it is. In other
words, life satisfaction is referred as the acceptance of life circumstances of one, or the fulfilment of
an individual’s needs of life as a whole. In essence, life satisfaction is a subjective assessment of the
quality of one’s life (Sousa & Lyubomirsky, 2001). The enhancement of life satisfaction of students
has been considered a significant mission of education (O’Neill, 1981). Life satisfaction, in addition
to its positive and/or negative effects, is an essential but subjective component of well-being (Diener
et al., 1985). The increasing creation of wellness programs in higher education is evidence of
institutional efforts to enhance the quality of life, psychological well-being, and students’ holistic
development (Chow, 2005) so that they are more work ready.
Super (1990) proposed a life stage developmental framework with the following stages: growth,
exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement. Undergraduate students are in the stage
of Exploration (age range from 15 to 24). This is the second stage of life when people start learning
about the different types of work and find their place in the world of work. They try to identify their
interests and abilities through classes, work experience, and hobbies and start to narrow the field to
those types of jobs that they would like to pursue.
Undergraduate students aged 18 to 24 are in the stage of late adolescence/young adulthood.

This is a time of life when very little is normative. It is a period of frequent change and exploration
that covers many aspects of their lives, which include home, family, work, school, resources, and roles.
Young people take longer to achieve economic and psychological autonomy and early adulthood
experiences change greatly according to gender, race and ethnicity, and social class (State Adolescent
Health Resource Center, n.d.).
Super (1990) believed that people differ in terms of the importance assigned to the work in
their lives. Undergraduates are in the stage of exploration and this includes the sub-stages of
crystallizing, specifying, and implementing. Crystallizing is the stage in which people clarify what
they want to do. They learn about entry-level jobs that may be suitable for them and they learn skills
that are required for the jobs they are interested in. This stage is mostly experienced by high school
students. Specification occurs in the early 20s of college graduates. People who go on to graduate
school or specialized education, will have their preference specified. While some are specific about
the occupations, others specify a job within an occupation. Implementing is the last phase before
working. People make plans to fulfill the objectives of their careers and may start to network by
meeting people who can help them get a job (Sharf, 2013). As a consequence, the level of work
readiness of a person will increase as the individual is more well-prepared before entering the working
world.
A study by Ünüvar, Avşaroğlu and Uslu (2012) postulated that individuals will be more
optimistic if there is higher life satisfaction. Optimism helps them to keep on trying even when they
are rejected. This in turn helps them to be more prepared for work as they are bold enough to
explore what they want in life. Hence, it is important to determine the life satisfaction of
undergraduate students and care for their psychological well-being so as to increase their work
readiness. Students have to be well prepared in order to start a career as well as to contribute to the
economy of a nation. To date, there are still insufficient studies carried out to examine the life
satisfaction and work readiness among undergraduate students in Sabah. Herein lies the root of the
research problem.
Research Questions
The research questions of this study are:
1. What is the level of life satisfaction among undergraduate students?
2. What is the level of work readiness among undergraduate students?
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3. Is there any relationship between life satisfaction and each aspect of work readiness?
a. Life satisfaction and work readiness in terms of responsibility.
b. Life satisfaction and work readiness in terms of flexibility.
c. Life satisfaction and work readiness in terms of skills.
d. Life satisfaction and work readiness in terms of communication.
e. Life satisfaction and work readiness in terms of self-view.
f. Life satisfaction and work readiness in terms of health and safety.
Methodology
The sample population comprised a total of 265 final year undergraduate students randomly selected
from 10 programs from a faculty in a public university in Sabah. Their ages ranged from 18 to 24
years. The researchers used online Google Form to collect data. Informed consent forms were used
to obtain participants’ consent. Two methods were used to send out the online questionnaire link
to final year students of the faculty: (1) the researchers posted the link on Facebook to invite
respondents to participate in the survey; and (2) researchers approached the students directly
according to their availability and willingness to participate. The online questionnaire link was sent
to them to facilitate filling in their responses.
Once the link is activated, the first page of the online questionnaire provides an explanation
of the purpose of study and requires participants to click “Next” before answering the questionnaire.
Each section of the questionnaire is accompanied by instructions and guidelines, ensuring that
participants’ response to each item is based on their current situation. Participants respond by
marking their preferred agreement level. Participants were assured of the confidentiality of the
research study and since their participation were on a voluntary basis, withdrawal from the research
study at any stage was accepted. Participants need not sign their names in the Google Form in order
to guarantee anonymity
.
The link to the online questionnaire was sent weekly to the final year students and data
collected was checked regularly to prevent duplication of responses. Researchers spent nine weeks
collecting the data until it reached the minimum sample size requirement. The data was then
downloaded from the Google Form to be used for data analysis. The data was screened to check for
missing values, duplication and incomplete data. After the screening process, the data was analyzed
using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
The two instruments used in this study, Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener et al., 1985), and Work
Readiness Inventory (Brady, 2010) are described as follows:
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)
SWLS is a 5-item scale designed to measure global cognitive judgments of one’s life satisfaction
(Diener et al., 1985). Participants were asked to indicate the degree to which they agree or disagree
by rating one of seven possible responses on a 7-point Likert type interval scale (1=strongly
disagree, 2=disagree, 3=slightly disagree, 4=neither agree nor disagree, 5=slightly agree, 6=agree,
and 7=strongly agree). The total scores were calculated by summing up the scores of each item.
Higher scores indicate higher life satisfaction; lower scores indicate lower life satisfaction.
Diener et al.(1985) reported that SWLS has high internal consistency with a coefficient alpha of .87
for the scale and a 2-month test-retest stability coefficient of .82.
Work Readiness Inventory (WRI)
The WRI is designed to help workers identify and then address those work readiness traits that
would allow them to better meet the challenges of today’s workplace. The WRI is a self-report
survey. It consists of 36 items designed to measure work readiness across six aspects: Responsibility,
Flexibility, Skills, Communication, Self-View, and Health & Safety. There are 6 items for each of
the six readiness aspects. The 36-item questionnaire may take participants approximately 15 minutes
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to complete. Participants were asked to indicate their level of concern by rating one of five possible
responses on a 5-point Likert type interval scale (1=not concerned, 2=a little concerned,
3=somewhat concerned, 4=concerned, and 5=very concerned). The total score was calculated by
summing up the scores from each readiness aspect. Higher scores indicate higher readiness
concerns; lower scores indicate lower readiness concerns. The Work Readiness Inventory helps to
identify specific challenges that one may face in considering new work situations and making career
choices.
The WRI shows strong internal consistency, stability and reliability (Brady, 2010).
Results
The following results answered the stated research questions:
Level of life satisfaction among undergraduate students
Level of life satisfaction among undergraduate students was presented in Table 1. There was 7 levels
of life satisfaction, which were extremely satisfied (total score ranged from 31-35), satisfied (total
score ranged from 26-30), slightly satisfied (total score ranged from 21-25), neutral (total score of
20), slightly dissatisfied (total score ranged from 15-19), dissatisfied (total score ranged from 10-
14), and extremely dissatisfied (total score ranged from 5-9).
Based on Table 1, 32 (12.1%) of the respondents were extremely satisfied with their life, followed
by 92 (34.7%) were satisfied, 77 (29.1%) were slightly satisfied, 12 (4.5%) were neither satisfied
nor dissatisfied with their life, 30 (11.3%) were slightly dissatisfied, and 22 (8.3%) were dissatisfied
with their life. However, there was no respondent showed extremely dissatisfied with their life.
Table 1
Frequency and Percentage of Level of Life Satisfaction
Level of concern of work readiness aspects among undergraduate students
Level of concern of work readiness aspects among undergraduate students was presented in Table 2.
There was 5 levels of concern, which were very concerned (total score ranged from 25-30), concerned
(total score ranged from 19-20), somewhat concerned (total score ranged from 13-18), a little concerned
(total score ranged from 7-12), and not concerned (total score of 6). Table 2 showed the level of concern
of each aspect of work readiness, which included Responsibility, Flexibility, Skills, Communication,
Self-View, and Health & Safety.
From Table 2, work readiness in terms of responsibility, 117 (44.2%) of the respondents showed
very concerned, followed by 104 (39.2%) were concerned and 44 (16.6%) of the respondents showed
somewhat concerned. However, a little concerned and not concerned were not shown by the respondents.
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As for work readiness in terms of flexibility, 93 (35.1%) of the respondents showed very
concerned, 139 (52.5%) showed concerned, 26 (9.8%) of the respondents showed somewhat concerned,
7 (2.6%) showed a little concerned and no one showed not concerned.
For work readiness in terms of skills, 156 (58.9%) of the respondents showed very
concerned, 109 (41.1%) showed concerned, no one showed somewhat concerned, a little concerned
and not concerned.
For work readiness in terms of communication, 140 (52.8%) of the respondents showed very
concerned, 125 (47.2%) showed concerned, no one showed somewhat concerned, a little concerned
and not concerned.
For work readiness in terms of self-view, 31 (11.7%) of the respondents showed very
concerned, 122 (46.0%) showed concerned, 80 (30.2%) showed somewhat concerned, 21 (7.9%)
showed a little concerned, and 11 (4.2%) showed not concerned.
For work readiness in terms of health & safety, 144 (54.3%) of the respondents showed very
concerned, 83 (31.3%) showed concerned, 38 (14.3%) showed somewhat concerned, and no one
showed a little concerned, and not concerned.
From Table 2, we concluded that most of our undergraduate students were in the category of very
concerned and concerned in work readiness.
Table 2
Level of Concern of Each Aspects of Work Readiness
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Life Satisfaction and Work Readiness Aspects among Undergraduate Students
A Pearson product-moment correlations coefficient was computed to assess the relationship

between life satisfaction and work readiness.
Table 3 showed there was a positive significant correlation between life satisfaction and
work readiness in terms of responsibility, r = .218, p = .000.
It also showed there was a positive and significant correlation between of life satisfaction
and work readiness in terms of flexibility , r = .205, p = .001.
As for life satisfaction and work readiness in terms of skills, it showed there was a positive
and significant correlation, r = .283, p = .000.
Life satisfaction and work readiness in terms of communication, Table 3 also showed that
there was a positive and significant correlation, r = .468, p = .000.
Life satisfaction and work readiness in terms of self-view, Table 3 showed that there was a
negative and nonsignificant correlation, r = -.044, p = .475.
Lastly, life satisfaction and work readiness in terms of health & safety, Table 3 showed that
there was a positive and significant correlation, r = .373, p = .000.
According to the guidelines by Cohen (1988), r= .10 to .29 or r= -.10 to -.29 (small strength);
r=.30 to .49 or r=-.30 to -.49 (medium strength); r= .50 to 1.0 or r=-.50 to -1.0 (large strength). The
results of this study showed a positive medium strength correlation for life satisfaction and work
readiness in terms of communication, and health & safety ; a positive small strength correlation for
life satisfaction and work readiness in terms of responsibility, flexibility, and skills. Whereas life
satisfaction and work readiness in terms of self-view showed negative small strength correlation.
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Table 3
Life Satisfaction and Work Readiness
Discussion
Life satisfaction showed a significant positive relationship with work readiness aspects which
included responsibility, flexibility, skills, communication and health & safety of this sample of
undergraduate students. This means when the level of life satisfaction of undergraduate students is
high, the level of concern for each aspect (responsibility, flexibility, skills, communication and health
& safety) will also be high. Hence, it can be assumed that when undergraduate students have greater
life satisfaction, they have the tendency to possess higher expectations to succeed in their jobs. As a
consequence, undergraduate students may be afraid that they are unable to fulfill the requirements of
a particular organization. This is especially true of life satisfaction and work readiness in terms of
communication, self-view and health & safety which shows a bigger strength (medium) of
correlation.
On the other hand, only the self-view aspect showed a negative and non-significant
relationship with undergraduate students’ life satisfaction. When the level of undergraduate students’
life satisfaction is high, the level of concern of work readiness with regards to self-view is low. This
implies that even though the subjects in the present study were satisfied with their lives, their self-
view is still low. They could be low in self-confidence, self-efficacy and self-esteem in terms of work
readiness. This can be seen in Table 2 where nearly half of the subjects, 42.3%, of the total percentage
comprising possible responses, that is, “somewhat concerned, a little concerned and not concerned”,
revealed that work readiness in terms of self-view registered the highest scores compared to the other
aspects of work readiness. Fortunately, the correlation is small and non-significant.
In Super’s theory, other than the concept of life stage, another concept is life role. Life roles
can be seen from the roles individuals engage in - studying, working, community services, home and
family, and leisure activities. The importance of these roles can be seen when a person’s participation
in an activity, commitment to the activity, or how much that activity is valued (Sharf, 2013). In this
study, life satisfaction has a correlation in most areas of work readiness, which explains why
undergraduate students with higher levels of life satisfaction are more work ready. Their readiness
are in terms of responsibility, flexibility, skills, communication and health & safety. Therefore, they
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are more competent and committed in their working roles. Commitment often concerns future plans
as well as the present. It may deal with a desire to be involved or to be active and a feeling of pride
in that they are doing well or being personally committed. Thus, when students are more satisfied
with their lives, they are more ready to explore their future jobs and the required criteria, and this in
turn makes them more knowledgeable and competent.
Conclusion
The investigation of the relationship between life satisfaction and work readiness could make
significant contributions in improving undergraduate students’ work readiness. In today’s world of
work, the initial qualifications do not solely determine the future employment of these graduates. In
this study, most of the undergraduate students showed relatively high levels of life satisfaction as
well as high work readiness concerns, indicating that life satisfaction is the best predictor of work
readiness. The outcomes of this study would provide information to the university administrators so
that they are more prepared in providing mental wellness programs to improve students’ quality of
life, psychological well-being, and students’ holistic development, as well as enhancing students’
awareness regarding the importance of work readiness.
References
Brady, R.P. (2010). Work readiness inventory administrator’s guide. Indianapolis, IN: JIST
Publishing.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Caballero, C., & Walker, A. (2010). Work readiness in graduate recruitment and selection: A review
of current assessment methods. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate
Employability, 1(1), 13-25.
Chow, H. P. H. (2005). Life Satisfaction among University Students in a Canadian Prairie City: A
Multivariate Analysis. Social Indicators Research, 70, 139-150.
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffi S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal
of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75.
International Labour Organization. (2015). World employment and social outlook 2015: The
changing nature of jobs. International Labour Office: Geneva.
O’Neill, W. (1981). Education Ideologies: Contemporary Expressions of Educational Philosophy:
Goodyear, Santa Monica, CA.
Sharf, R. S. (2013). Applying Career Development Theory to Counseling (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Cengage.
Shin, D.C. & Johnson, D.M (1978). Avowed happiness as an overall assessment of the quality of
life. Social Indicators Research, 5 (4), 475-492
Sousa, L., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2001). Life satisfaction. In J. Worell (Ed.), Encylopedia of women
and gender: Sex similarities and differences and the impact of society on gender (Vol. 2, pp.
667-676). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
State Adolescent Health Resource Center. (n.d.). Understanding Adolescence: Seeing through a
Developmental Lens. Retrieved 13 June 2017,
fromhttp://www.amchp.org/programsandtopics/AdolescentHealth/projects/Documents/SA
HRC%20AYADevelopment%20LateAdolescentYoungAdulthood.pdf.
Super, D.E. (1969). Vocational development theory: Persons, positions, and processes. Sage
Journals. https://doi.org/10.1177/001100006900100101
Super, D. E. (1990). A life span, life-space approach to career development. In D. Brown, & L.
Brooks (Eds.), Career choice and development (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey–Bass.
Ünüvar, Ş, Avşaroğlu, S. & Uslu, M. (2012). An Evaluation of Optimism and Life Satisfaction of
Undergraduate Students in the School of Tourism and Hotel Management. Asian Social
Science, 8(12), 140-147.
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PSYCHOLOGICAL ABUSE IN ADOLESCENTS’ INTERPERSONAL

RELATIONSHIP: AN INTERPRETATIVE ANALYSIS
Raadhika A/P R Prakash Naidu, Mimi Fitriana Zaini, & Asong Joseph
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: rathikash25@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Abusive relationship occurs when a person exhibits control and power over the other individuals. In a relationship,
abuse might lead to the increased level of severity in any other forms of psychological problems. The current
research aimed to explore the experiences of adolescents and to expose factors affecting the occurrence of
psychological abuse in their interpersonal relationships. A qualitative approach with phenomenological design
was used in the current research. A sample of 7 university students with age ranging from 18 to 25 years old, was
selected using purposive sampling technique. Data were collected through semi structured interviews and using
thematic analysis procedure, research themes were generated. The findings revealed several generated themes in
identifying such forms of psychological abuse in adolescents’ interpersonal relations as, 1) psychological anxiety,
2) social isolation, and 3) fear of harm and distress. Themes were also generated to explore such impacts of
psychological abuse intervening their relationship as, 1) stereotypes, 2) partner’s characteristics, and 3)
experience in relationship. Other themes were also generated to expose those factors contributing to the
development of psychological abuse in the relationship, such as 1) dependency, 2) insufficient knowledge, and 3)
personality traits. Research also exposed the vulnerability of the victims, withdrawal attitudes from the society
due to being paranoia, and other psychological distress as the general impact of the abusive behaviors in the
relationship.
Keywords: Psychological Abuse, Interpersonal Relationship, Interpretative Analysis.
Abusive relationship happens during an example of behaviour utilized to obtain control and power over
any type of relationship. The abuse can happen in any types of interpersonal relationship which can be
child, family and romantic relationship. Furthermore, relationship abuse transpires in many forms,
such as sexual, physical, psychological and financial. It can reach out to become as threats or menacing.
Abuse comes in many different forms and it is important to be able to recognize the warning signs’
(Cofone, 2011). For instance, you are a young adult whom began to date a new partner. Over time, your
partner begins’ to control you and disengage you from your friends. Your social circle or group of
friends begins to turn out to be small and this is an admonition sign that the relationship is headed
toward abuse (Sondergaard, 2014).
Moreover, there are scarcely any several effects of being in an abusive relationship. Those are
sexual, physical, psychological and financial effects. There are different physical effects that can happen
to a battered victim. Notwithstanding scars and bruises, long term effects encompass arthritis, heart
diseases and high blood pressure. Psychological effects gives’ the indication of depression, post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), suicide attempts and behavioural and emotional difficulties. Above
all, youngsters endure long term of emotional and behavioural problems after being associated with a
victim of relationship abuse. In addition, sexual abuse is as any type of assault or constrained sexual
action or dangers (Sondergaard, 2014). For example, requesting sex when one's partner is reluctant and
makes physical assaults against the sexual parts of the partner's body. Furthermore, methods of
economic effects are loss of an employment due to being absent with a reason of needing to move
locations or health related issues. For example, moving is expensive, but may be necessary to move
away from a victimizer. Moreover, the expense for a health plan to manage with the impacts of abuse
are costly as well (Sondergaard, 2014).
Furthermore, there are numerous factors that an individual may turn into an abuser in a
relationship. The most well-known character of an abuser, which add to why they decide to be abuser
include a feeling of qualification, a conviction of meriting command over a partner, conviction that the
victimizer can 'pull off it,' belief that being abusive gets them what they need, and a conviction that their
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needs, requirements, and thoughts should take need over their victim's (Fletcher, 2019). There has been
a great deal of research into the factors for relationship abuse. Research has indicated that there are
basic confusions about what causes abuse. Abuse isn't brought about by being incited, outrage, mental
health issues, or a 'loss of command' over one's activities. Being abusive is a decision that an individual
makes. At the point when they decide to accuse the maltreatment for some different option from
themselves, it is basically a way to attempt to legitimize the behaviour (Fletcher, 2019).
Abusive relationships happen in all nations, poor or rich, created or creating with no respect to caste,
societal position, abundance, metropolitan or country homes, ages, colour, or the times of victim and
victimizer. Malaysia is no exemption for the issue of abusive relationships. The accessible information
uncovers that there has been an expansion in reports identifying with abuse on intimate partners in the
course of recent years. Measurable data from Polis Diraja Malaysia (2010) demonstrated that the
revealed instances of abuse and brutality have expanded from 2,555 cases in 2003 to 3,643 cases in
2009. Remembering that there are as yet numerous unreported cases of abuse in our general public, this
would imply that many are enduring in silence.
Numerous individuals actually believe abusive relationship to be a personal and they accept
that what occurs in the home should remain there. Notwithstanding, the expansion in the announced
cases demonstrates that victims are building up an awareness to their entitlement to be liberated from
abusive relationships. Abuse happens psychologically physically, sexually and economically which
increment the risk of depression, dread, posttraumatic stress disorder(PTSD), guilt, anxiety disorder,
dietary issues, poor self-esteem and numerous other wellbeing impedances (Cofone, 2011).
Tragically, the issue looked in this research are likewise from the community factors. For
instance, poor neighbourhood support and cohesion (Cofone, 2011). The frail network sanctions against
abusive relationships, for example, reluctance of neighbours to Intervene in circumstances where they
witness abusive act. Moreover, other issue that emerges is cultural components which is social standards
that help aggression toward others (Cofone, 2011). For instance, there are societies that underpins the
abusive act demonstration of men towards ladies in provincial zones. Additionally, the antisocial
characteristics and lead issues could expand the individual risk factors (Cofone, 2011). For instance,
the victim of abuse has the characters of an introvert which causes the individual not to share their
issues. A blend of individual, community, and cultural variables add to the risk of abusive. There is
restricted measure of research that zeroed in solely on adolescents' perception of psychological abuse.
There is a requirement for more research that centres around exploring the adolescents' perception on
psychological abuse(Cofone, 2011).
This research focused on the exploration of adolescents perception on abusive relationship will
significantly add to adolescent perceiving the types, effects and factors of psychological abuse in
abusive relationship. The participants in this research were university students with relatively recent
and general information regarding abusive relationship. The perceptions these students have towards
these victims may impact the comprehension of psychological abuse. Directing this research with
students added to explore better in adolescents’ perception on types of interpersonal relationships in
psychological abuse. Also, researchers had the option to explore participants’ perception on factors that
contributes the psychological abuse. Thusly, it surely upgraded researchers’ knowledge and persuaded
to do future research identified with this area of study.
Lastly, this study permitted the students to gain an in-depth understanding concerning the
effects related with psychological abuse as perceiving the difficulties assisted the students with pursuing
a solution. The discoveries of this study may likewise have urged universities to grow the knowledge
and education gave to students’ and to upgrade their critical thinking skills regarding abuse victims.
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Literature Review
Types of Interpersonal Relationships in Psychological Abuse
Researchers have contemplated psychological abuse in an assortment of settings and in a scope of

relationships dependent on blood and legitimate ties, closeness, reliance and trust. Such interpersonal
relationships, dissimilar to the generic associations one experiences in everyday life, include high levels
of enthusiastic speculation and information exchange. The qualities of various types of interpersonal
relationship may bring about special conditions between the individual- conditions that we have not
generally perceived or recognized (Doherty et al., 2008). The following are contemplations identified
with psychological abuse in three categories of interpersonal relationship.
There is extensive research reporting psychological abuse as a type of intimate partners’ abuse.
In huge numbers of these research, abuse is commonly characterized as an example of physical and
non-physical abuse including psychological tactics executed by a partner to pick up control, and the
emphasis is on intimate partner violence against women in heterosexual relationships (Doherty et al.,
2008). So, these investigations propose that physical and psychological abuse exist together and that
women endure more noteworthy exploitation than men. This distinction may mirror the more prominent
physical size and strength of men, and social structures that advantage men.
As per a researcher, except for sexual abuse, most instances of child abuse by and large include
a parental figure, with at any rate one of the guardians was the culprit in 82% of abuse investigations
(Doherty et al., 2008). In validated instances of psychological abuse, 56% of the victimizers were
fathers, step fathers, precedent-based law partners and 66% were mother, stepmothers, precedent-based
law partners (Doherty et al., 2008). Given that emotional abuse is connected to different classifications
of children abuse, it tends to be construed that all types of abuse significantly affect the passionate
prosperity of children (Doherty et al., 2008). For instance, presentation to aggressive behaviour at home
was the second most as often as possible validated classification of abuse, and it was related with
enthusiastic damage to the kid in 14% of validated cases (Doherty et al., 2008).
Furthermore, there are relationship of trust and authority. Psychological abuse may likewise
happen in the work environment. Brutality and provocation in the working environment can include
affronts, dangers, tormenting, actual attacks or explicitly bothering practices. Victimizers may
incorporate different representatives, employers, customers and clients, and their abuse can be hard to
distinguish and resolve (Doherty et al., 2008). Foundational factors, for example, troublesome working
conditions (weighty remaining tasks at hand), the work setting (cutbacks, absence of employer help),
and the work environment culture (empowering outlandish rivalry among employees) may remunerate
oppressive workers and quietness the individuals who are victimized.
In summary, there were numerous kinds of connections wherein psychological abuse happens:
intimate partners, adult child, heterosexual relationships and relationship of trust and authority. In these
relationships, one gathering is utilizing different strategies to apply force and control and to diminish
someone else. With regards to this force lop-sidedness, abuse happens and causes different sorts of
harm, including psychological and emotional harm (Doherty et al., 2008).
Effects of Psychological Abuse
There has been a propensity to sort abuse along a continuum with the effects of physical abuse being
considered more dangerous than psychological abuse. This propensity is on the grounds that
psychological abuse, in contrast to physical abuse, leaves no obvious scars or wounds, making it harder
to recognize. Specialist organizations may not connection an individual's introducing worries to prior
psychological abuse, especially when a casualty has questions about his/her own perceptions, or
neglects to interface their issues to a psychological trauma that happened years sooner (Claira et al.,
2016). All things considered, researchers caution against an inflexible worldview that sees the effects
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of one type of abuse as more unsafe than another. Any type of abuse, including psychological abuse,
may increment in severity and duration over the long run (Claira et al., 2016).
Firstly, short term effects on the body and brain of psychological abuse can be hard for the
individual on the receiving than desirable ending to acknowledge. From the start, they might be trying
to claim ignorance that the individual they are in a relationship with is taking part in emotionally abusive
behaviour. (Fletcher, 2019). For instance, the victim may begin to feel disgrace, misery, dread and
disarray. As they manage emotional effects of this, they may likewise begin to feel some physiological
effects of the abuse. Those effects incorporate crankiness, a throbbing painfulness, confronting trouble
in concentrating and experiences muscle pressure. The more extended the psychological abuse
proceeds, the more delayed these effects can turn in (Fletcher, 2019).
Furthermore, psychological abuse, just as physical abuse, can have long term effects for the
body and brain. Actually, as indicated by one research, severe psychological abuse can be as harming
as actual physical abuse and leads to stress, depression and also reduces self- esteem. The research
likewise recommended that psychological abuse may add to the advancement of chronic conditions, for
example, chronic fatigue syndrome. Moreover, a person may experience insomnia, anxiety, loneliness
and guilt whereas when children experiences psychological abuse they commonly develop effects like
regression, difficulty in regulating emotions, feeling of worthlessness and sleep disorders.
In addition, psychological abuse effects on personal relationships. An individual who is

exposed to psychological abuse, either as a child or inside a relationship, might be more averse to
confide in individuals later on. For instance, as they grow up, children may look for negative
relationships that may keep on presenting them to psychological abuse. An individual who is exposed
to psychological abuse inside a relationship may experience difficulty drawing near to others in future
(Pietrangelo, 2019).
As a child develops into adulthood, they may build up extra effects to those of the psychological
abuse they encountered. As per some research, children exposed to psychological abuse are bound to
create dangerous behaviour and may pick poor relationships over solid ones. They may likewise be
bound to encounter psychological abuse again in their grown-up life. There are likewise some drawn
out clinical issues that can influence individuals exposed to psychological abuse. These includes dietary
issues, obesity, headaches and even sometimes, psychological abuse may prompt post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) (Pietrangelo, 2019). An individual who endures psychological abuse may not create
PTSD, yet in the event that they do, they may encounter symptoms like negative considerations, anger,
and sleeping disorder also known as insomnia.
Factors that Contributes Psychological Abuse
This segment diagrams factors that put children and adults in danger of being psychologically abused.
Since, psychological abuse frequently exists in mix with other abusive behaviours, almost certainly,
comparative risk factors may exist over the various types of abuse. A few researchers have contended
that paying little mind to age and sex, the risk factors for psychological abuse are like those related with
physical, sexual and monetary abuse and trauma (Tracy, 2012). Conversely, different researchers
propose that it is imperative to examine psychological abuse autonomously from different types of
abuse. The factors can be divided into risk factors for children and risk factors for adults.
Firstly, the factors for children would be living with neglectful parents. Study shows that
neglectful parents undergoes problems getting a grip on the intricacy of individual association when all
is said in done, and the idea of parent-child relationship specifically (Doherty et al., 2008). Furthermore,
living with parents who have addiction or psychological problems would be one of the contributing
factor of the abuse. Psychological abuse and neglect to a psychological disturbance in the parents were
connected in the early research, though later research centres around parental intellectual shortfalls,
emotional well-being issues and substance abuse as factors identifying with child neglect (Doherty et
al., 2008). Psychological abuse parents have been found to encounter trouble feeling for their children,
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and to have incredibly exclusive requirements of their children behaviour. All the more explicitly,
depression was found to put parents in risk of participating in psychological abuse of their children.
Despite the fact that depression was not accepted to be the factor for psychological abuse, researchers
contend that it might lead some parents to consume drugs or different medications, which may thus
prompt neglectful parenting and being harmful to their children (Doherty et al., 2008).
Moreover, a few children, for example, premature babies and sick or normal new-born babies
and children, with troublesome dispositions, are especially vulnerable against encountering
psychological abuse. Their parents may need affectability to their requirements and it might be very
hard for them to think about (Doherty et al., 2008). Other factor, for example would be parental living
in neediness, commonly consolidate with children character characteristics to evoke abusive parental
response.
In addition, another factor is living in poverty and lacking of community support systems.
Families in which disregard happens frequently live in destitution, segregated from both formal and
casual social encouraging groups of people in their networks. As the destitution rates had stayed stable,
this expansion was connected to a development in the quantity of government assistance subordinate
single females adapting to viciousness. A large portion of the research on family qualities identifying
with child neglect centres around the intergenerational transmission of savagery. Proof of such a cause
effect relationship is restricted as most children who witness between parental brutality don't grow up
to become victimizers. Researchers have noticed that it is similarly as essential to think about the outer
factors, for example, the social and financial setting wherein a few families live that may put families
in danger for such abusive behaviour since these factors are frequently fundamental in nature and might
be tended to through arrangement and projects pointed toward profiting an enormous number of families
(Doherty et al., 2008). Different components that may build a children's risk of encountering
psychological abuse incorporate parental joblessness, general family complication, prejudice, and as
talked about above, absence of a family social encouraging group of people and living in poverty.
In addition, a research found that women are more defenceless against all types of abuse if her
partner is youthful (18-25), jobless in long haul, has minimal proper training, a hefty consumer or was
presented violence against his mother. Likewise, ladies in customary law connections were discovered
to be at higher risk of abuse than ladies who were married. Risk factors related with psychological abuse
for men fall into these equivalent classes (Doherty et al., 2008).
To survey, there are numerous components that improve the probability of psychological abuse.
They do not, be that as it may, foresee who will end up being a victim or a culprit of psychological
abuse; rather they highlight conditions where intercession might be essential.
Figure 1 indicated the social cognitive theory (SCT) created by Albert Bandura in 1974 which use to
help this study. All in all, SCT is a displaying learning idea which "demonstrating" is portrayed as a
scholarly conduct that falls into place without a hitch by seeing what happens to others inside the setting
of social cooperation’s, experiences, and media impacts (Obembe, 2012). In view of Plow and Chang
(2019), the consistent association of individual (intellectual), environment and behaviour which called
equal determinism are the focal reason of SCT. Plow and Chang (2019) likewise, notice that noticing
the individuals around and the view of the environment will shape an individual's behaviour and an
individual's behaviour will be impacted by the capacities or information, positive and negative
fortifications, discretion, seen results of performing practices and the qualities set on those results, and
self-viability. Along these lines, an individual is likely not to take part in the behaviour if they don't
have the foggiest idea how to participate in the behaviour and doesn't esteem the results related with
taking part in the conduct or isn't certain that they will have the option to conquer hindrances (Plow and
Chang,2019). As indicated by Bartlett (2011), SCT identifies with develops that portray how people
settle on decisions and how an individual demonstrations’ will be affected by the observations and
desires that gets from past encounters. Bartlett (2011) likewise, referenced that new learning encounters
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can improve by the arrangement of exact data and by means of introduction to positive improvements
ready to address flawed or nonsensical convictions.
The second model that is used in theoretical framework is Power and Control wheel which is
shown in figure 2. It is an especially accommodating instrument in understanding the general example
of abusive and violent behaviours, which are utilized by a batterer to set up and keep up command over
his partner. All the time, at least one violent incidents are joined by a variety of these different kinds of
abuse. They are less handily distinguished, yet solidly set up a pattern of intimidation and control in the
relationship.
Figure 1
Social Cognitive Theory
Note: Figure 1 illustrates the theoretical framework adapted from Bartlett, (2011) Cognitive
behavioural therapy to increase adherence to continuous positive airway for this study. The interaction
of the components served as the fundamental reference in the current study.
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Figure 2
The Duluth Model, power and control wheel.
Note: Figure 2 illustrates the theoretical framework adapted from Joseph’s (2018) Twentyone lessons:
preventing domestic violence in the Caribbean for this study. The interaction of the components
served as the fundamental reference in the current study.
Methodology
Research Design
Qualitative method centres around understanding individuals' experience, behaviour and connections.
The classifications of qualitative methods are interview, survey and documentary studies (Pathak et.,
2013). A qualitative research was used when the researcher means to explore in detail of the perceptions
of the participants. This study, along these lines, proposed a qualitative research way to deal with
increase a top to bottom exploring the perception of adolescents’ on psychological abuse through the
systematic way of data collection, analysis and understanding. Additionally, an Interpretative
Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach was received to increase a comprehension on how
participants sort out their perceptions, accordingly understanding from their perspective. The small
sample size with seven participants of the IPA method may have the advantage of understanding the
subtle components of the research topic (Alase, 2017).
Sampling
This study proposed utilizing purposive sampling techniques because according to Pobi (2016),
population is a huge gathering of individual who in any event has a specific set of characteristics. The
university, International University of Malaya Wales situated in Kuala Lumpur, is chosen dependent on
its openness to get participants. Heretofore, every interviewee was clarified with the aim and objectives
of the study. Sampling is a method that permits researchers to derive data about the sample dependent
on the result. Pobi (2016) characterizes test as a specific gathering of individuals who are looked over
a chose population. A sample of seven students were chosen. Purposive sampling was utilized because
of the need to choose participants dependent on specific criteria. The inclusion criteria for selection are
students who are between the ages of 18 and 25 years and education level which includes their study
mode, whereas with the exclusion criteria of their race and gender.
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Instruments
In this research study, a semi-structured interview was led to gather and collect data. This is to permit
adaptability in the interview process. The researcher posed open-ended questions by utilizing interview
schedule to explore the participants’ perception on psychological abuse. An intelligent two-way
correspondence was urged to prompt the participants to share more data that the researcher is not
exploring, hence making them the experiential expert of the subject. In this manner, a more extravagant
data was collected. These are few of the questions that are based on the research questions of this study
that were used to ask the students.
Data Collection
The semi-structured interview was held face to face by means of online by utilizing google meet and
the time were as per the availability of the participants. Beforehand, an informed consents were given
to every interviewee to guarantee that their participation is voluntary and confidentiality of data will be
guaranteed. Participants had the opportunity to withdraw whenever on the off chance that they feel
uncomfortable or disturbed in the interview process. The interview was done in one or the other Malay
or English, as per the solace of the interviewee and it will take around 180 minutes in total. Each
interview was audio and video recorded. A thematic approach were used in this research, thus after the
interview, the interview was transcribed into words and leave an edge on the two sides of the transcript
for analytical remarks.
Data Analysis
The data collected were examined utilizing Interpretative Phenomenological Approach (IPA). In IPA,
the examination follows a progression of stages. In the principal stage, the record of the interview was
perused and re-read in detail to get all an encompassing perspective. The arising subject titles will at
that point be distinguished, and further coordinated into bunches dependent on examples of responses
of participants. Associations between the developing topics will at that point be inspected after the
subjects are refined and dense. The table of subjects were created which comprise of superordinate
topics and its subthemes. In the last stage, the subjects were converted into an account clarifying the
participants’ perception and the researcher's interpretation clearly.
Ethical Considerations
The confidentiality and privacy of the participants was safeguarded by not revealing their identity and
names in the information assortment, investigation and reporting of the study findings. Privacy and
confidentiality of the interview environment were overseen cautiously during interview session,
information investigation and dispersal of the finding. Each interview was directed exclusively in a
private and quiet room in the respective home via online utilizing google meet. The researcher will be
the one in particular who have the option to coordinate the identity of participants and audio and video
recordings.
Results and Findings

This study is done to find the perception of adolescents’ on psychological abuse and types of
interpersonal relationship involved which leads to psychological and few other effects. Lastly, how
adolescents’ perceive on the factors contributing psychological abuse and its severity on the victim. In
order to convert the semi structured interview data into various themes of common concepts, six steps
under thematic analysis were utilized to label the three research questions which correlates with the
research objectives and research scope.
In this study, first step was distributing informed consent to all the participants to ensure that
their participation is voluntarily. Notifying respondents about their consent is an ethical issue to be
followed during research and it is done because not every student was comfortable of showing their
face during the online interview. In addition, another reason for an informed consent is to maintain their
confidentiality and privacy. Respondents might be sensitive on sharing or disclosing their personal
information like their name and age to the public. The second step was a semi structured interview were
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arranged for the participant via online. In this interview, qualitative analysis is adopted which enabled
the research to prompt an in- depth understanding of the participants perspectives on their understanding
of abusive relationship. In order to identify research sample, purposive sampling technique is used.
There were 7 university students from International University of Malaya Wales voluntarily participated
in this study. Reason of university student were selected for this study because of their ages which suits
in having the knowledge and understanding on abusive relationship. The next step is 3 open ended
questions were asked to the participants and interview time frame taken for the whole research was
approximately 180 minutes. Each interview were audio and video recorded and then was transcribed
into thematic analysis. Furthermore, it is very significant to review the information and correct any
errors prior to continuing with the study. Apart from that, due to being concern to this, the initial step
as being alluded to pre-analysis required screening and investigate the information by perusing the
entirety of the data to get general sense of the data. In the following stage, aims, ideas or considered
information known as significant data are written down in the edges of the verbatim records to
coordinate and find the content for the portrayal to be utilized in the examination report. From the
gathered information, the content fragments are appointed with a code mark and characterized into a
few themes. These themes are associating and interrelating to one another as it contains comparable
codes totalled together to shape a significant idea in the information base.
Research Findings
Research Question 1: How is psychological abuse perceived by the students?
Psychological Anxiety
All sample have stated the similar effects that they perceive on psychological abuse which is it causes
psychological distress. First and second sample responded that they think that the victim starts to have
low self-confidence and self-esteem and develops anxiety which may leads to severe depression and
PTSD. Furthermore, the third, fourth and sixth sample mentioned the same effects which is the victim
are mentally and emotionally affected. The fifth sample stated using vulgar or any inappropriate words
leads to psychological problem. In addition, sample seven responded that the victim will go through
the same by being imbalance emotionally.
Social Isolation
According to the few sample, the individuals implied that they felt that the victim might feel disgust to
start a new relationship because it makes them to be reminded of their past experience and maybe that
victim has no confidence to build another relationship because of low self-esteem and feel that they are
not good enough for others which is also known as feeling insecure. The fourth sample stated that the
individual develops phobia from their past experience and afraid to move on. Moreover, fifth sample
revealed that the victim prefer being lonely after a major impact. Lastly, seventh sample responded that
since she has personally experience it, she feels that the victim might feel the same of not able to control
the emotional state, thus, unable to think wisely and starts to feel depressed when thinks of being
committed again.
Fear of Harm and Distress

Most of the samples have given the similar response that the victims are usually mistreated in many
ways but mainly physically and psychologically. Sample one, three and four stated that abusive
relationship is known when an individual is burdened, harmed or beaten. Sample two responded that
victim is treated badly by frightening them mentally, physically and also emotionally. Whereas, sample
five, six and seven stated mistreat happens in the form of acting cruelty, dominancy and also violent
act.
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Research Question 2: How do students perceive of psychological abuse to intervene

interpersonal relationship?
Stereotypes
Most samples stated that females are the main victim to fall into this violence, because of the male
characteristics of being dominant and stronger, whereas there are few samples stated that both male and
females are equally being at the risk. Unfortunately , it is just not shown in outer world what happens
in reality.
Partner’s Characteristics
Sample one responded that it could be anyone with the character of controlling. Furthermore, most of
the samples mentioned that it depends on the weakness characteristics of abuser like parents, spouses
or closes partner to become very dominant and think that they have more power and feel in charge of
others life. Whereas, sample two had different opinion which she explained by saying that the victim
should be blamed themselves as the perpetrators because of the characteristics of allowing the abuse act
to happen in the first place.
Experience in Relationship
All the samples stated a common perception on that there are several types of interpersonal relationship
involves in psychological abuse. Most of the samples responded that intimate partners or spouses are
the main type of relation causes abuse. Few samples stated that it also happens among parents and child
or relationship of trust and authority like friends or working colleagues.
Research Question 3: How do students perceives on the contributing factors of psychological

abuse?
Dependency
The first sample mentioned that the victims might need the abuser to support them financially which
makes the individual to be very helpless. In addition, sample two and three stated that besides family
as support system, cultural factor is also involved. Sample four responded that the victim might be
helpless because their family members might control every action of them. Furthermore, sample five
stated that individuals family or peers do not support them and cause negative impact. The sample six
and seven stated that the victim feeling hesitate to break their family members rules and afraid of
fighting them back.
Insufficient Knowledge
All the samples responded similarly that psychological abuse happens because victims are lacking of
awareness . Second and seventh samples have also responded that the victim has insufficient knowledge
about sex education and also being uneducated.
Personality Traits
In this dimensions, sample one stated that that victim has the character of being powerless, introvert
and dependent, whereas other samples responded that abuser has the personality of manipulating and
controlling an individual to follow their instructions which then leads to abuse.
Discussion
Research Question 1: How is psychological abuse perceived by the students?
Psychological Anxiety
The American Psychological Association (APA) clarifies that psychological abuse is an enthusiastic
reaction to a horrible occasion, which meddles with a person's capacity to function as the individual
would under ordinary conditions. Psychological impact of an abusive incident will vary from person to
person, but most of the samples in this study have actually responded that after a traumatic event ,
individuals normally experience emotional distress. The samples perception were that the effects starts
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by victims showing symptoms of low self-confidence and self-esteem and then it develops to anxiety
which cause severe depression and PTSD. According to Fletcher (2019), the more psychological abuse
proceeds, the more these effects can turn into. The psychological distress that the individual goes
through are led from fear, anxiety, depression, PTSD, headaches and also mentally and emotionally
affected( Pietrangelo, 2019).
Social Isolation
All seven participants stated that they have negative perception on victims being socially isolated with
others after going through a bad past experience. The samples perception is that the victims will feel
disgusted, phobia and will not have confidence to build a new relationship. Based on the research done
by Pietrangelo (2019), an individual faces difficulty drawing near to others in future because they have
experience or exposed onto relationship that abused them psychologically. The result found that
students perceives individual with low confidence, low self-esteem, phobia and insecurities are the one
being paranoid about having relationship with others.
Fear of Harm and Distress

