DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Unit – I

Introduction to Data Communication, Network, Protocols & standards and standard

organizations – Line Configuration – Topology- Transmission mode- Classification
of Network – OSI Model – Layers of OSI Model.

Introduction to Data Communication

Data
 The word data refers to collection of facts, concepts and instructions.
 Some of the forms of data used in communications are as follows: Text,
Numbers, Images, Audio and Video.
 In computer information systems, data are represented by binary information
units (or bits) produced and consumed in the form of 0s and 1s.

Data Communication
 Data communications is the exchange of data (in the form of 0s and 1s) between
two devices via some form of transmission medium (such as a wire cable).
 This process involves a communication system made up of a combination of
hardware and software.

Characteristics of Data Communication

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on three
fundamental characteristics:
 Delivery:
The system must deliver data to the correct destination and correct user.
 Accuracy:
The communication system must deliver the data accurately. The data
may get corrupted during transmission it affecting the accuracy of the delivered
data.
 Timeliness:
- The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless.
- Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any
delay; such a data delivery is called real time transmission of data.

Components of Data Communication

A Data Communication system has five components as shown in the diagram
below:

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1. Message
- The Message is the information (data) to be communicated by the sender to the
receiver.
- It can consist of text, numbers, images, audio or video etc..,
2. Sender
- The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).
- It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver
- The receiver is the device that receives the message.
- It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
4. Transmission Medium
- The Transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver.
- It can be wired or wireless.
5. Protocol
- A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication.
- It represents an agreement between set or rules used by the sender and receiver
to communicate data.

Network
Computer Networks are used for data communications.

Definition:
 A computer network can be defined as a set of devices (collection of nodes)
connected by communication links.
 A node can be any device capable of transmitting (sending) or receiving data.

Distributed Processing
Networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple
computers. Instead of a single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a
process, each separate computer handles a subset.

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Advantages of distributed processing:
 Security/ Encapsulation
 Distributed databases
 Faster problem solving
 Security through redundancy
 Collaborative processing.

Network criteria
A network must be able to meet these three criteria’s:
 Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time.
- Transit Time: is the time required for a message to travel from one device
to another.
- Response Time: is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the
number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected hardware and the efficiency of the software.
 Reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes to recover
from a failure, and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
 Security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access and Viruses.

Applications of Networking
The network applications in different fields are the following:
 Marketing and sales
 Financial services
 Manufacturing
 Electronic messaging
 Directory services
 Information services
 Electronic data interchange (EDI)
 Teleconferencing
 Cellular telephone
 Cable television

Protocols & standards

Protocols
 A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
 A protocol defines: what is communicated, how it is communicated, & when it is
communicated.

Key elements of a protocol

There are three elements of a protocol:
 Syntax:

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 - The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data.
- It is the arrangement of data in a particular order.
 Semantics:
- The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
- It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the interpretation.
 Timing:
- The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast they can be sent.

Examples of Protocols:
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 Internet Protocol (IP)
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Telnet
 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (http)

Standards
 Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers and vendors to ensure
national and international interconnectivity.
 Data communications standards are classified into two categories:
1. De facto Standard
- These are the standards that have been traditionally used and mean by
fact or by convention
- These standards are not approved by any organized body but are adopted
by widespread use.
2. De jure standard
- It means by law or by regulation.
- These standards are legislated and approved by the body that is officially
recognized.

Standard organizations
Standards are developed by cooperation among standards creation committees,
forums, and government regulatory agencies.

Examples of Standard Creation Committees:

1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
2. International Telecommunications Union – Telecommunications Standard (ITU-T)
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
4. Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
5. Electronic Industries Associates (EIA)

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Examples of Forums:
1. (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) ATM Forum and ATM consortium
2. Internet Society (ISOC) and Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
3. Frame Relay Forum
Examples of Regulatory Agencies:
1. Federal Communications Committee (FCC)

Line Configuration
 Line Configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices attach
to a link.
 A link is the physical communication pathway that transfers data from one
device to another.
 There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

Point-to-point
- A point-to-point line configuration provides a dedicated link between two
devices.
- The entire capacity of the channel is reserved for transmission between those two
devices
Multipoint
- A multipoint (multi drop) line configuration is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link.
- In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally.
- If, several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is called spatially shared
line configuration.
- If users must take turns, it is a time shared line configuration.

