ECEG 4155

Electrical measurement and

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 Basicsof Measurements and
Instrumentation

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Measurement
 An act or result of comparison between an Unknown
quantity with a predefined standard and after the
comparison results are expressed in numerical values
What is Instrumentation?
An art of measurement or use of measuring instrument to
serve the desired functions of Indicating, Recording &
Controlling actions.

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Measurement standards are defined in four (4)
categories
1.International Standard
2.Primary Standard
3.Secondary Standard
4.Working Standard

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Two requirements to make measurement meaning full
 The standards used must be accurately defined and
universal accepted
 The apparatus & method for measurement should be
provable

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1. Direct 2 Indirect
method method

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 The measurand ( unknown qty) is directly compared
against a standard, & results is in terms of numbers and
units
 Not possible
 Not feasible
 Not practicable
 Egs:
◦ Length
◦ Mass
◦ Time

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 Effect of the measurand on another known characteristics
or element is measured as a new quantity
 direct methods are not possible for measurement

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Measurement by conversion
 the measurand is converted into directly measurable
quantity
Measurement by substitution
 The element carrying the measurand is placed into the
measuring device, and then substituted by some
accurately known standard.
The application of null method.
 Bridges method uses the null method which has a high
degree of accuracy.

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Purpose in industrial manufacturing and processing
 Improve the quality of the product
 Improve the efficiency of production
 Maintain the proper operation

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SENSING ELEMENT:
 This is in contact with the process and gives an output
which depends in some way on the variable to be measured.
Examples
 Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on
temperature
 Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain

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SIGNAL CONDITIONING ELEMENT:
 This takes the output of the sensing element and converts it
into a form more suitable for further processing, usually a
d.c. voltage, d.c. current or frequency signal.
 Examples
 Deflection bridge which convert an impedance change into
a voltage change
 Amplifier which amplifies millivolts to volts

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Signal processing element:
 This takes the output of the conditioning element and
converts it into a form more suitable for presentation
Example
 Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a
voltage into a digital form for input to a computer.
 Computer which calculates the measured value of the
variable from the incoming digital data.

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Data presentation element:
 This presents the measured value in a form which can
be easily recognized by the observer.
Examples
 Alphanumeric display
 Chart recorder
 Visual display unit (VDU).

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 1. MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS

 2. ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS

 3. ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

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 VERY STATIC AND STABLE
 NOT FOR DYNAMIC APPLICATIONS
 they have moving parts, and hence Inertia problems
arises

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 Devices that used to describe physical properties of
electricity.
 eg,. Electric current, voltage, etc
 OUTPUT IS GENERALLY A MECHANICAL
MOVEMENTS
 LIMITED TIME OF RESPONSE

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 Devices consisting of a large number of small complex
parts of that utilize electricity.
Eg. Electronic computers or microchip
 More reliable
 Higher sensitivity
 Recording capabilities
 Measured and monitored even in remote locations
 Lower weight
 Lesser power consumption

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 When measurand is either
constant or slow varying
 A set of criteria that gives
meaningful description of
the quality of measurement
STATIC
CHARACTERISTICS
 Instruments and
measurements involved in
rapidly varying quantities
 To establish a relation b/w
the input and output in
terms of mathematical
equations
DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS
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 The process of checking the instrument against a
known standard and………………….

 Subsequently to find

 ERRORS

 ACCURACY

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 Accuracy . Reproducibility
 Precision . Linearity
 Sensitivity .Dead Time
 Dead Zone .Drift
 Resolution . Threshold
 Repeatability .Hysteresis
 Static Error .Range or Span
 Stability .Tolerance

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 Accuracy : - Closeness with which an instrument
reading approaches true value of the quantity being
measured

 Sensitivity : - Infinitesimal change in o/p

 Infinitesimal change in I/p

 Linearity : When the o/p is proportional to i/p

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 Dead time : - The time required by a measurement
system to begin to respond to change in the measurand

 Dead Zone : - Largest change of input quantity for

which there is no output of the instrument

 Reproducibility :- degree of closeness with which a

given value may be repeatedly measured
 Drift :- a slow variation to output of measuring system
which is not due to any change with the input quantity.

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 Drift may be classified into three categories:
a) zero drift
If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage,
permanent set, or due to undue warming up of electronic
tube circuits
b) span drift or sensitivity drift
If there is proportional change in the indication all along
the upward scale
c) Zonal drift
In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an
instrument
Range or span
The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an
instrument is designed to measure is called its range or span.

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 Resolution
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will
again be found that output does not change at all until a certain
increment is exceeded. This increment is called resolution.
Threshold:
If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will
be some minimum value below which no output change can be
detected
Stability:
It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is
specified operating life.
Tolerance
The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in
terms of some value

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 Repeatability
It is defined as the variation of scale reading & random in
nature Drift
 Precision
it is the measure of Reproducibility of the measurement that is
given a fixed value of variable.
 Hysteresis
 When the input of an instrument varied from zero to its full scale
and then if the input is decreased from its full scale to zero, the
output varies.

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 Speed of Response

 Measuring Lag

 Fidelity

 Dynamic error

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Rapidity with which
a measurement
system responds to
changes in the
measured quantity
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 Retardation type  Time Delay type

 Response of the  The response of the

measurement systems system begins after a
begins immediately
after a change in dead time
measured quantity has even after the
occured application of input

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 FIDELITY  DYNAMIC ERROR

 Difference between the

 Ability of the measuring
true value and the
system to indicate the
quantity under
changes in the measured
measurement changing
quantity without any
with time
dynamic error

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 Δa = Am - At
 Δa = Static error
Absolute error

 e= - (Δa)

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 Ԑr = Absolute error/ true value

 Δa / At = ԑo/At ; Δa = Am – At
 At= Am – Δa,
 At = Am - ԑo, WE KNOW THAT ԑo =ԑr. At

 At = Am - ԑr.At,
 At = Am/ (1+ԑr)

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 Deviations from the nominal value ( specified Value)
of a particular quantity

 Aa = A s + δA
 or
 Aa = A s - δA
 Aa = Assured Value
 A s = Nominal value
 δA = error

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 Ԑr = Aa – AS/ AS

 Defined as the ratio of the ERROR to the specified

magnitude of the quantity

 Aa – AS = Error

 AS= Nominal value or magnitude of the qty

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Gross Errors : - By human
mistakes in reading,
Systematic Errors
recording , calculations,
observing measurements

1. Instrumental Errors 2. Environmental Errors 3. Observational Errors

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 It is because of
◦1. Inherent short comings in the
Instrument

◦2. Misuse of the Instrument

◦3. Loading Effect

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 Errors because of
◦ 1.Un known happenings
◦ 2. Unaware disturbances
◦ 3. Very small factors

◦ Lumped together to give this errors

◦ Also called as RESIDUAL ERRORS

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RANDOM ERROR :- Analysis

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 Repeated measurements of given quantity are done by
using different

◦A. Test conditions

◦B. Instruments
◦C. Different methods and ways
◦D. Different Observers
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 HISTOGRAM
 ARITHMETIC MEAN
 STANDARD DEVIATION
 DISPERSION
 RANGE
 Statistical approach
 are used to optimize errors

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DUMB INSTRUMENTATION
 the conventional instrumentation system the data should be
processed by the observer
INTELLIGENT INSTRUMENTATION
 Use of digital computer for evaluating physical variables in
instrumentation system
 After measurement of physical variable further
processing is carried out.

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Thank You

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