Healthy relationship include regard, trust, and thought for the other individual. Most of the sample had
the similar perception that abusive relationship doesn’t have all these aspects. Instead the victims were
actually involved in mistreatment, physical violence, disrespect, and affecting emotionally and
psychologically. According to Lyness (2017), the warning signs that may be involved in an abusive
relationship are the abuser might harm the individual physically like grabbing or smacking, controls all
the aspects of the victim’s life, and threatening. One of the sample even had the perception abusive
relationship is also happens in a way of humiliates and make them feel unworthy. It shows that samples
perception of understanding that one individual is using various procedures to apply power and control
and to reduce another person. Concerning this power imbalance, misuse occurs and causes various
kinds of mistreats, including psychological and emotional harm (Doherty et al., 2008).
Research Question 2: How do students perceive of psychological abuse to intervene

interpersonal relationship?
Stereotypes
In this dimension, stereotypes of having gender inequality is found out. Previous studies proven that
psychological abuse has been affecting the female more than male. The women has been more prone to
it since they endure more significant exploitation than men. This is due to the perception of the samples
that males have more prominent physical size, and strength( Doherty et al, 2008). Whereas, two of the
samples have also stated that both genders are at the equal risk. The role of gender stereotypes is a
significant factor when considering both experiences of being more prone to abusive relationship.
According to Randell and Graham (2011), male are meant to be aggressive, have attitude of dominance,
power and goal attainment which leads them to use violence, whereas females are socialized to value
relationship.
Partner’s Characteristics
Many abusive partners have controlling character traits. Common signs of an psychological abuse is a
partner becomes angry and controlling the individual. The vast majority of the samples expressed that
it occurs because of the qualities of victimizer. The perpetrators shortcoming is the factor of this issues.
In the meantime, a few samples expressed that the casualties weakness makes them face psychological
abuse. Perpetrators vulnerability is caused by the past traumatic experience. Because of the awful
impacts of viciousness, casualties have a more noteworthy trouble to think about themselves and their
relationship. The powerlessness to react to them, ultimately uncovering weakness of victims character,
hence giving a model to psychological abuse(Pereira et al., 2020).
Experience in Relationship
Interpersonal relationship various in many forms and experienced. The bonds in this relationship are
defined with different expectations between the victim and the abuser(Moulton, 2020). There are four
common categories mentioned in this research which are family or parents, intimate partners or spouses,
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friends and colleagues. According to most of the samples, parents and intimate partners are the
relationship that report high number of cases in psychological abuse. According to Doherty et al (2008),
in these interpersonal relationship, one person is using various procedures to apply power and control
and to decrease another person. With respect to this power disparity, misuse occurs and causes various
kinds of damage, including mentally and emotionally.
Research Question 3: How do students perceives on the contributing factors of psychological

abuse?
Dependency
Feeling helpless and being dependent is a state of mind. Many people remain in abusive relationship,
for numerous reasons but the feeling of being dependent like having no choices is caused from a fear
that’s not being conscious about. Samples in this study have actually stated many explanations for the
victims staying in abusive relationship which are due to money binds the couples or family. Being
financially dependent leaves no choice to the individual. Furthermore, often victim fear feeling shamed
and also being threatened by the abuser that may harm themselves or the victim(Lancer, 2018). Another
factor that influences this dimensions is cultural factor, which commands the individual to follow it.
For example, some cultures give full power to the man of the house and that makes the women to be
co-dependency and adopt with their controlling life. Few researchers have seen that it is also as vital
for consider the external factors, for instance, the social and monetary setting wherein a couple of
families live that may place families in peril for such harmful conduct since these components are
oftentimes central in nature and may be tended to through plan and activities highlighted benefitting a
huge number of families (Doherty et al., 2008).
Insufficient Knowledge
Understanding power and control in an abusive relationship is important. The Power and Control wheel
is a particularly obliging instrument in understanding the overall illustration of abusive practices, which
are used by a batterer to set up and keep up order over his accomplice. There are few signs of
psychological abuse that shows part of a repeated pattern of controlling behaviour. Mental health
foundation (2018), has stated that many journals and news have actually shown that abusive relationship
is growing enormously but still more awareness is needed to be raise to make the victims understand it
and also able to recognize it. Most of the samples reacted comparatively that psychological abuse
happens in light of the fact that casualties are missing of mindfulness or awareness. Two other samples
have additionally reacted that the casualty has lacking information about sex education and furthermore
being clueless.
Personality Traits
Researchers who study the causes of abuse have found a number of characteristics that are closely
linked to an increased risk of psychological abuse. It could be because of characteristics of abuser or
victim being impulsivity, nonconformity, manipulative, and dominancy(Hinders, 2017). Samples
reacted that victimizer has the character of controlling constantly a person to adhere to their directions
which at that point prompts misuse and furthermore due to being dependent, introvert and powerless.
This dimension can be linked with the research literature which was explained in theoretical framework.
In the theoretical framework, behaviour that is derived from social cognitive theory explains more on
the vulnerabilities of abuser and victims which are less motivated, pressure of less power and influence
on thoughts and actions(Plow and Chang, 2019).
Findings in this research study has contributed to adolescent’s perception on psychological abuse. The
current research findings show that people with past traumatic experience is vital in keeping up their
positive characteristics and psychological wellbeing. As indicated by Cisler and Olatunji (2012),
research prompted into seeing behaviour to overcome abusive act. Emotion guideline in assisting
individual with depression is considered to be helpful however more research will be required to
additionally explain how emotion and mental guideline battles the vulnerabilities for perpetrators and
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victims and to improve the lucidity and consistency of utilizing emotion guideline. As expressed above,
research done on characteristics may potentially be found breaking to victims of psychological abuse.
As stated by samples in the findings, lack of awareness is one of the main contributing factor
of psychological abuse. Subsequently, to settle this issues The Malaysian Psychiatric Association can
get the significance of rehearsing strategies of resiliency and spread it as a public assistance declaration
as a method of assisting victims with adapting to the psychological abuse.
The following key implications that need to be focused are treatment options for abusive
victims. Keeping the victim safe is a part of way to treat psychological abuse. Many practitioners who
works with victims are recommended to guide with development of safety plans. Encouraging victim
on how to seek for help during violence happens. The approach which can be used to treat victims are
Duluth Model. This model explains on empowering the individual by providing them information, and
support, which can decrease the abusive act in victims’ lives over time.
Limitation of Study
This research used an interview method to collect thematic analysis from university students in
International University of Malaya Wales. There is no research study without limitations, thus, this
study has shown several limitations. Firstly, it was harder to find axial coding through thematic analysis
because it was done in a short amount of time. More findings could have been collected if there were
more amount of time. Secondly, there was limit in finding participants since necessary resources aren’t
available. In addition, in this study, the qualitative research was on a small scale but the purpose was to
collect substantial details and keep the data amount in a manageable level. Apart from that, participants
information was not allowed to be shared, thus, confidentiality was another limitation found in this
study because previous researcher stated that confidentiality can show problems on presenting findings.
In order to recommend for a better future research, more amount of time and resources would be the
better way to improve the research because able to carry out a full analysed research. Furthermore,
researcher needs more information on student’s perception regarding how psychological abuse
intervene interpersonal relationship. Ultimately, research studies ought to be distributed in proficient
journals as well as in mainstream magazines as abusive relationship at home is an issue that worries the
overall population. By distributing in mainstream magazines, public mindfulness might be improved
and more victims will realize that they have options to overcome this.
Conclusion
The phenomenon of abusive pattern of behavior has been explored in the current interpersonal study
of adolescents’ relationship and factors contributing to the development of such psychological abuse
were exposed to identify the psychological problems which occurred in such a relationship. The
impacts of psychological abuse and the severity of the problems were also revealed. This, therefore,
indicated the needs of interpersonal relationship awareness among the adolescents in their personal
relationship and social interaction.
Acknowledgements
The current research was not supported by any grants. Regardless, the researchers would like to
express their gratitude to the participants and those who contributed to the data collection and analysis.
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ATTITUDE TOWARDS COVID-19 VACCINATION PROGRAM
Yusmariaziani Binti Yusri*, Wong Ying Huan, Regina Yap Wan Teng, Sammuel Spencer
Sulau Ak Tinggom, Nur Aisyah Binti Mohamad Firus, Stephennie Lione Stephenson
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: ziani.yusri13@gmail.com1,
ABSTRACT
Attitude towards COVID-19 Vaccination Program was carried out to the targeted community of residents from
Rumah Panjang Stanley Jelian, Penasu, Sibu, Sarawak. The program was conducted virtually via an online video
communication platform. This paper aims to identify the difference between the affective, behaviour, cognitive
components, and the overall attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination of participants before and after the attitude
change program. A self-administered questionnaire was designed to measure participants’ attitude towards
COVID-19 vaccination at two different times. Three scales used were the ABCs components of attitude
respectively: affective, behaviour and cognitive. The Yale attitude change approach was applied throughout the
program in order to persuade the audience to receive COVID-19 vaccine. The results of the study showed good
reliability and validity for both pre- and post-program. As for the analysis of paired sample t-test, a comparison
between the pre- and post-program attitude components and attitude as a whole revealed that the participants'
attitude toward COVID-19 vaccination had changed significantly. The study's findings revealed the expectation
of the attitude change program to positively change the negative attitude of participants towards COVID-19
vaccination had been met. This program and study have illustrated the target community’s attitude towards the
COVID-19 vaccination along with their increased acceptance towards the COVID-19 vaccine at the end of the
program.
Keywords: Attitude, COVID-19 vaccination, attitude change program, Yale attitude change approach
Introduction
Program Attitude towards COVID-19 Vaccination has been carried out on May 22, 2021 and the
participants are targeted community of residents from Rumah Panjang Stanley Jelian, Penasu, Sibu,
Sarawak and also the public who are interested to know more on COVID-19 vaccination. The aim of
the program is to encourage attitude change towards COVID-19 vaccination among residents in Rumah
Panjang Stanley Jelian. The objective of this program is to spread and increase awareness about
COVID-19 vaccination in the community. Apart from that, the other objective is to educate the
community about the importance of vaccine.
COVID-19 is a virus that has already spread in the entire world. World Health Organization
(WHO) has declared the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak a global pandemic on March 11,
2020. The COVID-19 vaccination awareness is proven to be low as viewed through the application
MySejahtera that many Malaysians have yet to register themselves in the vaccination program.
According to the number of people who have already registered for the vaccination, MySejahtera
disclosed that a few states located at the east coast side of the country and Sabah as well are the areas
with least percentage of registration (Sinar Harian, 2021).
East Malaysian states have been reported to have low inoculation rate since the starting of the
vaccination program in March 2021 especially in rural areas. Although the registration rate for COVID-
19 vaccination and the inoculation rate in East Malaysian states are increasing every day through a
series of effort by the government, there are still rooms for improvement as the states want to ensure all
eligible citizens to be fully vaccinated by the end of this year. In spite of the rises of cases in Malaysia,
the Malaysian acceptance level and attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination remained as one of the
debatable issues as many citizens has yet to register to receive the vaccine especially in rural areas. It is
an urgent task to increase people’s awareness and acceptance level towards COVID-19 vaccination.
This attitude change program applied Yale attitude change approach which ensure higher possibility of
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effective persuasion through various communication sources, message contents and channels, so that
audience would be convinced and carry out the desired behaviour after the program.
Meanwhile, a study on the attitude change of the target community was carried out to examine
the changes in attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination before and after they joined the program. The
objectives of this study is to identify the difference between the affective, behaviour and cognitive
components of attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination during pre- and post-program. Besides that, it
is also wished to identify the difference in overall attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination before and
after the attitude change progarm.
Literature review
Before the occurrence of COVID-19 pandemic, vaccination had long been an emotionally charged issue
among many communities. The major contributor to the heightened emotions were caused by anti-
vaccination groups which manipulate emotions by promoting misinformation and conspiracy
(Broniatowski et al., 2018). This resulted in division and confusion. The emotionally driven sentiments
have led to vaccine hesitancy and reduction in vaccine uptake (Jolley & Douglas, 2014). Throughout
the COVID-19 pandemic, attention to the dominant disinformation tactics need to be included as an
effort towards addressing hesitancy and to heighten the vaccine confidence (Chou & Budenz, 2020).
Negative attitudes towards COVID-19 vaccines such as general mistrust of vaccines benefits
and worries about unforeseen effects are high among individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds,
lower annual income, lower level of education, poor knowledge of COVID-19, and poor compliance
with government COVID-19 guidelines. The findings by Paul et al. (2021) showed that 16% of their
respondents displayed high levels of mistrust about vaccines across one or more domains. The findings
also stated that general mistrust in the benefits and safety of vaccines and concerns about their
unforeseen effects was the largest behavioural and attitudinal barriers to receive COVID-19 vaccine.
Other substantial behavioural and attitudinal barriers include the poor compliance with government
guidelines and low knowledge about COVID-19.
The behavioural determinants that are linked with the behaviour includes perceived social
norms, perceived safety of COVID-19 vaccines, trust of the COVID-19 vaccine, perceived
risk/susceptibility, perceived self-efficacy, perceived positive and negative impact, perceived action
efficacy, perceived seriousness of COVID-19, accessibility and perceived divine will (Kalam et al.,
2021). The beliefs about COVID-19 were highly correlated with vaccine acceptance.
According to WHO (2020), vaccine uptake was increased by encouragement and social
pressure from people that an individual respects and trusts. Therefore, in order to increase COVID-19
vaccine uptake, the communication to encourage people to get vaccinated such as public health
campaigns should focus on educating and increasing trust in both those who are uncertain (such as
education, age and living in a rural location), and those who are unwilling on the safety, efficacy, and
side effect profile of vaccines (Paul et al., 2021).
H1: There is a significant difference between the affective component of attitude towards COVID-19
vaccination during pre- and post-program.
H2: There is a significant difference between the behaviour component of attitude towards COVID-19
H3: There is a significant difference between the cognitive component of attitude towards COVID-19
H4: There is a significant difference in overall attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination during pre- and
post-program.
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Yale Attitude Change Approach
The Yale Attitude Change Approach established by Hovland, Janis, and Kelley (1954) described the
statement of “who said what, to whom, with what effect”, covering the communication source, the
message content, the nature of the audience and communication outcomes. The factors that play a role
in each component are the credibility and attractiveness of the communicator (who), the quality and
sincerity of the message (what), the channel to communicate (how), plus the attention of the audience
(whom).
The attitude change program held to examine the attitude change of target community
members towards COVID-19 vaccination has implemented the model of Yale Attitude Change. The
audience (whom) throughout the program were the residents of Rumah Panjang Stanley Jelian, Sibu,
Sarawak. The audience stayed focused until the end of our program, which may have increased our
possible persuasion to positively influence their attitude towards the COVID-19 vaccination. Due to the
pandemic, the channel to deliver the significant information about COVID-19 vaccine is through online
video-communication platform Google Meet. Some main activities during the program were online
talk, video presentations and sharing session.
During the talk on the COVID-19 vaccine, the program’s guest speaker, a doctor, head of family
medicine unit in Faculty of Medicine and Health Science and head of the vaccination program in
Universiti Malaysia Sabah is a credible and reliable source. He delivered professional knowledge such
as the types, functions, importance, and effectiveness of the COVID-19 vaccines. In result, he managed
to increase the audiences’ understanding towards the COVID-19 vaccines and helped the audience to
organize the uncertainties heard from other sources, by allowing the audience to express their doubts
and thoughts.
There were also two slots of video presentation on how to register for vaccination by using
MySejahtera application for self and dependent, and advantages of receiving the COVID-19 vaccine.
The messages about COVID-19 vaccination were delivered through visual aids of video played through
a shared screen on Google Meet. The videos used attractive visuals and illustrations, catchy background
music, and images to increase the audience’s attention towards the information in the video.
The source in the sharing session was a dental technologist at Klinik Pergigian Jalan Oya, Sibu,
Sarawak, who afforded early access to the COVID-19 vaccine. He is a communicator with high
credibility because he had personal experience of receiving the vaccine. Thus, it was easier for the
audience to perceive the messages delivered as valid such as procedures at vaccination centre, type of
vaccine received, feelings before and after taking vaccine, and mild side effects experienced. The
audience asking for advises from Mr. Peter demonstrated that they trusted his words, and hence positive
attitude change was likely to occur. This slot was conducted through informal interview where program
leader asked questions collected from the potential participants prior to the program.
Method
Research Design
The design of this study was a quantitative based cross-sectional survey method. Researchers used this
design so that it is easier to look at a population at a single point in time, such as cross section of a group
and variables are recorded for each participant. Survey questionnaire was used to collect numerical data.
This study employed within subject design as same participants were used for data collection of both
pre- and post-program.
Participants and Location

The participants involved in this study consisted of residents (N = 30) from Rumah Panjang Stanley
Jelian. All participants joined the Attitude towards COVID-19 Vaccination Program which was held on
May 22, 2021. The sample included 19 females and 11 males. The participant’s age ranged from 16
years old to 55 years old and above. The location of this study was the residential area of target
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community, Rumah Panjang Stanley Jelian. Rumah Panjang Stanley Jelian is a longhouse located in
Penasu area at district of Sibu in Sarawak state of Malaysia.
Research Procedure
After the pilot study was conducted and analysed, actual study was conducted on the day of the Attitude
Change towards COVID-19 Vaccination Program. Two sets of questionnaires were made and distibuted
by using Google Form to assess the pre- and post-program attitude of participants towards COVID-19
vaccine. A group chat was made in messaging application WhatsApp prior to the program in order to
enable effective communication between the participants and researchers. The participants in the
WhatsApp group included 30 target community members that have participated in the program. Pre-
program questionnaire was sent to the participants via the group chat before the program started.
Another set of questionnaire for post-program attitude was sent after the program ended. Google Form
links for both sets of questionnaire were sent at different time to avoid confusion of participants. The
data collected was then analysed and tabulated to report in full paper.
Research Instrument
The research instrument in this study was a self-administered questionnaire designed to measure the
attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination and was constructed in Google Form. The questionnaire
consisted of demographic questions and three main sections which represent three scales of the
instrument. The three scales were the ABCs components of attitude respectively: affective, behaviour
and cognitive with 10 items for each scale and 30 items in total. A 5-point Likert scale, with (1) strongly
disagree to (5) strongly agree, was used to indicate respondents’ level of agreement towards each item.
The same questionnaire was distributed at two different time to act as pre- and post-program
questionnaire in order to measure if there are any significant changes of attitude towards COVID-19
vaccination among participants.
As presented in Table 1, positive and negative items were used with the intention to balance
and eliminate the influence of particular answer and response style from respondents (Woo, 1999).
Hence, reverse coding was done on negative items in data analysis to ensure that the scale is not
impacted as incorrect replies, or confused responses can lead to error and disrupt the internal
consistency of the scale.
Table 1
Scales and Items of the Questionnaire
Items Number of
Scale
Positive Negative items
Affective 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 10
Behaviour 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 19, 20 10
Cognitive 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 29, 30 10
Data Collection
Online approaches (as opposed to face-to-face data collection) was used in order to collect data from
the participants. Both links for the pre- and post-program questionnaire were distributed to the
participants via WhatsApp. The participants were told that the questionnaires were used to assess their
attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination and that they were required to answer as truthful as possible.
The pre-program questionnaire was distributed and completed by 30 participants from target
community before the program started. Meanwhile, the post-program questionnaire was distributed and
collected after the program ended. The immediate collection of the questionnaires after the program
was to make sure that the questionnaires were completed and any attitude changes after the program
could be immediately recorded.
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Data Analysis
Data collected was analysed by using IBM SPSS version 27.0. In order to assess the reliability of every
scale and the whole instrument, Cronbach’s alpha test to analyse the internal consistency of each scale
and overall instrument. According to Ursachi et al. (2015), the acceptable criterion of reliability is 0.60
- 0.70, while the reliability coefficient of 0.80 and above is considered to depict very good level of
reliability. The convergent validity of the instrument was also tested with all of its components by using
Pearson correlation test.
This research also utilized paired sample t-test to assess mean scores difference before and after
the program. The t-test was calculated as sample mean difference/sample standard deviation of sample
mean difference (Xu et al., 2017). The results from the pre- and post-program were compared in order
to determine if there is attitude change among participants after the program. The level of significance
(p value) was set at .05 in data analysis of this study.
Results
Demographic Information
The purpose of every statistical analysis was to help in getting an in-depth understanding of the variables
involved in our study. In this study, our sample for study was 30 participants (N = 30). Table 2 presented
respondent’s demographic information. According to table 2, 63.3 percent of the sample (n = 19) are
female and 36.7 percent of the sample (n = 11) are male.
Participants belonged to age group 16 - 25 years old has made up the largest portion which is
40% (n = 12) of the participants. This is followed by age group of 26-35 years old with 26.7% (n = 8),
46-55 years old with 20% (n = 6), 10% (n = 3) for those who aged 55 years old and above, and age
group of 36-45 years old came in last with only 3.3% (n = 1). Among 30 participants who have
participated in this research, 68.3% (n = 19) was Bumiputera Sarawak. Followed by Chinese of 16.7%
(n = 5), Malay of 13.3% (n = 4) and others of 6.7% (n = 2).
Additionally, 56.7% (n = 17) of the participants are Christian, 26.7% (n = 8) are Buddhist and
13.3% (n = 4) are Muslims. The remaining 3.3% is made up of an individual who did not belonged to
the religion stated in the options. As for working status, 36.7% (n = 11) have claimed that they are
students. This is followed by 23.3% (n = 7) which is self-employed, 16.7% (n = 5) are public servants
and 10% (n = 3) are private servants. Retired participants and those who are not working made up of
6.7% (n = 2) respectively.
Noting respondent’s education level, 40% (n = 12) of them claimed that their highest education
level was STPM/Diploma/A-Level/Foundation/Matriculation. In addition, 26.7% (n = 8) claimed that
Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) as their highest educational level. 20% (n = 6) were Bachelor’s degree
graduates. Meanwhile 6.7% (n = 2) has SRP/PMR/PT3 certificate. The remaining PhD graduates and
others were made up of 3.3% (n = 1) each.
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Table 2
Respondent’s Demographic Information
Respondent Characteristics Frequency Percent

Gender
Male 11 36.7
Female 19 63.3
Age
16-25 12 40.0
26-35 8 26.7
36-45 1 3.3
46-55 6 20.0
Above 55 3 10.0
Ethnicity
Malay 4 13.3
Chinese 5 16.7
Bumiputera Sarawak 19 63.3
Other 2 6.7
Religion
Islam 4 13.3
Buddha 8 26.7
Kristian 17 56.7
Lain-lain 1 3.3
Working Status
Not working 2 6.7
Self-employed 7 23.3
Public servants 5 16.7
Private servants 3 10.0
Students 11 36.7
Retired 2 6.7
Educational Level
SRP/PMR/PT3 2 6.7
SPM 8 26.7
STPM/Diploma/A-
12 40.0
Level/Foundation/Matrikulasi
Bachelor's Degree 7 23.3
PhD 1 3.3
Reliability
Pre-Program Instrument Reliability

Table 3 has shown the reliability statistics for pre-program questionnaire. The affective, behaviour and
cognitive scales has showed very good internal consistency and high level of reliability (α = .964, α
= .970, and α = .961 respectively). The overall pre-program instrument has reported Cronbach’s Alpha
coefficient of α = .986. The result indicated a high and excellent level of reliability for the pre-program
questionnaire as the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was higher than the suggested reliability coefficient
of α = .80.
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Table 3
Pre-Program Questionnaire’s Item Reliability Statistics
Scale Cronbach’s Alpha Number of items

Pre-Program Affective .963 10
Pre-Program Behaviour .970 10
Pre-Program Cognitive .961 10
Pre-Program Total Attitude .986 30
Post-Program Instrument Reliability

Table 4 demonstrated the post-program questionnaire’s item reliability statistics. The result for internal
consistency of reliability for affective is α = .922, behaviour is α = .748 and cognitive is α = .870. All
scales have good internal consistency and reliability. The overall instruments have reported the
Cronbach’s Alpha value of α = .938. Through the data analysis, the results for post program’s reliability
coefficient reported an excellent level of reliability of the questionnaire for post-program.
Table 4
Post-Program Questionnaire’s Item Reliability Statistics
Scale Cronbach’s Alpha Number of items
Post-Program Affective .922 10
Post-Program Behaviour .748 10
Post-Program Cognitive .870 10
Post-Program Total Attitude .938 30
Validity
Pre-Program Instrument Validity

Based on the Table 5, convergent validity of each attitude component and the overall attitude was
assessed using Pearson correlation. The result showed that there were strong, significant and positive
correlation between pre-program affective and pre-program behaviour (r = .872), and pre-program
cognitive (r = .898). Relationship between pre-program behaviour and cognitive is also strongly
positive (r = .969). As for the total pre-program attitude, it is correlated positively and significantly with
pre-program affective (r = .949), pre-program behaviour (r = .978) and pre-program cognitive (r
= .985). The results indicated that the pre-program instrument is valid as all scales that measured the
same general construct which is the attitude of participants towards COVID-19 vaccination have
significant and positive correlation with each other.
Table 5
Inter-Correlation between Pre-Program Attitude Components and Overall Attitude
Scale 1 2 3 4
Pre-Program Affective 1
Pre-Program Behaviour .872** 1
Pre-Program Cognitive .898** .969** 1
Pre-Program Total Attitude .949** .978** .985** 1
Post-Program Instrument Validity

Based on Table 6, it presented the correlation between post-program affective, post-program behaviour,
post-program cognitive and post-program overall attitude. The table showed that the correlation
between post-program affective and behaviour were moderate but positive and significant (r = .599).
On the other hand, there was a significant positive correlation between post-program affective and
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cognitive (r = .781), while the correlation coefficient between post-program behaviour and post-
program cognitive was r = .684. Post-program overall attitude has strong positive and significant
correlation with post-program affective (r = 914), behaviour (r =.824) and cognitive (r = .928). In
general, convergent validity of the post-program questionnaire was confirmed as all scales that
measured the same construct which is the attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination is positively and
significantly correlated with each other.
Table 6
Inter-Correlation between Post-Program Attitude Components and Overall Attitude
Subscale 1 2 3 4
Post-Program Affective 1
Post-Program Behaviour .599** 1
Post-Program Cognitive .781** .684** 1
Post-Program Total Attitude .914** .824** .928** 1
Paired Sample T-Test
The analysis result for paired sample t-test in Table 7 has shown that there is a significant difference
between pre- and post-program affective component of attitude among participants, t(29) = - 8.156, p
< .05. Mean score for affective component (M = 43.80, SD = 4.85) after joining the attitude change
program is higher than pre-program affective (M = 25.70, SD = 10.44). Hence, Hypothesis 1 which
stated that “there is a significant difference between the affective component of attitude towards
COVID-19 vaccination during pre- and post-program” is accepted.
Next, for behaviour component of attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination, the analysis result
also revealed that there is a significant difference before and after the participants joined the attitude
change program, t(29) = - 6.244, p < .05. Mean score for post-program behaviour (M = 45.83, SD =
3.38) is higher than pre-program behaviour (M = 31.17, SD = 12.07). Thus, Hypothesis 2 of “there is a
significant difference between the behaviour component of attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination
during pre- and post-program” is accepted.
The analysis result also indicated that there is significant difference between pre-program
cognitive and post-program cognitive component of attitude, t(29) = - 7.604, p < .05. Mean value for
post-program cognitive (M = 45.07, SD = 4.27) is also higher than pre-program cognitive (M = 28.83,
SD = 10.07). Therefore, the Hypothesis 3 for this study stating that “there is a significant difference
between the cognitive component of attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination during pre- and post-
program” is accepted.
Apart from the individual components of attitude, the overall attitude of pre- and post-program
was obtained by computing all items of affective, behaviour and cognitive components. The paired t-
test result has depicted that there a significant difference between pre-program and post-program overall
attitude of participants, t(29) = - 7.655, p < .05. Post-program overall attitude mean value (M = 134.70,
SD = 11.17) is higher than pre-program attitude (M = 85.70, SD = 31.62). Hence, the Hypothesis 4
“there is a significant difference in overall attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination during pre- and
post-program” is accepted. In short, the findings revealed that the attitude of participants towards
COVID-19 vaccination has improved and changed in a positive manner after joining the attitude
program.
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Table 7
Paired Sample t-Test Results for Pre- and Post- Program
Paired Sample T-test
Std. Std.
Mean N Deviatio Error Sig
n Mean t value df (two
tailed)
Pair Pre-Program
25.700 30 10.436 1.905 -8.156 29 .000
1 Affective
Post Program
43.800 30 4.845 .885
Affective
Pair Pre-Program
31.167 30 12.072 2.204 -6.244 29 .000
2 Behaviour
Post Program
45.833 30 3.384 .618
Behaviour
Pair Pre-Program
28.833 30 10.072 1.837 -7.604 29 .000
3 Cognitive
Post Program
45.067 30 4.266 .779
Cognitive
Pair 31.6283
Total Pre-Program 85.700 30 5.775 -7.655 29 .000
4 9
11.1730
Total Post-Program 134.700 30 2.040
9
Discussion
For the analysis of paired sample t-test, comparison between pre- and post-program attitude components
and overall attitude has revealed that the participants’ attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination had
changed significantly. The p values obtained was lower than .05. Xu et al. (2017) has disclosed that the
closer the p-value to 0, the higher the significance level.
The individuals who participated in the attitude change program are more likely to have changes
in their attitude towards COVID-19 vaccination than those who do not joined the program. According
to Collado et al. (2013), direct experience has a significant impact on individual’s cognitive and
affective which then influence their attitudes. Gamage et al. (2021) also disclosed that program's
implementation is capable of improving participants’ well-being in the direction of something. There
are obvious positive improvements in affective and cognitive components of attitude of those
participants towards COVID-19 vaccination.
As a result of their involvement in the program activities including talk, games and sharing
session, the participants are more convinced of the COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness. This indicated
that the activities carried out in the program has achieved their objectives. The talk on the COVID-19
vaccination by guest speaker has possibly led to alteration on affective and cognitive components of
attitude of participants. For example, the guest speaker as a professional doctor has emphasized the
importance of the COVID-19 vaccine and went into greater details about the composition, proportion,
and categorization of the vaccine. According to Adeosun et al. (2013), the involvement of professionals
in giving talks can effectively change an individual's affective and cognition.
Our program also included a memory game that attempted to increase participant’s
understanding on how COVID-19 vaccines function to protect human from the virus. Based on the
results, we can say that the game in our program were able to significantly influence the cognitive
processes that will directly impact attitude of participants towards COVID-19 vaccination. Based on
previous study, quizzes were able to stimulate an individual's mood as well as able to increase the level
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of their cognitive processes due to the existence of competition while answering the quiz (Koban et al.,
2018).
In term of behaviour component of attitude, the participants also showed a positive change in
their behaviour. This may also because of the video footage of the steps in registering and the benefits
of vaccination which encouraged and called to their actions to carry out the knowledge that they have
gained from the activities in the program. According to a study by Tuong et al. (2012), video shown has
the ability to change an individual's behaviour because people were easily influenced by the model or
content shown in the video. The behavioural component changes may be then displayed by participants’
action to register and then receive COVID-19 vaccines.
The study’s findings revealed the expectations of the attitude change program to positively
change the negative attitude of participants towards COVID-19 vaccination had been met. According
to Hardin et al. (2021), individual’s personality also has an impact on their affective, cognitive and
behaviour component of attitude especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. This includes people who
have had a family member who has been infected by the virus. As a result of the sessions displaying
unfavourable information about COVID-19, people's cognitive, affective, and behavioural components
of attitude toward vaccination have changed in a more positive way because they do not want to suffer
the negative consequences of the virus.
Strengths and Limitations
The strengths of the study including having objectives that were clearly stated. The inclusion criteria
was included which is the residents of Rumah Panjang Stanley Jelian, Penasu, Sibu Sarawak. The
exclusion of the other participants allows an in-depth analysis on the attitude change towards
vaccination among the targeted population. In addition, during the study, there is also no conflict of
interest. Therefore, the study was able to conduct smoothly and successfully achieved its objectives.
There are certain limitations to be aware of in this study. Since the sample was limited to only
30 individuals and focused on one small, targeted area, the sample size is insufficient to generalize the
findings. As a result, it may not fully reflect the various situations in which people's attitudes and
attitudes change concerning COVID-19 vaccination. Generalization of the results of attitude change
towards COVID-19 vaccination in this study was not able to be attained across a larger population.
Furthermore, since no follow-up research was done, this study was unable to investigate any sleeper
effect in the attitude change of the participants. As a result, the researchers were unable to determine if
there was an increase in attitude change among the in this study. The attitude change pattern among the
target community over time was unable to be identified.
Conclusion
Everyone should consider getting the COVID-19 vaccine not only for their own protection but also to
protect people around from the COVID-19 disease. It is also important to remember that the vaccine's
purpose is to protect rather than to cure. This program has demonstrated the target community's attitude
toward the COVID-19 vaccine, as well as their increased acceptance of the vaccine at the end of the
program. Promoting COVID-19 vaccination awareness through various forms of multimedia should be
done widely so that people may learn more about the vaccine's safety and effectiveness.
It is wished that experts from relevant field are driven to brainstorm the most possible ways
which are acceptable in every culture in order to increase public awareness on COVID-19 vaccination.
Therefore, it was recommended for future research to establish related programs that fit wider
community. It was also recommended for future interventions to consider more creative and impactful
online activities to fit in with current social distancing norm to ensure public’s safety while allowing
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them to gain more information related to COVID-19. Thus, we would be able to witness positive trend
of attitudes change toward COVID-19 vaccines more clearly in the future.
Acknowledgements
This research paper was done with the guidance and help from Dr. Getrude C Ah Gang. A great
appreciation to all the participants in Rumah Panjang Stanley Jelian, Penasu, Sibu, Sarawak. Thanks to
Universiti Malaysia Sabah for allowing us to have this opportunity to present this paper.
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HUBUNGAN ANTARA PERSONALITI “BIG FIVE” DAN DAYA

KETAHANAN MAHASISWA SEMASA PANDEMIK COVID-19
Siti Khumairah Chua Abdillah1, Agnis Sombuling1* & Endang Poerwanti2