Topology
 Topology defines the physical or logical arrangement of links in a network.
 A topology is a way of “laying out” the network. Topologies can be either
physical or logical.
 Physical topologies describe how the cables are run.
 Logical topologies describe how the network messages travel
 There are five basic topologies possible: mesh, star, tree, bus and ring.

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Mesh Topology
 In a mesh topology, each device is connected in point-to-point link to every other
device.
 This topology is rarely found in LANs, mainly because of the complexity of the
cabling.

 Mesh technology comes into two types:

 Fully connected Mesh:
For every new device n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides the
most reliable network structure among all network topologies.
 Partially connected Mesh:
Devices connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology
exists where we need to provide reliability to some devices out of all.
Advantages:
 Eliminates the traffic problem
 Robust
 Privacy or security
 Fault identification and fault isolation easy
Disadvantages:
 Large amount of cabling and I/O ports are required
 Installation and reconfiguration are difficult
 Extremely expensive
 Very complex

Star Topology
 All devices in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub
device, using a point-to-point connection.
 A star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices.

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Advantages
 Less expensive than a mesh topology
 Each device needs only one link and one I/O port.
 Easy to install and reconfigure.
 Robustness.
 Easy fault identification and fault isolation
Disadvantages
 If central Hub fails, it affects the entire system
 Each device requires its own cable segment.

Tree Topology
 In a tree topology, the majority of devices connect to a secondary hub that in turn
is connected to the central hub.
 The central hub in the tree is an active hub.

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  An active hub contains a repeater, which is a hardware device that regenerates
the received bit patterns before sending them out.
 The secondary hub may be active or passive hub.
 A passive hub provides a simple physical connection between the attached
devices.
Advantages
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub.
 It allows the network to isolate and prioritize communications from different
computers.
Disadvantages
 If central Hub fails, it affects the entire system.
 Each device requires its own cable segment.

Bus Topology
 A bus is the simplest physical topology. It consists of a single cable that runs to
every device.
 Bus consists of a single linear cable called a trunk.
 Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator.
 The data is sent in only one direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end,
the terminator removes the data from the line.
 Nodes connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps
1. Drop lines – connection between a node and the main cable
2. Taps – connector either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing
of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core

Advantages:
 Ease of installation
 Less cabling than other topologies.
 Redundancy is eliminated
Disadvantages:
 Difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation
 Failure of cable affects the entire system

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Ring Topology
 Devices are connected on a single circle of cable
 Each computer connects to two other computers, joining them in a circle creating
a unidirectional path where messages move device to device.
 Each device in the ring reads a message, then regenerates it and hands it to its
neighbor on a different network cable.

Advantages
 Easy to install and reconfigure
 Fault isolation is simplified
Disadvantages
 Unidirectional traffic
 Failure of any device results in failure of the whole ring

Transmission mode
 The term transmission mode is used to define the direction of data flow between
two linked devices.
 There are three types of transmission modes:
1. Simplex

- In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way

street.

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 - Only one of the two stations on a link can transmit and the other can only
receive.
- Keyboard and monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard
can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output.
2. Half Duplex

- In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive but NOT
at the same time.
- Walkie-talkies and CB(citizen’s band) radios are examples of half-duplex
systems.
3. Full Duplex

- In full-duplex mode (also called duplex) , both stations transmit and

receive simultaneously
- One common examples of full duplex communication is telephone
network.

Classification of Network

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 Networks are categorized on the basis of their size. The three basic categories of
computer networks are:

Local Area Networks (LAN)

 LAN size is limited to a few kilometers of area.
 A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small geographic
area, like a home, office, or group of buildings
 LAN covers an organization offices, schools, colleges or universities.
 LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers
or workstations.
 The resources such as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily
sharable among computers.
 The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 MAN is of size between LAN & WAN. It is larger than LAN but smaller than
WAN.
 MAN is designed to extend over an entire city.
 It may be single network such as a cable TV network.
 It can be in the form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI).
 Many telephone companies provide a popular MAN service called Switched
Multi-megabit Data Services (SMDS).

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Wide Area Networks (WANs):
 WAN is made of all the networks in a (geographically) large area that may
comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world.
 The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is the Internet.
 WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that
users and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers
in other locations
 WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM), Frame Relay, and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET).

Internetwork
 A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet.
(Or) Two or more networks are connected is called internetwork or internet.
 Individual networks are joined into internetworks by the use of internetworking
devices.