1
2
Universitas Muhamadiyah Malang, Indonesia
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: agness@ums.edu.my
ABSTRAK
Pandemik Covid-19 yang melanda seluruh dunia pada tahun 2020 sehingga sekarang telah memberi kesan kepada
semua aspek kehidupan manusia termasuklah daya ketahanan individu dalam menghadapi situasi ini. Golongan
mahasiswa universiti tidak terkecuali menghadapi kesan pandemik ini. Daya ketahanan amat penting kepada
mahasiswa untuk memastikan mereka dapat mengatasi segala rintangan yang disebabkan oleh pandemik ini dalam
keadaan yang positif. Oleh itu kajian ini dijalankan untuk mengkaji hubungan antara personaliti Big Five (lima
dimensi) dan daya ketahanan mahasiswa Universiti Malaysia Sabah semasa pandemik Covid-19. Sejumlah 306
orang mahasiswa telah terlibat dalam kajian ini. Kajian ini telah menggunakan dua soal selidik iaitu Big Five
Inventory (BFI) dan Skala Daya Tahan (SDT). Hasil analisis menunjukkan hubungan korelasi yang signifikan
bagi setiap dimensi personaliti dan daya ketahanan. Openness (r= .482), Conscientiousness (r= .544), Extraversion
(r= .409), Agreeableness (r=.321), dan Neuroticism (r=-.302). Hasil ini menjelaskan bahawa semakin tinggi skor
dimensi personaliti Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion dan Agreeableness, semakin tinggi daya
ketahanan individu tersebut. Sebaliknya, Semakin tinggi skor dimensi Neuroticism, semakin rendah daya
ketahanan individu tersebut. Selain itu, hasil kajian juga mendapati bahawa mahasiswa lelaki dan perempuan
UMS memiliki personaliti dan daya ketahanan yang berbeza secara signifikan. Hasil perbincangan telah
mencadangkan bahawa terdapat pelbagai faktor yang menyumbang kepada persamaan dan perbezaan hasil
dapatan kajian ini dan kajian lepas. Pada akhir kajian ini, pengkaji turut membincangkan beberapa limitasi kajian
serta penambahbaikan bagi kajian ini.
Kata Kunci: personaliti big five, daya ketahanan, pandemik Covid-19
Pengenalan
Rentetan daripada krisis pandemik Covid-19 yang telah melanda dan berleluasa di seluruh dunia, krisis
ini telah memberikan impak yang besar kepada seluruh pihak, termasuklah mahasiswa yang mengalami
tekanan berat akibat perubahan kaedah pembelajaran yang dilakukan atas talian disebabkan oleh
pandemik yang telah berlaku, Menurut Kosmo (2020), seorang pelajar dari Indonesia telah membunuh
diri akibat tekanan yang diterima disebabkan sistem pembelajaran atas talian. Terdapat juga berita yang
sama dari berita tempatan Sinar Harian (2020), sorang pelajar dari India juga telah membunuh diri
akibat tekanan pembelajaran atas talian.
Namun begitu, Mahaizura Abd Malik (2020) dalam sebuah berita tempatan Harian Metro juga
menjelaskan bahawa pembelajaran atas talian juga dapat diterima dengan baik oleh sesetengah pelajar.
Pelajar yang memiliki pemikiran yang positif dan kritis telah mendorong mereka untuk tetap mengikuti
pembelajaran atas talian. (Rathakrishnan, 2020). Malah, kajian Hazwani, Noor Raudhiah dan Norziah
(2017) menyokong bahawa individu yang cakna dengan konsep E-learning sebagai model
pembelajaran masa depan akan menerima pembelajarn atas talian bahkan sehingga peringkat komuniti
global.
Dalam pada itu, daya tahan setiap individu memainkan peranan yang sangat penting bagi
individu dalam mengatasi apa sahaja masalah dan perubahan yang berlaku dalam kehidupan mereka.
Tambahan pula, personaliti setiap individu juga dapat dihubungkan dengan daya tahan mereka dalam
menjalani kehidupan harian. Dalam erti kata lain, setiap individu mempunyai personaliti dan daya
ketahanan yang berbeza. Oleh itu, kajian ini dijalankan untuk mengkaji hubungan antara personaliti Big
Five iaitu personaliti dalam lima dimensi dan daya ketahanan mahasiswa Universiti Malaysia Sabah
semasa pandemik Covid-19.
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Secara amnya, personaliti merupakan perwatakan dan keunikan yang terdapat pada individu
dengan ciri-ciri tingkah laku yang konsisten. (Weiten, 2011). Pendekatan teori yang digunakan dalam
kajian ini ialah Big Five Personality Model, yang menjelaskan bahawa personaliti terbahagi kepada
lima dimensi iaitu Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, dan Neuroticism. (Costa
& McCrae, 1992). Menurut DeYoung (2010), dimensi personaliti Openness menjelaskan tentang sifat
keterbukaan, serta kesungguhan yang mendalam untuk meneroka pengalaman baharu. Dimensi
personaliti Conscientiousness dikaitkan dengan keinginan individu untuk mencapai matlamat dengan
menunjukkan tingkah laku yang baik. Dimensi personaliti Extraversion menggambarkan kepekaan
yang tinggi, serta membawa kepada tenaga yang mendorong sebuah tingkah laku. Dimensi personaliti
Agreeableness menggambarkan semangat altruime, fleksibel serta sifat bekerjasama. Dimensi
personaliti Neuroticism menggambarkan kepekaan terhadap ancaman serta emosi negatif.
Menurut Smith et al. (2008), definisi daya ketahanan adalah kemampuan seseorang individu
untuk bangkit semula atau pulih dari sebarang tekanan yang dihadapi. Pendekatan teori yang digunakan
bagi data ketahanan ialah An Integrative Model of Coping, Resilience, and Development. Model ini
menjelaskan bahawa daya ketahanan adalah hasil daripada proses seperti asimilasi dan akomodasi, yang
dipengaruhi oleh situasi peribadi. Dalam model ini, daya ketahanan diambil kira sebagai sebuah
komponen yang penting, iaitu sebagai penghubung antara cara seseorang individu mengatasi masalah
yang dihadapi dan juga proses perkembangan dalam menjalani kehidupan. (Leipold & Greve, 2009).
Sorotan Literatur
Kajian yang dijalankan oleh Weisberg, DeYoung, dan Hirsh (2011) menyatakan bahawa terdapat
perbezaan yang signifikan dari segi jantina bagi dimensi personaliti Extraversion, Openness, dan
Conscientiousness. Menurut kajian Rantanen et al. (2007), dimensi personaliti Openness,
Conscientiousness, dan Agreeableness adalah tinggi bagi lelaki manakala dimensi personaliti
Extraversion dan Neuroticism adalah tinggi bagi perempuan. Hal ini demikian dikatakan kerana
perempuan cenderung untuk memiliki kesan yang negatif dari segi emosi dan lebih mementingkan
perasaan berbanding dengan lelaki. (Djudiyah et al. 2016).
Menurut kajian yang dijalankan oleh Vianello (2013), hasil kajian mendapati bahawa
perempuan memiliki dimensi personaliti Agreeableness dan Neuroticism yang tinggi berbanding lelaki.
Manakala, lelaki memiliki dimensi personaliti Extraversion dan Openness yang lebih tinggi berbanding
berbanding perempuan. Dalam pada itu, Wood dan Eagly (2002) turut mencadangkan bahawa
perbezaan personaliti dari segi jantina ini dapat diterangkan dengan pengaruh teori sosiobudaya, dimana
lelaki dan perempuan memiliki cara yang berbeza dalam bersosial sekaligus memainkan peranan yang
berbeza dalam kalangan masyarakat
Perbezaan ini biasanya dipengaruhi oleh Social Role Theory, yang menjelaskan bahawa budaya
dan sosial merupakan faktor yang telah membawa kepada perbezaan personaliti dari segi jantina.
Tambahan pula, teori ini menganggap bahawa perbezaan jantina berpunca daripada persepsi dan
stereotaip mengenai peranan jantina, sosialisasi jantina, serta perbezaan kuasa sosiostruktural. oleh itu,
pengkaji mendapati bahawa perbezaan personaliti mengikut jantina adalah kecil dalam kalangan
masyarakat yang egalitarianism, iaitu masyarakat yang mementingkan kesaksamaan, di mana semua
individu memiliki hak yang sama. (Schmitt et al., 2016).
Dalam pada itu, Quandt (2018) juga mencadangkan bahawa lelaki dan perempuan memiliki
persepsi yang berbeza terhadap daya ketahanan serta strategi menghadapi masalah yang berbeza.
Walaupun lelaki dan perempuan tersebut merupakan masyarakat daripada kumpulan etnik yang sama,
mereka tetap memiliki strategi yang berbeza dalam menyesuaikan diri atau beradaptasi dengan
perubahan yang berlaku. Menurut kajian yang telah dijalankan oleh Guilera et al. (2015), hasil dapatan
dalam kajian ini telah menunjukkan bahawa remaja lelaki memiliki tahap daya ketahanan yang lebih
tinggi berbanding dengan remaja perempuan. Hal ini demikian kerana lelaki memiliki jati diri dan
keyakinan diri yang lebih tinggi berbanding dengan perempuan.
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Menurut Hirani, Lasiuk dan Hegadoren (2016), perempuan memiliki tahap daya ketahanan
yang lebih rendah daripada lelaki kerana wujudnya konsep mengenai perbezaan peranan jantina,
harapan dan persepsi dari segi sosial serta faktor persekitaran. Hal ini telah menjadi faktor yang
menyumbang kepada pembentukan pengalaman dan tindakan yang berbeza terhadap hal yang berlaku.
Dalam erti kata lain, perbezaan jantina mempengaruhi bagaimana seseorang individu melihat dan
membuat persepsi mengenai dunia.
Menurut Oshio et al. (2018), hasil kajian beliau menunjukkan bahawa terdapat hubungan yang
positif antara dimensi personaliti Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion dan Agreeableness
dengan daya ketahanan manakala dimensi Neuroticism menunjukkan hubungan yang negatif dengan
daya ketahanan. Tambahan pula, kajian lepas yang telah dijalankan oleh Nakaya, Oshio dan Kaneko
(2006), juga telah mendapati bahawa dimensi personaliti Openness, Conscientiousness, dan
Extraversion memiliki hubungan korelasi yang signifikan dan positif dengan daya ketahanan, manakala
dimensi personaliti Neuroticism telah menunjukkan hubungan korelasi yang negatif.
Secara amnya, dimensi personaliti Neuroticism menunjukkan hubungan yang negatif secara
konsisten pada kajian-kajian lepas yang telah dijalankan. Hubungan korelasi yang negatif ini adalah
selari dengan dapatan kajian yang dijalankan oleh Balgiu (2017). Pengkaji mencadangkan bahawa
elemen penting yang terdapat dalam daya ketahanan adalah kecenderungan yang tinggi untuk mengawal
diri dan motivasi untuk mencapai sebuah maltlamat. Tambahan pula, kestabilan emosi dan kebolehan
untuk melibatkan diri dengan aktiviti sosial turut menyumbang kepada daya ketahanan dalam diri
individu. (Oshio et al., 2018).
Seterusnya, dapatan kajian yang telah dijalankan oleh Deng, Zheng dan Chen (2020) juga
mendapati bahawa dimensi personaliti Openness, Conscientiousness, dan Extraversion telah
menunjukkan hubungan korelasi yang positif dan signifikan. Oleh itu, pengkaji telah menyimpulkan
bahawa elemen personaliti yang positif akan membawa kepada pengaruh psikologi yang positif seperti
sikap optimis, tinggi daya ketahanan, dan kesihatan mental yang baik. Walaubagaimanapun, kajian ini
mendapati bahawa dimensi personaliti Agreeableness telah menunjukkan hubungan korelasi yang
negatif dengan daya ketahanan. Hubungan yang negatif ini terjadi disebabkan oleh perasaan dilema
yang dialami oleh seseorang melibatkan pelbagai faktor seperti faktor sokongan sosial, kepatuhan
terhadap nilai peribadi, dan kesejahteraan rohani. (Lazaridou & Beka, 2015).
Kajian Garcia dan Mendieta (2014) juga telah menunjukkan bahawa dimensi personaliti
Extraversion, Conscientiousness, dan Agreeableness mempunyai hubungan positif yang signifikan
dengan daya ketahanan. Menurut kajian Roghayeh (2012), hasil kajian beliau mendapati bahawa hanya
dimensi personaliti Extraversion dan Conscientiousness yang menunjukkan hubungan korelari yang
positif dengan daya ketahanan. Dimensi personaliti Openness dan Agreeableness pula tidak
menunjukkan hubungan yang signifikan dengan daya ketahanan. Terdapat perbezaan mengenai
hubungan dimensi personaliti yang positif dalam setiap kajian yang telah dijalankan. Hubungan dimensi
personaliti yang tidak konsisten ini mungkin terjadi disebabkan oleh konteks kajian yang agak sensitif
sekaligus melibatkan isu-isu perbezaan silang budaya. (Lazaridou, 2020).
Menurut kajian lepas yang dijalankan oleh Limura dan Taku (2017), dapatan kajian ini telah
membuktikan dan menunjukkan bahawa terdapat perbezaan jantina dalam mengkaji hubungan korelasi
antara personaliti dan daya ketahanan. Hasil kajian telah membuktikan bahawa perempuan memiliki
dimensi personaliti Conscientiousness yang lebih tinggi berbanding dengan lelaki. Tambahan pula,
hasil analisis regresi dalam kajian ini telah menunjukkan bahawa dimensi personaliti Neuroticism
merupakan dimensi utama yang mempengaruhi tahap daya ketahanan perempuan. Sebaliknya, dimensi
Extraversion merupakan dimensi utama yang mempengaruhi tahap daya ketahanan bagi lelaki. Oleh
itu, kedua-dua dimensi personaliti ini sering dikaitkan dengan daya ketahanan individu.
Metodologi
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Reka Bentuk Kajian
Kajian ini dijalankan dengan kaedah kuantitatif, iaitu dengan menggunakan soal selidik. Soal selidik
dalam kajian ini akan diedarkan melalui Google Form secara atas talian. Hal ini menjadikan kajian ini
lebih fleksibel kerana responden bebas menjawab soal selidik tersebut di mana sahaja dan bila-bila
sahaja dalam tempoh kajian dijalankan. Soalan- soalan yang terkandung dalam soal selidik yang
diberikan adalah soalan jenis tertutup. Masa yang dianggarkan untuk responden selesai menjawab soal
selidik ini adalah selama 10 minit. Persetujuan responden untuk terlibat dalam kajian ini diambil kira
ketika responden bersetuju untuk mengisi soal selidik tersebut tanpa paksaan dari mana-mana pihak.
Subjek Kajian
Subjek kajian ini terdiri daripada mahasiswa Univeristi Malaysia Sabah dari semua fakulti di kampus
induk Kota Kinabalu. Sejumlah 306 orang responden dilaporkan telah terlibat dalam kajian ini.
Alat Kajian
Alat kajian yang digunakan dalam kajian ini terdiri daripada tiga bahagian. Bahagian A merupakan
bahagian demografi, Bahagian B merupakan soal selidik yang mengukur personaliti lima dimensi (big
five), dan Bahagian C merupakan soal selidik yang mengukur daya ketahanan.
Bahagian A: Demografi
Bahagian ini dihasilkan untuk mengetahui latar belakang responden yang menjadi subjek dalam kajian
ini. Perkara-perkara yang terdapat dalam bahagian ini adalah seperti jantina, umur, etnik, anak ke
berapa, tahun pengajian, dan juga fakulti.
Bahagian B: Big Five Inventory (BFI)

Instrumen ini menguji lima dimensi personaliti iaitu Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion,
Agreeableness, dan Neuroticism. Instrumen ini mengandungi 44 item yang diukur menggunakan skala
Likert 5 mata. Instrumen ini dibina oleh John dan Srivastava (1999) dan telah diterjemahkan oleh Janet
Ho (2006) dalam kajiannya. Hal ini menjadikan instrumen ini instrumen yang sesuai digunakan dalam
konteks Malaysia.
Bahagian C: The Resilience Scale / Skala Daya Tahan

Instrumen ini telah dibina oleh Wagnild Young (1990). Instrumen ini merupakan instrumen yang telah
melalui proses back-to-back translation iaitu telah diterjemahkan ke dalam Bahasa Melayu oleh Amalia
et al. (2016), sekaligus menjadikan instrumen ini sesuai untuk kegunaan konteks di Malaysia. Instrumen
ini mengandungi 25 item yang diukur menggunakan skala Likert 7 mata. Skala ini dimulakan dengan
skala 1 iaitu “Sangat Tidak Bersetuju” sehingga skala 7 iaitu “Sangat Bersetuju”.
Dapatan Kajian
Melalui analisis yang telah dijalankan, hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa seramai 193 orang (63.1%)
responden perempuan dan seramai 113 orang (63.1%) responden lelaki telah terlibat dalam kajian ini.
Responden yang terlibat merupakan mahasiswa yang terdiri daripada tahun ketiga pengajian (58.5%),
tahun kedua pengajian (25.2%), tahun pertama pengajian (12.1%), dan selebihnya merupakan tahun
keempat pengajian (3.6%) serta tahun kelima pengajian (0.7%). Majoriti responden yang terlibat
merupakan Bumiputera Sabah (65.4%), kemudian diikuti dengan kaum Melayu (21.2%). Bumiputera
Sarawak (4.6%), Kaum Cina (3.3%), kaum India (1.6%) dan lain-lain (3.9%).
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Jadual 1:
Ujian t-bebas bagi personaliti Big Five dan daya ketahanan
Min Lelaki Min Perempuan t Sig (2-tailed)

(N=113) (N=193)
Openness 37.09 35.21 3.214 .001
Conscientiousness 30.39 28.78 2.539 .012
Extraversion 27.58 24.92 4.209 .000
Agreeableness 33.12 31.90 2.309 .028
Neuroticism 22.15 26.23 -6.447 .000
Daya Ketahanan 136.79 130.21 2.690 .008
Jadual 1 menunjukkan Ujian t-bebas bagi personaliti bagi lima dimensi dan daya ketahanan.
Dimensi personaliti Openness lelaki (N=37.09) dan perempuan (N=35.21) adalah berbeza secara
signifikan t(306)= 3.214, p< 0.05. Dimensi personaliti Conscientiousness lelaki (N=30.39) dan
perempuan (N=28.78) adalah berbeza secara signifikan t(306)= 2.539, p< 0.05. Dimensi personaliti
Extraversion lelaki (N=27.58) dan perempuan (N=24.92) adalah berbeza secara signifikan t(306)=
4.209, p< 0.05. Dimensi personaliti Agreeableness lelaki (N=33.12) dan perempuan (N=31.90) adalah
berbeza secara signifikan t(306)= 2.309, p< 0.05. Dimensi personaliti Neuroticism lelaki (N=22.15)
dan perempuan (N=26.23) adalah berbeza secara signifikan t(306)= -6.447, p< 0.05. Seterusnya, Daya
Ketahanan lelaki (N=136.79) dan perempuan (N=130.21) adalah berbeza secara signifikan t(306)=
2.690, p< 0.05.
Jadual 2:
Hubungan antara personaliti Big Five dengan Daya Ketahanan
Daya Ketahanan
Korelasi Pearson Sig (2-tailed0
Openness .482** .000
Conscientiousness .544** .000
Extraversion .409** .000
Agreeableness .321** .000
Neuroticism -.302** .000
Jadual 2 menunjukkan hubungan korelasi antara personaliti bagi lima dimensi dan daya
ketahanan. Bagi dimensi personaliti Openness, hubungan antara dimensi personaliti ini dan daya
ketahanan merupakan sebuah hubungan positif yang sederhana kuat dan signifikan iaitu r (306) = .482,
p < 0.05. Bagi dimensi personaliti Conscientiousness, hubungan antara dimensi personaliti ini dan daya
ketahanan merupakan sebuah hubungan positif yang kuat dan signifikan iaitu r (306) = .544, p < 0.05.
Bagi dimensi personaliti Extraversion, hubungan antara dimensi personaliti ini dan daya ketahanan
merupakan sebuah hubungan positif yang sederhana kuat dan signifikan iaitu r (306) = .409, p < 0.05.
Bagi dimensi personaliti Agreeableness, hubungan antara dimensi personaliti ini dan daya ketahanan
merupakan sebuah hubungan positif yang sederhana kuat dan signifikan iaitu r (306) = .321, p < 0.05.
Bagi dimensi personaliti Neuroticism, hubungan antara dimensi personaliti ini dan daya ketahanan
merupakan sebuah hubungan negatif yang sederhana kuat dan signifikan iaitu r (306) = -.302, p < 0.05.
Secara amnya, hubungan korelasi yang positif menjelaskan bahawa semakin tinggi skor dimensi
personaliti tersebut, semakin tinggi daya ketahanan. Sebaliknya, hubungan korelasi yang negatif
menjelaskan bahawa semakin tinggi skor dimensi personaliti tersebut, semakin rendah daya ketahanan.
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Perbincangan
Perbezaan personaliti Big Five mahasiswa mengikut jantina

Hasil daripada kajian ini telah mendapati bahawa purata dimensi personaliti Openness,
Conscientiousness, Extraversion, dan Agreeableness bagi mahasiswa lelaki adalah lebih tinggi
berbanding dengan mahasiswa perempuan. Seterusnya, dimensi personaliti Neuroticism pula telah
menunjukkan bahawa perempuan memiliki purata yang lebih tinggi berbanding dengan lelaki. Hal ini
demikian kerana perempuan cenderung untuk memiliki kesan yang negatif dari segi emosi dan lebih
mementingkan perasaan berbanding dengan lelaki. (Djudiyah et al. 2016). Dalam erti kata lain, lelaki
dikatakan memiliki ciri-ciri personaliti positif yang lebih tinggi daripada perempuan.
Keputusan kajian ini adalah selaras dengan kajian lepas yang telah dijalankan oleh Vianello
(2013) yang mendapati bahawa perempuan memiliki dimensi personaliti Neuroticism yang lebih tinggi
berbanding dengan lelaki manakala lelaki memiliki dimensi personaliti Extraversion dan Openness
yang lebih tinggi berbanding berbanding perempuan. Tambahan pula, Menurut kajian Rantanen et al.
(2007), dimensi personaliti Openness, Conscientiousness, dan Agreeableness adalah lebih tinggi bagi
lelaki manakala dimensi personaliti Extraversion dan Neuroticism adalah lebih tinggi bagi perempuan.
Secara umumnya, kajian ini mendapati bahawa lelaki dan perempuan memiliki perbezaan dari segi
setiap dimensi personaliti. Kenyataan tersebut dapat dapat disokong oleh kajian yang telah dijalankan
oleh Weisberg, DeYoung, dan Hirsh (2011) yang juga mendapati bahawa terdapat perbezaan yang
signifikan dari segi jantina bagi dimensi personaliti Extraversion, Openness, dan Conscientiousness.
Perbezaan ini biasanya dipengaruhi oleh Teori Social Role, yang menjelaskan bahawa budaya
dan sosial merupakan faktor yang telah membawa kepada perbezaan personaliti dari segi jantina.
Tambahan pula, teori ini menganggap bahawa perbezaan jantina berpunca daripada persepsi dan
stereotaip mengenai peranan jantina, sosialisasi jantina, serta perbezaan kuasa sosiostruktural. Oleh itu,
pengkaji mendapati bahawa perbezaan personaliti mengikut jantina adalah kecil dalam kalangan
masyarakat egalitarianism, iaitu masyarakat yang mementingkan kesaksamaan, di mana semua individu
memiliki hak yang sama. (Schmitt et al., 2016).
Pengkaji lain turut mencadangkan bahawa perbezaan personaliti dari segi jantina ini dapat
diterangkan dan dikaitkan dengan pengaruh teori sosiobudaya yang wujud, dimana lelaki dan
perempuan memiliki cara yang berbeza dalam bersosial sekaligus memainkan peranan yang berbeza
dalam kalangan masyarakat. (Wood & Eagly, 2002). Selain daripada faktor-faktor yang telah
dinyatakan, pengkaji menganggap bahawa perbezaan hasil dapatan dalam kajian ini dan juga kajian
lepas adalah disebabkan oleh faktor perbezaan umur bagi responden yang terlibat. Selain itu, faktor
persekitaran juga memainkan peranan, di mana kajian ini telah dilakukan semasa pandemik Covid-19
yang banyak memberi kesan terhadap setiap individu.
Perbezaan daya ketahanan mahasiswa mengikut jantina.

Purata daya ketahanan bagi lelaki dalam kajian ini adalah lebih tinggi berbanding dengan perempuan.
Dalam erti kata lain, mahasiswa lelaki dikatakan memiliki keupayaan untuk beradaptasi terhadap
perubahan yang berlaku berbanding dengan perempuan. Dapatan ini dapat disokong kenyataan yang
menyatakan bahawa walaupun lelaki dan perempuan tersebut merupakan masyarakat daripada
kumpulan etnik yang sama, mereka tetap memiliki strategi yang berbeza dalam menyesuaikan diri atau
beradaptasi dengan perubahan yang berlaku. (Quandt, 2018). Dapatan kajian ini juga selari dengan
kajian lepas yang dijalankan oleh Guilera et al. (2015) yang mendapati bahawa lelaki memiliki tahap
daya ketahanan yang lebih tinggi berbanding dengan perempuan kerana lelaki memiliki jati diri yang
lebih tinggi daripada perempuan.
Pandemik yang berlaku turut menyumbang kepada tahap daya ketahanan yang rendah dalam
kalangan mahasiswa perempuan. Tambahan pula, kebanyakan mahasiswa perempuan dilaporkan
menghadapi kesukaran dalam beradaptasi dengan pembelajaran atas talian semasa pandemik ini kerana
mereka perlu menyesuaikan diri dalam menyeimbangkan hal ehwal akademik dan pekerjaan di rumah.
Dalam pada itu, perempuan biasanya memiliki tahap daya ketahanan yang lebih rendah daripada lelaki
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kerana wujudnya konsep mengenai perbezaan peranan jantina, harapan dan persepsi dari segi sosial
serta faktor persekitaran. Hal ini telah menjadi faktor yang menyumbangkan kepada pembentukan
pengalaman dan tindakan yang berbeza terhadap hal-hal yang berlaku. (Hirani, Lasiuk & Hegadoren,
2016).
Hubungan antara personaliti Big Five dengan daya ketahanan mahasiswa

Melalui analisis yang telah dijalankan, hasil kajian ini telah mendapati bahawa dimensi personaliti
Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, dan Agreeableness telah menunjukkan hubungan korelasi
yang signifikan dan positif dengan daya ketahanan manakala dimensi personaliti Neuroticism
menunjukkan hubungan korelasi yang signifikan namun negatif dalam kalangan mahasiswa. Dalam erti
kata lain, setiap dimensi personaliti yang berbeza mempunyai hubungan korelasi yang berbeza dengan
daya ketahanan.
Dapatan kajian ini adalah konsisten dengan dapatan kajian lepas yang telah dijalankan oleh
Oshio et al. (2018). Beliau turut mendapati bahawa terdapat hubungan korelasi yang signifikan dan
positif bagi dimensi personaliti Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, dan Agreeableness dengan
daya ketahanan. Beliau turut mendapati bahawa terdapat hubungan korelasi yang signifikan namun
negatif bagi dimensi personaliti Neuroticism dan daya ketahanan. Tambahan pula, kajian ini juga selaras
dengan kajian Nakaya, Oshio dan Kaneko (2006) yang membuktikan bahawa dimensi personaliti
Openness, Conscientiousness, dan Extraversion memiliki hubungan korelasi yang signifikan dan positif
dengan daya ketahanan, manakala dimensi personaliti Neuroticism telah menunjukkan hubungan
korelasi yang signifikan dan negatif dengan daya ketahanan.
Menurut kajian yang dijalankan oleh Deng, Zheng dan Chen (2020), dapatan kajian beliau juga
mendapati bahawa dimensi personaliti Openness, Conscientiousness, dan Extraversion menunjukkan
hubungan korelasi yang positif, Pengkaji telah mencadangkan bahawa elemen personaliti yang positif
akan membawa kepada pengaruh psikologi yang positif seperti sikap optimis, tinggi daya ketahanan,
dan kesihatan mental yang baik. Namun begitu, terdapat percanggahan dapatan kajian bagi dimensi
personaliti Agreeableness. Kajian ini mendapati terdapat hubungan signifikan yang negatif bagi dimensi
personaliti Agreeableness dan juga daya ketahanan. Pengkaji menganggap bahawa perbezaan ini adalah
disebabkan oleh faktor perbezaan umur bagi subjek kajian yang telah terlibat.
Kajian Garcia dan Mendieta (2014) juga telah menunjukkan bahawa dimensi personaliti
Extraversion, Conscientiousness, dan Agreeableness mempunyai hubungan positif yang signifikan
dengan daya ketahanan. Menurut kajian Roghayeh (2012), hasil kajian beliau mendapati bahawa hanya
dimensi personaliti Extraversion dan Conscientiousness yang menunjukkan hubungan korelari yang
positif dengan daya ketahanan. Dimensi personaliti Openness dan Agreeableness pula tidak
menunjukkan sebarang hubungan yang signifikan dengan daya ketahanan. Hubungan dimensi
personaliti yang berbeza dan tidak konsisten ini mungkin terjadi disebabkan oleh konteks kajian yang
agak sensitif sekaligus melibatkan isu-isu perbezaan silang budaya. (Lazaridou, 2020).
Dalam pada itu, dimensi personaliti Neuroticism telah menunjukkan hubungan korelasi yang
signifikan dan negatif secara konsisten dengan kajian-kajian lepas yang telah dijalankan. Hubungan
korelasi yang negatif ini adalah selari dengan dapatan kajian yang telah dijalankan oleh Balgiu (2017).
Pengkaji telah mencadangkan bahawa elemen atau unsur penting yang terdapat dalam daya ketahanan
adalah kecenderungan yang tinggi seseorang individu untuk mengawal diri dan motivasi untuk
mencapai sebuah maltlamat. Tambahan pula, kestabilan emosi dan kebolehan untuk melibatkan diri
dengan aktiviti sosial turut menyumbang kepada daya ketahanan dalam diri individu. (Oshio et al.,
2018).
Walaupun terdapat beberapa perbezaan mengenai dimensi personaliti positif terhadap daya
ketahanan, namun perbezaan ini adalah disebabkan oleh perasaan dilema yang dialami melibatkan
faktor sokongan sosial, kepatuhan terhadap nilai peribadi, dan kesejahteraan rohani. (Lazaridou & Beka,
2015). Selain itu, perbezaan jantina juga merupakan salah satu faktor yang menyumbang kepada
hubungan antara personaliti dan daya ketahanan. Menurut kajian yang dijalankan oleh Limura dan Taku
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(2017), hasil kajian telah mendapati bahawa dimensi personaliti Neuroticism merupakan dimensi utama
yang mempengaruhi tahap daya ketahanan perempuan. Sebaliknya, dimensi Extraversion merupakan
dimensi utama yang mempengaruhi tahap daya ketahanan bagi lelaki.
Kajian ini juga selaras dengan teori yang dikemukakan oleh DeYoung (2010) yang memberikan
bukti tambahan bahawa dimensi personaliti Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, dan
Agreeableness telah menyumbang kepada daya ketahanan yang tinggi dalam diri individu. Hal ini
dikatakan demikian kerana secara teorinya, dimensi- dimensi ini telah digambarkan dengan ciri
personaliti yang positif terhadap diri sendiri, orang lain, mahupun persekitaran. Seterusnya, dapatan
kajian ini telah menambah lagi bukti bahawa dimensi personaliti Neuroticism dapat dikaitkan dengan
daya ketahanan yang rendah dalam diri individu kerana secara teorinya, ciri personaliti yang
digambarkan adalah lebih kepada perkara atau emosi negatif.
Selain itu, kajian ini adalah selaras dengan model daya ketahanan iaitu An Integrative Model of
Coping, Resilience, and Development yang telah dikemukakan oleh Leipold dan Greve (2009). Model
ini menjelaskan bahawa daya ketahanan adalah hasil daripada proses seperti asimilasi dan akomodasi,
yang dipengaruhi oleh situasi peribadi. Melalui kajian ini, model tersebut telah disokong dimana daya
ketahanan responden diambil kira sebagai sebuah komponen yang penting, iaitu sebagai penghubung
antara cara mereka mengatasi masalah seperti cabaran pembelajaran atas talian dan juga proses mereka
untuk meneruskan perjuangan dalam menjalankan kehidupan semasa pandemik Covid-19 ini.
Kesimpulan
Kajian ini telah memberikan bukti bahawa personaliti mahasiswa yang berbeza-beza telah membawa
kepada daya ketahanan yang berbeza-beza, di mana personaliti individu sebenarnya memainkan
perananan yang sangat penting dalam menentukan daya ketahanan seseorang. Kajian ini telah telah
memberi pemahaman tentang faktor sebahagian pelajar yang mampu beradaptasi dan menyesuaikan
diri ketika berlakunya perubahan kaedah pembelajaran, dan segelintir pelajar yang tidak mampu
menghadapi masalah dan perubahan yang berlaku semasa pandemik Covid-19 ini. Antara limitasi
kajian yang terdapat dalam kajian ini ialah faktor persekitaran serta perbezaan budaya. Penambahbakan
yang boleh dilakukan oleh pengkaji pada masa hadapan ialah membuat analisis yang lebih mendalam
mengenai perbezaan budaya sebagai salah satu aspek yang membawa kepada perbezaan personaliti
sekaligus daya ketahanan mereka.
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ATTITUDE, STIGMA AND WORKING ALLIANCE IN THE

COUNSELING RELATIONSHIP AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS:
A CONCEPTUAL PAPER
Siti Nurafif bt Naim*, Chua Bee Seok, Muhammad Idris Bullare @ Bahari,
Patricia Joseph Kimong
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: sitinurafifnaim@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
University students utilizing campus counseling services is still very low, despite easy accessibility and no fee if
not minimal. Even when students may benefit from one, avoiding counseling may lead to unattended
psychological problems that affect their academic achievement. Therefore, once a student enters counseling, the
counselor has an important role in ensuring a strong working alliance in the relationship. Different
psychotherapeutic approaches have long recognized the crucial component of working alliance in counseling,
central to clients' change. Rupture in the working alliance may lead to reduced motivation returning to counseling.
While attitude and stigma have been associated with counseling avoidance among university students in the
Malaysian context, investigations into the three working alliance constructs based on Bordin's (1979) concept on
the working alliance has not been adequately examined. The three components to the working alliance concept
are as follows: (i) Goal; (ii) Task; and; (iii) Bond. The present conceptual paper discussed the role of disclosing
psychological distress and intention to seek counseling in the relationship between attitude and stigma and
working alliance among Malaysian university students. A conceptual framework is developed based on the
reviewed literature guided by the theory of reasoned action and the theory of working alliance.
Keywords: working alliance, intention to seek counseling, attitude, stigma, distress disclosure
Introduction
The working alliance concept has its foundation in Freud’s psychoanalytical view. Bordin (1955)
extended Freud's view and proposed that the working alliance is a general concept that should exist in
any type of relationship that involves a collaborative process. Therefore, if it is important in all contexts
of a collaborative relationship, the working alliance concept should be included in all counseling
approaches.
The working alliance concept in the counseling relationship has indeed gained interest in the
counseling field due to the clear operational definition outlined by Bordin (1979) and the development
of psychometric measures derived from his definition (e.g., Jairo Fuertes et al., 2013; Tracey &
Kokotovic, 1989). With this understanding, Horvath and Greenberg then developed the Working
Alliance Inventory (WAI) to provide a scientific stance to the elements proposed by Bordin (Tracey &
Kokotovic, 1989).
Besides spreading awareness about the benefits of counseling, counselors should aspire to
strengthen the working alliance. So far, Malaysian literature has only sparsely examined the
components of working alliance in counseling. This conceptual paper aims to discuss attitude, stigma,
and working alliance in the counseling relationship, with the mediation role of distress disclosure and
intention to seek counseling in a Malaysian context.
Seeking Counseling Help
Offering counseling services in universities is important to ensure that students can access help from a
professionally trained counselor. Student’s prior intention to seek counseling may be influenced by their
own knowledge, awareness, family, or friends, or the faculty may have asked them to attend counseling.
In any case, an instance of a student utilizing counseling reflects an actual behavior of seeking
professional psychological help.
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Students who seek counseling help have been reported to feel more supported than those who
do not. Therefore, university students' utilization of counseling services on campus may positively
impact a student’s social adjustment and academic performance. Kearney (2005) demonstrated
evidence of decreased distress amongst undergraduates across different races who attended counseling
sessions. This implies that students from all backgrounds may be positively impacted by utilizing
counseling services. Vescovelli et al. (2017) indicated that, regardless of the type of treatment received
from a counselor, students reported less psychological distress and higher levels of well-being at the
end of a counseling session. Lesser distress means students can relate more to their faculty's activities
and focus more on academic achievement. Abdelmadjid Benraghda et al. (2018) noted that this is
possibly due to a reduced need to attend to personal problems, so students can fully participate in
beneficial social events.
When a student enters counseling, it is imperative for them to experience a therapeutic working
alliance with their counselor in each counseling session. The counseling process to achieve the goals or
objectives should be agreed upon jointly together. Three components of the working alliance concept
were identified by Bordin: goal, task, and bond.
Goal Component
‘Goal’ in the working alliance directs the outcome of counseling. Bordin (1983) explained that the goal
component relates to any changes that the client strives to achieve, whether in the form of feelings,
thoughts, actions, or a combination of these. He used the term ‘mutual agreement’ to describe the
collaborative effort between client and counselor in setting the direction of the counseling work. Hill
(2010) explained that ruptures in counseling might occur when the goal of counseling is not clear. The
WAI component of the goal examines client’s agreement whether they feel the counselor has adequately
discussed the counseling goal or if some understanding of changes has been laid as a groundwork for
counseling.
Task Component
‘Task’ in the working alliance is the work or activities required in each of the mutually agreed elements
of the goal. These tasks are usually assigned by the therapist or counselor (Bordin, 1979), and the client
needs to understand the relevance of each task in achieving the counseling goal. These tasks may differ
in each therapy and in terms of how the counselor assigns them. They do not always involve concrete
work such as behavior change, but some counseling work may require in-session self-disclosure,
emphatic understanding, or by way of interpretation to put all the pieces together (Bordin, 1979). This
study will examine the client's agreement on the clarity that they gain from the counseling relationship
if they feel the counseling relationship brings them closer to their goal and the relevance of work given
or done in counseling sessions towards achieving mutually discussed changes.
Bond Component
‘Bond’ in the working alliance relates to the feeling of liking, trusting ad respect between the counselor
and client. The strength of the bond is what makes a working alliance therapeutic. Although a minimal
level of trust may appear in all collaborative relationships, it is not exclusive only to the counseling
relationship. However, in some therapies that require more self-disclosure, a stronger bond is needed
(Bordin, 1979). The bond component may seem separate, but it is closely linked to the goal and task's
collaborative nature. Bordin (1979) explained that if two people like and trust each other, the counseling
work is more meaningful to the client, and assignments may be taken up without a reservation.
Indirectly, this will allow progress towards the achievement of the goal that has been set up in the early
phase of counseling. This study will examine the client's agreement towards the level of respect, trust,
like, and caring that they feel extended to them by the counselor.
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Intention to Seek Counseling and Role of Working Alliance
Intention to seek counseling is described by Wade et al. (2011) as the likelihood of a person to seek
counseling for an issue. The issues may vary in terms of their severity and context. Encouraging students
to talk to their university counselor when facing emotional problems, experiencing difficulties in
academic work, or substance abuse problems are all still challenges in Malaysia. Benjamin Chan Yin-
Fah et al. (2016) reported that Malaysian undergraduate students continue to avoid counseling even
though the service is free and is available within the campus.
Where positive and desirable changes have been achieved and where counseling experience
has been happy and beneficial, this may help reduce possible feelings of stigma towards seeking
professional psychological help, which in turn influences attitude towards seeking professional
psychological help. For example, Benjamin Chan Yin Fah et al. (2016) found that Malaysian students
who have already experienced positive counseling have a better attitude towards counseling service and
are more likely to engage with counseling service in the future if needed.
Poor working alliance at the beginning of a counseling process is predictive of early dropout or
early termination of a client from their counseling contract (Kokotovic & Tracey, 1990). This indicates
the importance of a therapeutic working alliance in encouraging the utilization of the service through
increasing students’ intention of usage.
Before the official counseling session is initiated, the student and counselor may have already
met at some point, whereby the counselor usually explains the counseling process, the confidentiality
contract, and the setting of goals. The forming of first impression and some degree of bond towards the
counselor may have already been developed at this point. Morgan et al. (1982) suggested an assessment
at the third session to collect the client's views on the strength of the working alliance. Kokotovic and
Tracey (1990), however, presented evidence that the working alliance can be measured after the initial
session. In their study, students were asked to rate their view on the initial alliance and confirm the
alliance's strength after the first session. Although there is a contrast of view between these studies,
there is merit to suggest that working alliance will begin to develop in the first session and evolve.
Working alliance is not just predictive of early dropout from counseling but also predictive of
counseling outcomes. A positive outcome from counseling may relate to achieving the counseling goal
that was decided in the initial session, or it may manifest as positive changes that may not relate to the
initial agreed goal. A positive outcome may be linked to a client’s ability to undertake tasks that
facilitate a desirable outcome and not drop out early. Following counseling, Lai et al. (2020), for
example, reported reduced symptoms of distress felt by students following counseling; while Venegas-
Muggli et al. (2020) reported an increased intention to stay enrolled in university; Sanberk and Akbas
(2015) explained that a positive and confident outcome could be demonstrated after a counseling
relationship. These positive changes were all aimed to benefit the students at the completion of the
counseling relationship. The literature outlined above asserts that the working alliance may be a strong
factor for students to complete their counseling treatment. This may be because the experience affected
student’s attitude (Kearney et al., 2005) towards seeking professional help for emotional-related
problems. In summary, students experiencing therapeutic working alliance possess higher intent to seek
help from a professional psychological practitioner (Seyfi et al., 2013).
Working Alliance in the Counseling Relationship in the Malaysian Context
Although cross-sectional studies exist that examine the working alliance and counseling avoidance
factors amongst undergraduates, most studies involve large samples of Caucasians (Vogel et al., 2007)
and Americans of European origin (Wade et al., 2011). There are limited studies on counseling and its
usage outside the United States of America (Topkaya et al., 2017). Diversity sampling should be
addressed (Vogel et al., 2007). Studies need to be undertaken that involve various cultural backgrounds
to understand counseling avoidance factors in-depth. There may be differences in findings between
different cultures (Wade et al., 2011).
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It is self-evident that Malaysians tend to hold different cultural values compared to westerners.
Thus some results from previous western literature may not necessarily be suitable to generate
conclusions for the Malaysian community. For example, cultural factors are reflected in an individual’s
personal preference in disclosing distressful information to non-professionals (friends or family) before
turning to professional help. Agnis et al. (2012) report that unity, loyalty, and respect for the elderly are
essential in Malaysian culture because Malaysians tend to view family as a place that one receives
shelter, and that can be guaranteed for both emotional and financial support. University students’
problems may arise from family issues, and meeting a counselor means the need for them to highlight
the problems within the family; this is not considered ideal.
There is a growing interest in the measurement of working alliance amongst counselors and
educators in Malaysia. Among recent literature found from Google Scholar studying the working
alliance in the Malaysian context, Nor Mazlina Ghazali et al. (2016), for example, shows evidence that
working alliance is a significant predictor in the helping relationship and reflects helpers' competence.
Nevertheless, these studies differ in terms of focus groups and are component-specific to the mutual
trust of bond, which does not address the focus of this study.
Research to include the Malaysian population relating to the counseling field continues to
expand and be undertaken by researchers in Malaysia, including graduate researchers. However, these
areas of focus mostly gravitate towards intention, attitude, and stigma (Aslina Ahmad et al., 2019; Tay
Lay Pheng, 2019; Benjamin Chan Yin-Fah et al., 2016; Rafidah Aga Mohd Jaladin, 2013; Suradi Salim,
2010; Ming Sing Chai, 2000) or using samples from school. For example, Aslina Ahmad et al. (2017)
presented that researcher from university graduates from the counseling field often lean towards issues
amongst school students and mainly focus on academic-related issues.
There is a clear need to bridge the gap of literature scarcity of working alliance discussion in
counseling literature in the Malaysian context.
Concept of Attitude Towards Counseling Utilization
Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) define ‘attitude’ as a person's own judgment of doing something - what they
say they will do, plan to do, or would do. The concept of ‘attitude’ in the context of counseling
utilization is also described as the extent of one’s belief that engaging with a counselor can solve a
client’s problems. In other words, believing that they can find relief from therapy, including beliefs on
what would happen after they meet and talk to a counselor. The term ‘attitude’ is widely used to describe
a psychological state that motivates a person to act favorably or unfavorably to an event or situation
(Al-Rowaie, 2001). It is known that potential clients hold various views of counseling before they
actually seek help (Bordin, 1995). Once they use counseling, the experience may determine their future
intent to utilize counseling services. Benjamin Chan Yin Fah et al. (2016) found that Malaysian students
who have experienced positive counseling have a better attitude towards counseling service and were
more likely to engage with counseling service in the future if needed. Hence, allowing current clients
and potential future clients to experience therapeutic working alliance in counseling may help reduce
negative attitudes towards counseling utilization.
Concept of Stigma Towards Counseling Utilization
‘Stigma’ is a culturally recognized attribute that is used to differentiate and discredit a person (Corrigan,
2004). This cultural attribute refers to what was introduced by the Greeks to refer to unusual bodily
signs to signify something bad about the bearer (Erving Goffman, 1986, as cited in Corrigan, 2004).
Since then, the term 'stigma’ evolved to be more than just a marking on bodies, and the term continues
to be used in society to mark something that is considered negative and out of normal behavior.
According to Corrigan (2004), there are two types of stigma linked to mental health service utilization:
public stigma and self-stigma.
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1. Public stigma
Public stigma is defined as a collective view towards a person which is usually negative (Corrigan,
2000). The concept of public stigma in counseling utilization refers to how students think other people
will react towards them and what others will think of them because they sought counseling help.
2. Self-Stigma
The definition for self-stigma is defined as an internalization of public stigma (Corrigan, 2000). Further
defined, it is the reduction in a person’s self-esteem or sense of self-worth due to a self-generated
perception that they are socially unacceptable (Corrigan, 2004). The concept of self-stigma in
counseling utilization refers to how students think about the impact of seeking counseling on their own
self-worth, their self-esteem, and their self-ability to solve problems based on their initial view about
how people will think of them. Thus, self-stigma is a public stigma that the individual has internalized.
Examining stigma in the context of counseling is necessary, as stigma was reported to be very
evident in counseling amongst the clients (Vogel et al., 2007). This may be associated with bad
perceptions and limited knowledge about counseling. For example, a study amongst Malaysian
university students by Tan Lay Pheng et al. (2019) indicated that the higher stigma (both public stigma
and self-stigma) one has, the less likely the person will decide to seek professional help.
According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), people have different levels of motivation to comply
with different people to arrive at their perception of how others think. Therefore, this study examines
the stigma a student perceived the counselor might have towards them for using counseling.
Concept of Distress Disclosure
‘Distress disclosure’ is one’s tendency to disclose personally distressing information (Kahn & Hessling,
2001). Distress disclosure differs from self-disclosure in that the latter, as suggested by Kahn and
Hessling (2001), may not necessarily involve disclosing personal negative information. Instead, distress
disclosure specifically reflects a willingness to share negative information about oneself.
Psychological distress disclosure in the context of this paper reflects a students' preference
towards sharing their problems with others and the type of individual with whom they choose to share
their problems. Students who prefer to share their problems with family or friends are predicted to have
a low level of preference to share personal problems with the counselor. Students who prefer not to
disclose (share) at all are predicted to keep the problem to themselves.
Doherty and Kartalova-O’Doherty (2010) reported that distress disclosure tendency appears to
be highly linked to attitude towards seeking professional help and intentions of seeking any
psychological help. Vogel and Wester (2003) also found that a higher level of willingness to disclose
distressing information relates to positive attitudes toward seeking help among a general sample of
college students.
Counseling, in general, involves clients sharing problems with the counselor. Therefore, one's
tendency to conceal rather than disclose information is considered a barrier in psychological help-
seeking decisions (Vogel & Wester, 2003; Cepeda-Benito & Short, 1998). Disclosing distress in
counseling involves an active process for clients to discuss personal problems with the counselor (Kahn
et al., 2012).
Furthermore, not sharing problems (concealing distress) is closely linked to Asian values,
whereby Asians tend to emphasize keeping problems within the family to maintain social harmony and
by restraining emotions to avoid loss of face (Kim & Park, 2009). Asians and Asian Americans, in
general, both have a lower level of disclosure comfort (Kahn et al., 2012; Tsega, 2014; Kearney et al.,
2005). Examining distress disclosure tendency may be helpful because there is evidence reporting self-
disclosure moderated support-seeking behavior (Shen, 2015). Students should be encouraged to share
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distressing thoughts or personal problems with others, especially their campus counselors, who could
provide them with professional mental health services.
Theory
The theory of Reasoned Action and the theory of Working Alliance guides this study to provide a better
understanding of the working alliance's role in students' utilization of counseling.
Based on the theory of reasoned action and theory of working alliance, therapeutic working
alliance in a counseling session may influence clients' belief towards the benefit of counseling. This
belief may, in turn, influence future intention to use counseling services. The positive effect of an
increased intention to seek counseling based on experiencing prior counseling was reported to be similar
across genders (Seyfi et al., 2013). In addition, university and college students who have had prior
counseling experience were reported to have a better attitude towards the counseling service (Kearney
et al., 2005).
In summary, the conceptual framework for this study will be based on these foundations:
(i) Theory of reasoned action
(ii) Theory of working alliance
Theory of Reasoned Action
This theory was developed by Icek Ajzen and Martin Fishbein and introduced in 1967 (Ajzen, 2012) in
an effort to describe how people generally engage in conscious thinking of the implications of a
behavior before carrying out the behavior.
This theory assumes that: (i) human’s social behaviour are aligned to information and beliefs
people have about the behaviour under consideration; (ii) the beliefs about the behaviour under
consideration originates from various sources such as personal experiences, formal education and social
media; (iii) each individual’s beliefs differs from one another based on differences such as personality
and social background (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2011).
Consequently, Fishbein & Ajzen (2011), implies the formation of three types of beliefs
associated with targeted behaviour, as follows: (i) beliefs about the positive or negative consequence
they might experience; (ii) beliefs that their significant others either agree or disagree of them carrying
out the behaviour; (iii) beliefs about other factors that may facilitate or act as barrier towards their effort
to carry out the behaviour in question. The combined beliefs leads to the formation of readiness to
perform the behaviour (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2011), or simply known as ‘intention’ in TRA’s theoretical
model.
TRA is useful to understand a student’s decision making in deciding to attend counseling. TRA
has been applied in research predicting help-seeking behaviour among higher education students (Vogel
et al., 2007). The TRA framework explains that ‘intention’ is a function towards actually carrying out
a specific behaviour, which is influenced by attitude and stigma towards the behaviour concerned.
Theory of Working Alliance
The theory of working alliance is a pan-theoretical (Doran, 2016) conceptualisation of the cognitive
and conative (cognitive-affective) dimension enveloping the working alliance fostered by three
identified components of working alliance, namely goal, task and bond. Bordin believed and strongly
suggested that neither cognitive nor affective components exist in isolation (Bordin, 1979). The
conceptual framework for Bordin’s working alliance theory was suggested to derive from previous
alliance concepts, such as from Zetzel and Greenson (Messer & Wolitzky, 2010). Zetzel’s alliance work
mostly focused on the relationship between patient and therapist whereas Greenson’s formulation were
based solely on the work that needed to be done in therapy (Messer & Wolitzky, 2010). Bordin (1955)
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working alliance theory emphasised that the helping work is purposive, and the main characteristics of
a purposive action is that it demands focus towards methods of achieving goals. The goals are achieved
through the use of knowledge, motor skills, conceptual tools or any resources available towards the
attainment of the goal.
Bordin (1979) theorized that: (i) every psychotherapy that requires change involves working
alliance, but each case may need a different kind of working alliance to be effective; (ii) it is the strength
of the working alliance that matters to function as an effective change agent; (iii) difference in
psychotherapy approaches exist due to different focus in fulfillment (iv) The strength of working
alliance serves as a function of the fit between the specific kind of working alliance needed in the
therapy with different personalities of both patient and therapist. Note that Bordin's proposals lean
towards psychotherapy because his work was strongly influenced by previous psychotherapy work.
However, Bordin further proposes that the working alliance is universal in its application. It exists in
all relationships (Bordin, 1979).
Thus, in summary, to understand the client completely is to understand as fully as possible both
the cognitive and conative aspects of the client's communication towards a therapeutic working
relationship (Bordin 1955).
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework for this study is to represent a merged framework from both TRA and
working alliance theory. A strong working alliance in a counseling relationship predicts intention to
seek counseling; this, in turn, predicts a correlation between attitude and intention to seek counseling,
stigma, and intention to seek counseling, and intention to seek counseling towards the behavior of
utilizing counseling. Discussing the conceptual framework will guide understanding of how the current
working alliance impacts student’s experience in the counseling relationship and the role of distress
disclosure in moderating the utilization of counseling.
The following figure 1 represents the proposed conceptual framework for the study.
Figure 1. Conceptual framework.
Discussion and Implication
The working alliance is said to be the construct of a collaborative relationship. From this understanding,
counselors can use that as a marker to achieve a therapeutic relationship with their clients.
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Earlier recommendations from Malaysian professionals (e.g: Aslina Ahmad et al., 2017;
Benjamin Chan Yin Fah, 2016) were to carry out more research using other variables in the counseling
seeking behaviour, inclusive of actual counseling usage, targeting Malaysian undergraduates (Ching
Mey See & Kok Mun Ng, 2010; Suradi Salim, 2010), that may have not been adequately examined to
date. This recommendation for more research in the Malaysian context motivates this study to be
undertaken to provide an in-depth understanding of how Malaysian students perceived their problems
and their preference towards help-seeking.
This study will contribute to the information-base on the subject of the working alliance in the
counseling relationship that can be referred to by Malaysian mental health professionals in general and
Malaysian university counselors specifically, thus helping to address the concerns expressed in the
sparse empirical findings of Ching Mey See and Kok Mun Ng (2010). More generally, this study will
contribute to improving the professionalism of counseling services in Malaysia.
Further to this, the study helps to address the under-representation of Asian undergraduates in
studies done to date, particularly in the Malaysian context. This is important because, as Wade et al.
(2011) noted, wider diversity in sampling may lead to differences in findings, and diversity should
always be considered (Vogel, 2007).
The results of this study would be able to serve as guidance to government and non-
governmental organizations in designing specific training programs. For example, the ‘supportive-
expressive technique applied in counseling by counselors is a skill that has been shown to increase the
perception of bond with a counselor (Shateri & Lavasani, 2018). The professionalism of the counseling
service can be strengthened where skill-specific training programs can be offered to counselors to
expand their professional capability further to form a stronger working alliance with their clients.
Evidently, the scarcity of working alliance literature and lack of Malaysian representation need
to be addressed to contribute to the counseling literature that may be useful for reference by mental
health professionals in Malaysia and counselors in Malaysian universities. By understanding the
influence of working alliance in counseling, steps to achieve therapeutic working alliance in the
counseling relationship can be taken appropriately by counselors.
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TEACHERS KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES ON INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Suzinah Bongsu* & Lailawati Madlan

Corresponding author’s e-mail : dgsuzana@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This concept paper aims at giving an overview about Inclusive Education as a platform for Special Education
Needs (SEN) students to get their rights in education. To ensure the sustainability of Inclusive Education to be
flourishing simultaneously with the aspirations of Malaysian Education Blueprint (PPPM), series of teachers’
professionalism development training programs ought to be robustious. Two factors in determining the
effectiveness of a training program are transformations in teachers’ knowledge and attitude towards Inclusive
Education. Therefore, research on teachers’ knowledge and attitude towards Inclusive Education is essential
especially in the field of special education and mainstream education in general. There were quite a number of
the past and contemporary research studies, conducted on investigating the teachers’ knowledge and attitude
towards Inclusive Education both in international and national level. The findings from previous research studies
have shown various facets and point of views. Some aspects of the research have synchronous results while some
yield different insights about Inclusive Education. Nevertheless, the main issues and challenges in Inclusive
Education remains the same and it requires the need for collaborative efforts from all level of society and
community members to ensure the success of Inclusive Education.
Key words: Inclusive Education, teachers’ attitudes, teachers’ knowledge, Special Education Need (SEN).
Introduction
Inclusive Education is an educational program implemented by the Ministry of Education Malaysia

(MOE) specifically for students with special needs (SEN) in national schools all over Malaysia since
1987 (Saiful Azam, 2017). Beginning with the term Blended Classes for Visual and Hearing Impairment
in 1962 and 1963 (Mohd Najib & Sanisah, 2015) it was later officially renamed as Integration Education
Plan or Merger Program in 1995 (Saiful Azam, 2017; Lee & Low, 2014). It is one of the MOE's
initiatives in implementing the Zero Reject Policy (ZRP) and related to the Persons with Disabilities
Act (OKU) 2008.
Based on the OKU Act 2008, all SENs are entitled to equal access to education like other
children in the mainstream without isolating or excluding them (Ministry of Education, 2015). It was
billed in the parliament meeting in December 2007 and put into an enactment in 2008. It gives an
acknowledgement to the people with disability to be part of the society by granting them their human
rights to available government or civil services including education. In other words, for some SENs
who have the potential and are considered eligible, they will be included in the Inclusive Education
program so that their right to quality education is not denied.
The main objective of the implementation of Inclusive Education is to provide equal and
equitable access to SEN in terms of the right to education (Rosmalily Salleh & Woollard, 2019). This
goal is in line with the concept of Education for All (EFA) which has been advocated by the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisations (UNESCO, 2013) in the World Conference
on Education for All since 90s.
Apart from the equal rights and access to education, Inclusive Education also aims to increase
public awareness of the existence of people with disabilities in the community (Ministry of Education
Malaysia, 2018). It is a noble goal to educate the multiracial community to indiscriminate any group
through the acceptance of SEN, especially among school children and the local community. In practice,
Inclusive Education requires the entire school population collaboration from administrators, teachers,
support group members (SGM) and all students. External agencies and stakeholders in educational
services such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and parents-teachers associations (PTA) are
also expected to be involved unexceptionally.
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In a nutshell, Inclusive Education is a specially designated program for SEN at school level that
involves the cooperation not only of special education teachers but also the entire school community
and the population community at large.
Inclusive Education Program
The Inclusive Education Program (IEP) has been a platform for SENs to build self-confidence and
compete fairly with mainstream students. With statistics of almost half a million Malaysians registered
as persons with disabilities (OKU), Malaysia has been recognized by UNESCO as the first country in
the world to develop a draft for an inclusive education policy (Han, 2019). Therefore, the community,
especially parents who have children with special needs, hope that eventually their children will be able
to continue living like others in the community as they complete their formal education at the school
level. In line with these expectations, until today the Inclusive Education program is not only
implemented in schools that have a Special Education Integration Program (SEIP) in the school
education administration system but it has been extended to all national schools under the supervision
of MOE throughout the country since 2018.
Originally, the Education Act 1996 which provisioned Special Education was enacted in
response to the call of several declarations at the international level (Ministry of Education Malaysia,
1996). Among the declarations that form the basis of Special Education in Malaysia is The Salamanca
Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (UNESCO, 1994) which focuses on
educational policies, policies and practices for children and people with special needs. The Salamanca
Statement recognizes the rights and opportunities of children with special needs to receive an education
and to have the opportunity to achieve and maintain an accepted level of learning. Since children with
special needs also have learning abilities, interests, abilities and needs, a teaching and learning system
needs to be designed to meet the individual needs of those children by implementing educational
activities that are appropriate to individual differences in interests.
In line with the concept of Education for All (EFA) promoted by UNESCO since 1990, the
Ministry of Education Malaysia sees a relevance of education system that needs to be provided to
students with special needs so that they can develop their potential at optimal level (Mohd. Rosman et
al., 2009)). Thus, children with special needs in Malaysia are given education either in a special
environment or in an integrated environment called Inclusive Education.
The implementation of Inclusive Education for people with special needs began in 1987. This
program is under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education Malaysia and was formulated in line
with the National Education Philosophy. The Inclusive Education Program emphasizes education for
students with special needs who can attend regular classes where appropriate assistance to them is
provided and allows them to follow the teaching and learning with their typical peers.
The Malaysian Ministry of Education took the initiative to officially introduce Inclusive
Education in Malaysia in 1995 although inclusive practices have long been implemented in Malaysia
through integration or fusion education plans (Saiful Azam, 2019; Tahar & Najib, 2019; Lee & Low,
2014) . This is a government effort to improve the education system to enable children with special
needs to be absorbed into the education system regardless of individual differences and their disability
problems. To date, the Ministry of Education Malaysia is working to implement Inclusive Education in
a comprehensive and integrated manner.
The Concept of Inclusive Education
Inclusive Education Program (IEP) has been introduced in the national education school system in
which students with special needs (SEN) are given the opportunity to learn alongside mainstream
students. Practically, the entire teaching and learning process (PdP) is implemented by mainstream
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teachers and assisted by a special education teacher as a companion teacher or resource teacher (Lee &
Low, 2014).
Inclusive Education Program (IEP) is not a new term in our country. Initially, our national
education system only emphasized on mainstream education. However, year after year, our government,
the Ministry of Education, has been aware of the rights of students with special needs (SEN) who need
to receive the same level of education as mainstream students in order to further develop their talents
and intellectual levels. According to the Ministry of Education Malaysia (2018), a student with special
needs is a student who is certified by a medical practitioner, or an optician, audiologist or psychologist
as the case may be, whether in government or private service as a student with visual impairment,
disability hearing, speech impairment, physical disability, learning difficulties or any combination of
disabilities. Once a student is recognised as student with special education need, the parents can decide
either to let the child study in the Special Education Integration Program (SEIP) or be together with the
typical students in the mainstream classes. The former option will make the child categorised as
Partially Inclusive student, whereas the latter is called Fully Inclusive one.
At the school level, it has been determined that the implementation of the Inclusive Education
Program is under the supervision of a committee namely the School Special Education Committee
(SSEC). The committee is chaired by the principal or headmaster joined by the Senior Assistant of
Administration and the Senior Assistant of Student Affairs. Traditionally, the post of SSEC secretary is
held by the Special Education Senior Assistant in the school while the committee members involve
senior teachers, Head of Guidance and Counselling unit, school counsellors, special education teacher
representatives and all mainstream teachers who directly teach SEN in the Inclusive Education program
(Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2014).
As to ensure that teachers are well trained in Inclusive Education, MOE under the management of
the Special Education Division has taken the initiative by publishing the Professional Development for
Inclusive Education Teachers Module. It is a module which designed to suit the Inclusive Education
teachers need for competency and used as a general guidelines for practical aspects of Inclusive
Education at the ground level. The content of the module includes the policies, goals, objectives and
strategies of specific teaching and learning as well as how to deal with behavioral problems of students
with special needs (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2018).
Inclusive Education Policy
Inclusive Education has been implemented in our country with the support of policies enacted both
domestically and abroad. One of them is the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special
Needs Education which stated that:
“Regular schools with an inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating
discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and
achieving education for all…”
(UNESCO, 1994)
Based on the Salamanca statement it can be concluded that in fact the implementation of the Inclusive
Education is to create democratization in education. With the democratization of education, it means
that the rights and interests of SEN are protected. We do not want to set aside the rights of SEN because
all students are equal. We don’t know maybe the talent found in SEN is not found in the mainstream
and vice versa. Therefore, with the merger of SEN and mainstream students in one class to learn together
then both parties can accept each other, share ideas and learn to work cooperatively with others.
In Malaysia, Inclusive Education has been introduced in national schools through a series of
professionalism development trainings. It involves school administrators as well as teachers in special
education or mainstream education. Hence, it is so unbecoming when it is perceived as something new
and unfamiliar concepts in education. Unfortunately, this is not always proven to be true. In fact, issues
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related to Inclusive Education have been highlighted such that it remains vague and get lack of attention
from the society (The Star, 2019). Yet, the good news is, when compared to the wider context, it is not
only the situation and issue we have in Malaysia. Surprisingly, the same situations are found to be the
same globally. Issues of Inclusive Education such as a clear cut guidance in Inclusive Education practice
and have yet to find its solution (Booth, 2011).
In the European country itself, as example, the effort towards obtaining a specific definition
of the term Inclusive Education in the educational context itself is still an ambiguity (Florian & Black-
Hawkins, 2011). Among the things that may lead to such ambiguity is the weakness of the aspect of
policy makers who are less aware of the existence of the special need group in society. As matter of
fact, the number of students with special needs has been steadily increasing every year. It was reported
that a total 10 948 special needs students have enrolled in schools since January 2019 (Hui, 2019).
Hence, it demands public awareness, attention from education policy makers and teachers as educators
to improve the quality of Inclusive Education delivery system and collaboration with related agencies.
Goals Of Inclusive Education
The major goal of the implementation of Inclusive Education is to provide equal and equitable access
to SEN in terms of the right to education (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2018). This goal is in line
with the concept of Education for All (EFA) which has been advocated by the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisations (UNESCO, 2013) in the World Conference on
Education for All since 90s. By the concept of EFA it means that every child born must receive early
education and skills training when entering a certain age level of the education system in the country
regardless of the status, background and socioeconomic level of the student.
Of course, there are the other complimentary goals of Inclusive Education. Among others is to
provide opportunities for SEN to gain better social skills by learning together with mainstream students.
The learning opportunities are not limited to learning in the classroom but also outside the classroom.
This can indirectly increase the morale of SENs by being competitive with their counterparts in typical
classroom. Thus, they can obtain intrinsic motivation to improve their own achievements in academic
and non -academic fields.
In addition, Inclusive Education is also intended to provide awareness to the community so as

not to deny the potential of SEN (Sukumaran, Loveridge, & Green, 2015). It has been a prejudice in
our society towards SEN when people negatively labelled SEN to be a group of students with disabilities
who has zero prospect of developing their potential and be at par with mainstream students.
Nevertheless, it should be born in mind that when a SEN child is given with an opportunity to be in
Inclusive Education, there is the possibility of them to succeed together with the mainstream students.
This has been proven thus far by SENs success stories in the social media and local news. Some of them
were outstandingly successful in sports as well as professional career such as lawyers, entrepreneurs
and teachers. Hence, they became the jewel and pride of the nation while at the same manners become
the living proof of a valuable human capital resulting from a successful Inclusive Education.
The Importance Of Inclusive Education
Inclusive education is important to be implemented in line with education policy in Malaysia to provide
equal educational opportunities and provide maximum access to education to all students regardless of
race, ethnicity or religion. This is in line with the statement by Rosmalily Salleh & Woollard (2019)
who stated that inclusive education should be implemented on the basis of education in Malaysia
because it includes the need for equality of human rights, equity in educational provisions and quality
of education for a special child.
The importance of this inclusive education can be assessed from various aspects. First, it is
from the cognitive aspect. Inclusive Education provides an opportunity for students with special needs
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to gain a wide range of self-esteem knowledge along with other typical peers. When these special needs
students learn alongside typical students, they can practice two-ways communication skills where
students with special needs will try to interact with typical peers. Indirectly they will be able to increase
their vocabulary. They will learn new words from other typical friends. Pupils with special needs will
be able to interact with typical peers during the activity and at the same time increase their vocabulary
(Haris & Khairuddin, 2021). In fact, this inclusive education will provide more opportunities for special
education students to be independent and gain employment opportunities. It eventually gives them the
opportunity to be in a real community environment and will definitely facilitate and be the guidance for
them to face any challenges in their future life.
In the social aspect, students with special needs will be able to build good relationships with
typical students through activities in the teaching and learning process that involve interaction and
cooperation between them with other typical students. According to Mohd Mokhtar et al. (2010), social
skills will be able to be created through communication skills as well as cooperation between students
with special needs and typical students. The placement of special students into inclusive classes also
allows them to participate in local community activities as well as build confidence to interact with
typical students and feel accepted in the group. Thus, inclusive education provides many opportunities
for students to communicate on a daily basis (Liasidou, 2015).
Inclusive Education can also enhance collaboration between administrators with teachers,
and special teachers with subject teachers, teachers with parents, as well as relationships with other
external agencies. According to Kamaliah and Wan Amiman (2010), they stated that the existence of
cooperation between these parties will be able to help improve the quality of students' learning. All
these external agencies will be able to exchange opinions and views, discuss appropriate teaching
strategies for students with special needs and discuss problems that may arise for students with special
needs in the teaching and learning process in the classroom. This is in line with the study of (Md Amin
et al., 2009) where there is a good collaboration between special education teachers, mainstream
teachers, school administrators and external organizations will be able to help students with special
needs to learn better in the classroom.
Issues And Challenges Of Inclusive Education
In some research that has been done previously shows that there are there are some issues and challenges
in the implementation of Inclusive Education. Hannah Aqilah, Amran; Rosadah, Abd Majid; Manisah,
Mohd Ali (2019) highlighted among the issues and challenges that must be faced in implementing
Inclusive Education are the teachers’ competency, commitment and continuous professional
development. As we entered the 21st century, more rigorous challenges emerged due to socioeconomic
and political conditions across the global borders. Hence, it demands the dynamics of teachers to equip
themselves and adapt to the current situation.
In the Malaysian context, studies to investigate and examine the competence of teachers for
effective teaching techniques for all students in truly inclusive classrooms in secondary schools are
minimal because the full focus in most schools is placed on special education whereas inclusive
education is not given priority (Marimuthu & Cheong, 2015). This can be seen in the memorable
number of SEN students who are enrolled in inclusive classes in most Malaysian secondary schools
where admission has begun. Regular teachers who teach SEN students in an inclusive environment
desperately need a teacher training program to address diversity.
Administrators and teachers in Malaysian inclusive secondary schools critically need to have a
clear understanding of the disabilities that cause disabilities in learning and inclusive education
including the importance of the education system and its role in society such as the issues of teachers’
expertise, as well as financial and social support (Amin Mohd Norliah & Yasin, 2016). Ordinary
teachers tend to see learning problems as in the students themselves and not in the methods used by
teachers in teaching diverse students. General educators focus more on meeting disabilities and not on
the abilities of the students themselves. The implementation of inclusive programs is only effective with
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teacher training programs that conform to the philosophy of inclusion and an understanding of the
neurological and biological factors that influence students ’cognitive development. This must be a
priority of the National Teacher Education System in Malaysia. Good training for inclusive practices
will lead to success to inclusive education which in turn will lead to the modification of the thinking
patterns of our society.
Various challenges and issues that arise in the education system indirectly impact and require
active participation of education policy makers, education administrators, as well as pre and in service
teachers in preserving the aspirations of the National Education Philosophy. To a lesser or a greater
extend the mission of the Ministry of Education Malaysia in implementing the objectives and goals of
Inclusive Education must be achieved no matter how far ahead we have to venture along the milestone
of Inclusive Education history in Malaysia.
The Concept of Attitude
Attitude is a relative and general permanent assessment of an object, person, group, issue or concept
on a positive or negative dimension (APA, 2021). According to Aiken (2000), attitude is a tendency to
act positively or negatively towards a particular object of a conceptual institution situation or a person.
Attitudes can be defined in three components namely beliefs, feelings and character traits of a
person in his behavior (Benjamin, 2012). Some attitudes are derived from one’s first and direct
experience. It can also be derived from observations on the behavior of others. Conversely, the attitude
that has been already formed is not necessarily consistent and remains forever in a person. In other
words, a person's attitude can change even if it has been ingrained in a person for a long time. Nevid
(2013) has a definition of attitude as an assessment of whether you like or dislike a person, an object or
a social issue. According to him, a person's attitude is obtained from various sources in our daily
environment and interactions. People who are in the same group and social background will tend to
have similar attitudes. When there is an inconsistent situation between a person's attitude and his actions
it depends on many factors especially obstacles in the current situation. For example, a teacher may be
positive towards Inclusive Education but is unable to show that attitude in action because there is no
support from the school administrative system and lack of facilities in the organization where he or she
serves as a teacher.
Psychologists conceptualize attitudes into three components namely cognitive, emotional and
behavioral. The cognitive component in the concept of attitude refers to the set of beliefs a person
possesses; whereas the emotional component refers to the feeling of liking or hating something. The
behavioral component refers to ones tendency to show a sign or of an action either positively or
negatively.
There is a term in the theory of attitude which is called ‘cognitive dissonance’. It refers to a
situation when there is a significant difference between a person’s personal attitude and the behavior
which he or she exhibits in public. Another popular term related to attitude theory is the term ‘prejudice’.
It is a situation that occurs when a person has an unfavourable attitude towards another person or a
particular object or thing. Being prejudiced also means that the individual has a negative prejudice due
to lack of information and interaction with objects, things or someone who is the target of prejudice
(Benjamin, 2012)
Richard, Bower, Crocker, & Hall (1991) explained that the affective component in a person's
attitude may be the result of classical conditioning as pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist
in 1897. A classical conditioning is a process of creating association between a conditioned stimulus
(CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which eventually brings about a conditioned response (CR).
In contrast, it is argued that the behavioral component of attitude is usually the result of instrumental
conditioning. The cognitive component on the other hand is believed to be the result of the knowledge
of self-esteem gained from the educational process received by a person.
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In conclusion, theoretically attitude of an individual basically formed by 3 major components

viz cognitive, affective and behaviour with the attitude object. The combination of the three elements
forms an attitudinal nature of a person when encountered with another person, a group of people, an
object or even a situation.
Teacher Knowledge And Attitude Towards Inclusive Education
There have been a number of local and overseas research conducted on Inclusive Education. In some
recent studies it is found that most researchers try to discover the relationship between attitudes,
knowledge, teacher competence, social and physical supports such as facilities infrastructure with
Inclusive Education programs.
Taking into example of a study on the implementation of Inclusive Education in Finland as

conducted by Saloviita (2020) on 1764 primary teachers, the researcher found that only 8% of the total
teachers involved are fully supportive of Inclusive Education while a total of 20% of teachers in the
position of against the implementation of Inclusive Education. According to result finding of the study,
among those who were having negative attitude towards Inclusive Education identified as unqualified
special education teachers. Therefore, it is imperative for special education policy makers to take heed
on such empirical research findings when dealing with Inclusive Education implementation.
In neighbouring countries such as Indonesia and Vietnam, similar issues and situations are
faced. This is not surprising as Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam often collaborate in research
throughout nearby Asian countries. In a study conducted on special education teachers in Bandung, for
example, it was found that special education teachers have a negative attitude towards the policy of
Inclusive Education but have a positive attitude towards the role and values found in Inclusive
Education (Sari, 2018; Nia Sutisna, 2016). However, in a study conducted in the city of Banda Aceh
was found that there was no significant difference in attitude among teachers and special education
teachers in terms of mainstream thinking about inclusive education (Sari, 2012). In Vietnam the issue
of similar attitudes arises among teachers when it comes to Inclusive Education. A study conducted on
514 primary teachers found that teachers have both positive and negative attitudes towards Inclusive
Education when associated with the benefits received by MBK and typical peers (Thi & Pham, 2008).
Hence, the issue of teachers' attitudes towards Inclusive Education remains an interesting quest to be
discovered.
In the context of Inclusive Education in Malaysia, among the earliest studies on Inclusive
Education made in the late 90s was a doctorate research done by (Rohaizat Ibrahim, 2019)(1998)
entitled ‘Inclusive Education in Malaysia-Teachers’ Attitude to Change ’. In her research study, Haniz
has found that primary teachers in general are negative towards Inclusive Education (Haniz, 1998).
Then, Saad (2003) supports the previous study with the finding that there were only 12% of teachers
who have knowledge about Inclusive Education whereas the other 88% may in the state of clueless.
Saad further asserted that teachers who had a low level of knowledge about Inclusive Education were
prone to be teachers who would be less concerned about students with special needs.
However, an empirical study conducted by Ali, Mustapha, & Jelas (2006) found different
discovery. Based on the empirical study conducted they found that teachers have a positive attitude
towards Inclusive Education. Yet they clearly advocate for the need for a complete and detailed
guideline on Inclusive Education itself. Similarly, another local study done by Nani Agang (2019) who
conducted a study on teachers in one of the schools in Penampang district in Sabah found that teachers
have a positive attitude towards Inclusive Education. Despite of the positive result on the attitude of
teachers towards Inclusive Education, those research implies that there ought to be a clear guideline on
the implementation of Inclusive Education as well as the need for solid cooperation between mainstream
teachers and special education teachers in ensuring the success of Inclusive Education.
Mohd Najib & Sanisah (2015) however in a study involving special education teachers and
regular teachers in a district in Johor Bahru found that teachers have a moderate attitude towards
Inclusive Education. It is also found that there is a significant correlation between teachers’ knowledge
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and readiness in Inclusive Education. Therefore, a strong recommendation was pointed out to address
on the existing weaknesses and shortcomings as vital in ensuring a good delivery system of Inclusive
Education over time.
Low, Lee, & Che Ahmad (2018) in a study that used more or less the same respondents, namely
special education trainee teachers and mainstream trainee teachers who are studying at the Institute of
Teacher Education (IPG) in the country found that special education teachers disagree less towards a
fully inclusive program of students with special needs into the premier classroom as opposed to non -
special education teachers. This is of course to some extent the starting point of the attitude and
knowledge possessed by the teacher. According to Low et al. (2018), this is due to the caring and
concerned attitude of teachers towards the willingness of mainstream teachers to teach SEN as well as
the impact on the ability of SEN and their typical peers. This has raised the question of whether teachers
have received the sustainable Inclusive Education training that they should have received while in
teacher training. Thus, the findings have raised the question of whether teachers have received adequate
Inclusive Education training that they should have whilst undergoing teacher training.
Accordingly, a result of a survey conducted by Toran, Hasnah; Mohd Yasin, Mohd Hanafi;
Tahar, Mohd Mokhtar; Salleh (2010) found that formal teaching courses are less effective in the training
of special education teachers to comprehend and educate students with special needs specifically those
with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) disability category. Hence, a strong recommendation for the
improvements in formal special education teacher teaching training courses need to be revised. At the
same time, free access and opportunity to be enrolled in continuous professional development (CPD)
regarding Inclusive Education for the in service teachers should also made available.
Tahar & Najib (2019) in a survey on teachers in ordinary daily schools in one of the districts in
the state of Melaka found that there is no significant relationship between the level of knowledge of
teachers with the implementation of Inclusive Education. The findings are in line with the findings of
Rohaizat Ibrahim (2019) conducted in one of the ordinary day primary schools in the district of Kota
Kinabalu where her findings found that the level of teachers knowledge on Inclusive Education is at a
moderate level. She therefore suggested that teachers tend to see efforts to increase self -esteem on
Inclusive Education as a priority in teacher professionalism.
Another study conducted by Rosmalily Salleh & Woollard (2019) found that teachers view
Inclusive Education as a challenging concept to implement. This is closely related to the current
education system which is still in the old notch with more emphasis on academic achievement and
marginalizing SEN students who are considered to degrade the academic performance of a school if
accepted as a candidate for public examinations such as the Primary School Assessment Test (UPSR),
Form Three Assessment (PT3) and Malaysia Education Certificate (SPM). Teachers felt that a SEN
student was inappropriate to be included in mainstream classes for fear they would not be able to follow
the mainstream curriculum. Apart from that, the lack of school facilities and teaching resources for
teachers also makes the implementation of Inclusive Education more challenging. Most teachers admit
that they are less capable in terms of knowledge and skills as well as unsustainable competencies to
meet the challenges of teaching SEN (Rosmalily Salleh & Woollard, 2019)
It is therefore based on previous studies that have been made it revolves around the negative
attitude of teachers and the low level of knowledge about Inclusive Education. Thus, it can be concluded
that there is a large gap in the attitude and knowledge of teachers in Inclusive Education until now
which leads to the need for an empirical study to increase public understanding, especially to educators
about the importance of success in the implementation of Inclusive Education so that the special need
students will not be continually marginalized from the mainstream of national education.
Future Implications And Recommendations
Inclusive Education is definitely going to be a tough challenge without a careful planning of policy
prior to its implementation. So much to the concern of education policy makers, a comprehensive
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understanding of what Inclusive Education is must be delivered to the society at large. Consequently,
at the level of frontliners who comprises of teachers and education administrators, a clear cut definition
and systemic course of Inclusive Education management should also be taken into consideration.
Apparently, supports in the form of physical and social assistance can no longer be a hindsight to the
full swing of Inclusive Education execution today. Of course the diversity of social, cultural and
political background may undeniably exist, for instance, between different geographical locations as
such of South-East Asian countries or even between Peninsula Malaysia and Borneo regions.
Nevertheless, it is evident that we share the same goals towards provisioning a quality education across
borders and without doubt beyond discrimination.
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GAMING IN THE 21ST CENTURY:PORTRAYAL AND

AWARENESS OF MENTAL ILLNESS USING VIDEO GAMES AS
INTERACTIVE NARRATIVES
Wan Muhamad Kamarul Izzat Wan Mustaf* & Mimi Fitriana
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: kamarul.izzat@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Past researchers argued that media often depict mental illness negatively. Moreover, horror games typically utilize
stigmatizing concepts such as mental asylums and violent psychiatric patients for entertainment purposes. Rising
awareness of mental illness and popularity of video games among the younger generation have prompted this
study to explore the players’ perception regarding portrayal of mental illness in video games, how related
narratives are constructed, and how both of these influenced their perception on mental illness awareness. Five
Malaysian adolescent gamers aged between 18-25 were selected using purposive sampling. Virtual semi-
structured interviews were conducted on games’ portrayal and narratives as identified by the participants. Their
perception were determined using content analysis and explored through narrative analysis; identifying
similarities and differences across participants’ gaming experiences that prompted behavioral or attitudinal
changes. Thus, thirteen main themes were generated. Findings highlighted two main points. First, commercial
games must portray mental illness more accurately with sufficient details to promote empathetic understanding.
Second, narrative elements such as the use of characters, game setting, and plot are significant at influencing the
players’ perception. Therefore, video games can facilitate better understanding and empathy as players actively
interact with game elements and characters as if they are real.
Keywords: Video Games, Mental Illness Portrayal, Narrative, Content Analysis, Perception
It is estimated that globally there are more than 1.8 billion people who play video games (Entertainment
Software Association, 2017). In the United States, 70% of gamers are 18 years and above. In other
words, video games are hugely popular among the American youths. As adolescents reach 21 years old,
they would have spent approximately 10,000 hours just from playing video games (McGonigal, 2011).
Many studies have demonstrated the advantages of playing video games in enhancing perceptiveness,
cognition, and attention (Bedious et al., 2018; Eichenbaum et al., 2014; Oei & Patterson, 2013),
alongside coping with failures, socializing, and regulating emotions (Granic et al., 2014). Previous
literature have explored therapeutic applications (Staiano & Flynn, 2014) and health intervention
(Schoneveld et al., 2016; Merry et al., 2012; Kato, 2010), but new emerging ones have gauged the
impact of video games technology in treatment of mental disorders like anxiety and depression (Barnes
& Prescott, 2018; Fleming et al., 2017; Lau et al., 2017). For example, a few randomized controlled
studies have also demonstrated positive behavioral and psychological changes including alleviation of
symptoms with schizophrenia (Leutwyler et al., 2015), depression (Merry et al., 2012) and severe
gambling disorder (Tarrega et al., 2015). Hence, there is no doubt that video games now have evolved
beyond providing a source of entertainment to education and health interventions if utilized
appropriately.
Despite all that, there are limited number of studies in investigating how video games portray
mental illness given the fact how popular they are among the younger generation (Ferrari et al., 2019).
Even so, most of these were focused intensively on the relationship between video games and violence
(Shapiro & Rotter, 2016; Willoughby et al., 2012). In studies examining the portrayals of mental illness
in video games, Ferrari et al. (2019) and Shapiro and Rotter (2016) reported prominent stigmatizing
associations with mental illness in majority of the reviewed games. Both studies however did not
examine the gameplay content of the identified games as a whole from playing the games themselves
due to certain constraints. As Ferrari et al. (2019) mentioned, misconception of mental illness can also
be observed within the video game experience itself i.e. the environment, ambiance, and game goals.
Perhaps more in-depth information could be obtained from doing so.
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Mental illness has been acknowledged as a prominent disease burden globally, particularly
depression (Friedrich, 2017). The National Health and Morbidity Survey 2015 reported a prevalence
rate that has risen threefold to 29.7% from 10.7% in 1996 (Institute for Public Health, 2015). In another
perspective, at least one out of three adults may have any mental disorders wherein adolescents aged
16-24 years are at a higher risk. This is a pressing matter because mental illness was predicted to be the
second most common health problems in Malaysia, next to heart disease by the year 2020 (Lee & Lai,
2017). Despite the worrying trend, media such as news, movies, and television shows commonly portray
mental illness negatively with violence and dangerous behaviour (Ma, 2017; Smith, 2015; Mullins,
2012), including Malay newspapers (Zul et al., 2018). This is problematic as media has the capability
to alter, divide, or shape public opinion and attitudes (Shapiro & Rotter, 2016). Problematic portrayal
reinforces stereotypes and stigma of individual with mental illness diagnoses (Ma, 2017; Smith, 2015)
which directly impact help-seeking behaviour and integration within the society (Ainul & van Bortel,
2015). Thus, affected individuals may feel demoralized from social isolation and negatively perceived
by others.
As majority of gamers are youths (Entertainment Software Association, 2018; 2017), with
higher susceptibility to develop mental illness than other age groups (Institute for Public Health, 2015),
one novel approach to promote awareness can be implemented in video games via interactivity,
aesthetics, and narrative (Granic et al., 2014). One influencing factor of purchasing video games is an
intriguing story (Entertainment Software Association, 2018). In fact, Birk et al. (2019) stated that
narratives and in-game elements can be utilized to relay information, persuade, and arouse emotions.
For instance, Bopp et al. (2016) found that interactive/non-interactive elements that induce strong
negative feelings like the death of a character can prompt positive self-reflection towards the players by
relating to their own real-life experiences. Wherefore, this study proved that narratives could influence
players positively even if in-game events trigger intense negative feelings like sadness.
Hence, the aims of the present research were threefold: to explore how mental illness are
portrayed in video games, how narratives are constructed, and how portrayal and narratives influenced
players’ perception.
Theoretical Background
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory within sociology that emphasizes on constant

interactions among individuals within the society (Carter & Fuller, 2016). In other words, social
interaction is crucial as we actively communicate through the exchange of language and symbols which
form our interpretation i.e. making sense of the world. Blumer (1969), who coined the term “symbolic
interactionism”, outlined four premises of this theory: (1) individuals act depending on the perceived
meaning of the objects, (2) interactions occur within a specific cultural and social context wherein
physical and social objects (i.e. people), and situations should be categorized or defined depending on
individual meanings, (3) meanings arise from interactions with other individuals or within the society
itself, and (4) there is a constant creation and recreation of meaning through interpretation processes
during interaction with others. This means that humans are perceived as active agent in interaction and
meaning making in their everyday experiences. In other words, we construct our own understanding of
how we see and perceive the world through a continuous process of symbols and language via social
interaction.
Video Game Interaction Model (VGIM)
According to Tiryakioglu (2001), video games are by nature interactive as they require a two-way
communication process between the players responding to the game set of systems or elements and vice
versa. This reciprocal interaction resembles interpersonal communication which justifies the use of
symbolic interaction theory as it operates on three basic tenets: (1) need for interaction, (2)
interpretation, and (3) construction of reality. Moreover, the researcher also noted that psychological,
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sociological, and social factors of the players concurrently coexist in video game interaction which can
influence the development of players’ self-concept. Thus, VGIM also utilized the theoretical concepts
of the uses and gratifications models which emphasize the notion of individuals as “active audience”
who selects, defines, and interprets content or channels of mass media to gratify own gratifications.
Tiryakioglu (2001) further cited literature that need gratifications influence levels of engagement with
media during both pre- and post-exposure period, whereas engagement may then affect the degree to
fulfill their needs. Furthermore, exposure to media can influence one’s attitudes and beliefs regarding a
phenomenon.
Hence, synthesizing all that were said, VGIM links all possible factors in a temporal manner
within the scheme of interactive communication in relation to pre-, during, and post-exposure levels of
playing video games. These three phases are also linked to processes of interpretation, reality
construction, and need for interaction, which are then further connected with post-exposure
consequences namely social, psychological, and sociological structures of an individual. It should be
noted that each factor is influenced by the preceding or succeeding factors to a certain extent. Figure 1
illustrates the VGIM.
Figure 1. A Video Game Interaction Model. Adapted from “A Theoretical Study of the Interactive
Communication Process in Video Game Playing: A Symbolic Interactionist Approach”, by Tiryakioglu,
N, 2001. A Master’s Thesis from Western Kentucky University, United States.
Methodology
Participants
Five participants were recruited using purposive sampling technique based on two inclusion criteria:
(1) have played, heard, or seen video games with portrayals and narratives of mental illness, and (2)
aged between 18-25 years. The former criterion was necessary to gauge gaming experience specific to
mental illness portrayal.
Data Collection
Planning and execution of interviews were systematically guided using Interview Protocol Refinement,
IPR (Castillo-Montoya, 2016). This framework helped in improving the reliability of interview
procedures as instruments through a process of refinement with its rigorous steps. There are four phases
of IPR namely (1) verify interview questions align with research questions, (2) create an inquiry-based
conversation, (3) gather feedback on interview procedures, (4) pilot the interview. These four phases
ensures that the interview questions are congruent with the objectives of the study (Jones et al., 2014).
Hence, interview questions were piloted with three participants before conducting the actual research.
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Virtual semi-structured interviews were conducted via Google Meet and audio-recorded strictly
for transcription purposes with consent from the participants. Chosen interviewing method permitted
flexibility for the researcher to gather open-ended data exploring participant’s thoughts, feelings, and
beliefs regarding a topic through follow-up questions, prompts, and comments in a conversational
manner (Dejonckheere & Vaughn, 2019). Each participant was given a set of similar introductory
questions for demographic and rapport purposes. Subsequent questions were tailored depending on the
context of the games identified by the participants themselves. Notwithstanding, discussions revolved
mainly on participant’s observations and interpretations of portrayals and narratives, and how these
influenced their perception.
Data Analysis
Data was analyzed in two phases. Firstly, content analysis was conducted inductively using manifest
analysis approach as meanings i.e. participants’ observations and interpretations of portrayals and
narratives in video games are easily identified on the surface of the text (Kleinheksel et al., 2020).
Secondly, narrative analysis was employed using Polkinghorne’s paradigmatic narrative analysis
(Polkinghorne, 1995), identifying common themes across participants’ stories pertaining to the
influence of video games to mental illness knowledge and perception. Relationships among different
themes were then explored to uncover similarities or differences; exploring deeply on the influence of
portrayals and narratives towards players’ perception that prompted behavioral and attitude changes.
Research Findings
One out of five participants is female. All participants are Malaysian university students aged between
18 to 25. Interestingly, all started playing video games at a young age between 5 to 7 years old.
Furthermore, they spend at least a minimum of 2 hours playing daily on PC. Four out of five participants
described Role-Playing as their genre because of the depth in narrative and character development.
Motivation to play varied however. Two participants described playing as means to fill in the time
whereas three others play video games for the story and gameplay, social interaction, and relaxation
purposes. Thirteen prominent themes emerged out of content and narrative analyses.
Research Question 1: How are Mental Illness and its Context Portrayed in Video Games?
Sub research question 1. What are the player’s observations regarding portrayal of mental illness in
video games?
1. Significant use of settings. All participants attributed portrayal of mental illness significantly with
the use of specific settings. Participant Z described his experience as “traumatic” because of the horror
elements in exploring the asylum in Outlast:
If you play the game, you go through this asylum - like a private psychiatric hospital, you explore and see
news and other things about the patients and the treatments. I don’t know if it’s mental illness, but definitely
traumatic experience cause of all things portrayed in the game going to happen. The different atrocities and
patients becoming deranged because of it. That’s basically the plot.
Participant F immediately perceived mental illness because of the asylum in Edna & Harvey and
Unheard:
In Edna & Harvey, the protagonist and the game start in the asylum actually and she had this talking soft
toy rabbit. She does not remember why she is in the asylum, so she wants to break out and go home. So, the
entire game is basically her trying to carry out the plan by teaming out with other patients to break out.
Throughout the journey we learned that she’s not on good terms with her psychiatrist because she feels that
the psychiatrist is out to get her. Unheard took place in asylum too so you have the caretakers and patients
with different mental illnesses. All patients had either names or numbers.
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2. Narrative drive the portrayals forward. Participants perceived elements like use of story and plot,
and implementation of choices within the narrative helped drive the portrayal forward. Participant M
described being clueless at first. But as the story and plot progressed towards the end, the portrayal
became clearer:
Little Hope there’s a lot of cinematography with foreshadowing where they would put hints which are not
obviously clear but if you think about it they make a lot of sense as if leading to you to think that everything
is not real. They tell bit by bit like breadcrumbs with a huge bomb at the end, which then you may start to
perceive that - wait maybe this character is suffering from a mental illness. (….)
When asked to elaborate on a narrative element that enabled mental illness portrayal, Participant M
mentioned story and plot:
I feel like the overall story and plot of how everything flows could heavily influence the mental illness part.
Like in Little Hope, you don’t realize that everything is like a big plot twist until the very end where you
realize that this is something that happened all inside of the protagonist’s head where everything was not
real. Plot would be the heaviest influence.
Some games identified by the participants implemented choices in the narrative that can influence
the course of the story particularly the ending. This was the case for Participant F:
Game [Edna & Harvey] ends with two options either to rip off the rabbit and accept psychiatric help turning
herself into an emotionless human being or kill the psychiatrist and obtain your freedom. Similarly, in
Unheard it was revealed that the patient who had escaped is you [main character] and the detective who
was questioning you gave two options either to take (1) medications and get back to being calm and normal
or (2) take the ashtray on the table, attack the detective, and run.
Moreover, Participant I mentioned choices were prominent in his games:
Basically, Cyberpunk has this one particular point where you have to choose to either kill this, that guy that
way or kill yourself. Each option where you have to sacrifice someone you love. If you kill yourself, you
don’t sacrifice anyone except you. It’s like the developers had this in mind from the beginning. Choose to
sacrifice or kill yourself - it’s somber and makes it look like the character is very “depressing” like his
mental state is deteriorating every single hour of the game. Of course, the game have options but it gives
you just one real options through role-play.
3. Portrayal of characters. Participants mentioned portrayal through game characters as common,