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  These devices include routers and gateways.
 Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information
worldwide.
 Internet is serving many proposes and is involved in many aspects of life. Some
of them are
- Web sites
- E-mail
- Instant Messaging
- Blogging
- Social Media
- Marketing
- Networking
- Resource Sharing
- Audio and Video Streaming

OSI Model
 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model was developed by International
Standard Organization (ISO).
 ISO is the organization, OSI is the model
 The purpose of the OSI model is to open communication between different
systems.

Layers of OSI Model

The OSI model is built of seven ordered layers:
7. Application Layer
6. Presentation Layer
5. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
3. Network Layer
2. Data Link Layer
1. Physical Layer

Layered Architecture of OSI Model

 The OSI model has 7 layers each with its own dedicated task.
 A message sent from Device A to Device B passes has to pass through all layers
at A from top to bottom then all layers at B from bottom to top as shown in the
figure below.

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 At Device A, the message is sent from the top layer i.e Application Layer A then
all the layers till it reaches its physical layer and then it is transmitted through
the transmission medium.
 At Device B, the message received by the physical layer passes through all its
other layers and moves upwards till it reaches its Application Layer.

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  This communication is governed by an agreed upon series of rules and
conventions called protocols.
 The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called
peer-to-peer processes.

A mnemonic for remembering the layers of the OSI model is: Please Do Not Touch
Steve’s Pet Alligator (Physical, Data link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation,
Application).

Description of Layers in the OSI Model

Physical Layer
 The Physical Layer provides a standardized interface to physical transmission
media, including :
- Mechanical specification of electrical connectors and cables, for example
maximum cable length
- Electrical specification of transmission line
- Bit-by-bit or symbol-by-symbol delivery
 On the sender side, the physical layer receives the data from Data Link Layer and
encodes it into signals to be transmitted onto the medium. On the receiver side,
the physical layer receives the signals from the transmission medium decodes it
back into data and sends it to the Data Link Layer as shown in the figure below:

The physical layer is concerned with the following:

 Physical characteristics of Interfaces and media
The Physical Layer defines the characteristics of interfaces between the
devices & transmission medium.
 Representation of bits
The physical layer is concerned with transmission of signals from one
device to another which involves converting data (1‘s & 0‘s) into signals and vice
versa.
 Data rate

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 The physical layer defines the data transmission rate i.e. number of bits
sent per second.
 Synchronization of bits
To interpret correct and accurate data the sender and receiver have to
maintain the same bit rate and also have synchronized clocks.
 Line configuration
The physical layer defines the nature of the connection .i.e. a point to point
link, or a multipoint link.
 Physical Topology
The physical layer defines the type of topology in which the device is
connected to the network. In a mesh topology it uses a multipoint connection and
other topologies it uses a point to point connection to send data.
 Transmission mode
The physical layer defines the direction of data transfer between the sender
and receiver. Two devices can transfer the data in simplex, half duplex or full
duplex mode
Main responsibility of the physical layer
Transmission of bits from one node to the next.

Data Link Layer

 The Data Link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by providing error
detection and correction mechanisms.
 On the sender side, the Data Link layer receives the data from Network Layer
and divides the stream of bits into fixed size manageable units called as Frames
and sends it to the physical layer. On the receiver side, the data link layer
receives the stream of bits from the physical layer and regroups them into frames
and sends them to the Network layer. This process is called Framing. It is shown
in the figure below:

 Framing
The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer
into manageable data units called frames.

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  Physical Addressing
a. The Data link layer appends the physical address in the header of the frame
before sending it to physical layer.
b. The physical address contains the address of the sender and receiver.
 Flow control
The data link layer imposes flow control mechanism over the sender and
receiver to avoid overwhelming of the receiver.
 Error control
a. The data link layer imposes error control mechanism to identify lost or
damaged frames, duplicate frames and then retransmit them.
b. Error control information is present in the trailer of a frame.
 Access Control
The data link layer imposes access control mechanism to determine which
device has right to send data in an multipoint connection scenario.
Main Responsibility
The main responsibility of the data link layer is node to node transmission of
frames.

Network Layer
 The network layer makes sure that the data is delivered to the receiver despite
multiple intermediate devices.
 The network layer at the sending side accepts data from the transport layer,
divides it into packets, adds addressing information in the header and passes it
to the data link layer. At the receiving end the network layer receives the frames
sent by data link layer, converts them back into packets, verifies the physical
address (verifies if the receiver address matches with its own address) and the
send the packets to the transport layer.