especially in the context of appearance, behaviour, and personality changes. Participant I made an
interesting remark:
At the end [Witcher 3] like I said he had no more reasons to live. What happened in the last part where you
killed the person who killed the daughter - bear this mind he is a monster slayer with no feelings - so if you
throw 100 monsters, he’d kill each - but at the end he didn’t want to fight [anymore] but then game ended.
So, game left up to interpretation - but then he lost his daughter, lost his motivation and any reasons to fight.
Another example is Participant M where he immediately recognized mental illness portrayal

through sudden changes in character:
In Little Nightmare your character is an actual miniature human - not a dwarf. So, like when your friend
was captured she was taken to this place and became exceptionally large and very thin with long arms and
legs - like a stickman - which this character is overly attached to this one toy and she was hiding initially
and we as the main character was trying to get her out. She refused by being aggressive and would just
scream and attack you as if she just wants to be in her own world. I guess in character designs that just
portrays to me how mental illness can affect your overall.
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Sub research question 2. What are the player’s interpretations regarding portrayal of mental illness in
video games?
1. Perceived Mental Illness. Depression and Schizophrenia were found to be the two commonly
perceived disorders. Participants A, I, and Z identified depression. For example, Participant Z described:
Most of the games I interpret and observe as depression especially Ori. But Persona 5 has multiple like
depression, suicide and others.
Participant M and F interpreted Schizophrenia in their respective identified games. For instance,
Participant M explained:
Little Hope I’m assuming it could be schizophrenia, I guess. Because you’re just where everything was
actually just inside of your head in a way that nothing is there, but everything seemed very real like monsters
attacking, characters potentially getting hurt and even die by the monsters’ doings.
2. Stigmatizing elements. It seemed that stigmatizing elements were prominent on portrayal of

treatment. Participant Z described his interpretation with psychiatric patients becoming crazy and not
functioning in Outlast:
Like in Outlast they portray people with mental illness to be crazy - it reinforces people’s beliefs that those
with mental illness are not safe in society. So this may influence people not to seek help. It [medications]
makes patients become erratic. The game portrays as if the drugs that they give heighten patients’ mental
illness up to a point where they don’t function at all. It makes you think that drugs somehow can make mental
illnesses worse rather than better. (….) As if they [medications] are used to…to… arouse their anxiety or
paranoia… to make them crazier than they already are. That’s why the patients are portrayed as crazy
because of the drugs and psychological torture by the doctors.
Participant F elaborated that the choices at the end revolving medications were concerning:
Just like in Edna & Harvey where if she [Edna] chose not to take the medication, she’d be free from the
asylum. In Unheard, it’s the same except that you’d have to attack another person. It’s like these games
implied that not taking medications is the best. Even healthcare workers in the real world they do help
individuals with mental illness but in games, they are often shown as the antagonists trying to control the
characters in the game. This is bad because if you are already apprehensive about seeking help, this can
further reinforce your fear.
3. Varying levels of understanding. Depending on the game’s portrayal, participants had differing
levels of understanding gained either minimal to none or positive. Two participants associated minimal
to no understanding gained because of vague and unclear portrayals. For instance, Participant I
mentioned:
It doesn’t really contribute everything. Games aren't like the type to explain to you mental illness like a
lecture. They just touch the surface of that particular mental illness. If anything, maybe they dive slightly
deeper but in a sense that the story encompasses that mental illness issue thing. So other than that, it’s just
a surface.
Participant Z echoed similar statement but it inspired to research on his own:
It gives me a “doorway” to want to know more about the illnesses themselves. The games don’t tell you
everything. They just show you a part of the illness like how a person would see the world as. But I think that
every person will have the same way of looking especially in context of mental illnesses. It really inspires me
to look deeper and research on my own. To want to understand.
Three participants described playing as a beneficial experience to understanding of symptoms and

behaviour revolving mental illness. Participant F began to understand what it is like to have
schizophrenia:
Both games emphasize on auditory hallucinations and possible delusions. Based on these, I understood better
how real they could be for a schizophrenic because we don’t really see how these are as actual experiences.
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It’s a bit of a shock for me to perceive that everything that happened in both games, despite how real they
were, did not actually happened. I felt confused really. Like I was given a glimpse of how schizophrenia is
like, especially when they’re off medications.
Whereas, Participant A mentioned games did not contribute much knowledge as he has some level
of awareness. Instead, these games remind him to check on himself and others regularly for warning
signs:
It didn’t contribute as much like how the characters acted made me think “oh wait they’re depressed I did
not notice that?” or any instances of how depressed individuals they also do things apart from what I already
know. But these games remind me to check up on myself and other people like my friends like if they show
signs of depression. I don’t learn much from playing but they did influence me in this way.
Research Question 2: How do Video Game Players Perceive of Video Game Narratives as
Interactive Mediums to Promote Mental Illness Awareness?
Sub research question 1. What are the player’s observations regarding narratives as interactive
mediums to promote mental illness awareness?
1. Lacking details of mental illness. Participants described games often lack details and in-depth
explanations of mental illness. Instead, they are portrayed indirectly without sufficient information. For
instance, Participant A elaborated on lack of emphasis:
Definitely side story. I feel that these games do not use mental illness as the main theme but instead make
use of small parts of it such as persona 5 that did it indirectly. They’re all brief and indirect. Definitely
needs more emphasis because there are so many people who play video games especially among younger
generation so it would be good to make use of this to promote mental illness.
Furthermore, Participant F believed that mental illness are typically used as a theme but not the
focus of narrative:
Hmm it’s more like a theme rather than it being central. Like how you do see signs and symptoms, use of
mental asylums. But the games don’t prioritize mental illness.
Sub research question 2. What are the player’s interpretations regarding narratives as interactive
mediums to promote mental illness awareness?
1. Game to real-world relations. Interestingly, participants had varying interpretations of game

narratives to real-life context either they perceived similarities or differences in game to real world
relations. For instance, Participant A and M emphasized on individual differences, thus there are
differences between game and real life scenarios. Participant A explained:
In my opinion, definitely got differences, the human brain works in different ways right. So, I can’t assume
all people with mental illness portrayed in video games to be similar in real life. Some [in real life] may be
open, some secretive, some can seek help, some refuse to. There are many different circumstances or
situations so I can’t say it would be the same in real life. Unless… they make an algorithm in the game so
that every word that you choose to say will have different outcomes especially if you can interact with more
people with mental illness.
Whereas, Participant Z, F, and I assumed that game narratives are similar to real life. Participant Z
raised an interesting point:
I’d say it’s the same but not the impact. In real life if you talk about it but people may not have the mental
capacity to imagine. But in video games, they help visualize it for you so you can gather better
understanding. Because I think visualization leaves a more lasting impression than talking about it. So, in a
way, what you see in video games are sort of the same in real life but the impact you see [or experience] in
both are entirely different experience.
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Research Question 3: How do Video Game Players Perceive of Game Portrayals and Narratives
Influencing their Perception of Mental Illness Awareness?
Sub research question 1. What are the player’s observations on portrayal and narratives that influenced
their perception on mental illness awareness?
1. Negative emotional arousal. All participants described unpleasant feelings that arose from exposure
to portrayals, prominently anxiety and despair. For example, Participant Z described feeling anxious
being in the shoes of the character while navigating through the game’s narrative:
Anxiety for fractured minds because it really feels like you’re going through what the main character is
going through. Even seeing other characters speak gibberish does not help.
But Participant I despaired over the character’s loss and felt responsible of his narrative choices
which led to a perceived bad ending:
Witcher 3 a lot on very sad to think like the main character lost his daughter, which he eventually went for
the killer and in the end gets himself killed. Two reasons why I felt really sad. One was because of him dying
with no will to live at the end. Two I had the choice in the game for that not to happen. It’s kind of a choice
game, right? There’s a possibility of it not happening but it happened. So, I basically regretted because I
was given those choices, yet I did not choose the right ones.
2. Empathy improvement. Participants commonly described improvements of empathy; becoming

more “aware” of self and others. For instance, Participant A mentioned being more considerate of how
others feel:
It did make me become more aware that people can struggle with mental illness and I shouldn’t take things
for granted. I should be more considerate of how other people can feel rather than how I just see them as
they are.
Participant Z described being more cautious of generalization:
Made me realize that I can’t generalize a certain mental illness with certain symptoms and say that that
mental illness is associated with those set of symptoms. So, I became avoidance of generalization. It also
gives me insights towards some of the stuffs that people with mental illness go through.
Sub research question 2. What are the player’s interpretations on portrayal and narratives that
influenced their perception on mental illness awareness?
1. Social benefits. Participants interpreted exposure with social benefits; becoming more
accommodating of others. Participant F became more observant of nonverbal cues and less judgmental:
I’m more considerate of others and myself. It has also increased my sensitivity to nonverbal cues - more
observant like how a person react to certain things or situations. It serves as a reminder that people are
different, and we all have different views and experience things differently. I had a friend who was suicidal.
So based on the games I’ve played before, it did teach me that I need to know how to handle. Even if I could
not comprehend the struggle, it didn’t mean that I had to judge the person because that can worsen his
condition.
Participant M made an interesting comment:
In Little Hope, it has taught me that sometimes even small conversations could help change a person’s life
- no matter how brief. It could mean as something that someone else needs the most at that point in time. We
will never know.
2. Importance of coping in problematic game use. One out of five participants is aware of Internet
Gaming Disorder. Nonetheless, all participants perceived that video games can be triggering to an extent
and some elements can encourage problematic game use. Thus,, to cope participants mainly described
either expressing concerns through talking or distraction with a new hobby/activity. For example,
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Participant M emphasized talking can be helpful only if the individual wants to change if they are
addicted:
I would personally have a talk with them in terms of what they’re doing. I’m a strong believer than you
really can’t help someone if they don’t want to help themselves. So, I feel like I will only to an extent of
talking to them. Because for people who have tunnel vision in this case video games, I would talk to them
about it like their addiction, any potential issues - these are not really helping if they don’t want to make the
change themselves.
However, Participant A believed that playing another game or engaging in a new activity/hobby
with a friend may help:
Maybe I would get the person to play another game that is less addicting with me? Like I mentioned, we
often play video games because we have nothing better to do. Even if there are things to do, playing is always
at the back of our minds especially if you have been exposed for a long time. So maybe another way is to
actually find something better to do…like a hobby…or anything that can preoccupy the mind.
Participant Z justified Participant A’s statement:
(...) Because if you’re with a friend, you’re more likely to do that activity or hobby with a friend - like how I
picked up rope skipping. I’d also ask him to stop playing, invite him to go out and spend time together.
3. Motivation to play. Participants described elements in games can arouse varying motivations to
play. Thus, different motivation to play video games is likely to play a role in influencing one’s
perception or even lead to problematic game use. These are rewards and accomplishments and escapism
as mentioned by the participants. For instance, Participant I explained the need to achieve a sense of
completion and rewards:
One reason is because games in general gives you something to do - why do you need to and how you want
to do which they will give you a reward in a lot of ways where they give you a sense of completion of tasks.
Games that I play are very routinized because they are tasked to me. In a way I would want to do it because
if I don’t do, I may miss out on certain things which I will then regret. Also, some games that have gambling
elements where if you spend money and with a small probability you might get a jackpot. So, people spend
money and if you get a jackpot, you’ll get a great reward. Then, you’ll end up playing more.
Participant A justified further elaborated specific to game goals may influence one to be obsessed
with satisfaction:
The goals can influence too. Like in Persona 5, why I always play it when I’m free is because once I start, I
can’t stop. So, I need to finish the game. If not, I’d keep thinking or being bothered by it especially the story
because it is intriguing to me and I need to finish it. But honestly, one part of the game that makes the user
may become addicted is because you really want to get things that you are aiming for. If you don’t then you
won’t be satisfied.
However, Participant Z had a different opinion perceiving games as substitutes for social
interaction:
I think it’s because video games are like substitutes for social interaction. Humans crave for company and
if people are not comfortable with interacting outside, they do it in video games and somehow that satisfies
that, and they tend to want to do more. Just like meeting friends physically and wanting to do more.
On the other hand, Participant F and M have similar opinions of using video games as escapism.
For instance, Participant M mentioned:
I guess in terms of life, I feel like whenever someone lacks a clear goal in life where they used video games
as a complete escape from what they have to do. Video games in nature want you to stay as long as you can.
So, they put achievements, explicit scenes which some people might be particularly into.
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Participant F perceived that loneliness play a big role:
Loneliness also can impact one to retreat to playing video games more often, relying on it as means to escape
until you get people to hang out in the normal offline setting.
Discussion
Findings of this research have illustrated players’ perception on portrayal and narrative in video games
surrounding mental illness and how both elements influenced their awareness and understanding. It is
worrying that games still portray stigmatizing elements particularly on treatments and character’s
behaviour such as aggression which are commonly depicted in an asylum. An experimental study found
that the participants who watched stigmatizing portrayals reported more stigma than the control
participants who watched a sympathetic portrayal (Rubenking & Bracken, 2015). In other words, this
shows the need for portrayals of mental illness in media including games to be sensitive and empathetic
to reduce stigma; bringing positive societal impact because video games enable players to experience
direct contact of characters with mental illness. Research has implied that direct or indirect contact with
individuals having mental illness can be valuable at reducing stigma (Ferchaud et al., 2020).
Current findings also highlighted the importance of narrative and characters in video games as
effective elements of portrayals encouraging empathetic understanding. When players become involved
in the narrative of Hellblade from direct control of Senua who has psychosis, this prompted deep
connection with her thoughts, feelings, and actions (Ferchaud et al., 2020). Through identification of
her struggles, participants became more understanding of her condition; thus reducing stigmatizing
attitudes. As the authors noted, players incorporated such experience to their own self-concept. This
explains why participants in the present study reported narrative and characters as important aspects to
a game. Therefore, this provides another solution at reducing stigma or improving understanding using
video games, particularly using narrative elements that encourage transportation or immersion, and
empathetic portrayal of characters that promotes identification of self in their shoes.
Additionally, this research echoes participants’ opinions that there is a need for collaboration
between game developers, mental health professionals, and individuals with lived experience
particularly if there is a desire to include portrayals and elements of mental illness in commercial video
games. Through such team collaboration, games with focus on mental illness can be created with
sufficiently accurate and empathetic details which helps to promote understanding without sacrificing
interactivity or entertaining elements. Two examples are Hellblade: Senua’s Sacrifice and Debris. Both
games indicated that it is possible to utilize unique video game elements without portraying mental
illness negatively or threateningly to bring significant understanding of mental illness experience. It is
possible for commercial games to be used as anti-stigma intervention.
Every research is bound to have limitations. Firstly, sample characteristics are specific within
the age range of 18 to 25 years and are regular gamers who have been exposed to video games from a
relatively young age. Perhaps future research could explore other age groups and casual gamers for
more interesting comparisons.
Secondly, themes were generated within a relatively short period of time. Indeed, the quality of
theme development could be improved with more time and effort resources (Vaismoradi & Snelgrove,
2019). Third, there may have been unintended influences of researcher’s bias during interviews. Any
research design will struggle with bias or any possibility of distorting research outcomes due to
unintentional influences from both the researcher and the participants (Roller, 2012). For example, some
participants required further elaboration pertaining to more difficult questions. Consequently, some
responses were unrelated to the questions. Thus, the researcher had to provide prompts for the
participants who drifted away from the questions. Nonetheless, a pilot test was conducted prior to the
actual research to minimize any potential biases and leading questions.
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Conclusion
Interactive elements and narratives within video games permit mental illness to be portrayed positively
and empathically resembling that of a real-life experience. Through interactivity, video games can
facilitate better understanding towards individuals with mental health conditions as players can actively
control and interact with game elements and characters as if they are real. Thus, video games can be an
innovative approach to reduce stigma and misinformation of mental illness especially among the
younger generation if the portrayals and narratives are empathetic, have sufficient information to
promote understanding, and to a certain extent accurately depicted.
Acknowledgement
The corresponding author expresses his heartfelt gratitude to his supervisor, Dr Mimi Fitriana, and
lecturers; Ms Chan Li Chuin, Mdm Aina, Dr Asong, and Mdm Nabila for their generosity with time
and guidance in completing this research. Not to forget, participants who were willing to be interviewed
including others who were involved directly or indirectly.
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THE COMPARISON STUDY ON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH

OF EMERGING ADULT WITH DIFFERENT LEVELS OF AUTISM
SPECTRUM QUOTIENT
William Hoi Wei Yuan*, Siah Poh Chua, Low Sew Kim, Gan Su Wan,
Walton Wider
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kampar, Perak, Malaysia.
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: williamhoiweiyuan@hotmail.com)
ABSTRACT
Conducting the comparison study on the psychological health of emerging adult with different levels of autism
spectrum quotient. The purpose of this study is to examine any significant difference among emerging adult with
different levels of autism spectrum quotient in term of stress, anxiety and depression which are vital in mental
health. A total of 605 undergraduate students from 9 universities (West and East Malaysia) were recruited by
using purposive sampling method in the study. They were asked to fill in 2 measurements: the Autism spectrum
Quotient (AQ) and Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21). The result of showed that there are
significant differences in stress, anxiety and depression among the 4 levels (low, average, above average and very
high) of autism spectrum quotient (AQ). The results of this study suggested that a certain number of
undergraduates who are high in AQ have not been identified in the early stage and thus no appropriate helps have
been given to them. The results also showed that the psychological health of this group of undergraduates have
been affected while comparing to other groups of undergraduates. It is suggested that actions should be taken by
the government to early identify these potential students of AQ and to provide suitable helps to reduce the negative
impacts on their psychological health. In future, it can further extend this study to include secondary or primary
students in Malaysia.
Keywords: Autism, Emerging Adults, Undergraduates Psychological Health, Social Psychology
Introduction
Autism has been characterized by impairments in social interaction, impairments in communication and
restricted, repetitive or stereotyped behavior (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Autism
research normally involves different diagnosis criteria which include behaviours, living factors, cultural
factors and other related factors that place individuals with different clinical diagnosis under the concept
of autism (Blacher & Christensen, 2011).
In the 1960s, autism researchers published more than 50 quantitative studies which provided
estimates of autism cases in the general populations (Blaxill, 2004). Apparently, there has been an
increase in the diagnosis of autism among the adults (Kogan et al., 2009). Researchers developed
interest to conduct quantitative research among undergraduates with different Autism Spectrum
Quotient (AQ) levels in psychological health (stress, anxiety and depression) among the general
population (Bellini, 2004; Rosbrook & Whittingham, 2009).
The Autism spectrum Quotient was developed due to the lack of quantitative instruments in
assessing suspected cases of autism among adolescents in the general population. For example, when
an individual has equally or more than 32 out of 50 such traits in the score of autism spectrum quotient,
the individual is considered to be highly suspected to be autistic. Besides, the instrument is able to detect
different levels of autism spectrum quotient among the emerging adults in the general population
(Baron-Cohen et al., 2006).
Autistic individual with different levels of AQ showed different behaviours when facing
stressors (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Wakabayashi et al., 2006; Suzuki et al., 2020). The results of the
instrument are also impressive and suggested the AQ might serve as an important role in understanding
the autistic traits among emerging adults (Hursts et al., 2007; Hoi et al., 2019).
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Autism and psychological health actually involve a reaction focused changing psychological
health levels within the context of an unfavourable personal environment (Lazarus, 1993). For instance,
imbalanced psychological health levels such as stress, anxiety and depression are the most frequent
comorbidity disorder among the high level of autistic individual (Ghaziuddin & Zafar, 2008).
Psychological health is a functionary system which includes various factors, such as daily life incidents,
peer support, cultural factors, and reaction on physical (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). It is encouraged
to conduct more research in this area as the manifestation of stress, anxiety and depression in the
emerging adulthood with autism is not firm and clear (Ainsworth et al., 2020)
In Malaysia the lack of mental health professional and culturally suitable instruments make it
difficult to identify autism among children and adolescents (Jasni Dolah et al., 2011); Revathi
Murugappan, 2019). Additionally, due to the low awareness of autism, many people have no
constructive knowledge on individual with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and the potential effects
on psychological health (Orsmond & Kuo, 2011). Autism is widely recognized throughout the world
(Levy & Perry, 2011). However, the diagnostic criteria of autistic disorder and quantitative studies are
predominantly conducted in the West (Freeth et al., 2013).
In general, the findings of this research will provide the public to better informed on the
psychological health conditions among different levels of AQ and enabling the community to
understand the impacts from psychological health.
Research Questions
Below are the research questions for this research:
RQ1: Is there any significant difference in stress among undergraduate with different levels of AQ.
RQ2: Is there any significant difference in anxiety among undergraduate with different levels of AQ.
RQ3: Is there any significant difference in depression among undergraduate with different levels of
AQ.
Literature Review
In Malaysia, there is no actual number of diagnosed mental health cases included ASD from children
till adulthood and this might causes suspicious case within the community (Murad, 2019).
Psychological health problems including stress, anxiety and depression are common among the autistic
individual (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995; Baron Cohen et al, 2001). Individuals with autism experience
a variety of traits of unstable psychological health symptoms, such as low self-esteem, physiological
arousal and panic (Bellini, 2006; Ghaziuddin et al, 2002). Depression and low self-esteem can often
happen among the autistic adolescents due to loneliness and isolation. Stress, anxiety and depression
disorders must be treated as mental health issues in the society, not just a feature of the disability, as it
can bring major effect on the development of autistic traits and coping abilities among the autistic
emerging adult. Researches found out that autistic emerging adult identified a series of coping choices
for living and anxiety, including entertaining, relaxing, and exercising, but there is lack of research
literature to support these statements (Trembath,et al,, 2012).
Lytle and Todd (2009) mentioned that autistic individuals with higher levels of stress will not
be able to cope with the problem easily compared to the people who have normal intelligence, as it will
lead to anxiety and depression. According to the American Psychiatric Association (2013), there is a
correlation between social anxiety and autism where individuals with high levels of autistic traits will
avoid social situations because of a lack of interest on social relationship.
Individuals with social phobia generally have an interest on peer relationship but often lack the
necessary skills to interact effectively; this eventually causes the individuals being unable to develop
social interaction with the peers (Bellini, 2004). Furthermore, it is important for autistic individual to
identify the most stressful areas of daily living, as greater the stress and anxiety level, the less likely
they are to cope and function successfully (Helverschou & Martinsen, 2010).
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Stress, anxiety and depression are common in autistic adolescents (Tantam, 2000). This
problem is further aggravated due to the lack of knowledge about the nature of their daily experiences
and coping strategies which are used to cope with their reported psychological health levels (Trembath
et al., 2012; Taylor et al., 2019). Autism is an invisible handicap, because with autistic traits look like
normal students in class (Shtayermman, 2007).
Combination of stress, anxiety and depression, makes it difficult for youths with autism to
understand how they feel in a situation (Oltmanns & Emery, 2004; Wong et al., 2021). It is important
that those who work and their ability to live with these children and youths to understand their
psychological health level and help them to cope with the problem; self-awareness of autism must be
promoted in the individuals who have autism and depression issues, as early intervention can assist
them to overcome the hectic situation (Carver, 1997; Myles, 2003).
In a typical development of autistic individual, there is always a significant relationship

between development traits of psychological health such as stress, anxiety and depression (Tantam,
2000). Stressor can be in the form of loss, threat and challenges (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Trembath
et al (2012) mentioned that a review of research related to the transition from adolescence to adulthood
with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is provided to give in-depth studies into the transition process
and help identify intervention to assist the autistic individuals. The crucial step to develop effective
solutions and coping strategies are to understand the phenomenology of stress, anxiety and depression
among individuals with autism.
Methodology
Participants
This research recruited a total of 605 participants and undergraduates from nine universities in
Malaysia. It showed that 18 % were from ages 18-19, 37.7 % from ages 20-21, 50.9% from ages 22-23,
7.3% from ages 24-25 and 1.2 % from those older than 25 years old.
Instruments
The questionnaires used along with the demographic data are the Autism spectrum Quotient (AQ) and
the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21).
Autism spectrum Quotient (AQ)

The “Autism spectrum Quotient (AQ)”; is a standardized self-report measurement. It is designed to
measure the levels to which adolescents with normal intelligence have the traits associated with autism
spectrum. It comprises 50 questions for the measurement (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).
The purpose for the measurement is to determine the extent of autism traits in normal intelligence
people. Approximately half the items were worded to produce a “disagree” response, and half an
“agree” response, in a high scoring person with autism. The overall scoring of the tools are categorized
into four scoring categories, for example, 0-10 is low, 11-22 is average, 23-31 is above average and 32-
50 is very high (in the clinical setting, most people with Asperger of high functioning autism score
about 32-35) and 50 is the maximum score of the “Autism spectrum Quotient”, but few people scored
the optimum score of 50 (Baron-Cohen, et al ,2001).
“Autism spectrum Quotient (AQ)” is validated and shows strong supportive statement on the
construct and discriminant validity (Hoi et al, 2019; Baron-Cohen et al, 2001; Woodbury-Smith et al,
2005). The “Autism spectrum Quotient (AQ) scale had been translated into different version languages
mainly, Mandarin, Spanish, French and Japanese. It can actually validate and is able to reveal the
suspected cases of autism among the undergraduates (Wakabayashi et al., 2006). For the reliability
score, it reported a coefficient alpha (0.82) for the “Autism spectrum Quotient (AQ)” (Hursts, 2008). In
this research, the Cronbach alpha score for the autism spectrum quotient is 0.78.
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Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21)

The Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-(DASS-21) is a set of three independent self-report scales
which are specifically designed to measure the negative emotional states of stress, anxiety and
depression. It is a 4 point Likert scale ranging from 0 (Never) to 3 (Almost Always). Each of the three
DASS-21 scales contains 7 items. Each of the scale is independent and sum up the total score of the 7
items by multiplying 2 to get the final score (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). Besides, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21) are specifically designed to discriminate effectively between the
three distinct states of negative emotionality in adolescents and adults (Henry & Crawford, 2005).
The Stress scale (items 1, 6, 8, 11, 12, 14, 18) assesses difficulty in relaxing, nervous arousal and
impatience. The Anxiety scale assesses state of anxiety, panic attack and experience of anxiety effect
(items 2, 4, 7, 9, 15, 19, 20).The Depression scale is to measure the states of hopelessness, devaluation
of life and lack of interest of the individual (items 3, 5, 10, 13, 16, 17, 21). The scores for Depression,
Anxiety and Stress are calculated by summing the scores for each of the scale (Lovibond & Lovibond,
1995).
The reliability scores of the DASS-21 were estimated using Cronbach alpha and it showed a
good reliabilities scores, 0.88 for the Depression scale, 0.82 for the Anxiety scale, 0.90 for the Stress
scale, and 0.93 for the total scale. DASS-21 is for the use in both clinical and community settings. This
tool had also been translated and validated in other languages including Chinese, Malay, Italian, and
Spanish. It was validated as it revealed the psychological health level; the measurement is adaptable in
the South East Asia context and it also showed strong support on the convergent and discriminant
validity (Henry & Crawford, 2005; Tran et al., 2013).
In this research, the Cronbach alpha for the overall measurement is 0.93. For stress scale (7 items), the
Cronbach alpha is 0.81, anxiety scale (7 items) is 0.79 and depression scales (7 items) is 0.86. Thus, it
showed acceptable Cronbach alpha scores in this research.
Procedures
First of all, 605 set of questionnaires were prepared and distributed to the participants. Samples were
recruited by using purposive sampling method, which is a type of non-probability sampling in which
the researcher selects specific samples for a study in order to ensure that the samples will have certain
traits relevant to the study (Shaughnessy et al, 2009). The participants were contacted through the peers
who the researcher identified in nine different universities located in both West and East Malaysia.
During the data collection, the researcher led by the peers from each of the university to collect the data
in the canteen. Reason to choose in the canteen, as more undergraduates gathered in this location. All
the questionnaires were printed in A4 size and with instructions on answering the question. During the
recruitment period, the participants needed to be undergraduates in the university before being recruited
as the respondents in this research. This is to fulfil the basic requirement in this research in which the
research targeted group is only undergraduates.
The questionnaire was divided into two sections with 5 pages, there are section A which is on
page 1, section B which is on page 2,3 and 4. Each participant was asked to read the instruction and
complete the survey form. The time to complete the survey was 15 minutes for each participant.
Data Analysis
After the data collection, a series of computations were carried out. All the raw data were being keyed
into the Statistical Techniques for Social Science (SPSS) version 20 and the data was analysed by using
descriptive statistical and inferential statistical techniques. Descriptive statistical technique was used to
describe the demography information. Besides, the ONE WAY ANOVA, an inferential statistical
technique was used to analyse different levels of autism spectrum quotient among undergraduates in
stress, anxiety and depression.
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Findings & Analysis
Autism and Stress

The research hypothesis for this research question was to test if there is any significant difference in
stress among undergraduates with the different levels of AQ. The null hypothesis examined if there is
no significant difference in stress among the undergraduates with the different levels of AQ.
The result of the ONE WAY ANOVA shows that there is significant difference among the
undergraduates in the different levels of AQ in stress, F (3,601) = 39.92, p=0.001. Thus, the null
hypothesis is rejected. The Post hoc comparisons using the Scheffe test indicated that the mean score
in stress for the undergraduates with very high levels of AQ (M=25.92, SD=9.97). The score showed
significant difference with the undergraduates in the low levels AQ (M=15.81, SD=8.30), p=0.001, the
average level autism quotient (M=14.98, SD=7.76), p=0.001 and the above average autism quotient
(M=19.17, SD=8.00), p=0.001. It also showed significant difference among the undergraduates in the
average and above average level of AQ, p=0.001.
However, for the undergraduates in the low level of AQ, there is no significant difference with
undergraduates in the average level of AQ, p=0.96, and the above average level of AQ, p=0.21
Autism and Anxiety
The research hypothesis for this research question was to test if there is any significant difference in the
anxiety levels among the undergraduates with different levels of AQ. The null hypothesis shows if there
is no significant difference in the anxiety level among the undergraduates with different levels of AQ.
The result of the ONE WAY ANOVA shows that there is a significant difference among undergraduates
in the different levels of AQ in anxiety, F (3,601) = 46.61, p=0.001. Thus, the null hypothesis is rejected.
The Post hoc comparisons using the Scheffe test indicates that the mean score for the undergraduates
in the very high level of AQ (M=26.29, SD=8.90) have significant difference with undergraduates in
the low level of AQ (M=15.75, SD=9.22) , p=0.001, the average level of autism spectrum quotient
(M=14.31, SD=8.06) , p=0.001 and the above average level of AQ (M=18.97, SD=7.83), p= 0.001. Also,
it showed significant difference between undergraduates in the average and the above average level of
AQ, p=0.001. However, for undergraduates in the low level of AQ, it showed no significant difference
with average level of AQ, p=0.82 and the above average level of AQ, p=0.23.
Autism and Depression
The research hypothesis for this research question is to test if there any significant difference in
depression among the undergraduates with different levels of AQ. The null hypothesis to examine if
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Table 1
Source table for Scheffe Test Comparison for Stress, Anxiety and Depression
ASQ Low Average Above Very High Variance Post-hoc comparison
(n=32) (n=268) Average (n=75) (Scheffe test)
(n=230)
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD F P
Stress 15.81 8.31 14.98 7.76 19.17 8.00 25.92 9.98 39.92 0.001 Low-Very
High**
Average-
Above
Average**
Average-
Very
High**
Very
High-
Above
Average**
Anxiety 15.75 9.22 14.31 8.06 18.97 7.83 26.29 8.90 46.61 0.001 Low-Very
High**
Average-
Above
Average**
Average-
Very
High**
Very
High-
Above
Average**
Depression 14/06 8.73 12.35 8.43 16.70 9.45 24.74 10.30 37.80 0.001 Low-
Very
High**
Average-
Above
Average**
Average-
Very
High**
Above
Average-
Very
High**
Note: Significant level at **p < .001

there is no significant difference in depression among the undergraduates with different levels of AQ.
The result of the ONE WAY ANOVA shows that there is significant difference among undergraduates in
the different levels of AQ in depression, F (3,601) = 37.80, p=0.001. Thus, the null hypothesis is
rejected. The Post hoc comparisons using the Scheffe test indicated that the mean score for
undergraduates in the very high level AQ (M= 24.74, SD=10.30) showed significant difference with the
undergraduates in the low level AQ (M=14.06, SD=8.73), p=0.001, the average level (M=12.35,
SD=8.43), p=0.001 and the above average level of AQ (M=16.70., SD=9.45), p=0.001. It also showed
significant difference between the undergraduates in the average and above average level of AQ,
p=0.001. However, for undergraduates in the low level of AQ, it showed no significant difference with
undergraduates in the average level of AQ, p=0.80, and the above average level of AQ, p=0.49.
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Discussion
AQ and Psychological Health
In a previous study, Grondhuis and Aman (2012) mentioned higher stress, anxiety and depression are
most common comorbid condition in ASD individual. Bhasin, Sharma and Saini (2010) observed the
similar findings by examining psychological health problem like high levels of stress, anxiety and
depression are common during emerging adulthood, especially adolescents with mental disorder like
autism. Importantly, the findings from this research are consistent with these studies.
Firstly, the significance of this study maybe due to the autistic undergraduates who face
challenges in the study environment and behave differently (Levine et al., 2011). In this research,
undergraduates with very high level of autistic traits might not able to handle challenge, and end up
easily get stressed, anxious and depressed. The significance of the finding may be due to autistic
undergraduates who have lower self-esteem personality traits. Studies indicated that autistic individual
with lower self-esteem behaviour contributed to stress, anxiety and depression (Hoi et al, 2019). For
instance, undergraduates with very high level of autistic traits might show stereotype behaviours like
anti-social personality traits (Lytle & Todd, 2009). The problem caused by psychological health must
not be neglected especially on autistic, as it can affect the individual development (White et al., 2009).
This may cause them to feel anxious and stressful when they do not get the meaning of what other
people say. Also, autistic undergraduates face challenges through interaction with peers.
Undergraduates with very high level of autistic traits are not able communicate well with peers and
without proper interaction the behaviour and social life development is affected.
Next, the significance of this study might be due to autistic undergraduates do not establish well
in coping skills on stress, anxiety and depression level (Rosbrook & Whittingham, 2009). For example
in this research, without proper emotion regulation, undergraduates with very high level of autistic traits
might not be able to control their emotion when they face challenges in their working environment and
start to develop depression. Undergraduates with very high levels of autistic traits easily develop
depression in their daily life. Ghaziuddin et al. (2002) arrived at similar findings that adolescents with
higher autistic traits have higher stress, anxiety and depression level.
Psychological health conditions must be controlled and maintained at a healthy level as it can
assist the autistic undergraduates to have better quality of life style and cope with the problem (Bellini,
2006). It must be recognized by the community and provided to the autistic adolescents when there is a
need to overcome the disability. Importantly, in this research the three dimensions of psychological
health include stress, anxiety and depression which showed significant differences at different levels of
autism spectrum quotient.
Limitations
In this research, the researcher did not consider cultural factors as one of the research objectives. In the
multicultural societies, cultural factor might be one of the fields which need to be explored, this might
result in the research missing some of the important factors in the cultural perspectives. Besides, this
research only includes participants from one age group (18-25) of undergraduates, thus the research
findings are related to only one age group.
In the non-probability sampling method, the limitation for this survey technique did not permit
the researcher to adopt and generalize the result on people with high autistic condition in the Malaysia
context. This technique also caused the researcher inability to recruit equal number of participants for
different groups of autism spectrum quotient among the undergraduates.
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Recommendations
The current research can be improved in future. At first, researchers can include participants from
different age groups, so that it is not only focuses on undergraduates, but also people from different
developmental stages. Researchers can include participants from primary and secondary school in
future research, the researcher believes that there are suspected cases of autism in schools too.
Eventually this will allow researchers get more information on the autism traits from different spectrum
of society and more empirical studies to carry out to enhance the awareness of autism among people.
The results of this research show that there are suspected cases of autism among the undergraduates
who are facing negative psychological health development. Hence, policy makers and the government
agencies can actually set up special classes for the autistic undergraduates. Sufficient knowledge in
handling stressors and reducing stereotyped behaviours among the autistic undergraduates is important,
as imbalanced psychological health incidents have major effects on psychological condition (Luo &
Wang, 2008).
Besides, based on this research, the government can conduct more autism awareness
campaigns by providing autism information to the public. From the campaign, people will be able to
interact with the professionals from autism field and develop better concept on dealing with mental
disorders. In future, the people will be able to know more about autism and conduct more related
researches which can contribute to the society.
Conclusion
The finding shows that there are hidden cases of autism among the undergraduates. The result of this
research is also consistent with previous research which indicated significant difference in stress,
anxiety and depression on different levels of AQ among undergraduates. However, one research
hypothesis did not meet the study expectation as it showed no significant difference in emotion-focused
coping strategies on different levels of AQ among undergraduates.
Next, in the psychometric properties of AQ it might not serve as the clinical diagnostic tools
for autism, but it reveals hidden autistic hidden cases in the general population of undergraduates.
However, comparison of different levels of AQ actually shows that there are differences in
psychological health levels. The instruments in this research, AQ and Depression, Anxiety and Stress
Scale (DASS-21)” showed a good reliability score and it is adaptable in the Malaysian context.
Acknowledgements
The researchers would like to convey deepest gratitude to the participant who join in this research.
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CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF FRIENDSHIP DURING COVID-19 IN

SABAH, MALAYSIA: A PRELIMINARY STUDY
Wong Hoi Yan & Walton Wider
INTI International University
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: walton.wider@newinti.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The Movement Control Order (MCO) imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic to halt the progression of the
disease, has caused feelings of isolation and a lack of social connection. This preliminary study aims to examine
the changing landscape of friendship during COVID-19 in Malaysia. There are two dimensions of friendship,
namely, wanting a wide network of friends, and motivation to make new friends. This study also examines the
effects of these two dimensions according to demographic segmentation (gender, education level, and relationship
status). Data were collected online from 36 respondents. The preliminary results showed that the mean values for
wanting a wide network of friends and motivation to make new friends were 5.10 and 4.78 respectively, which
indicates moderate levels. In addition, all demographic variables did not show significant effects on preferences
towards either of these dimensions. This study contributes to the enrichment of early views of friendship during
COVID-19, and therefore, makes it important to further explore the subject with more respondents.
Keywords: Gender, education level, relationship status, friendship, COVID-19, Malaysia
In December 2019, a respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic broke out in

Wuhan, Hubei Province, China, and quickly spread throughout the world. The World Health
Organization (WHO) has named this disease as COVID-19 (Elengoe, 2020). In Malaysia, a "Movement
Control Order" was imposed on the 18th of March 2020, which was aimed at preventing the virus
spread, limiting the virus' growth and preventing contact with those patients infected with COVID-19.
Infected patients were quarantined, and social distancing was enforced (Okruszek et al., 2020). The
government has prohibited people from travelling to neighboring states or COVID-19-affected areas
since 18th March 2020. All the MCO restrictions and social distancing imposed have a significant
impact on the mental health and general well-being of the public, increasing the risk of dying due to
inactivity, obesity, and substance addiction (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015). The COVID-19 impact on
people's mental health is starting to get overwhelming. The suffering produced by loss of income and
job opportunities extensively is compounded by social isolation, fear of infection, and the loss of family
members (Sundarasen et al.,2020). Furthermore, physical distancing has been linked to negative health
effects (Ellis et al.,2020). As a result, social separation not only puts human interaction to the test, but
it also has negative consequences such as dread, tension, grief, and depression (Shanmugam et al.,2020).
When studying the impact of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, numerous researchers
have highlighted the necessity of examining feelings of loneliness (Luchetti et al., 2020). Loneliness
levels have risen since the onset of the pandemic and research shows that chronically lonely people
remain lonely, whereas those who have a high probability of becoming lonely because of the COVID-
19 pandemic are young people and those who are socially isolated (Hamermesh, 2020). Friendship
becomes even more pertinent as pandemic-related constraints, such as social isolation, distancing and
increasing feelings of loneliness (Lippke et al., 2021), make it more difficult to develop and sustain
friendships (Sundarasen et al.,2020).
Background of Study
People often use the term "friend" to refer to the many people with whom they maintain relationships
in their everyday lives, such as close acquaintances, family members, spouses, or colleagues.
Friendships are distinct from familial ties in that we choose to enter them ourselves. They also lack
formal structure, unlike other voluntary connections such as marriages and intimate relationships.
People would not go a few months without speaking or seeing their families but might spend a long
time without communicating with or seeing a friend (Wrzus et al., 2017). MCO has forced the
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Malaysian people to live in social isolation for a long period of time which makes gatherings with
friends harder than usual. Measures such as lockdowns, tight isolation, social distancing, and emergency
remote teachings have been put in place predominantly to control the COVID-19 epidemic in Malaysia.
(Sundarasen et al., 2020). The unprecedented restrictions have drastically impacted people's lifestyles
and social ties, resulting in high levels of emotional anxiety as well as the worry about contracting the
virus. According to Ayers et al. (2021), older people are less likely to say they intend to establish more
friendships during the epidemic. Older women have reported less loneliness overall as compared with
younger groups. Although the loneliness level of older adults was higher at the start of the pandemic, it
leveled off as stay-at-home guidelines were instituted (Luchetti et al., 2020). Information acquisition
goals become less significant as people reach middle adulthood and later in life, whereas emotion-
controlled goals get increasingly essential when the remaining years of life are believed to be dwindling.
People then concentrate on close relationships, including close friends, who they believe can help
regulate their emotions by providing pleasurable interactions. Furthermore, work and family obligations
may limit available time and resources, causing people to select friends from their larger social
networks. As a result, the number of friends and the duration of time spent with them declines. Women
of all ages are more outspoken in their friendships than men, displaying greater empathy and generosity.
Men show increased caring and attentiveness in friendship with age, whereas women show more
patience and less confrontation with their friends as they grew older (Fox et al., 1985). Respondents
with high levels of life satisfaction, contentment, and self-esteem, according to Nguyen et al. (2016),
have more frequent contact with outside connections. In addition, respondents indicate a high level of
subjective intimacy and interaction with their friends, while older people are less eager to establish new
friendships and are lonelier, according to this study. The drastic changes in the landscape of friendship
lead to a need to study more deeply the subject of friendship during the COVID pandemic.
This study serves to replicate the study conducted by Ayers et al. (2021) previously on the
changing landscape of friendship in the pandemic that is COVID-19. Since the previous study was
based on an international sample, the results may not apply to established adults in Malaysia due to
cultural differences. Individualism and collectivism are perhaps the most researched aspects of cultural
diversity used to compare and contrast civilizations and microcultures. Individualistic cultures are those
that fall on one side of the continuum, while collectivistic cultures are those that fall on the other
(Kuiper, 2008).
Individualists embrace self-directed behavior and group independence and aim to maintain
distinct personal ideas and beliefs. Individualists have a tendency to regard themselves as unique from
others (Shulruf et al., 2007). In contrast, collectivism has been found to be positively associated to the
desires for affiliation and succorance, as well as abasement and nurturance, while being negatively
associated to the desires for deference, autonomy and heterosexuality (Hui & Villareal, 1989).
Americans, Europeans, the British and Irish are more individualistic and less collectivist than
Malaysians (Kuiper, 2008). Compared to Americans, Malaysians tend to be more collectivist and stay
with their families or friends. During lockdowns and social distancing, it is assumed that Malaysian will
feel lonelier than those from Western countries as a result. Hence, a replication of the study by Ayers
et al. (2021) but set in the Malaysian context may be able to broaden the generalization of the findings
or create new ones.
Research Objectives
1. To study the perception of wanting a wide network of friends among established adults during the
COVID-19 pandemic.
2. To study the perception of motivation to make new friends among established adults during the
COVID-19 pandemic.
3. To examine the preferences for wanting a wide network of friends and motivation to make new
friends according to demographic segmentation (gender, education level, and relationship status).
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Theoretical Underpinnings
The Theory of Established Adulthood proposed by Mehta et al. (2020) forms the foundation of this
research framework. Established adulthood is usually marked by intense focus and energy on
developmental activities such as forming lasting relationships, developing one's work, and, in some
cases, raising a family. Because of the convergence of various developmental objectives, established
adulthood is a distinct developmental stage that mixes stress from having to achieve various
expectations in job and relationships with enjoyment and optimism. Established adults are aged between
30 and 45, and most are completely immersed in job advancement while also fulfilling the
responsibilities of an intimate partnership and raising children. In terms of physical health, well-being,
cognitive development, and the career-and-care-crunch of competing work and family responsibilities,
established adulthood is a distinct developmental period because it blends tension from having to meet
various expectations in job and relationships with optimism and enjoyment (Mehta & Wilson, 2020).
The Clark University Poll of Established Adults by Arnett and Schwab (2014) reported that
majority of them have made a smooth transition to adulthood and are happy with the lives they have
created for themselves. They have found meaningful jobs and, for the most part, a "soul mate" with
whom to share their life. Those who have become parents enjoy the responsibility while also
acknowledging the sacrifices it entails. On the other hand, a number are dissatisfied with their
professional advancement and wish they had pursued additional education. Nonetheless, the aggregate
findings demonstrate that the majority of them are thriving and happy as adults. Arnett and Schwab
(2014) stated that majority (78%) of established adults who are currently married rely on their partners
for emotional support the most. Those who are unmarried, on the other hand, rely on friends (50%),
mothers (41%) and other relationships (9%). However, friendships have been disrupted by the
pandemic, which has made it more difficult to develop and sustain them due to MCO restrictions and
social distancing (Sundarasen et al., 2020). As Ayers et al. (2021) have mentioned, the older generation
lacks the motivation to create new friends and are more lonely during this pandemic, it is appropriate
to challenge this theory on the onset of the pandemic.
Preferences for a Wide Network of Friends and Motivation to Make New Friends
People in general aspire to be happy and strive to improve their quality of life. Having social
relationships is a trait that is thought to be a significant source of subjective well-being since well-being
is defined by individuals themselves. People in middle adulthood, which include established adults,
place more value on personal relationships, such as those with close friends, who are meant to help
them regulate their emotions through pleasant interactions. They are seen to spend less time on wide,
diverse social networks during and after middle adulthood, and instead narrow their networks to
connections with close persons, such as family members. Furthermore, work and family obligations
may limit available time and resources, causing people to select friends from their larger social
networks. As a result, the number of friends and the quantity of time spent with them decline. Being a
parent in particular, is linked to a reduction in friendship network. From young adulthood onwards, the
number of interactions with acquaintances and friends decline, while interaction frequency with family
members and intimacy with family and friends increases until middle adulthood is reached (Wrzus et
al., 2013). When people marry or have children, their friendships alter not simply in number but also in
quality. Friends and close friends are more significant for emotional needs (companionship, disclosure,
reassurance) and support (guidance and tangible help) among single persons than among married or
childless people (Carbery & Buhrmester, 1998). Men have more friends than women, but fewer deep
and loving friendships, according to Ahmad Pazil (2018). In comparison to men, women are more
discriminating in who they choose as close friends. They consider someone to be close and intimate not
only because of openness, intimate communication and mentality, but also because of shared activities
and friendship duration.
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If personality and heredity are excluded as explanatory factors, social connections are among
the most important predictors of well-being, according to Layard (2005). After evaluating a possible
friend's profile, Huang et al. (2020) discovered that the match between participants' ideal friend
preferences and attributes of a potential friend impacted friendship interest, but not after an encounter
(in-person or online) with the potential friend. People are more likely to rely on their values in indirect
rather than direct circumstances, as they are in the romantic domain. According to Lippke et al. (2021),
due to the pandemic, the necessity for a genuine connection was recognized. Staying in touch through
smartphones did not seem to satisfy these needs, since a phone call or online chat was not considered
meaningful. Talking on the phone did not provide the same level of intimacy as face-to-face
communication. It was said that it did not allow for the same expression of emotions and that it made
interactions feel less significant. Furthermore, there was a strong fear of being geographically isolated
from friends and family. COVID-19 crises and rising digitization in the form of online education among
young people included established adults working from home and media-facilitated communication.
Self-isolation and social alienation could be factors contributing to increased feelings of loneliness.
Lippke et al. (2021) also discovered that virtual communication did not appear to be as meaningful as
face-to-face communication. Older people made friends in several places: the neighbourhood, school,
job, and social gatherings with their partners. Males in midlife were more likely than women to use a
professional setting as a foundation for friendship (Fox et al.,1985). However, Ayers et al. (2021) found
that during the epidemic, older respondents were less likely to want to establish new friendships.
Durkheim's famous research on suicide examines the positive association between social
relationships and happiness (Durkheim, 1997). Homophily, or the tendency among people to associate
with others who are similar to them, can be seen in a number of social networks, from friendships to
marriages to commercial partnerships, and is dependent on a variety of factors such as race, age, gender,
religion, and education (Currarini et al., 2010). Friendship maintenance is influenced by individual
characteristics. Women's friendships, for example, are more delicate and tolerant than men's
connections (Benenson et al., 2009). Furthermore, women place a higher importance on face-to-face
and emotionally intimate connections, whereas men place a higher value on task-oriented and side-by-
side friendships. Friendships are also influenced by education and socioeconomic status (SES).
According to Dush (2005), education is linked to happiness in relationships, self-esteem, and general
life satisfaction. When people of high socioeconomic status spend time with others, they prefer to spend
it with friends (Bianchi & Vohs, 2016). This is because it is human nature to want to be among people
who have comparable educational attainment, social class, political views, and other similar qualities
(Launay & Dunbar, 2015).
From the discussions of related literature above, this study hypothesizes that:
H1: There are differences in wanting a wide network of friends according to demographic information
(gender, education level and relationship status).
H2: There are differences in motivation to make new friends according to demographic information
(gender, education level and relationship status).
Method
Participants
In our research, a total of 106 respondents were collected, and 72 of the total were excluded from our
sample for not being established adults. After filtering the sample, a total of 36 participants were found
to be eligible for further analysis. Approximately 77.8% of the respondents were in the age range of 30
to 39, and the remaining 16.7% in the age range of 40 to 49, and 5.6% were in the age range of 50 to
59. The analysis of the respondents’ information reveals that 52.8% respondents were female with the
remainder making up the male gender (47.2%). For relationship status, majority are single, at 47.2%,
followed by married (30.6%), in a relationship (16.7%), and widowed (5.6%). In terms of educational
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status, majority had a Bachelor’s Degree, at 41.7%, followed by Diploma, at 30.6%, Master’s Degree,
at 16.7% and Doctorate, at 11.1%.
Measures
Two existing instruments used in this study are wanting a wide network of friends and wanting to make
new friends, adapted from Ayers et al. (2021).
Wanting a wide network of friends (NOF) consists of 5 items, namely, “I enjoy making
casual friendships with many different people”, “I try to make new friends even if I can't be sure that I
will develop close friendships with all of them”, “I want to have a lot of different friendships with a lot
of different people, even if it means that I don't get to know all of them very well”, “In situations where
I am around new people, I often feel really motivated to make new friends” and “It doesn’t matter how
many friends I have, I am always looking to meet new people to talk to/hang out with”. A 7 point Likert
Scale is used, with 1= Strong Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= More or Less Disagree, 4= Undecided, 5=More
or Less Agree, 6= Agree, 7= Strongly Agree. The Cronbach’s Alpha value for this study is 0.872.
Wanting to make new friends (MNF) consists of 4 items, which are, “I often find myself
wishing I could be friends with lots of new people”, “I often find myself wishing I could get closer with
lots of new people”, “I often wish I could become friends with many of the people that I meet” and “I
often wish that others would introduce me to new people to talk to or hang out with”. A 7 point Likert
Scale is used, with 1= Strong Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= More or Less Disagree, 4= Undecided, 5=More
or Less Agree, 6= Agree, 7= Strongly Agree. The Cronbach’s Alpha value for this study is 0.889.
Procedure
The actual data collection was conducted using Google Form online via convenience sampling. Before
the respondents filled up the questionnaire, a short explanation on the research was provided on the first
page. The respondents were assured that their answers would remain confidential and the informed
consent form was shown to them. The required research criteria and the time allocated to answer the
questionnaire were also explained.
Results
Figure 1 reveals friends made by respondents in the past 12 months. Approximately 50% of established
adults made 10 or more friends during the pandemic (n = 18), 19.4% (n = 7) of respondents made 1 to
3 friends, 13.9% (n = 5) made 4 to 6 friends, 11.1% (n = 4) of respondents made 0 friends and 5.6% (n
= 2) of respondents made 7 to 9 friends in this pandemic.
Figure 1. Friendships Made in the Past 12 Months
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The mean and standard deviation values for all the study variables are presented in Table 2.
MNF had a mean value of 5.10, with a standard deviation of 1.35. Meanwhile, NOF had a mean value
of 4.78, with a standard deviation of 1.57. In summary, the mean and standard deviation for all two
variables in the study were found to be average (i.e. based upon the scale of 1 to 7. The mean scores
can be explained as: a mean score that is less than 3 is rated as low, a mean score between 3 and 5 is
rated as average, and a mean score greater than 7 is rated as high (Olum, 2004).
Table 2 shows the analysis of independent t-test which shows that the difference in scores
between the Male group (M = 5.79, SD = 1.20) and Female group (M = 5.38, SD = 1.44) in NOF is not
significant, t(33.828) = 1.342, p = 0.188. Other than that, the results also show that the difference in
scores between the Male group (M = 5.10, SD = 1.53) and Female group (M = 4.50, SD = 1.59) in MNF
is also not significant, t(33.817) = -1.160, p = 0.254.
A one-way between subjects ANOVA was conducted to compare the effect of relationship
status on NOF and MNF for single, in a relationship, married, and widowed. Based on Table 2, there
was no significant effect of relationship status on both NOF [F(3, 32) = 0.697, p = 0.561] and MNF
[F(3, 32) = 1.654, p = 0.197] at the p<.05 level for the four conditions. Meanwhile, we also examined
the effect of education level on NOF and MNF for Diploma, Bachelor’s Degree, Master’s Degree, and
Doctoral Degree. There was no significant effect of education level on both NOF [F(3, 32) = 0.321, p
= 0.810] and MNF [F(3, 32) = 0.334, p = 0.801] at the p<.05 level for the four conditions.
Discussion
According to the preliminary result, demographic characteristics were not a significant predictor of
wanting a wide network of friends (NOF) and motivation to make new friends (MNF) among
established adults in Sabah, Malaysia. Furthermore, our participants also indicated that despite MCO,
they were still able to develop new friendships as many of them had made more than 10 friends in the
past 12 months. COVID-19 affected all the people who felt lonelier and might encourage them to take
risks in order to keep or form new friendships. The COVID-19 epidemic has had a significant impact
on how people live their lives. When friendship collides with COVID-19, established adulthood may
relegate friendship to the bottom of the relationships hierarchy, with love partners, parents, and children
taking precedence. The occurrence of COVID-19 has resulted in the issuance of Movement Control
Orders (MCO), which are intended to slow the disease's progression but have frequently caused feelings
of isolation and a lack of social connection among established adults (Okruszek et al., 2020). The
epidemic has disturbed friendships, making it more difficult to form and maintain ties due to MCO and
social distancing (Sundarasen et al.,2020). Friendship is crucial because pandemic-induced stress may
lead to more in-person encounters to counteract the negative impacts of the virus, thus enhancing the
COVID-19 spread. To see if these correlations are epidemic specific, future research should replicate
this study with more participants.
The outcomes of our findings have enhanced the understanding of the concept of established
adulthood. Mehta et al. (2020) developed the idea, emphasising the significance of examining cultural
and sociological contexts while discussing issues like what are considered adult qualifications and the
development of established adulthood in different cultures. This research was conducted in Malaysia, a
country where collectivism is widely practiced, and has influenced the above-mentioned characteristics
(Nelson et al., 2004). As a result, the findings of our study provide not only additional factual data to
the theory, but also a new perspective on established adulthood in the Sabah context. Furthermore, our
research contributes to the existing empirical data and evidence on the topic of friendship among
Malaysian established adults, focusing on how COVID-19 influences friendship quality. However, only
a small and scarce amount of research has been done on this subject. As a result, it is reasonable to
conclude that the findings of the preliminary study cannot be generalized due to insufficient data. This
study contributes to the enrichment of early views of friendship during COVID-19, and therefore, makes
it important to further explore with more respondents. Guidelines designed to restrict the spread of
COVID-19 have had unanticipated negative mental health consequences, such as loneliness, and have
harmed many of the benefits of friendships (Ayers et al., 2021).
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Table 1
Demographic Information of Participants (N=34)
Frequency Percentage (%)
Age
30-39 28 77.8
40-49 6 16.7
50-59 2 5.6
Gender
Male 17 47.2
Female 19 52.8
Relationship Status
Single 17 47.2
In Relationship 6 16.7
Married 11 30.6
Widowed 2 5.6
Education Level
Diploma 11 30.6
Bachelor’s Degree 15 41.7
Master’s Degree 6 16.7
Doctoral Degree 4 11.1
Table 2
The analysis of independent t-test and one-way ANOVA
Predictor
Mean SD Sig.
Wanting a wide network of friends
Male 5.38 1.44 0.19
Female 4.79 1.20
Single 5.12 1.05 0.56
In a Relationship 4.97 1.27
Married 4.91 1.82
Widowed 6.40 0.85
Diploma 4.98 1.71 0.81
Bachelor’s Degree 5.36 1.22
Master’s Degree 4.87 0.97
Doctoral Degree 4.80 1.51
Wanting to make new friends
Male 4.50 1.59 0.25
Female 5.10 1.53
Single 5.16 1.27 0.20
In a Relationship 5.13 1.66
Married 3.93 1.81
Widowed 5.25 1.41
Diploma 4.68 2.16 0.80
Bachelor’s Degree 5.08 .1.14
Master’s Degree 4.50 1.41
Doctoral Degree 4.38 1.69
Conclusion
This preliminary study is beneficial, as early observations of the situation could be captured to
understand established adults’ normative patterns and personality differences towards friendship. It is
one thing to choose to live by ourselves or be alone, but when quarantine and sheltering-in-place are
enforced, it takes on a whole new dimension. The level of loneliness has risen since the onset of the
pandemic. The first wave of the pandemic was, in a sense, life-changing, and some of us might even
have enjoyed the sense of solitude we got from being at home. However, the line between solitude and
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loneliness has become somewhat blurred while living in isolation. It is obvious that nobody is immune
to loneliness, particularly during the pandemic. We all share the same concerns and daily challenges.
The benefits of social support during the pandemic should not be overlooked. Social support
within our own networks is an important factor for maintaining relationships. Making a concerted effort
to call or video chat with friends and family members on a regular basis is a priceless gift. The pandemic
is not a sprint, rather it’s a marathon. Although we are required to be physically and socially distant
from one another, it doesn’t mean we need to distance ourselves emotionally. Some days we might feel
completely alone and crave connection with others. And it is fine to acknowledge and share your
emotions with others, or you can be the friend who provides support and empathy and maintains social
connections to stave off loneliness.
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DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ASSESSMENT

PROGRAM FOR HOTEL RECEPTIONIST
Wong Ying Huan, Regina Yap Wan Teng, Nur Aisyah Binti Mohamad Firus,
Yusmariaziani Binti Yusri, Sumitra Francis a/p Thilagaratnam
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: yinghuan99@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Personnel assessment is a systematic approach that is used to gather information of potential employees in
selection and hiring, placement, promotion, referral, and retention decision making process. Hotel receptionists
are the main contact between hotel guests and hotel staff. It is crucial for hotel receptionists to maintain a positive
image of the hotel. This paper aims to propose a selection assessment program for hotel receptionist. Structured
interview and in-basket exercise were the two assessment methods proposed for the selection of hotel receptionist.
The assessment program designed was then tested on two candidates, Candidate 1 and 2. After that, the
performance of candidates was assessed and evaluated based on scoring rules developed. Due to COVID-19
pandemic, online video communication platform, Google Meet was used to conduct both assessments. Candidate
1 exhibited low level of performance in both structured interview and in-basket assessment. Whereas Candidate
2 has performed outstandingly in both assessments and is highly qualified for the job position. Finally, selection
and hiring decisions were made based on the results of both candidates in the assessment program.
Keywords: Personnel assessment, hotel receptionist, structured interview, in-basket exercise
Introduction
A hotel receptionist, also called a hotel front desk agent, is the main contact between the hotel guests
and hotel staffs. They greet anyone who enters the hotel, making them the first hotel employee the
guests encounter upon arrival at the hotel. Therefore, it is important for the hotel receptionist to set the
right tone when welcoming and communicating with the guests. Besides that, since they serve guests
hourly, they are more likely to work for long hours of shifts, especially during the weekends and
holidays.
Checking in and out the hotel guests are part of the hotel receptionists’ job description. The
whole process of checking in the guests includes recording their duration of stay, explaining hotel
amenities, offering room keys, and arranging luggage carrier. Moreover, checking out the guests
includes issuing payments for their stay, processing their debit or credit cards, and recording every
detail in the hotel’s computer system accurately. They are also in charge of handling the inquiries and
complaints of the hotel guests. When something happens, the hotel receptionists are to contact the
necessary departments, for instance housekeeping, maintenance, room service or transport bookings, to
fulfil the guests’ requests. They should provide accurate information on any of the guests’ questions,
such as places of interest, local entertainments, and directions. Such incidents are to be recorded by
them for future improvements of the hotel. Furthermore, the hotel receptionists handle emails, faxes,
and notes from the hotel management to stay updated on any changes happening in the hotel. Most
importantly, the hotel receptionists must ensure that every guest or visitor at the hotel behaves well.
They make sure the rules and policies of the hotel are practiced, thus maintaining a neat and orderly
reception area at the hotel (Best-Job-Interview.com, n.d.).
In order to become a hotel receptionist, candidates must achieve a minimum of the Sijil
Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) credit, plus be proficient in at least two languages: Bahasa Malaysia and
English. It would be better if the candidates have a certificate for their previous experience as hotel
receptionist. Other than that, they have to fulfil the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other factors
(KSAOs) required by a hotel receptionist. The candidates must have computer literacy, upon having
the knowledge on recording, processing payments, and using the Central Reservation System (CRS)
and Microsoft Office. They should have skills such as administration, organisation, and so on.
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Additionally, abilities like friendliness, communication, and active listening, and other abilities such as
negotiation skills, patience, and critical thinking are a plus point to becoming a hotel receptionist.
The objective of this paper is to propose an assessment program for the job position of hotel
receptionist. The assessment program designed in this case employed structured interview and in-basket
assessment to recruit potential hotel receptionist and making sure that the candidates are fit for the job.
Each assessment has scores and requirements for the job seeker of hotel receptionist to accomplish. Due
to the current situation of COVID-19 pandemic, the proposed assessment program focused on online
means through video-communication platform to carry out both structured interview and in-basket test
in order to comply with COVID-19 standard operating procedure (SOP). The designed assessments
were tested on two candidates and their performance was then scored based on predefined rating scales.
Structured Interview
A structured interview is a conversation where an interviewer asks an interviewee set questions in a

standardized order (Indeed Editorial Team, 2021). The interviewers then gather the candidate's replies
and grade them against a scoring system. The answers to the questions are frequently pre-determined
(closed-ended), but open-ended questions can be included in a structured interview. With that in mind,
the goal of employing this strategy is to ensure that each interview is provided with the exact same
questions in the exact same order. This means that responses can be accurately consolidated and that
comparisons across sample subgroups or survey periods can be conducted with certainty.
The structured interview in this situation is intended to assess the candidates' skills and abilities
in terms of performance as a hotel receptionist by asking a series of questions about their KSAOs.
As seen in Table 1, there are questions corresponding to five components to be assessed in this
structured interview that are important for the hotel receptionist position: versatility, negotiating skills,
computer literacy, teamwork, and friendliness. A combination of question types was also used in the
structured interview: organizational fit question, past-focused question or patterned behaviour
description interview (PBDI), and future-focused question or situational inquiry.
Administration Procedures
Throughout the interview procedure, two skilled interviewers will be responsible to administer the
interview process by recording and rating the candidates’ responses. The interviewers will then score
each component based on the candidate’s answer for respective question as well as the interview as a
whole.
Once the candidates have joined the online meeting room, they will be asked to turn on their
camera for the entire interview so the interviewers can observe the candidates from the other side. At
the onset of the interview, the candidates will be instructed on how the interview will progress. The
candidates will also be notified that the entire interviewing process will be taped for future use.
Candidates' responses will subsequently be evaluated based on job-related knowledge, skills,
and abilities for a hotel receptionist. The candidates’ answers are evaluated using standardized criteria
and specified scoring systems. Finally, each candidate will get a cumulative score from interviewers
based on established criteria.
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Table 1
List of Questions and Corresponding Components to be Measured in Structured Interview
Components Questions
Versatility What is your preferred working style? Do you prefer working alone or as part of a
team? What percentage of your time would you allocate to each, if given a choice?
Negotiation skills You have a frustrated hotel guest who said they have applied a discount on the
booked hotel room when there wasn’t one. What course of action do you use when
asked to negotiate a solution to the guests?
Computer literacy A guest might be in an urgent situation, and he needs to check in to the hotel
immediately before going to his errand right after. What is your typing speed when
using Microsoft related software or other software similar to it?
Teamwork Tell me about a time when you worked as a part of team to complete a difficult
task.
Friendliness A guest comes to the receptionist one night and asks you for direction to the nearest
restaurant from the hotel. What will your response be?
Scoring Rules
The key issues approach was used as the scoring technique in this assessment, which interviewers create
key issues for each part of a question that matches to the scoring key. The candidates' answers for each
component under respective question will be evaluated on a five-point scale ranging from 0 to 4. Table
2 is the scoring table for questions/components in structured interview.
The first question of organizational fit question type assesses versatility based on the
candidates’ responses on demonstrate their capability in working as a team and independently in their
job position. The candidate's versatility will be evaluated based on how well they can foster good
relationship with others and work together as a team, yet able to work independently towards goal
achievement in the workplace.
The second component is negotiation skills, which is measured through the use of future-
focused or situational question 2. The candidate's negotiation skills will be evaluated depending on how
effectively they comprehend and handle the given scenario. Their responses will demonstrate their
capacity to grasp the problem, and they will be required to provide the best solution to the question.
The third question (future-oriented or situational question) measures knowledge regarding their
computer literacy. The candidate's computer literacy here wishes to find out the typing speed of
candidates. It will be evaluated based on how quickly they type while communicating.
The candidates' teamwork was next examined utilizing the past focused fourth question. The
candidate will be evaluated based their replies about the situation and explain the task worked on,
specific in explaining the steps took to solve the problem with a team and state the outcome. In this
case, the candidates’ replies will demonstrate their particular job experience related to the skill of
teamwork.
The final component in this structured interview is to evaluate candidates' friendliness by asking
a future-focused or situational question (Question 5). The candidate's friendliness will be judged
depending on how he or she responds to the guest's inquiries. Their comments will demonstrate their
abilities to communicate with guests in a professional and polite manner.
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Table 2
Scoring Table for Structured Interview
Component Scoring
0 1 2 3 4
1.Versatility Unsatisfactory Poor Fair Good Excellent
Only able to Able to work in Able to partially Able to foster High ability to
either work in a a team or work foster good good foster good
team or work alone towards relationship and relationship and relationship and
alone goal can work in a can work in a can work
achievement team or work team yet can together as a
alone towards work team yet able to
goal independently work
achievement towards goal independently
achievement towards goal
achievement
2.Negotiation Unsatisfactory Poor Fair Good Excellent
skills
Unable to fully Able to Able to go along Able to Able to
understand the understand the with the understand the effectively
situation which scenario a little situation and scenario and understand the
can cause more bit and come come to an explain it situation and
disagreements out with a basic agreement in a appropriately then take action
solution neutral form for the benefit to settle it with
of both parties the best possible
outcome on
both sides
without any
arguments
3.Computer Unsatisfactory Poor Fair Good Excellent

literacy
Less than 40 Not less than 50 - 60 words More than 70 80 words and
words per 40 words per per minute with words per above per
minute with minute with decent minute with minute with
poor accuracy adequate information within perfect
for basic information accuracy for satisfactory information
written and accuracy for written and information accuracy for
verbal basic written verbal accuracy for written and
communication and verbal communication written and verbal
communication verbal communication
communication
4.Teamwork Unsatisfactory Poor Fair Good Excellent
Could not give Able to tell the Able to tell the Able to tell the Able to describe
an example of task and state task and state task, describe the situation and
a time worked the steps when the steps when the situation and tell the task
on a team/no working with working with explain the steps worked on,
relevant the team to the team to when working specific in
experience solve the solve the with the team to explaining the
problem with problem with tackle the steps took to
minimum minimum challenge solve the
assistance assistance problem with
the team and
state the
outcome. Focus
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on positivity
and action
5.Friendliness Unsatisfactory Poor Fair Good Excellent
Unable to Able to be Able to be Able to Able to

converse friendly while friendly while converse converse
professionally conveying little conveying basic professionally professionally
and be friendly information information and be friendly and be friendly
while with basic with good while conveying while conveying
conveying poor knowledge of knowledge of a fair amount of information in
amount of the area and the area and information detail with
information local local attractions. with excellent excellent
with poor attractions. knowledge of knowledge of
knowledge of the area and the area and
the area and local attractions. local attractions.
local
attractions.
Interpretation for the Final Score
The mean score obtained from the entire sum of scores for all questions of two interviewers is used to
indicate the candidates' final score. The ultimate score range for each candidate will be between 0 and
20. A final score of 6 or below indicates a poor level of overall performance in the interview, 7 to 13
shows a moderate level, and 14 or above shows a high level of overall performance in the structured
interview. Low overall performance (0 – 6) suggests that they lack the necessary knowledge, skills and
abilities to perform the work of a hotel receptionist. Furthermore, a moderate level of overall
performance (7 – 13) indicates that the applicants have the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities
needed for a hotel receptionist. Candidates with a high level of overall performance (14 – 20) suggests
that they already have appropriate level of knowledge, skills and abilities to work as a hotel receptionist
and are capable in using the knowledge, skills and abilities in the real job settings.
In-Basket Assessment
In-basket exercise is a standardized, behaviourally based exercise. It is a preparation strategy to

familiarize the employees about their work tasks and activities where various issues are kept in the “in
bin” of a job position. In this assessment, the candidates are confronted with issues and problems that
have been accumulated in the “in-basket” like the real work situation. The sample of in-basket items
include memos, emails, requests, reports, forms, messages, minutes, calls, and hand-written notes. The
items might be from management, supervisors, staff members, inmates, and other stakeholders (Arizona
Department of Corrections, Rehabilitation & Reentry, n.d).
In this case, the in-basket exercise is designed as an assessment tool for the selection of a hotel
receptionist. The objective of the in-basket exercise in the selection process is to assess the candidate’s
ability to perform a hotel receptionist’s job through a series of in-basket task items similar to the real
work situation.
There are three task items designed for a hotel receptionist, including an email, a memo, and a
phone call. The candidates are required to carry out the task items based their own judgement regarding
the priority of each task. Their actions will be observed by two trained evaluators throughout the
assessment process. The evaluators will rate on all factors or elements in each task item and also the in-
basket assessment as a whole. Time limit to complete all task items given is 25 minutes.
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Figure 1. Instructions for in-basket assessment.
Task Item 1: E-mail
The first task item is an email (as seen in Figure 2) with high urgency level which requires the candidates
to reply to an email received from the housekeeping department. Candidates will also be provided with
a simulated Central Reservation System (CRS) data table (Figure 3). The key issues in this email task
is to understand the content of email, check the CRS data, and reply to the email received. The
candidates are required to identify the important information in the email provided and act out
accordingly as if he or she is the hotel receptionist.
Key component to be measured this task item is the knowledge of candidates regarding the
CRS. This computer literacy is essential for a hotel receptionist to process the guest’s reservations and
bookings, and it is a very fundamental professional knowledge required for a hotel receptionist.
Task Item 2: Memorandum
Task item 2 is a memorandum (as seen in Figure 4) which has low urgency level that requires the
candidates to give feedback to the memo received. Candidates will also be provided with a simulated
weekly duty shift schedule of the hotel receptionists (Figure 5). The key issues in this task is to note the
details in the memo, check the schedule given and then reply to the memo received. Details that should
be noted include the deadline, recipient, and the time of each session. The candidates can choose any
method based on their creativity to provide relevant feedback to the memo such as hand-written note,
memo, or email.
The memo task item aims to assess communication skills and organisation skills of attention to
detail. Hotel receptionist need to possess excellent communication skills no matter it is oral or written
communication. They also need to always pay attention to details as most of the working content of this
job position is related to details. For example, dealing with the guest check-in and check-out
information, handling the payment process, and fulfilling the requests from guests or the management.
Task Item 3: Phone call
Task item 3 is a phone call task (as seen in Figure 6). This task has moderate urgency level. It requires
candidates to response to a phone call from a co-worker. The key issues in the phone call task is to focus
on and respond to what is being said by the co-worker, and complete the pending work task. The
candidates are anticipated to ask the co-worker about his pending work task and then make a phone call
to the client.
Two factors that will be measured through this task are the active listening and critical thinking
of candidates. A hotel receptionist always needs to deal with phone calls for room reservations or
inquiries, and also requests from guests. Hence, they need to possess the ability to focus completely on
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a speaker, understand their message, comprehend the information, and respond thoughtfully (Indeed
Editorial Team, 2021). Hotel receptionist always need to have critical thinking. Besides, critical
thinking enables hotel receptionist to think clearly and rationally, and evaluate information when
encountering and dealing with requests from guest or clients.
Administration Procedures
The administration of in-basket assessment for hotel receptionist in this case will focus on the
conduction through online video-communication platform. Recruiters could consider the new norm of
using online means to conduct this assessment in the hiring and selection process, especially during the
COVID-19 pandemic era. Candidates are required to open up their webcam and share their screen in
the video meeting throughout the assessment process, so that the evaluators can observe the candidate’s
actions, like replying email and memo, directly from their screen. The whole assessment process will
be recorded for future reference.
First, evaluators will read out the instructions for the in-basket exercise. The candidates will
be told that there will be three task items marked for their attention. They need to review the in-basket
items, and subsequently take actions on these varied issues and problems using action forms to record
notes, comments or responses as if in the real work situation. Candidates will be informed that an email
is sent to their email address and a memo is sent to their WhatsApp five minutes before the assessment
starts. Candidates will also be reminded to notify the evaluators after they have done reading the email
and memo received, so that a simulated phone call can be conducted through the online meeting.
When the candidates are acting out to solve the in-basket task items, evaluators will observe
the candidates through webcam and computer screen shared in the online meeting room. Their
performance will be evaluated based on each task item and overall in-basket assessment. Standardized
criteria and predefined rating scales are used to assess the performance level of candidates. Lastly, a
combined score from evaluators based on standardized criteria will be given to each candidate.
Figure 2. Task item email.
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Figure 3. Simulated Central Reservation System (CRS) data table.
Figure 4. Task item memorandum.
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Figure 5. Simulated weekly duty shift schedule.
Figure 6. Task item phone call.
Scoring Rules
The scoring method adopted in this assessment is the objective method. The objective scoring method
attempts to break down the open ended, free format responses into action elements, which are then
quantitatively scored for style and content (Harlos, 1982). The rating of the performance of candidates
in this in-basket assessment is based on a predefined rating scale of 0 to 4. Table 3 has shown the scoring
rules for each factor in the in-basket assessment.
The first factor is the task accuracy for CRS based on task item 1. It will be assessed based on
the content of email composed and replied by candidates, as it will reflect candidate’s ability to read,
understand, and then extract the correct information from the CRS data. The main information needed
to be provided in the email replied includes the guests’ check-out details for the 3 rooms mentioned by
the housekeeping department.
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The second factor is the written communication skills based on the task item memo. Written
communication skills of candidates will be assessed through the content of the feedback message
provided by candidates based on the memo received. The way and format as the candidate convey the
messages, either in the form of memo, handwritten note or email, will be evaluated to determine the
candidate’s written communication skills. Candidates will be evaluated on their ability to convey correct
message in written form in the way that can be easily understood by the recipient.
Next, the following factor is the organization skills of attention to detail under the task item
memo. The details provided in the feedback message will be evaluated to determine the performance
level of the factor attention to detail. Candidates will be evaluated on their ability to note the details in
memo and weekly duty shift schedule, and then give all relevant details in the feedback message. The
details include the duty shift on the mentioned date, the time of the training slots, deadline, and also the
recipient of the message.
Next, the fourth factor is the ability of active listening under the phone call task. Active listening
ability of the candidates will be assessed based on their responses during the phone call conversation
with both co-worker and client. The responses given by the candidates like asking relevant questions
and give appropriate response to the person on the other side of the phone, reflect if they are focusing
on the person in the phone. Their responses will also manifest their ability to comprehend the situation
within specific amount of time.
The next factor is the ability of critical thinking based on the phone call task. Critical thinking
ability of candidates will be assessed through the action taken to solve or complete the pending task of
co-worker. The way candidates deal with the pending work task will be evaluated to determine their
critical thinking ability.
The following factor is the identification of the tasks’ priority level when multitasking
throughout the in-basket assessment. Candidate’s ability to prioritize the high urgency job task will be
evaluated. Candidates will be evaluated on the sequence to carry out all tasks. The correct sequence of
tasks to be carried out based on the urgency level is email (high)>phone call (moderate)>memo (low).
The next factor is the decision-making skills based on all task items. Decision making skills of
candidates will be assessed through the amount of time consumed, accuracy of decision made on the
sequence of tasks, and actions taken for every task item. The appropriateness of the actions taken to
solve all the work tasks similar in real life situation will also be observed and evaluated to determine
the decision-making skills level of the candidates.
The last factor is the overall quality of the in-basket work tasks produced. Quality of the work
tasks produced by the candidates throughout the assessment will be assessed based on the
appropriateness of the format used and the content given by the candidates in the feedbacks to all tasks.
All feedbacks produced, no matter it is in written or verbal form for all three task items produced, will
be reviewed to determine the overall quality of the candidate’s performance in the in-basket assessment.
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Table 3
Scoring Table for In-Basket Assessment
Factor Scoring
0 1 2 3 4
1. Central Very Low Low Fair Good Excellent
Reservation
System (CRS) No correct Some correct Fair amount of Almost no Correct
task accuracy information information correct incorrect information was
was given. was given. information was information was given
given. given accurately.
(Approximately
half)
2. Written Very Low Low Fair Good Excellent

communication
Unable to Able to deliver Able to deliver Able to deliver Able to deliver
deliver the the message the message the message the message
message requested in requested in an requested in a requested
requested in writing but in a understandable clear manner with accurately in a
writing. disorganized manner with very few errors. clear and
manner with some errors. precise manner.
many errors.
3. Attention to Very Low Low Fair Good Excellent

detail
No correct Fair amount of All details were All details were All details were
details were details was written in the written in the written
written in the written in the message with message with accurately in the
message. message with some errors. very few errors. message.
some errors.
4. Active Very Low Low Fair Good Excellent

listening
Unable to Able to give Able to give fair Able to give good Able to give full
give attention poor amount of amount of amount of attention to
to what other attention to attention to attention to what what other
people are what other what other other people are people are
saying, people are people are saying, taking an saying, taking a
taking too saying, taking a saying, taking a appropriate time short time to
long to long time to moderate time to comprehend comprehend the
comprehend comprehend to comprehend the situation and situation and
the situation the situation the situation and asking asking
and asking and asking asking suitable appropriate appropriate
unnecessary suitable questions. questions while questions while
questions. questions. maintaining good maintaining
manner. excellent
manner.
5. Critical Very Low Low Fair Good Excellent
thinking
Unable to use Able to use Able to use Able to use Able to use
logic and basic logic and good logic and appropriate logic excellent logic
reasoning in reasoning in reasoning in and reasoning in and reasoning in
identifying identifying identifying identifying identifying
alternative alternative alternative alternative alternative
solutions for solutions for solutions for the solutions for the solutions in a
the pending the pending pending work. pending work. short period of
work. work.
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time for the

pending work.
6. Very Low Low Fair Good Excellent

Identification
of the tasks’ Consumed Consumed Consumed Consumed Consumed time
priority level too much considerably decent amount favourable at a very fast
time during long time of time during amount of time rate during task
task during task task during task identification
identification identification identification identification and and task
and task and task and task task selection selection
selection selection selection according to according to
according to according to according to urgency level. urgency level.
urgency urgency level. urgency level. (less than 3 (less than 2
level. (5 (less than 5 (less than 4 minutes) minutes)
minutes and minutes) minutes)
above)
7. Decision Very Low Low Fair Good Excellent