 Logical Addressing

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 The network layer uses logical address commonly known as IP address to
recognize devices on the network.
An IP address is a universally unique address which enables the network
layer to identify devices outside the sender‘s network.
The header appended by the network layer contains the actual sender and
receiver IP address.
 Routing
The network layer divides data into units called packets of equal size and
bears a sequence number for rearranging on the receiving end.
Each packet is independent of the other and may travel using different routes
to reach the receiver hence may arrive out of turn at the receiver.
This process of finding the best path is called as Routing. It is done using
routing algorithms.
Main Responsibility
The main responsibility of Network Layer is transmission of packets from source
to destination

Transport Layer
 A logical address at network layer facilitates the transmission of data from
source to destination device.
 The transport layer takes care of process to process delivery of data and makes
sure that it is intact and in order.
 At the sending side, the transport layer receives data from the session layer,
divides it into units called segments and sends it to the network layer. At the
receiving side, the transport layer receives packets from the network layer,
converts and arranges into proper sequence of segments and sends it to the
session layer.

 Service-point addressing:
To ensure process to process delivery the transport layer makes use of port
address to identify the data from the sending and receiving process.

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 A Port Address is the name or label given to a process. It is a 16 bit address.
Ex. TELNET uses port address 23, HTTP uses port address 80. Port address is also
called as Service Point Address
 Segmentation and reassembly
The Transport layer is responsible for segmentation and reassembly of the
message into segments which bear sequence numbers. This numbering enables the
receiving transport layer to rearrange the segments in proper order.
 Connection control
The data can be transported in a connection oriented or connectionless
manner. If the connection is connection oriented then all segments are received in
order else they are independent of each other and are received out of order and have
to be rearranged.
 Flow Control & Error control:
The transport layer also carries out flow control and error control
functions; but unlike data link layer these are end to end rather than node to
node.
Main Responsibility
The main responsibility of the transport layer is process to process (source-to-
destination) delivery of the entire message.

Session Layer
 The session layer establishes a session between the communicating devices called
dialog and synchronizes their interaction.
 The session layer at the sending side accepts data from the presentation layer
adds checkpoints to it called syn bits and passes the data to the transport layer.
At the receiving end the session layer receives data from the transport layer
removes the checkpoints inserted previously and passes the data to the
presentation layer.

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  Dialog control
It is the responsibility of the session layer to establish and synchronize the
dialogs. It is also called the network dialog controller.
 Synchronization
The checkpoints or synchronization points is a way of informing the
status of the data transfer. Ex. A checkpoint after first 500 bits of data will ensure
that those 500 bits are not sent again in case of retransmission at 650th bit.
Main responsibility of session layer is dialog control and synchronization.

Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems.
 The presentation layer performs translation, encryption and compression of data.
 The presentation layer at sending side receives the data from the application
layer adds header which contains information related to encryption and
compression and sends it to the session layer. At the receiving side, the
presentation layer receives data from the session layer decompresses and
decrypts the data as required and translates it back as per the encoding scheme
used at the receiver.

 Translation
The sending and receiving devices may run on different platforms
(hardware, software and operating system). Hence it is important that they
understand the messages that are used for communicating. Hence a translation
service may be required which is provided by the Presentation layers
 Encryption
It is the process of transforming the original message to change its
meaning before sending it. The reverse process called decryption has to be
performed at the receiving end to recover the original message from the
encrypted message.

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  Compression
Compression ensures faster data transfer. The data compressed at sender
has to be decompressed at the receiving end, both performed by the Presentation
layer.
Main responsibility
The main responsibility of the Presentation layer is translation, compression and
encryption.

Application Layer
 The application layer enables the user to communicate its data to the receiver by
providing certain services. For ex. Email is sent using X.400 service.
 X500 is a directory service used to provide information and access to distributed
objects
 X400 is services that provides basis for mail storage and forwarding

 Network virtual terminal

A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal and
allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 FTAM (File transfer, access and management) provides access to files stored on
remote computers and mechanism for transfer and manage them locally.
 Mail services
This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
 Directory services
This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.
Main Responsibility
Main Responsibility of Application layer is to provide access to network
resources.