making
Able to Able to decide Able to decide Able to decide the Able to decide
decide the the sequence of the sequence of sequence of tasks the sequence of
sequence of tasks and tasks and and actions to be tasks and
tasks and actions to be actions to be taken for every actions to be
actions to be taken for every taken for every task items in taken for every
taken for task items but task items accurate manner task items in
every task in inaccurate within a with in a accurate and
items but in within a moderate relatively short outstanding
inaccurate relatively long amount of time. period of time. manner within a
manner period of time. very short
within a very period of time.
long period
of time.
8. Quality of Very Low Low Fair Good Excellent
the work tasks
produced Unable to use Able to use Able to use Able to use Able to use
correct certain formats certain formats correct formats correct formats
formats and and give and give and give correct and give
give correct feedbacks with feedbacks with feedbacks every outstanding
feedbacks in many errors. some errors. task items. feedbacks in
every task every task
items items.
Interpretation for the Final Score
The final score of candidates is obtained by taking the mean score from the total summation of scores
for all factors of two evaluators. The range of possible final score for each candidate will be from 0 to
32. Low level of overall performance (0 – 11) indicates that the candidates do not possess sufficient
knowledge, skills and abilities to perform the job position of a hotel receptionist. Besides, moderate
level of overall performance (12 – 22) depicts the candidates have knowledge, skills and abilities that
are just enough to perform the basic tasks of a hotel receptionist. In contrast, candidates with high level
of overall performance (23 – 32) indicate that they have already possessed sufficient knowledge, skills
and abilities of a hotel receptionist, are able to perform the job position outstandingly, and could fit in
well to the work culture and environment in the organization.
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Results
The assessment program designed was tested on Candidate 1 and 2. Final score of 25 and above
indicated qualified score range for the job position of hotel receptionist based on this assessment
program. Candidates who get final score of 25 and above are qualified to be accepted as a hotel
receptionist. While candidates who score below 25 are not qualified for the job position and do not
possess sufficient knowledge, skills and abilities to perform the job tasks of hotel receptionist.
Candidate 1
Table 4 showed candidate 1’s structured interview session scores where both Interviewer 1 and 2 have
rated 2 points each for Candidate 1 respectively. Candidate 1 shows poor versatility, unsatisfactory
negotiation skills, poor computer literacy, unsatisfactory teamwork and unsatisfactory friendliness. In
future-focused question, Candidate 1 stated that she will seek help from supervisor without trying to
come out with basic solution, portraying poor negotiation skills. Candidate 1 has poor computer literacy
skills as she can only type 40 words per minute with some missed keys. In a past focused question,
Candidate 1 did not have any experiences when it comes to problem solving during a difficult situation
with a team. Throughout the interview, Candidate 1 was not friendly and unable to converse
professionally to the question that tested friendliness. Therefore, Candidate 1 shows a poor level of
performance in the skills and abilities intended to be measured in the structured interview.
Table 4
Candidate 1’s Structured Interview Scoring
Scoring/Interviewer
Unsatisfactor
No. Component Poor Fair Good Excellent
y
0 1 2 3 4
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1. Versatility / /
Negotiation
2. / /
skills
Computer
3. / /
literacy
4. Teamwork / /
5. Friendliness / /
Performance Level Total
Low -0–5 Interviewer 1 Interviewer 2
Moderate - 6 – 13
High - 14 – 20 2 2
For in-basket assessment, presented in Table 5, Interviewer 1 has assigned Candidate 1 with a
total of 4 points while Candidate 1 has earned 5 points from Interviewer 2, which depicts low
performance level in this assessment. Candidate 1 has prioritized the three tasks wrongly, indicating
poor identification of tasks’ priority level. Candidate 1 did the memo first, which has the lowest level
of urgency. In addition, the confirmation of attendance slot in the memo task is inaccurate. Candidate
1 opted for the second session (4.00 pm – 8.00 pm) of the Front Office Training and Development
Program 2021, which the time has clashed with her duty shift (15:00 – 23:00) on the 7th of June.
Candidate 1 has conducted the urgent email task as the second task. This email is urgent and
the accuracy of the details are important. Candidate 1 stated wrong details for some guests, which shows
inaccuracy and carelessness. It is clear that Candidate 1 has poor attention to details in the in-basket
assessment with the inaccurate observation of the CRS data. The feedback for memo and email task
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also concluded that Candidate 1 has poor written communication skills. Lastly, Candidate 1 conducted
the phone call task which was supposed to be the second task with moderate level of urgency.
Throughout the phone call, Candidate 1 demonstrated fair active listening which is the highest scoring
for her with 2 points as compared to other factors.
Table 5
Candidate 1’s In-Basket Assessment Scoring
Scoring/Interviewer
Very Low Low Fair Good Excellent
No. Factor
0 1 2 3 4
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1. Central
Reservation
/ /
System (CRS) task
accuracy
2. Written
communication / /
3. Attention to detail / /
4. Active Listening / /
5. Critical Thinking / /
6. Identification of
the tasks’ priority / /
level
7. Decision making / /
8. Quality of the
work tasks / /
produced
Low - 0 – 11 Interviewer 1 Interviewer 2
Moderate - 12 – 22
4 5
High - 23 – 32
For overall assessment score shown in Table 6, Candidate 1 has received mean score of 2 for
structured interview and 4.5 for in-basket assessment. Hence, the final total score of Candidate 1 is 6.5,
which is much lower than the baseline of qualified range of score to be selected as a hotel receptionist.
To conclude, Candidate 1 is not qualified for the role of hotel receptionist based on the proposed
assessment program.
Table 6
Candidate 1’s Assessment Program Mean Score and Final Total Score
Structured Interview In-Basket Assessment
Interviewer
Score Mean Score Score Mean Score
1 2 4/2 4 9/2
=2 =4.5
2 2 5
Qualification Range Total Score
Non-qualified: Less than 25 = 2 + 4.5
Qualified: 25 and above = 6.5
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Candidate 2
As shown in Table 7, in structured interview, Candidate 2 has received a total score of 19 points from
Interviewer 1 and 18 from Interviewer 2. Candidate 2 has demonstrated a high level of overall
performance in terms of abilities and skills intended to measure from the structured interview. In
organizational fit question, Candidate 2 had high ability to foster good relationship and can work
together as a team, yet able to work independently towards goal achievement. He was also able to
effectively understand the situation stated and take prompt action to solve it without causing any
arguments from both sides. Candidate 2 also demonstrated excellent computer literacy as he can type
between 70 to 80 words per minute without missed keys. In the past focused question, Candidate 2
described his past experience encountered with steps that manage to solve a difficult situation at
workplace with his team. Candidate 2 was also able to converse professionally and friendly by
conveying information with great details to the client. According to the scores, Candidate 2 has the
appropriate knowledge, skills and abilities as a hotel receptionist and is capable in using the skills in
the real job settings.
Table 7
Candidate 2’s Structured Interview Scoring
Scoring/Interviewer
Unsatisfactor
No. Component Poor Fair Good Excellent
y
0 1 2 3 4
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1. Versatility / /
Negotiation
2. / /
skills
Computer
3. / /
literacy
4. Teamwork / /
5. Friendliness / /
Low -0–5 Interviewer 1 Interviewer 2
Moderate - 6 – 13
High - 14 – 20 19 18
Table 8 represents the in-basket assessment scoring for Candidate 2. The total scores Candidate
2 has obtained from Interviewer 1 and 2 are 31 respectively, indicating high performance level in the
in-basket assessment. Candidate 2 did the correct sequence of tasks based on the urgency level.
Candidate 2 was very fast during task identification and task selection. The tasks conducted were in an
accurate and outstanding manner. The feedbacks provided for email and memo tasks had all the details
written accurately.
Candidate 2 had demonstrated excellent CRS task accuracy, written communication, attention
to details and active listening. Candidate 2 also had good critical thinking and managed to identify the
high urgency tasks by prioritizing it first. This shows that Candidate 2 has good decision-making skills
and the quality of the work tasks produced are excellent, be it in email, memo or phone call task.
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Table 8
Candidate 2’s In-Basket Assessment Scoring
Scoring/Interviewer
No. Factor Very Low Low Fair Good Excellent
0 1 2 3 4
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1. Central
Reservation
/ /
System (CRS) task
accuracy
2. Written / /
communication
3. Attention to detail / /
4. Active Listening / /
5. Critical Thinking / /
6. Identification of / /
the tasks’ priority
level
7. Decision making / /
8. Quality of the
work tasks / /
produced
Low - 0 – 11 Interviewer 1 Interviewer 2
Moderate - 12 – 22
High - 23 – 32 31 31
Table 9 presented the overall score obtained by Candidate 2. The mean score for structured
interview was 18.5 and 31 for in-basket assessment, resulting final total score of 49.5 points altogether
for Candidate 2. Candidate 2 had obtained a score which was in the qualified range of scores. Therefore,
Candidate 2 is highly qualified for the role of hotel receptionist based on this assessment program.
Overall, out of two candidates, only Candidate 2 is qualified to hold the job position of hotel
receptionist.
Table 9
Candidate 2’s Assessment Program Mean Score and Final Total Score
Structured Interview In-Basket Assessment
Interviewer
Score Mean Score Score Mean Score
1 19 37/2 31 62/2
=18.5 =31
2 18 31
Qualification Range Total Score
Non-qualified: Less than 25 = 18.5 + 31
Qualified: 25 and above = 49.5
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Conclusion
Hotel receptionists are essential to every hotel as they are the main contact between the hotel guests and
hotel staffs. Structured interview and in-basket assessment are employed as the assessment tools to
recruit potential hotel receptionist in the assessment program designed. A 0 to 4 five-point scale is used
to indicate the level of performance of candidates for structured interview and in-basket assessment.
Decision-making skills, negotiating skills, computer literacy, teamwork, and friendliness are assessed
in the structured interview with a combination of question types such as organizational fit, past-focused,
and future-focused questions. The eight factors that are measured in the in-basket assessment are CRS
task accuracy, written communication, attention to detail, active listening, critical thinking,
identification of tasks’ priority level, decision making, and quality of the overall work tasks produced.
For in basket assessment, the candidates are expected to conduct the three tasks (email, memo, and
phone call) given correctly and in an orderly manner within the time limit of 25 minutes. Based on the
summation of final score for the two assessments, it was found that only Candidate 2 is qualified to be
selected as a hotel receptionist.
Acknowledgements
This research paper would not have been possible without the support of our adviser, Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Chua Bee Seok, for all her guidance and advice. Thanks to Universiti Malaysia Sabah for allowing us
to have this opportunity to present this paper.
References
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https://corrections.az.gov/what-basket-exercise
Best-Job-Interview.com. (n.d.). Hotel receptionist job description. https://www.best-job-
interview.com/hotel-receptionist-job-description.html
Breaugh, J. A. (2009). The use of biodata for employee selection: Past research and future directions.
Human Resource Management Review, 19(3), 219–231.
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Conway, J. M., & Peneno, G. M. (1999). Comparing structured interview question types: Construct
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https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022914803347
Hakstian, A. R., & Scratchley, L. S. (1997). In-basket assessment by fully objective methods:
development and evaluation of a self-report system. Educational and Psychological
Measurement, 57(4), 607–630. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164497057004007
Harlos, K. P. (1982). An examination of several in-basket scoring strategies and their effect of reliability
and criterion-related validity [Master’s Thesis, University of British Columbia]. UBC Theses
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Harvey-Cook, J. E., & Taffler, R. J. (2000). Biodata in professional entry-level selection: Statistical
scoring of common format applications. Journal of Occupational and Organizational
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skills#:~:text=What%20is%20active%20listening%3F,the%20information%20and%20respon
d%20thoughtfully.
Jamshed, S. (2014). Qualitative research method-interviewing and observation. Journal of Basic and
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Roberts, M. (2020, January 4). The in-basket exercise and how to use it. The Balance Careers.
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Speer, A. B., Siver, S. R., & Christiansen, N. D. (2020). Applying theory to the black box: A model for
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RESEARCH ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

PSYCHOLOGICAL CAPITAL AND PROFESSIONAL WELL-BEING
OF COLLEGE TEACHERS
Yang Xiaoling
Perspect College,Information College of Jingzhong, Institute, Jinzhong, China.

*Corresponding author’s e-mail: 278439800@qq.com
ABSTRACT
As an important factor to improve the quality of higher education, college teachers' psychological capital and
professional happiness will affect their work performance and work engagement. At present, there are many
researches on it abroad, but few in China, especially the quantitative research on the relationship between the
psychological capital and professional well-being of college teachers. Therefore, this study has certain theoretical
significance and practical value. The aim of this paper is to understand the current situation of college teachers'
psychological capital and professional well-being, and explore the relationship between them.358 college teachers
were tested with two standardized psychological measurement scales, College Teachers' Psychological Capital
Questionnaire (Cronbach's a is 0.902) and College Teachers' Professional Well-being Questionnaire (Cronbach's
a is 0.959). Both scales have good validity. The results are analyzed by SPSS 24.0. The results show that the
average level of college teachers' psychological capital and professional well-being is high, and there is a
significant positive correlation between them. Psychological capital is an effective predictor of College Teachers'
professional well-being. Improving the psychological capital of university teachers is helpful to enhance their
professional well-being. However, the research gap is that The questionnaire of psychological capital used in this
study needs to be further revised to make it more suitable for the evaluation of college teachers.
Keywords: psychological capital, professional well-being, college teacher
Introduction
Nowdays, career not only brings people economic income and meets the needs of life, but also meets
the needs of communication and respect, but also brings a sense of achievement and meets the needs of
self realization.Professional activities have become an important means for modern people to obtain
happiness, and professional happiness has also become a synonym for modern people's happiness. The
work of college teachers composed of senior intellectuals has its particularity. It is a dual work of brain
and physical strength. At the same time, it also bears high social expectations and public attention, and
plays multiple roles such as educators, managers, researchers and service providers. However, at
present, the health problems caused by psychological factors are very common among college teachers,
and have become an important factor threatening College Teachers' professional health and career
development. One of the fundamental reasons for these psychological problems is the serious lack of
College Teachers' professional happiness. Psychological capital refers to a positive psychological state
of individuals in the process of growth and development. It is a core psychological element beyond
human capital and social capital. It is a psychological resource to promote personal growth and
performance improvement. It can be seen that the level of College Teachers' psychological capital
directly affects their professional well-being and mental health.
Research Mothod
Subjects
There are 358 teachers in a private university in Shanxi, including 175 male teachers and 183 female
teachers; There are 190 science and engineering background teachers and 168 liberal arts background
teachers. All teachers volunteered to participate in the survey.
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Materials
College Teachers’ Psychological Capital Scale

The Psychological Capital Questionnaire for College Teachers adopts the psychological capital
questionnaire (PCQ-24) compiled by Luthans and translated by Li Chaoping. It includes 24 items,
including self-confidence, hope, optimism and resilience.The dimension composition is Likert 6-point
scale, and the internal consistency coefficient is 0.833.
College Teachers’ Professional Well-being Questionare

College Teachers' Professional Well-being Questionare was prepared by Chinese scholars Zhang Yuzhu
and Jin Shenghua in 2013(zhang,2013). The questionnaire includes 34 items,devided into six
dimensions: student development, friendly relationship, job satisfaction, job achievement, job
autonomy and value realization. It adopts Likert 5-point scoring method. The higher the total score, the
higher the level of occupational well-being. Each fitting index meets the good fitting standard; The
internal consistency coefficient of the questionnaire is 0.959,medium, 0.878-0.938; The split half
reliability of the questionnaire is 0.851, and the split half reliability of each sub questionnaire is between
0.845-0.897. The reliability and validity of the questionnaire meet the requirements of psychometrics
and can be used as an effective measurement tool for College Teachers' professional well-being.
Procedure
The questionnaire was distributed and collected online through the questionnaire star platform. The
research subjects completed and submitted online. The average time to complete the questionnaire was
5 minutes.
Results and anaylysis
362 questionnaires were collected, of which 358 were valid, and the effective rate was 98.9%. SPSS
24.0 was used for data sorting and analysis.
Overall situation of College Teachers’ Psychological Capital
From the statistical results, it can be seen that the overall level of College Teachers' professional well-
being is between 95 and 168 with an average of 128, and the overall level is high.
3.3 Correlation analysis between College Teachers' collective efficacy and professional well-being
The correlation analysis between college teachers’ psychological capital and professional well-
being is that:there is an extremely significant correlation between the overall well-being level of college
students in Shanxi Province and the level of psychological elasticity (P < 0.01).
Discussion
The overall level of College Teachers' Psychological Capital and Professional Well-being is high
The results show that the overall level of College Teachers' psychological capital and professonal well-
being is high, and the scores of some teachers in the college teachers' occupational well-being
questionnaire are the highest sum of each item. This shows that working in colleges and universities,
most teachers can meet their professional identity or professional expectations. On the one hand, this is
due to the increasing attention of the state to the development of higher education and the general
atmosphere of respecting teachers and valuing education in society. On the other hand, it is the sense
of stability and security brought by the vigorous development of higher education, such as the overall
improvement of good teaching and scientific research atmosphere in Colleges and universities, orderly
teaching order, harmonious relationship between teachers and students, and improved treatment.
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There is a significant correlation between College Teachers'psychological capital and professional

well-being
The results show that there is a significant correlation between college Teachers'psychological capital
and professional well-being. Improving college teachers' psychological capital can significantly
promote the improvement of professional well-being. Psychological capital is considered to be an
important factor affecting one’s performance. It determines the choice of goal difficulty, the degree of
effort in the process of performing tasks, and the degree of collective persistence in the face of
difficulties. More and more literatures have proved that psychological capital is an important source of
high performance, so improving it can help to improve the competitiveness of the team and the
professional well-being of group members. On the contrary, occupational well-being is an individual's
subjective psychological feeling and experience, which will affect the individual's sense of group
belonging, self-evaluation and self-concept, and further affect the individual's sense of psychological
capital.
Conclusion
College Teachers' professional well-being plays an important role in promoting both college teachers
themselves and the development of national higher education. College teachers undertake the important
task of building morality, cultivating people, preaching and accepting careers, participating in scientific
research and promoting the development and progress of social civilization. Therefore, paying attention
to the psychological and professional well-being of college teachers and their interaction mechanism is
an urgent problem to be faced in the development of higher education. At the same time, it is of great
practical significance to find practical ways and measures to improve college teachers' psychological
capital and professional well-being through research, field visits and understanding demands, It will be
a beneficial attempt to enhance college teachers' sense of psychological capital so as to improve their
professional well-being.
Table 1
Discriptive statistics of College Teachers’ Psychological Capial
N Max Min Mean SD

College Teachers’ 112 58 98 6
Psychological Capital
From the statistical results, we can see that the overall level of College Teachers' Psuchological Capital
is between 58 and 112 points, with an average of 98 points, and the overall level is high.
Overall situation of College Teachers’ Professional Well-being
Table 2
Discriptive statistics of College Teachers’ Professional Well-being
N Max Min Mean SD

College Teachers’ 358 168 95 128 18.6
Profeesonal Well-being
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References
Huang Ruijuan(2018). Factor analysis and action strategies to improve teachers' professional well-
being[J]. Curriculum education research, 36
Huang Ying(2019). Influencing factors of middle school teachers' professional well-being under
grounded theory[J]. Journal of Jimei University, 20 (2)
Li Yayun(2018). The mediating role of psychological capital between College Teachers' professional
well-being and job performance[J]. Journal of Northwest Normal University (SOCIAL
SCIENCE EDITION), 55 (4)
Zhang Junfeng(2007). Professional identity of teachers. Research on teacher development, (4): 39-46
Zhang Min(2006). Review of foreign research on Teachers' professional identity and professional
development, comparative education research (2), 77-81
Zhang Wen(2010).Compilation and characteristic analysis of psychological capital questionnaire for
primary school teachers [D]. Southwest University,
Zhang Yuzhu(2013), JinShenghua. Investigation and influencing factors analysis of College Teachers'
occupational well-being [J]. Educational science, 29 (8) 2 1-27
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INFLUENCES OF DEPRESSION AND LONELINESS TOWARDS

BINGE-WATCHING BEHAVIOR AMONG UNIVERSITY
STUDENTS
Yii Shi Si* & Patricia Joseph Kimong
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: bp17110209@student.ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Nowadays, binge-watching behavior marks a new era of TV-watching behavior among the young generation.
Concerns about possible negative psychological factors that lead to this popular viewing pattern are discussed.
The study investigates the relationship of depression and loneliness towards binge-watching behavior among
Malaysian university students. It examines how depression and loneliness might influence binge-watching
behavior. A total of 375 Malaysian university students had participated in this study. This study used three
instruments: Beck Depression Inventory, Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale, and Binge-Watching Engagement and
Symptoms Questionnaire. Findings showed that depression is significantly correlated with binge-watching
behavior and affects it where it can be a predictor of binge-watching behavior. However, there was no significant
correlation between loneliness and binge-watching behavior. The present study's findings will benefit future
researchers as the obtained result clearly stated that depression had played a role in binge-watching behavior
instead of loneliness. Therefore, more research is needed to examine binge-watching and its relations to other
factors such as self-control, attachment, and well-being. Also, the expected consequences of binge-watching
among Malaysian university students should be investigated as well.
Keywords: Binge-Watching Behavior, Depression, Loneliness, University Students
Introduction
In recent years, there has been a rise in binge-watching as it marks a new era of watching behavior
among youth nowadays. Binge-watching is the recent television behavior of watching two or more
consecutive episodes of the same television show in one sitting (Ahmed, 2017; “Netflix Declares Binge
Watching,” 2013; Sung et al., 2015; Walton-Pattison et al., 2018; Wheeler, 2015).
Based on Limelight's State of Online 2019 research report, the researcher found out that around
the world, streaming video viewing has reached an all-time high of six hours, 48 minutes a week, with
82 percent of viewers binge-watching shows online. Time spent for binge-watching is continuously on
the rise worldwide, soaring 18 percent from 2018 to an average of two hours, 40 minutes at a time. A
study found that at least four respondents self-reported as a "binge-watcher" (Jenner, 2016).
With the growth in online viewing, when people have little to do in the home and are
experiencing anxiety and emotional breakdown during the pandemic period (Lima et al., 2020), they
chose to relax and spend their time watching television. Therefore, people who imposed stay-at-home
orders are high, potentially leading to chronic social isolation as well. Furthermore, prolonged social
isolation and quarantine restriction may increase the feelings of loneliness, one of the key contributors
to mental health problems, especially depression (Stickley & Koyanagi, 2016). Hence, those who had
feelings of depression and loneliness are more likely to binge-watch to buffer against those negative
feelings (Derrick, Gabriel, & Hugenberg, 2009).
There are infrequent media reported on binge-watching mention its effects on mental health,
such as fatigability, poor quality of sleep, insomnia, and some mood disturbance (Exelmans & Van den
Bulck, 2017; Sung, Kang, & Lee, 2015; Tukachinsky & Eyal, 2018) and highlight it as yet another
emerging clinical condition (Pinto, 2014). People tend to binge-watch to discharge emotional tension
and obtain pleasure (Starosta, Izydorczyk, & Lizińczyk, 2019). However, bingeing on something to get
rid of the stress in their daily lives is temporary as the stress and problems they need to face are still
there in reality.
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On top of that, a separate study has pointed out that a large portion of the binge-watching group
is part of the "millennial" generation (MarketCast, 2013). Age is another common individual difference
that has been associated with binge-watching, in which younger individuals engage in binge-watching
more frequently than older individuals (Shannon-Missal, 2013). This is because younger individuals
are more likely to have more free time to dedicate to binge-watching than older individuals committed
to working at least 40 hours a week (Devasagayam, 2014).
Also, Finn (1992) identified intensive television viewing as another form of addiction, where
binge-watching behavior has interrupted one's daily life until an individual cannot differentiate between
virtual life and real life. For example, people who are depressed and lonely tend to engage in binge-
watching behavior as they wish to live like the characters in drama and indirectly to avoid their negative
feelings in real life.
However, there is relatively little research investigated about binge-watching behavior. Although
extensive research has been carried out on this topic by using sociological and cultural perspectives and
approaches (Winland, 2015), the psychological aspect of binge-watching behavior among the early
adulthood population has still yet been explored and adequately discussed (Starosta, Izydorczyk, &
Lizińczyk, 2019). There also have not been many studies of psychological conditions of binge-watching
in the adult population abroad (Starosta, Izydorczyk, & Lizińczyk, 2019). Thus, the research objectives
of this study are as follows:
(a) To investigate the relationship of depression, loneliness, and binge-watching

behavior among UMS students.
(b) To examine the influence of depression on binge-watching behavior among UMS
students.
(c) To examine the influence of loneliness towards binge-watching behavior among
UMS students.
(d) To identify the likelihood of binge-watching behavior for university students who
have greater depression.
(e) To identify the likelihood of binge-watching behavior for university students who
have greater loneliness.
Methodology
This study is a quantitative research design conducted among undergraduates students at University
Malaysia Sabah (UMS). The convenience sampling method was used for this study. A self-
administered questionnaire was designed and distributed to collect data from a sample of 375 students.
Three instruments were used to measure the research variables, including the Revised UCLA Loneliness
Scale, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and Binge-Watching Engagement and Symptoms
Questionnaire (BWESQ). Descriptive analysis, Pearson correlation test, and regression test were
conducted by using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS).
Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale
This is a 20-item scale designed to measure one's subjective feelings of loneliness and feelings of social
isolation. The revised version has 9 out of the 20 original items that were reverse-scored: items 1, 5, 6,
9, 10, 15, 16, 19, and 20. The Likert scale is 1 to 4, which indicates Never and Often accordingly.
Additionally, Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale had shown a high internal consistency with Cronbach's
alphas coefficient of .841.
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Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)
This is a 21-item multiple-choice self-report inventory widely used to measure the presence and degree
of depression in adolescents and adults. Scoring on each item ranges from 0 to 3, depending on the
severity of the symptom manifestation that respondents select as being self-descriptive. The Cronbach's
Alpha Level of BDI is shown as .905, which indicates the reliability is "Very Good."
Binge-Watching Engagement and Symptoms Questionnaire (BWESQ)
This is a 40-item scale assessing binge-watching engagement and features of problematic binge-
watching. It consists of 7 subscales which are engagement (item 1, 9, 18, 26, 27, 30, 35, 39), positive
emotions (item 8, 24, 28, 33, 38), desire-savoring (item 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 21), pleasure preservation (item
13, 37, 40), binge-watching (item 14, 17, 19, 20, 22, 34), dependency (item 6, 10, 16, 25, 31) and loss
of control (item 11, 12, 15, 23, 29, 32, 36). The subscales such as engagement, positive emotions, desire-
savoring, and pleasure preservation are used to measure the engagement in binge-watching. In contrast,
the subscales such as binge-watching, dependency, and loss of control are used to examine the
symptoms of problematic binge-watching. The items are scored on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from
1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The BWESQ with 40 items shows the reliability at (α = .961),
which is considered "Excellent."
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed by using SPSS Version 22. The statistical procedures included descriptive
statistics and inferential statistics such as the Pearson correlation test, simple regression test, and binary
logistic regression test. Descriptive statistics were used to record and analyze the demographic data of
the participants. Meanwhile, the Pearson correlation was used to study the relationship between the
variable of depression, loneliness, and binge-watching behavior. Finally, the simple regression test and
binary logistic regression test were used to test whether there is a significant influence of depression
and loneliness towards binge-watching behavior.
Results
Relationship of Depression, Loneliness and Binge-Watching Behavior
Table 1 showed the correlation between depression, loneliness, and binge-watching behavior. For
determining the relationship between depression and binge-watching behavior, the Pearson correlation
test was conducted between the Beck Depression Inventory and Binge-Watching Engagement and
Symptoms Questionnaire scores. The test result indicated a positive correlation between depression and
binge-watching behavior r(375) = .127, p < .05.
Influences of Depression towards Binge-Watching Behavior
For the influence of depression on binge-watching behavior, the result was tested using a simple
regression test. As shown in Table 2, the result obtained when depression effect upon binge-watching
behavior along with the interaction there was a significant change in the R square. The binge-watching
behavior model based on depression as the predictor shows that β = .127, p < .05. This indicates that
the model found has 1.4% of the variance in binge-watching behavior can be explained by depression.
Hence, there is a significant influence of depression towards binge-watching behavior among university
students.
As for the influences of depression on the likelihood of binge-watching behavior, the result was
tested using a binary logistic regression test. The result in Table 3 indicated that there is no influence of
the level of depression towards the likelihood of engaging in binge-watching behavior. The results
showed a significant value of p = .059, which is more than alpha at a .05 level of significance.
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Influences of Loneliness towards Binge-Watching Behavior
Since there is no correlation between loneliness and binge-watching behavior, there is no significant
influence of loneliness towards binge-watching behavior among university students. Also, there is no
influence of loneliness on the likelihood of binge-watching behavior.
Table 1
Correlation between Loneliness, Depression and Binge-Watching Behavior
Variables Loneliness Depression Binge Watching

Loneliness -
-
Depression .607** -
.000 -
Binge Watching .084 .127* -
.104 .013 -
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Table 2
Regression Analysis of Depression and Binge-Watching Behavior
Model Summary
Change Statistics
Std. Error
R Adjusted of the R Square Sig. F
Model R Square R Square Estimate Change F Change df1 df2 Change
1 .127 a
.016 .014 .63461 .016 6.162 1 373 .013
a. Predictors: (Constant), Depression
Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 2.277 .054 42.443 .000
Depression .125 .050 .127 2.482 .013
a. Dependent Variable: BW
Table 3
Regression Analysis of the Likelihood of Binge-Watching Behavior

95% C.I.for EXP(B)
B S.E. Wald df Sig. Exp(B) Lower Upper
Step Loneliness .229 .282 .658 1 .417 1.257 .724 2.183
1a Depression .391 .207 3.563 1 .059 1.478 .985 2.217
Constant -.735 .567 1.681 1 .195 .480
a. Variable(s) entered on step 1: Loneliness, Depression.
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Discussion
According to the findings, depression was found to be directly associated with binge-watching behavior.
The study conducted by Ahmed (2017) also supported this finding as the researcher indicated that the
more respondents are depressed, the more they binge-watch. Hence, depression might make the person
attempt to escape from his condition to watch more TV content that releases the stress. Similar results
have been obtained by Sung et al. (2015), who did a study on the motivations for binge-watching
behavior. The researchers found that the more an individual was depressed, the more TV episodes the
individual watched. Hence, it can be explained that those who feel negative emotions, such as loneliness
and depression, may binge-watch TV series to stay away from their negative feelings. Also, Wheeler
(2015) emphasizes in his study that binge-watchers are more likely to display the symptoms of
depression, loneliness, and anxiety. Hence, this indicates that there is a correlation between depression
and binge-watching behavior.
On the other hand, a study done by Boudali et al. (2017) reported a conflicting finding. Boudali's
findings revealed that there might not be an association between binge-watching and depressive
symptoms, but some viewing features may be specific among individuals with depressive symptoms.
Besides that, Tefertiller and Maxwell (2018) have not discovered any connection between depression,
loneliness, and binge-watching. These conflicting findings might be due to the difference in a
population where the previous studies are done in North Africa and America while the current study is
done among the Malaysian population.
The current findings also indicated that the level of depression does not affect the likelihood of
binge-watching behavior, but it can be the predictor of binge-watching behavior. Previous studies
partially support this finding. According to Wheeler's (2015) study, he reported that individuals higher
in depression might be more likely to binge-watch television shows out of comfort-seeking. It also
seems possible that individuals who are higher in depression lack the motivation or cognitive energy to
resist the auto-play functions of streaming products. It reported that those high in depression tended to
have higher levels of watching television for both ritualistic and instrumental or purposeful motivations,
such as gaining information or engaging entertainment, and these individuals also reported higher
frequencies of engaging in binge-watching behavior (Wheeler, 2015).
Furthermore, the result is a conflict with the findings of previous studies (Ahmed, 2017;
Devasagayam, 2014; Wheeler, 2015) that reported depression was associated with the likelihood of
binge-watching behavior. One possible explanation may be that the population in the current study and
two of the three studies mentioned above differ. For example, only the study of Wheeler (2015) included
college students, while the other two (Ahmed, 2017; Devasagayam, 2014) did not. Additionally, the
current study focused on Malaysian university students, while Wheeler's study (2015) included students
from Southeastern University. Besides that, differences in findings relating to depression and binge-
watching may also be explained by the fact that emerging adults such as those between the ages of 18
and 24 are more likely to display fewer depressive symptoms than are older adults. However, they still
meet the criteria for a depressive disorder classified under other depression (CDC, 2016).
Furthermore, loneliness was found to have no association with binge-watching behavior, which
is consistent with the results of Ahmed (2017) and Tefertiller and Maxwell (2018). This might due to
binge-watching is not the favorite choice for respondents to relieve their loneliness. They prefer using
social media or traveling to other Emirates to get away from feeling lonely (Ahmed, 2017). Moreover,
Eyal and Cohen (2006) also stated inconsistent links between loneliness and binge-watch because
marathon viewing (binge-watching) fosters social connections and a sense of community (Perks, 2014).
The present study also reported no influence on binge-watching behavior through loneliness,
and loneliness does not affect the likelihood of binge-watching behavior. This finding is conflicting
with previous findings (Wheeler, 2015), which reported that individuals who scored higher in loneliness
reported a greater tendency of watching television for more ritualistic reasons. Also, previous studies
by Katz, Haas, and Gurevitch (1973) also explained that participants were not motivated to binge watch
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for cognitive needs. However, they are using media to acquire knowledge obtained from watching the
news or educational programming. It does show that participants were motivated to binge-watch to pass
the time. Therefore, the viewing motives to escape loneliness did not contribute to this model. The
results of previous studies may differ from the results of the present study due to the methods used,
population studied, and specific types of binge-watching and loneliness studied.
Conclusion
The findings of this study clearly showed that depression correlated with binge-watching behavior,
which warrant more future research. However, future researcher might need to consider method use in
collecting data. The data collection for this study is conducted by distributing online survey forms to
university students instead of paper and pencil surveys due to the pandemic of COVID-19. Hence,
students who have no access to the network are not included in this study. It is also challenging to find
co-operate respondents who are willing and sincere in answering the entire questionnaire. Other than
that, some of the respondents might purpose falsify the answer since there is no indication of the
respondents' obligation and sincerity to participate. Thus, a suggestion for the upcoming studies is that
the future researchers should mention or write a note in the questionnaires to remind the participants of
the importance of being as honest as possible.
In addition, it is recommended that more research can be conducted to examine binge-watching

and its relations to other factors such as self-control, attachment, and well-being. Also, the expected
consequences of binge-watching among Malaysian university students can be investigated as university
students are one of the most important criteria for a country's development since they are the backbone
that will be carrying the country in the future. Hence, they need to take good care of their mental health.
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KESAHAN KANDUNGAN MODUL INTERVENSI KAUNSELING BERFOKUSKAN

PENYELESAIAN EFIKASI KENDIRI DAN MOTIVASI AKADEMIK
Abd Halim Tahir, Getrude C. Ah Gang @ Grace, &Patricia Joseph Kimong

Corresponding author’s e-mail: abdhalimtahir82@gmail.com
ABSTRAK
Efikasi kendiri dan motivasi akademik merupakan dua elemen yang sangat penting dalam membantu
pelajar menyelesaikan masalah konkrit seperti dalam menyelesaikan masalah yang mencabar dalam
akademik mahupun kehidupan. Dalam usaha untuk meningkatkan dua elemen ini dalam kalangan
pelajar sekolah, satu Modul Intervensi Kaunseling berfokuskan penyelesaian efikasi kendiri dan
motivasi akademik dibentuk. Modul ini dibentuk bagi membantu pelajar memperolehi kemahiran dalam
menyelesaikan cabaran hidup yang dihadapi dengan mengenal pasti sumber dalaman seperti kemahiran,
kekuatan dan kebolehan individu. Kajian ini bertujuan mendapatkan kesahan kandungan Modul
Intervensi Kaunseling Berfokus Penyelesaian Efikasi Kendiri dan Motivasi Akademik. Proses
pembinaan modul ini adalah berdasarkan kepada Model Pembinaan Modul Sidek (2001) dan
menggunakan pendekatan Teori Solution Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT). SFBT adalah satu pendekatan
berfokuskan kepada matlamat yang menggabungkan prinsip dan amalan psikologi positif untuk
membantu individu ke arah perubahan dengan membina penyelesaian yang lebih konkrit berbanding
memberikan fokus kepada masalah yang dialami. Dalam memantapkan kandungan modul ini, metod
kesahan kandungan dinilai oleh tiga orang pakar psikologi dan kaunseling. Ketiga-tiga pakar penilai
mempunyai kriteria seperti pengalaman luas, kepakaran professional dan bilangan penerbitan seperti
yang disaranan oleh Rubio et al, (2003). Modul ini terdiri daripada tujuh langkah utama pelaksanaan
sesi kaunseling berpandukan cadangan pendekatan SFBC oleh Selingman (2006). Modul ini
mengandungi 17 aktiviti dan lapan strategi utama SFBT dengan keseluruhan jumlah masa pelaksanaan
modul adalah sebanyak 12 jam 20 minit. Penilaian daripada setiap pakar mendapati nilai kesahan
kandungan yang diperoleh adalah 84.24 peratus. Ini dinilai dengan merujuk kepada pengiraan skor oleh
Sidek dan Jamaludin (2005). Secara keseluruhannya cadangan pakar penilai adalah positif dan banyak
membantu pengkaji dalam mengubah suai dan memperbaiki modul KBP_EKMA selanjutnya. Hasil
kesahan kandungan yang diperoleh dan juga komen daripada penilai, langkah seterusnya bagi
memantapkan Modul ini adalah dengan membuat penambahbaikan dan seterusnya perlaksanaan Modul
bagi menguji keberkesanannya menerusi kajian kuasi eksperimental. Ringkasnya, modul KBP_EKMA
adalah dicadangkan untuk kajian rintis terhadap pelajar yang berhadapan dengan isu efikasi kendiri dan
motivasi akademik di sekolah melalui pendekatan kaunseling SFBT
Kata Kunci: Analisis kesahan kandungan, Solution Focused Brief Counseling (SFBC), Efikasi kendiri,
Motivasi akademik.
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THE ABILITY TO REFUSE DRINK AND IMPROVE WELLBEING
Asong Joseph*1 , Helen Benedict Lasimbang2, Chua Bee Seok2

1
2
*
Corresponding author’s e-mail:asong.joseph@iumw.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The motivational interviewing approach is a client-cantered counselling style for eliciting behaviour
change by helping clients to explore and resolve ambivalence. It has been shown to be more effective
than other treatments for reducing risky behaviours and increasing client engagement and compliance
with the treatment. Building their strength and motivation to refuse from heavy drink as well to improve
well-being becomes the aim of this study. Purposive sampling by using Alcohol Use Identification Test
(AUDIT) was employed to recruit hazardous and harmful drinkers among the indigenous communities
of Sabah. A quasi-experimental design using pre-test and post-test was chosen for this study to assess
the effectiveness of Motivational Enhancement Intervention. A total of 56 villagers in the West Coast
Division of Sabah have participated in this study. Data were analysed by using IBMSPSS version 26.0.
The study found that there was a significant difference reported in drinking refusal self-efficacy and
subjective wellbeing in the experimental group before and after intervention. These findings are
significant to provide direction for the next action plan for intervention purposes aims to reduce the
alcohol-related harm among the indigenous communities of Sabah.
Keywords: Drinking refusal, motivational enhancement, quality of life, risky drinker, indigenous
community
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HAPPINESS INDEX OF CHINESE COLLEGE STUDENTS: AN EXAMPLE OF HIGHER

VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS IN CHINA
Cao Yong* & Guan Teik Ee

*Corresponding author’s e-mail : 370424327@qq.com
ABSTRACT
In 2020, China's GDP ranks second in the world, and China's total number of people receiving higher
education ranks first in the world. But correspondingly, in the 2020 World Happiness Report, mainland
China ranked 94th out of 156 countries. Happiness not only reflects the life state of the whole country,
but also directly affects and relates to everyone’s mental health and even everyone’s physical health.
The literature review shows that the three kinds of pressures that have the greatest psychological impact
on contemporary Chinese college students come from academics, interpersonal relationships, and
personality (lack of self-confidence). Among them, self-esteem and social support corresponding to
interpersonal relationships and personality will have an important impact on the positive emotions, thus
will influence the happiness index. According to the status quo of Chinese college students, we suspect
that, due to learned helplessness, a considerable number of students are severely affected by their study
and life. Unfortunately, so far, the number of studies on happiness in China is relatively small, and for
the questions and key factors raised in this article, there are no relatively comprehensive supporting
materials and authoritative answers that have been recognized by the public. According to literature
review, self-esteem, social support , and resilience contribute to happiness. However, in China,
especially for university students, we still do not have enough empirical data to support it. Thus, it is
urgent to conduct a study using these three variables. Therefore, in view of China’s current economic
situation and the asymmetry of education and happiness index, the study on China’s happiness index
will have extremely important significance. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct study in this area. To
study the influencing factors that lead to the asymmetry of China's economy and happiness index.
(Research on the influence of self-esteem, social support, resilience on the happiness index of Chinese
college students). A questionnaire survey will be conducted at a public university in Xi'an, China. The
research tools are Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support,
Oxford Happiness Questionnaire, and the Resilience Scale. Four hundred participants will be recruited
by random sampling. In this study, SSS21.0 and Mplus7.4 will be used to conduct descriptive statistics,
differences testing, correlation and intermediary effects and path analysis.
Key Words: Happiness, Self-esteem, Learned Helplessness, Social Support, Higher Vocational and
Technical Schools
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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HELICOPTER PARENTING ON NONSUICIDAL SELF-

INJURY AMONG ADOLESCENTS IN KEDAH, MALAYSIA
Charles Ganaprakasam1 & Syeda Humayra*2

1
University of Malaya
2
University of Cyberjaya
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: syedahumayra@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Non suicidal self-injury (NSSI) among adolescents is prevalent and its rate has increased in recent years
worldwide. The role of parents on adolescents’ psychological wellbeing is evident in numerous
literatures, however little is known on the relationship between helicopter parenting and NSSI in a
representative sample of adolescents from Malaysia. The present study aims to identify the relationship
between NSSI and helicopter parenting among adolescents in Kedah, Malaysia. Furthermore, the study
also examined the gender and place of living differences related to NSSI behavior. A cross-sectional
study consisted of 230 adolescents (31.0% male and 68.2% female; Mage 19.4 SD=2.12) completed the
helicopter parenting and NSSI questionnaires. The respondents of this study were selected using a
convenience sampling method from a private college located in the Kulim district of Kedah,
Malaysia. Analysis revealed that 129 (56.1%) out of 230 respondents reported having engaged in at
least one incidence of NSSI in the previous 12 months with females reportedly engaged in a higher
frequency of NSSI behaviour (M=14.12, SD=5.42). The finding also demonstrated a large positive
correlation between helicopter parenting and NSSI behavior among adolescents. Significant differences
in NSSI were found between adolescents from urban and rural areas with higher frequency of NSSI
behavior for adolescents from urban areas. NSSI behavior is found to be common among adolescents
in Kedah, Malaysia. The development of prevention and intervention strategies should focus on
parenting style as an important indicator for preventing or reducing NSSI among adolescents in
Malaysia.
Keywords: Helicopter parenting, Nonsuicidal self-injury, NSSI, Adolescents, Malaysia
431
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RELIGIOUS COPING AS A DETERMINANT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS AMONG

MARRIED/CO-HABITING MALAYSIANS DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC
Chu Sin Yee *1 , Siau Ching Sin 1, Chua Bee Seok 2, Mimi Fitriana3, Rahmattullah Khan4,
Low Wah Yun5
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

1
2
3
4
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
5
Universiti Malaya
Corresponding author’s e-mail: sinyeechu98@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the enactment of the Movement Control Order (MCO) in Malaysia
on 18 March 2020, leading to drastic changes in family life. This study aimed to examine the influence
of religion and religious coping on the psychological distress of Malaysian couples during the earlier
stage of the COVID-19 pandemic. Between April and June 2020, we collected data using an online
survey platform through snowball sampling to Malaysians who were married or cohabiting. Those who
agreed to participate answered the Brief Religious Coping Scale and the Depression Anxiety and Stress-
21. Most of the participants (N=199) were female (74.4%), 30 to 34 years old (21.5%), and Muslims
(47.9%). Mean scores of positive and negative religiosity copings were 22.6 (SD = 6.03) and 11.0 (SD
= 4.00) respectively. The results of three multiple linear regression models were significant for
depression (R2=.25, F (8, 198) = 8.007, p<.001), anxiety (R2=.30, F (8, 198) = 9.949, p<.001), and stress
(R2=.27, F (8, 198) = 8.415, p<.001). Positive religious coping was negatively associated with
depression (β=-.36, p<.001), anxiety (β=-.41, p<.001), and stress (β=-.40, p<.001) after adjusting for
demographic characteristics. Contrarily, negative religious coping was associated with higher
depression (β=-.29, p<.001), anxiety (β=-.26, p<.001), and stress (β=-.27, p<.001) levels. The results
suggest that positive religious coping such as focusing on religion to stop worrying and believing that
God’s tests are strengthening the individual can be a protective factor against psychological distress
among Malaysian couples. Vice versa, wondering if God is powerless or feeling punished by God was
associated with worse psychological distress. This study indicated that religion remains an important
consideration in psychological distress, and religious authorities and leaders may play a larger role in
ameliorating the distress felt by individuals through strengthening their positive religious coping.
Keywords: Religious coping; depression; anxiety; stress; relationship
432
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PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF THE EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS

INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE (EPIQ) IN MALAYSIA CONTEXT
Chua Bee Seok*, Getrude Cosmas &Norkiah Arsat

Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu
Corresponding author’s e-mail: chuabs@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Nurses must be prepared to respond to major disasters to meet the needs of those affected, and they
must also possess the knowledge needed for management of patients with special needs, such as the
elderly, children,and persons with mobility impairments. The objectives of the current study were to
assess the psychometric properties (e.g., reliability, validity, and item analysis) and to test the suitability
of the factorial model of the Emergency Preparedness Information Questionnaire (EPIQ) in Malaysia
context.
EPIQ contained 41 items that divided into four main dimensions to assess civilian nurses’ perceived
familiarity with nine competencies of emergency preparedness. A sample of 418 nurses from five
hospital in Sabah, Malaysia was selected randomly using a convenience sampling method. The nurses’
ages ranged from 22 to 58 years old with a mean of 35.91 (s.d = 8.76) years old and the mean of their
working experience was 12.39 years (s.d. = 9.28). There were 37.3% nurses participated in actual
disaster event before and 55.3% did not have that experience. They were asked to complete EPIQ, as
well as the Nurse Assessment of Readiness Scale (NARS) (for the validation purpose). The nine
dimensions of EPIQ demonstrated very high reliability with the internal consistency of Cronbach's
Alpha range from .82 to .94. The result of item analysis indicated that all the items of EPIQ are
acceptable and measurable in Malaysia context. The convergent validity of EPIQ was supported by an
expected pattern of correlations (positive and significant correlation) between the score among the nine
dimensions of EPIQ and positive and significant correlation between the nine dimensions of EPIQ score
and NARS score which measured the same construct. The pattern of the relationship between the
dimensions of EPIQ and score of Self-Regulation Scale confirmed the discriminant validity of EPIQ.
The results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported a good nine-factor model of EPIQ to fit the data.
This study has revealed EPIQ has strong psychometric properties, and it is reliable and valid to assess
nurses’ competencies in Malaysia context. We hoped that this instrument can be used by the Ministry
of Health Malaysia to evaluate nurses’ preparedness and competencies in managing disasters. Data
collected with EPIQ also can serve as reference for a curriculum designed for nursing schools in
Malaysia.
Keywords: The Emergency Preparedness Information Questionnaire (EPIQ), Confirmatory

Factor Analysis, reliability, validity, item analysis.
433
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ANXIETY, LIFE EVALUATION AND WELL-BEING OF BORNEAN YOUTHS DURING

PANDEMIC COVID-19
Chua Bee Seok*,Jasmine Adela Mutang, & Guan Tek Ee

Corresponding author’s e-mail: chuabs@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
COVID-19 pandemic has brought not only a high mortality rate from viral infection, but also has been
drastic changes at the individual life and cause various mental health problems. A study conducted in
China at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic revealed that various mental health problems, such
as anxiety, depression and panic disorder was triggered by the pandemic. This study aimed to examine
the perceived anxiety, and life evaluation among Bornean youths before and during pandemic Covid-
19 and predictive factors of the Bornean youths’ well-being during pandemic. There were 406 Borneo’s
youths (34% of male, 66% of female) were selected randomly using a snowball sampling method to
participate in the present study. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and was used to measure anxiety.
Satisfaction with Life Scale and Cantril’s Ladder of Life Scale were used to measure life evaluation,
and the Flourishing Scale measured well-being. The questionnaire was disseminated through the
snowball sampling technique. The study found the Bornean’s youths (N=406) perceived significantly
higher levels of life satisfaction and better life evaluation before pandemic compared to during
pandemic. In term of anxiety and well-being, Bornean youths perceived moderate level of state and
quite high level of trait anxiety. Surprisingly, the respondents reported a quite high level of well-being
during pandemic Covid-19. Multiple regression results revealed trait anxiety affected participants' well-
being negatively, but not state anxiety. Besides, the result also indicated that satisfaction with life
predicted Bornean youths’ well-being significantly and positively. This study revealed the negative
impact of pandemic on Bornean youths’ satisfaction with life, life evaluation and anxiety level.
Keywords: State and trait anxiety, life evaluation, well-being, Covid-19 pandemic, Bornean youths.
434
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A REVIEW ON THE IMPACTS OF SELF-ESTEEM TOWARDS PSYCHOLOGICAL

WELL-BEING AMONG CHILDREN FROM LOW-INCOME BACKGROUND
Diana Goh Fong* & Suwaibah Zakaria

*Corresponding author’s e-mail: dianagohfong97@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Self-esteem is an important psychological element that affects one's health and quality of life. Building
high self-esteem throughout one's life appears to be the most fundamental goal of mental, emotional,
and social wellness. Positive self-esteem is substantially related to both mental health and happiness,
and it consistently correlates with psychological well-being. Poor self-esteem can lead to a variety of
self-depreciation, self-defeating attitudes, mental illness, social difficulties, or dangerous behavior.
Children from low-income families are more likely to have low self-esteem. It could be because poor
households are unable to meet their basic needs, such as food, shelter, educational opportunities, and
clothing, in comparison to other well-off households. To explore the relationship between a low-income
background and children’s self-esteem and how self-esteem development affects their psychological
well-being. This study involved a systematic literature review of studies related to self-esteem and
psychological well-being of children from low-income backgrounds. Financial status and children's
self-esteem were shown to be strongly linked, with children from low-income families having lower
self-esteem and poorer psychological well-being, including a higher likelihood of depressive symptoms,
dissatisfaction with life, and suicidal attempts. Parental involvement, parenting style, and parental
awareness of their children's self-esteem development were all found to be essential mediators of
children's self-esteem development. Low self-esteem in children not only makes them less likely to be
accepted by friends, negatively impacting their social development, but it’s also linked to mental health
issues such as anxiety, depression, eating disorders, and externalizing issues such as aggression,
antisocial behavior, and delinquency. The family's financial level was significantly connected to the
children’s self-esteem and psychological well-being. This self-esteem serves as a preventative
mechanism against dangerous mental health problems and reflects their ability to deal efficiently with
difficulties in life.
Keywords: Self-esteem, psychological well-being, children, low-income, review
435
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DYADIC COPING, DOMESTIC ABUSE AND RELATIONSHIP QUALITY AMONG

MALAYSIAN COUPLES DURING THE COVID-19 MOVEMENT CONTROL ORDER
(MCO)
Jasmine Adela Mutang* & Chua Bee Seok

Corresponding author’s e-mail: jasmine@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The Movement Control Order (MCO) or lockdown during the COVID-19 pandemic has caused concern
and imposed challenges especially cohabiting couples. Couple has to deal with the impact of the
pandemic and cope with the challenges together thus impact their relationship. The study aimed to
determine the relationship between dyadic coping strategies, domestic violence and relationship quality
among couples in Malaysia. A web based cross-sectional study was conducted among 554 (men=244;
women=310) cohabiting (married, engaged and committed relationship) during the first MCO in
Malaysia. Data regarding socio-demographic profile, dyadic coping strategies, domestic violence, and
perceived relationship quality used during the first lockdown period were collected via Google Forms.
Finding showed that men reported higher stress communication than men, meanwhile women reported
higher delegated dyadic coping compared to men. A small number of participants reported domestic
psychological, physical and sexual abuse. Multiple regression analysis indicated that both dyadic
significantly predicted relationship quality among couples. The present study increases the knowledge
on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on couples’ relationship specifically the relationship of
dyadic coping strategies, domestic violence towards relationship quality during a global pandemic.
Keywords: COVID-19, Dyadic Coping, Domestic Violence, Relationship Quality, Couples
436
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PENGARUH PEMBOLEH UBAH JANTINA DALAM PERUNDINGAN KOLEKTIF

DALAM KALANGAN KESATUAN SEKERJA DI SABAH
Kee.Y.Sabariah Binti Kee Mohd Yussof

Corresponding author’s e-mail : keesabariah@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Amalan Interest Based Bargaining (IBB) adalah salah satu alternatif perundingan kolektif yang
diamalkan oleh kesatuan sekerja dan majikan untuk mengurangkan ketegangan dan konflik ketika
berunding. Walau bagaimanapun amalan IBB bukanlah satu strategi perundingan yang mudah diterima
dan diamalkan oleh kesatuan sekerja dan majikan. Perbezaan demografi responden iaitu jantina turut
mempengaruhi hasil perundingan kolektif. Selain itu faktor-faktor yang turut mempengaruhi adalah
kaedah pemimpin kesatuan sekerja menyelesaikan konflik, iklim organisasi, sikap kolektivisme dan
persepsi terhadap instrumentaliti kesatuan sekerja. Kajian ini bertujuan mengkaji faktor-faktor yang
mempengaruhi IBB dan menguji pemboleh ubah jantina sebagai faktor penyederhana antara pemboleh
ubah bersandar dan pemboleh ubah bebas. Kajian ini menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif dengan
menggunakan borang soal selidik yang mensasarkan pemimpin-pemimpin kesatuan sekerja di Sabah.
Pendekatan statistik diskriptif dan statistik inferensi digunakan untuk menganalisis data kajian. Dapatan
kajian menunjukkan persepsi terhadap instrumentaliti kesatuan sekerja intrinsik dan sikap kolektivisme
mempunyai hubungan yang positif dan signifikan dengan amalan IBB. Ini menunjukkan keyakinan
kepada kesatuan sekerja dalam memperjuangkan hak-hak intrinsik pekerja dan sikap kolektivisme
berupaya mempengaruhi pemimpin-pemimpin kesatuan sekerja untuk berunding menggunakan amalan
IBB. Manakala ujian pengaruh penyederhanaan melalui analisis regresi berganda menunjukkan bahawa
jantina tidak bertindak sebagai penyederhana terhadap hubungan di antara pendekatan pengurusan
konflik, iklim hubungan industri, sikap kolektivisme serta persepsi terhadap instrumentaliti kesatuan
sekerja dengan amalan IBB.
Keywords: Interest Based Bargaining (IBB), iklim hubungan industri, kolektivisme, Instrumentaliti
Kesatuan Sekerja, jantina.
437
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WORKPLACE SEXUAL HARASSMENT: INDIVIDUAL FACTORS
Malvin Tan Ping Chieng* & Sharon Kwan Sam Mee

*Corresponding author’s e-mail: malvintanpc@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Workplace sexual harassment in Malaysian organizations has been under the spotlight since its exposure
by local media recently. Previous research studies suggested that workplace sexual harassment has
evolved with the conduct aiming to condescend victims. The focus of this current research study was
to explore the individual factors that caused sexual harassment in Malaysia organizations. Interview
data from 20 participants who were recruited using purposive random sampling from 20 various
Malaysian organizations has been analyzed using Grounded Theory Methodology (Glaser and Strauss,
1976). The study explored two major individual factors that contributed to sexual harassment at work.
There are perception and attitude of both victims and perpetrators. We found the differences between
the perpetrator’s perception and the victim’s perception towards sexual harassment. Apart of physical
harassment, victims considered subjective jokes (verbal), showing obscene hand gesture (non-verbal),
and showing inappropriate pictures or messages (multimedia) behaviours are sexual harassment.
However, the victims considered verbal, non-verbal, and multimedia harassment are less offensive and
acceptable. The perpetrators also perceived these harassment behaviors are less harmful and are
acceptable by the victims. Most of the victims tended to ignore and keep silent when these sexual
behaviors happened, aimed to avoid any further troubles at the workplace. Eventually, it was too late
for the victims to take action when it prolonged. The attitude of ignoring and keeping silent did not stop
the perpetrators, in contrast, it encouraged the perpetrators to keep harassing and lead to more severe
harassment such as physical and desire for intimacy sexual harassment. The victims only tended to
voice or report to the organizations when they encountered physical harassment.
The victims need to report and voice to the organization if there is any sexual harassment occurs at the
workplace. Both the employees and organizations should actively work together to ensure a better
working environment for the employees by providing support and cultivating an organizational climate
that is hostile towards workplace sexual harassment.
Keywords: workplace sexual harassment, individual factors, organizational factors, organizational

support
438
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INDEX KESAHAN KANDUNGAN DAN KESAHAN MUKA : M-SOCRATES-S (MALAY

VERSION OF THE STAGES OF CHANGE READINESS AND TREATMENT EAGERNESS
SCALE FOR SMOKING CESSATION) DAN M-SSE (MALAY VERSION OF SMOKING SELF
EFFICACY)
Mohd Haazik Mohamed, Wanda Kiyah George Albert, Peter Voo Su Kiong, Ismail Maakip
Fredie Robinson
Corresponding author’s e-mail: haazik@ums.edu.my, haazik.chew@gmail.com
Abstrak
Penilaian terhadap kesediaan berhenti merokok dan efikasi kendiri merokok memainkan peranan yang
penting terhadap tindakan dan ketekalan tingkah laku berhenti merokok. Oleh yang demikian kajian ini
dijalankan bagi mengenalpasti nilai index kesahan kandungan dan keshan muka bagi alat ujian M-
SOCRATES-S (Malay Version of the Stages of Change Readiness and Treatment Eagerness Scale for
Smoking Cessation) dan M-SSE (Malay Version of Smoking Self Efficacy). Kajian ini juga dijalankan
bagi mengenalpasti kesesuaian kedua-dua alat ujian ini terhadap golongan perokok di Malaysia.
Seramai dua orang pakar bagi kesahan kandungan dan seramai 10 orang perokok telah dipilih bagi
kesahan muka. Hasil kajian menunjukkan nilai index S-CVI/UA bagi kesahan kandungan untuk alat
ujian M-SOCRATES-S Version adalah 0.95 manakala nilai index S-CVI/Ave adalah 0.98. Nilai index
CVI/UA dan S-CVI/Ave bagi kesahan kandungan bagi alat ujiat Smoking Self Efficacy-Malay Version
pula adalah sama iaitu 1.0. Nilai index S-FVI/Ave bagi kesahan muka untuk alat ujian M-SOCRATES-
S Version adalah 0.86 manakala nilai index S-FVI/Ave bagi kesahan muka untuk alat ujian Smoking
Self Efficacy-Malay Version pula adalah 0.87. Hasil kajian ini menunjukkan alat ujian S-SOCRATES-
Malay Version dan Smoking Self Efficacy-Malay Version mencatatkan nilai index yang baik dan sesuai
untuk dijalankan dalam kalangan perokok di Malasyia. Walau bagaimanapun, kajian rintis dalam
mengenalpasti kesahan-kesahan lain seperti kesahan konstruk dan analisis penerokaan faktor bagi
kedua-dua alat ujian ini adalah diperlukan.
Kata kunci: Kesediaan berhenti merokok, Efikasi kendiri merokok, kesahan kandungan, kesahan
muka
439
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ARE THERE ANY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GRADUATES AND EMPLOYERS IN

PERCEIVING THE IMPORTANCE OF JOB-RELATED SKILLS IN THE 4TH
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND IN TIME OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC?
Mohd Noorhisham Mahmud* & Getrude Cosmas

*Corresponding author’s e-mail: Mohdhisham0706@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Unemployability is one of the major concerns among graduates. Some employers apply strict
procedures in hiring graduates who can fulfill the job skills required for the Fourth Industrial
Revolution (4th IR) while facing an economic downturn during the Covid-19 pandemic. These may
affect graduates’ and employers’ perception of job-related skills needed during these times, leading to
gap perception for both parties. This paper explored past studies that focuses on the phenomenon to
understand any differences between the two groups’ perception of the importance of job-related skills
in the 4th IR and in the time of the pandemic. A narrative review method was used to explore literature
reviews that examined differences between the parties on the importance of job-related skills during the
4th IR and in time of pandemic. The discussion covered both local and global past studies. It was found
there is a lack of studies on the differences between employers’ and graduates’ perceptions of job-
related skills in a time of a pandemic. Therefore, the discussion focused on the differences between
employers’ and graduates’ perceptions of job-related skills during the era of 4th IR. Past studies showed
various and contradicted findings of gap perceptions between graduates and employers in the 4th IR and
the pandemic. It is suggested that an empirical study need to be conducted to understand the
employability challenges that include graduates and employers. This may clarify the differences that
exist between graduates and employers in perceiving significant job-related skills, particularly in the
era of the 4th IR and the Covid-19 pandemic.
Keywords: Employability skills, job-related skills, industrial revolutions related skills, Covid-19
Pandemic, graduates, employers
440
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MOM, I WANNA GO OUT! CHILDREN BURNOUT DURING MOVEMENT CONTROL

ORDER (MCO)
Noorma Razali*, Mazni Mustapha, & Suwaibah Zakaria

*Corresponding author’s e-mail: noorma@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The novel coronavirus (COVID-19) has spread across the world and resulting in significant changes in
almost all aspects daily life. Although literature shows that children are minimally susceptible to 2019-
Corona virus disease (COVID-19), they are hit the hardest by impact of this pandemic. Being
quarantined in homes may impose greater psychological burden than the physical sufferings caused by
the virus. School closure and lack of outdoor activities are likely to disrupt children’s usual activities.
These changes place children at increased risk for burnout. The purpose of this paper is to review the
concept of children burnout, discuss children burnout in the context of the current COVID-19 pandemic,
and focus specifically on the effects of socio-emotional development of children. Parents,
psychologists, government and non-governmental organizations have important roles to play to mitigate
the socio-emotional effects of COVID-19 on children. Implications for parents also will be discussed.
Keywords: COVID-19, children, burnout
KESAN EMOSI TERHADAP PENERIMAAN BANTUAN DAN HUBUNGANNYA DENGAN

KESEJAHTERAAN HIDUP DALAM KALANGAN ASNAF : SATU KAJIAN DI SABAH
Norafifah Bali, Wanda Kiyah George Albert, Norzihan Ayub, Mohd Haazik Mohamed,
Agnis Sombuling & Murnizam Halik
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: fifah_b@ums.edu.my
ABSTRAK
Golongan asnaf merupakan golongan yang mempunyai hak dalam menerima bantuan zakat melalui
institusi Baitulmal di setiap negeri di Malaysia. Pada masa ini, bantuan yang diberikan kepada golongan
ini adalah lebih berfokus kepada bantuan berunsur kewangan dalam aspek sosial dan ekonomi,
pendidikan dan mualaf. Bantuan-bantuan kewangan yang diberikan dapat membantu mengurangkan
beban kewangan yang dihadapi oleh golongan ini. Namun, di sebalik bantuan yang diberikan itu
memberikan makna yang berbeza dari segi persepsi dan sekaligus mempengaruhi kesejahteraan hidup
golongan asnaf ini secara keseluruhan. Kebanyakkan kajian-kajian lepas yang ditemui lebih banyak
menumpukan kepada kajian yang menjurus kepada isu berkaitan pengurusan institusi zakat dan juga
keberkesanan pemberian bantuan kewangan ini kepada kehidupan golongan asnaf. Kajian-kajian yang
menjurus kepada penerokaan isu yang melibatkan aspek psikologi dalam golongan asnaf ini masih lagi
kurang dilakukan dan diberikan perhatian. Memandangkan golongan asnaf merupakan kelompok yang
dikategorikan dalam golongan rentan, maka terdapat keperluan kepada golongan profesion menolong
untuk mengkaji isu yang melibatkan aspek psikologi ini. Oleh itu, kertas konsep ini membincangkan
mengenai kesan emosi penerimaan bantuan bantuan institusi zakat terhadap kesejahteraan hidup
golongan asnaf.
Keywords: Kesan emosi, kesejahteraan hidup, asnaf, zakat
441
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NURSES’ READINESS IN DEALING WITH COVID-19 PANDEMICS IN SABAH

Norkiah Arsat, Chua Bee Seok, & Getrude Cosmas
*Corresponding author’s e-mail : norkiah.arsat@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Nurses are among the largest staff who play the most important role in the health service delivery system
to the community. Since the COVID-19 outbreak, nurses have been involved directly in dealing with
COVID-19 pandemic, from the screening stage to the stage where patients are in critical condition, in
addition to other duties and responsibilities as nurses. Accordingly, nurses should be prepared with the
knowledge, competencies and skills essential in managing a crisis or a major disaster such as the
COVID-19 crisis. Thus, the current study aims to explore the level of nurses’ readiness in dealing with
the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak in Sabah, Malaysia. This study was to explore the level of nurses’
readiness in dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic and to identify the differences in the level of
readiness of nurses in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic according to demographic characteristics
(age and work experience) among nurses in Sabah. Cross-sectional, convenience sampling technique,
self-administered survey method to collect the data involving 317 nurses in Sabah, Malaysia who have
experience in COVID-19 pandemic disaster. The Nurses’ Assessment of Readiness Scale (NARS)
contains two items. Item 1 measures the overall assessment of nurses' familiarity in providing feedback
/readiness in cases involving large-scale emergency events (e.g., COVID-19) and item 2 measures if
nurses have to respond to major disasters in the hospital / community today, how well do nurses feel
prepared to respond effectively? The score range for the two items is between 1 to 5. The mean score
for the first item is mean = 3.32 while for the second item is mean = 3.50. These findings suggest that
the readiness of nurses in dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic is at a moderate level. The results
showed significant differences by age category of nurses (F (3,267) = 2.81, p = .040) and nurses ’work
experience(F (3,293) = 2.68, p = .047) in the aspect of readiness to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Nurses in the age category between 31 and 35 years had a significantly higher readiness to respond to
the COVID-19 pandemic than nurses aged 40 years. Work experience between 8 and 15 years (mean =
7.21, SP = 1.56) significantly showed higher readiness to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic than
nurses with work experience 15 years and above (mean = 6.41, SP = 1.65). Nurses’ level of readiness
in dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic in Sabah is at a moderate level. Previous researchers reported
that nurses had a low level of readiness in dealing with COVID-19. There were significant differences
by age category and work experience of nurses in terms of readiness to respond to COVID-19 outbreaks.
These findings suggest the importance of training, experience and educational programs for nurses to
control, deal with and prevent COVID-19 infection as well as other potential disasters in the future.
Keywords : Nurses readiness, COVID-19 pandemic.
442
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A SOLUTION-FOCUSED BRIEF THERAPY (SFBT) STRUCTURED

PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL GROUP MODULE IN IMPROVING SKILL OF
COMMUNICATION, COPING AND SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE AMONG MARRIED
INDIVIDUALS
Norlizah Matshah*1, Noor Asniza Ishak2 & Siti Rozaina Kamsani2

1
2
Universiti Utara Malaysia
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: norlizah@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Solution Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) has gained a significant influence and worldwide popularity
in helping profession despite of its unconventional approach. In fact, wide growing body of research
started focusing on evaluating its efficacy and effectiveness with diverse groups of clients and
presenting issues. However, in Malaysia there are still lack of literature studies showing on the widely
use of SFBT. Similarly in evaluating its effectiveness in working with diverse issues and clients. As
such, this conceptual paper is presenting a psychoeducational group module using SFBT in improving
skill of communication, coping and spiritual intelligence among married individuals. Communication,
coping, and spiritual become the targeted skills due to the evidence-based research proving the
essentiality of them in maintaining a good marital relationship. Furthermore, with the alarming divorce
cases that keep rising year by year in Malaysia, action needs to be taken by many respective parties. As
such, this module is design to help in this matter. On the other hand, since statistics divorce cases in
Malaysia involve marriages below than ten years thus this module is targeted for married individuals
whose marriage is below than ten years. Instruments that will be used to measure all the dependent
variables are the Primary Communication Inventory (PCI) for communication skill, Dyadic Coping
Inventory (DCI) for coping skill and Integrated Spiritual Intelligence Scale (ISIS) for spiritual
intelligence skill. To evaluate the effectiveness of the module, an experimental method of pre and post
will be conducted by comparing the result between the control and treatment groups.
Key words: SFBT, psychoeducational group, communication, coping, spiritual intelligence
443
e ISBN : 978-967-25882-0-7
KEBERKESANAN PENGURUSAN KEMARAHAN TERHADAP KEMARAHAN DAN

AGRESIF DALAM KALANGAN PENAGIH DADAH
Norzihan Ayub* ,Patricia Joseph Kimong, Carmella E. Ading,

Azahar Che Latiff, Norafifah Bali
*Corresponding author’s e-mail:norzihan@ums.edu.my
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti keberkesanan pengurusan kemarahan terhadap kemarahan
dan agresif dalam kalangan penagih dadah. Seramai 20 orang responden lelaki terlibat dalam kajian ini.
Responden telah dibahagikan kepada dua kelompok iaitu kelompok rawatan (N=10) dan kelompok
kawalan (N =10) menerusi kaedah persampelan bertujuan. Kelompok rawatan telah menerima sebanyak
lapan sesi kelompok intervensi. Novaco Anger scale and Provocation Inventory (NAS-PI) telah
digunakan untuk mengukur kemarahan responden dan Aggression Questionnaire (AQ) telah digunakan
untuk mengukur tingkah laku agresif responden. Data telah dianalisis dengan menggunakan Analysis
of covariance (ANCOVA) pada tahap signifikan 0.05. Keputusan telah menunjukkan bahawa terdapat
perbezaan min ujian pra dan min ujian pasca pada skala kemarahan dan subskala kemarahan iaitu
kognitif, kebangkitan dan tingkah laku. Sementara itu tidak ada perbezaan pada subskala kemarahan
iaitu pengaturan kemarahan yang ditunjukkan oleh kelompok rawatan dan kelompok kawalan.
Keputusan turut menunjukkan bahawa terdapat perbezaan min ujian pra dan min ujian pasca pada
skala provokasi. Akhir sekali keputusan menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan pada min ujian pra dan min
ujian pasca ke atas agresif. Berdasarkan dapatan kajian dapat disimpulkan bahawa pendekatan
pengurusan kemarahan merupakan satu intervensi peringkat awal dalam menangani kemarahan dan
agresif khususnya dalam kalangan penagih dadah. Implikasi utama dapatan kajian dan beberapa saranan
untuk kajian masa depan turut dibincangkan.
Kata Kunci: Pengurusan kemarahan, kemarahan, agresif, penagih dadah
444
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PERKAITAN KONFLIK KERJA DAN KELUARGA TERHADAP KEPUASAN

KEIBUBAPAAN DALAM KALANGAN WANITA BEKERJA SEMASA TEMPOH
PERINTAH KAWALAN PERGERAKAN (PKP)
Nur Syafiqah Binti Tassaka1, Agnis Sombuling*1, Laila Meiliyandrie Indah Wardani2
1
2
Universitas Mercu Buana, Indonesia
Corresponding author’s e-mail: agness@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Pandemik Covid-19 yang melanda seluruh dunia pada tahun 2020 sehingga sekarang telah memberi
kesan kepada semua aspek kehidupan manusia termasuklah pengaruh konflik kerja dan keluarga
terhadap kepuasaan keibubapaan wanita bekerja. Oleh yang demikian kajian ini dilakukan untuk
mengkaji pengaruh konflik kerja dan keluarga terhadap tahap kepuasan ibu bapa dalam kalangan wanita
dwikerjaya sepanjang tempoh PKP. Seramai 339 respondan yang terdiri daripada wanita yang berkerja
dari seluruh negara telah mengikuti kajian ini. Para responden dikehendaki untuk menjawab soal selidik
yang terdiri daripada Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC) dan Work-Family Conflict Scale
(WAFCS). Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa konflik kerja dan konflik keluarga yang dialami oleh
responden akan mempengaruhi tahap kepuasan keibubapaan dalam kalangan wanita sepanjang tempoh
PKP. Konflik kerja dan konflik keluarga yang dihadapi oleh wanita yang berperanan sebagai pekerja
dan ibu dalam rumahtangga mempengaruhi kepuasaan keibubapaan wanita tersebut. Adalah amat
penting untuk mengkaji perkara ini dengan lebih mendalam dalam kajian-kajian seterusnya supaya
pihak tertentu dapat membantu bagaimana untuk mengurangkan konflik kerjad an keluarga dalam
kalangan wanita bekerja terutamanya semasa pandemik.
Keywords: personaliti big five, daya ketahanan, pandemik Covid-19
445
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MEMAHAMI FAKTOR PEMBENTUKAN DAYA TAHAN REMAJA DI KAWASAN

BERISIKO: KAJIAN DI MIRI, SARAWAK
Azlin Alwi1, Magdeline anak Nor*2, Sariati Azman3, Pamilia Lourdunathan1

1
Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia
2
IPG Kampus Sarawak
3
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
1
Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: magsmks@yahoo.com.my
ABSTRAK
Isu kesihatan mental dan masalah tingkah laku melibatkan golongan muda di Malaysia agak
membimbangkan (Nokman, 2016; Yusoff, 2010). Kajian-kajian yang dijalankan untuk memahami
kesejahteraan remaja juga menunjukkan peningkatan kes salah laku dalam kalangan remaja yang hidup
di kawasan berisiko dengan kualiti kesihatan yang rendah. Oleh kerana itu, kajian penyelidikan ini
bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti faktor pembentukan daya tahan remaja dengan harapan dapat memberi
kefahaman tentang faktor daya tahan yang membantu remaja-remaja yang berisiko atau pun tidak
berisiko. Kajian ini menggunakan reka bentuk penyelidikan kualitatif untuk mendapatkan maklumat
secara terperinci dan mendalam. Kaedah pengumpulan data adalah berdasarkan temu bual terperinci
untuk memahami faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi daya tahan dalam kalangan remaja yang tinggal di
kawasan berisiko. Instrumen kajian utama yang digunakan dalam kajian ini dibina oleh para penyelidik
bagi mendapatkan maklumat tentang pembentukan daya tahan remaja di kawasan berisiko. Kaedah
analisis tema dijalankan berdasarkan data dari temu bual. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan terdapat lima
faktor utama yang membentuk daya tahan (resilience) remaja di Miri, iaitu individu, keluarga, sekolah
dan rakan sebaya, dan komuniti. Keluarga dilihat sebagai faktor penyumbang paling kuat atau paling
hampir dengan remaja itu sendiri yang secara langsung atau tidak langsung membentuk keperibadian
atau perwatakan individu itu dan seterusnya barulah individu itu sendiri. Pembentukan peribadi dan
sikap individu itu seterusnya menjadikan mereka seorang yang mempunyai ciri-ciri daya tahan yang
kuat walaupun mereka berada di dalam persekitaran atau kawasan berisiko. Dalam masa yang sama,
sekolah dan rakan-rakan serta komuniti setempat juga secara tidak langsung turut memainkan peranan
dalam membentuk kekuatan daya tahan remaja tersebut.
Kata Kunci: daya tahan, kawasan berisiko, remaja
446
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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ETHNOCULTURAL EMPATHY AND

ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR (OCB) AMONG PUBLIC SERVANTS IN
SABAH
Razima Hanim binti Osman1*,Mariny binti Abdul Ghani2,Norzaliza binti Alis2

1
Universiti Utara Malaysia

2
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: razima@ums.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) throughout literatures provides evidence that benefits for
both employees and the organizations in terms of increasing the level of employees’ well-being, work
satisfaction, customers’ satisfaction as well as the quality of work performance. Hence, it is important
to understand the possible reasons behind the occurence of OCB in order to increase the likelihood of
employees to engage in OCB. Based on the prosocial motivational concept, empathy is the main
motivator to helping behaviours thus open up the possibility of linkage between empathy and extra-role
behaviours such as OCB. Moreover, this linkage is important for public employees especially those
who are working in the organizations that have multi-ethnic employees as well as providing services to
meet vast of societal needs and demands. The present article set out to examine the relationship between
ethnocultural empathy and OCB among public employees in Sabah. A cross-sectional survey was used
to gather a response of 213 public employees who are working in the Jabatan Pendaftaran Negara
Negeri Sabah (JPN) based on the selected districts in Sabah. Results showed positive relationships
between organizational citizenship behaviour-individual (OCBI) with empathic feeling and expressions
(EFE), empathic perspective taking (EPT), and empathic awareness (EA) dimensions. Results also
showed positive relationships between organizational citizenship behaviour-organization (OCBO) with
only EFE and EPT dimensions. By focusing the aspect of culture in empathy such as ethnocultural
empathy can help researchers to understand how culture influence the cognition and emotions of
individuals to understand other people’s experiences especially those who have different cultural and
ethnic background. Apart from that, the concept itself strengthen the ability to understand the thinking
and feeling of others in their cultural context thus increases the likelihood to perform extra-role
behaviour such as OCB.
Keywords: Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB), ethnocultural empathy, public employees
447
e ISBN : 978-967-25882-0-7
ASSESSING SELF-ESTEEM, SELF-EFFICACY AND

PARENT-ADOLESCENT COMMUNICATION OF RISKY SEXUALLY ACTIVE
ADOLESCENTS IN RELATION TO ADOLESCENT
SEXUAL RISK-TAKING BEHAVIOUR
*Samita Karunaharan & Rosnah Ismail

University of Cyberjaya.
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: researchbysamita@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Parents play a crucial role in shaping normative behavior for their children. They serve as a guide and
educate adolescents to learn responsible behavior towards sexual behaviour. Adolescents engaging in
sexual risk-taking behaviours may experience negative psychological and social outcomes, and there
can be consequent interference with the accomplishment of developmental tasks. This study aims to
assess relationship between parent-adolescent communication and adolescents’ sexual risk-taking
behavior. The general objective of this study is to investigate the factors that contribute to sexual risk-
taking behavior of adolescents. This is a mixed method design where it will implement both quantitative
and qualitative method. A total of 260 participants will be selected. The participants will be 20 to 24
years old, unmarried, male or female, who are sexually active and willing to have an open conversation.
The participants will be selected based on stratified sampling method in 10 private clinics at Kuala
Lumpur. The participants will be administered with four instruments to assess on adolescents’ self-
esteem, self-efficacy and parent-adolescent communication and then followed by anonymous written
in-depth interview based on convenience sampling for 10 participants. Results of the study will reflect
awareness and understanding on the parent-adolescent factors contributing to risky adolescents’ sexual
behavior which can eventually reduce their sexual risk-taking behavior. A framework will be proposed
according to the findings of the study. Intervention programmes will be aimed at increasing self-esteem
and self-efficacy in a family system.
Keywords: Adolescent, Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy, Parent-Adolescent Communication, Sexual Risk-

Taking Behaviour
448
e ISBN : 978-967-25882-0-7
INDEX KESAHAN KANDUNGAN M-AC-QOL (ADULT CARER QUALITY OF LIFE-

MALAY VERSION)
Wanda Kiyah George Albert¹*, Mohd Haazik Mohamed¹, Adi Fahrudin²

Norafifah Bali¹
1
2
Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta
*Corresponding author’s e-mail : wanda@ums.edu.my
ABSTRAK
Kualiti hidup merupakan salah satu indikator yang digunakan untuk mengukur kesejahteraan hidup
seseorang individu terutamanya penjaga keluarga pesakit kronik yang berada pada fasa terminal kerana
pada fasa ini pesakit kronik ini memerlukan penjagaan yang rapi dan berterusan daripada ahli keluarga
mereka. Oleh yang demikian, penggunaan alat ujian dalam kajian ini perlu bersesuaian dengan populasi
kajian ini. Tujuan kajian ini dijalankan adalah untuk menilai kesahan kandungan Adult Carer Quality
Of Life versi Bahasa Melayu bagi menentukan kesesuaian penggunaan instrumen terhadap penjaga
pesakit kanser kronik yang berada pada fasa terminal di Malaysia. Seramai dua orang pakar bahasa dan
tiga orang pakar dalam bidang kerja sosial yang banyak terlibat dalam kajian penjagaan sosial ini telah
terlibat di dalam proses menjalankan kesahan Kandungan alat kajian M-AC-QOL. Proses
penterjemahan dan adaptasi borang telah dijalankan berdasarkan panduan piawai. Tiada item yang
digugurkan ketika proses penilaian oleh ketiga-tiga pakar penilai kerana kesemua item didapati sesuai
dan berkaitan dengan kesejahteraan hidup dan penglibatan sosial dalam kalangan penjaga utama pesakit
kanser kronik di Malaysia. Kesahan kandungan yang dijalankan oleh 3 orang pakar tersebut juga
didapati tinggi. Jumlah keseluruhan skala index atau Scale-Content Validity Instrument-universal
agreement (S-CVI/UA) bagi kesahan kandungan untuk alat ujian M-AC-QOL adalah 0.85. Manakala
purata nilai scale-content validity index/Average S-CVI/Ave pula adalah 0.88. Seterusnya nilai index
Subcale Item-level face validity index S-FVI/Ave bagi kesahan muka untuk alat ujian M-AC-QOL
adalah 0.80. Selain itu, satu ujian pra telah dijalankan terhadap 10 orang penjaga pesakit kanser fasa
terminal bagi menilai kefahaman terhadap setiap item yang terdapat dalam instrumen M-AC-QOL.
Hasil kajian ini menunjukkan alat ujian M-AC-QOL mencatatkan nilai index agak baik dan sesuai
digunakan untuk populasi penjaga pesakit kanser yang mendapatkan perkhidmatan penjagaan paliatif
di pusat penjagaan paliatif dan hospis yang terdapat di sekitar Malaysia. Walaupun alat kajian ini telah
menjalani kesahan kandungan dan kesahan muka melalui pakar kesahan kandungan alat ujian dan
kesahan muka dengan penjaga pesakit kronik yang berada pada fasa terminal namun satu kajian rintis
lagi perlu dijalankan untuk melihat kesahan-kesahan lain seperti kesahan konstruk dan analisis
penerokaan faktor untuk alat ujian ini.
Kata kunci: Kualiti Hidup, kesahan kandungan, pesakit kanser fasa terminal
449
e ISBN : 978-967-25882-0-7
THE EFFECT OF WORKFORCE DIVERSITY ON JOB PERFORMANCE AMONG

PRIVATE SECTOR EMPLOYEES IN MALAYSIA
Wong Ying Huan & Jasmine Adela Mutang

*Corresponding author’s e-mail: yinghuan99@gmail.com1
ABSTRACT
Workforce diversity has been gaining concern from organizatio``ns worldwide, as it is viewed as the
foundation for innovation and creativity that can result in positive organizational outcomes such as
excellent job performance. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the effect of workforce
diversity (gender diversity, age diversity, ethnic diversity and educational background diversity) on job
performance among private sector employees in Malaysia. Workforce Diversity Scale (WDS) and
Individual Work Performance Questionnaire (IWPQ) were used in the study. Data were collected using
Google Form. Snowball sampling technique was applied in this quantitative cross-sectional study to
recruit 150 private sector servants aged 20 years old and above with at least one year work experience.
Data analysis showed that all four-workforce diversity significantly predicted job performance and
overall explained 22.6% of the variance (R=.226, F (4, 145) = 10.56, p<.05). Specifically, gender
diversity (ß=.36, p<.05), age diversity (ß=.42, p<.05), ethnic diversity (ß=.42, p<.05) and educational
background diversity (ß=.29, p<.05). Results indicated that it is essential for organizations to value the
diversity among workforce and implement effective diversity management to ensure positive
organizational outcomes.
Keywords: Workforce diversity, job performance, employees, private sector
450
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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HELICOPTER PARENTING AND NONSUICIDAL

Conference Paper · September 2021

Charles Ganaprakasam Syeda Humayra

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Associate Professor Dr. Chua Bee Seok

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Borneo Psychology Seminar 2021 Proceedings

Associate Professor Dr. Chua Bee Seok

1. Development of a Parent Training Module to Improve the Well Being of 1-6

2. Hubungan Efikasi Kendiri Kaunseling Dan Kompetensi Kaunseling Spiritual 7-15

6. The Effect Of Online Learning And Procrastination Behaviour On Well-Being 60-77

7. Kecerdasan Emosi Murid Sekolah Menengah Di Kota Kinabalu 78-85

8. Mediation Strategies and Its Role on Preteens’ Media-Induced Risk of 86-92

12. The Relationship Between Loneliness, Personality Differences, Motivation 125-134

13. Love, Trust and Commitment in Preserving Long-Distance Marital 135-143

14. Culture And Psychological Help-Seeking Attitude 144-154

15. Pengaruh Gaya Keibubapaan Dan Pengetahuan Keagamaan Ke Atas 155-195

18. Disaster Management Of Emergency Workers: Psychological Perspective 229-237

20. Sustainability of Technical and Vocational Training Education Based on 246-260

21. Differences In Social Support Based On Demographic Factors Among 261-267

25. Psychological Abuse In Adolescents’ Interpersonal Relationship: An 308-322

26. Attitude towards Covid-19 Vaccination Program 323-335

29. Teachers Knowledge and Attitudes on Inclusive Education 356-365

32. Changing Landscape of Friendship During COVID-19 in Sabah, Malaysia: A 389-397

33. Development and Implementation of Assessment Program for Hotel 398-415

34. Research On The Relationship Between Psychological Capital And 416-419

35. Influences of Depression and Loneliness Towards Binge-Watching Behavior 420-427

36. Abstracts Without Full Paper 428-450

DEVELOPMENT OF A PARENT TRAINING MODULE TO

Background: Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication,

Keywords: autism, autism parent training, HRQoL

Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication, restricted,

Health Related Quality of Life among Children with Autism

Contents of the Better Life Parent Training Module

The BLPTM consists of 5 units, as follows:

Unit 2 Physical Functioning

Unit 3 Emotional Functioning

Unit 4 Social Functioning

Unit 5 School Functioning

HUBUNGAN EFIKASI KENDIRI KAUNSELING DAN KOMPETENSI

Secara konsisten, kajian menunjukkan bagaimana kaunselor pelatih mengelak dalam

Efikasi Kendiri Kaunseling

Daripada penerangan-penerangan di atas berkenaan makna spiritual ini kita dapat

Kompetensi Kaunseling Spiritual

(i) budaya dan pandangan alam

Teori Kognitif Sosial

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy : The Exercise of Control. New York, NY : Freeman.

THE EFFECTS OF BOREDOM AND DISTRESS TOLERANCE ON

Ayleah Paz Sim Aquino*, Patricia Joseph Kimong

Keywords: boredom, distress tolerance, PIU

Problematic Internet use

Factors associated with PIU

PIU among university students

Literature review on boredom

Boredom in flow theory

Literature review on distress tolerance

Model of distress tolerance

Perceived capacity for distress tolerance

Tolerance of frustration looks at individual differences in the perceived capacity to withstand