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Summary of Layer Functions

Expected Questions in Unit-I

Two marks
1. List the components of a data communication system.
2. Define the term: Data communications.
3. Define Network.
4. List any four applications of networks.
5. Name any two goals of network of computers.
6. How telephone system network differ from computer networks?
7. Define: Protocol.
8. Distinguish between Point-to-point and Multipoint connection.
9. What is Multipoint Connection?
10. What is Ring Topology?
11. What is Mesh Topology?
12. Mention any four network topologies.
13. Define: Half-Duplex Mode.
14. What is LAN?
15. What is WAN?
16. Distinguish between LAN and WAN.
17. Mention any two different types of networks in LAN.
18. Define: Internet.
19. What is the function of physical layer?
20. List the layers of OSI model.
21. List the responsibilities of data link layer.

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Five marks
1. What is data communication? Explain its characteristics.
2. Explain the five components of a data communication system.
3. Write short notes on: Classification of network.
4. Write short notes on: Protocols and Standards.
5. Write short notes on: Line configuration.
6. Discuss briefly on: Transmission modes.
7. Write a short note on Bus and Star Topology with a neat Diagram.
8. What is a topology? Names the various topologies and sketch their Structures..
9. Explain the LAN and MAN Networks with a neat Diagram.
10. Draw the topologies for point-to-point channels and broadcast channels.
11. Write Short Notes on: Layers in OSI Model.

Ten marks
1. Explain different categories of network topologies.
2. Describe in detail, classification of networks.
3. Write a note on the following:
(a) Network
(b) Protocol
(c) Layers
(d) Standards
(e) Open system
4. Write short notes on :
(a) Protocols and standards
(b) Peer-to-peer processes.
5. Describe the functions of Layers of OSI model

-------------------******ALL THE BEST******-----------------

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 Unit – II

Parallel and Serial Transmission – DTE/DCE/ such as EIA-449, EIA-530, EIA-202 and
x.21 interface – Interface standards – Modems – Guided Media – Unguided Media –
Performance – Types of Error – Error Detection – Error Corrections.

Parallel and Serial Transmission

Transmission Modes
The transmission mode decides how data is transmitted between two computers.
The binary data in the form of 1s and 0s can be sent in two different modes:
 Parallel Transmission and
 Serial Transmission
 Asynchronous Serial Transmission
 Synchronous Serial Transmission

Parallel Transmission

 The binary bits 0s and 1s are organized into groups of n bits each.
 Both sender and receiver are connected in parallel with the equal number of data
lines.
 Both computers distinguish between high order and low order data lines.
 The sender sends all the bits at once on all lines.
 Because the data lines are equal to the number of bits in a group or data frame, a
complete group of bits (data frame) is sent in one go.
 Advantage of Parallel transmission is high speed and
 Disadvantage is the cost of wires, as it is equal to the number of bits sent in
parallel.
 The mechanism for parallel transmission is a conceptually simple one: use n
wires to send n bits at one time.

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Serial Transmission
In serial transmission, bits are sent one after another in a queue manner. Serial
transmission requires only one communication channel.

Serial transmission can be either asynchronous or synchronous.

Asynchronous Serial Transmission
 It is named so because there is no importance of timing.
 Data-bits have specific pattern and they help receiver recognize the start and end
data bits.
 For example, a 0 is prefixed on every data byte and one or more 1s are added at
the end.
 This bit, 0 is called the start bit and 1s are called the stop bits.
 Two continuous data-frames (bytes) may have a gap between them.

Synchronous Serial Transmission

 Timing in synchronous transmission has importance as there is no mechanism
followed to recognize start and end data bits.
 There is no pattern or prefix/suffix method.
 Data bits are sent in burst mode without maintaining gap between bytes (8-bits).
 Single burst of data bits may contain a number of bytes.
 Therefore, timing becomes very important.
 It is up to the receiver to recognize and separate bits into bytes.
 The advantage of synchronous transmission is high speed, and it has no
overhead of extra header and footer bits as in asynchronous transmission.

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DTE/DCE
 The two terms important to computer networking: Data Terminal Equipment
(DTE) and Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE).
 There are four basic functional units involved in the communication of data: a
DTE and DCE on one end and a DCE and DTE on other end.
 DTE generates the data and passes them along with any necessary control
characters, to a DCE.
 The DCE converts the signal to a format appropriate to the transmission medium
and introduce it onto the network link.

Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)

 A DTE is any device that is a source of or destination for binary digital data.
 At the physical layer, it can be a terminal, computer, printer, fax machine or any
other device that generates or consumes digital data.
 DTEs do not communicate directly with one another; they generate and consume
information but need an intermediary to be able to communicate.

Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE)

 A DCE is any device that transmits or receives data in the form of an analog or
digital signal through a network.
 At the physical layer, a DCE takes data generated by a DTE, converts them to an
appropriate signal, and then introduces the signal onto the telecommunication
link.
 Commonly used DCEs at this layer include modems.

26
DTE-DCE Interface standards
Of organizations involved in DTE – DCE interface standards are,
 EIA – Electronic Industries Association
 ITU-T – International Telecommunication Union – Telecommunication
standards committee.
 The EIA standards are called EIA -232, EIA -242, EIA -449, and so on.
 The ITU-T standards are called the V series and the X series.
EIA-232 interface
EIA – 232 defines the mechanical, electrical, and functional characteristics of the
interface between a DTE and a DCE.
Mechanical specification
 The mechanical specification of the EIA-232 standards define the interface as a
25-wire cable with a male and a female DB-25 pin connector attached to either
end.
 The term male connector refers to a plug with each wire in the cable connecting
to a pin.
 The term female connector refers to a receptacle with each wire in the cable
connecting to a metal tube or sheath.
 DB-25 connector, these pins and tubes are arranged in two rows, with 13 on the
top and 12 on the bottom.
Electrical specification
The electrical specification of EIA – 232 defines that signals other than data must
be sent using OFF ->less than -3 volts and ON ->greater than +3 volts.
Functional specification
Two different implementations of EIA-232 are available: DB-25 and DB-9.
Functions of pins in EIA-232, DB-25

27
Functions of pins in EIA-232, DB-9

Other Interface standards such as EIA-449, EIA-530, EIA-202 and x.21 interface
EIA – 449
Mechanical specification
The mechanical specifications of EIA-449 define a combination of two
connectors: one with 37 pins (DB-37) and one with 9 pins (DB-9) for a combined 46 pins.
Electrical specification
EIA-449 uses two standards to define its electrical specifications: RS-423 (for
unbalanced circuits) and RS-422 (for balanced circuits).
X.21 interface
 X.21 is an interface standard designed by the ITU-T to address many problems
existing in the EIA interfaces and, at the same time, pave the way for all digital
communication.
 X.21 eliminates many of the control pins of interfaces by sending control
information over data pins.
 X.21 is useful both as an interface to connect digital computers to analog devices.
 The connector specified by X.21 is the DB-15.
Modems
 Modem stands for modulator/demodulator.
 A modem is a DCE that modulates and demodulates signals.
 A modulator converts a digital signal to an analog signal using ASK, FSK, PSK,
or QAM modulation.
 A demodulator converts an analog signal to a digital signal.
Transmission Rate
Modem described as high speed or low speed to indicate how many bits per
second a specific device is capable of transmitting or receiving.
Bandwidth
Every line has an upper limit and a lower limit on the frequencies of the signals
it can carry. This limited range is called the bandwidth.
The telephone line has a bandwidth of almost 3000 Hz.

28
Modem Speed
Each type of analog conversion manipulates the signal in a different way:
ASK manipulates amplitude, FSK manipulates frequency, PSK manipulates phase, and
QAM manipulates both phase and amplitude.
 ASK has a good bit rate, it is not used today because of noise.
 FSK modulation requires more bandwidth than ASK and PSK.
 PSK and QAM is same as that required for ASK transmission but bit rate
can be greater depending on the number of bits that can be represented by
each signal unit.
Modem Standards
There are two modem standards: Bell modems and ITU-T modems.
Bell modems – 101/113 series, 202,212,201,208,209 series.
ITU-T modems – V.21, V.22, V.32, V.33, V.34 and V.42.
Intelligent Modems
 Intelligent Modems contain software to support a number of additional
functions, such as automatic answering and dialing.
 Intelligent Modems was first introduced by Hayes Microcomputer Products, Inc.
 Instructions in the Hayes and Hayes- compatible modems are called AT
commands. (AT –Attention)

Transmission Media
Transmission media can be divided into two broad categories:
 Guided media and
 Unguided media.

Guided Media
 Guided media provide a channel from one device to another, include twisted –
pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber- optic cable.
 Twisted –pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accepts and
transport signals in the form of electrical current.
 Optical fiber is a glass or plastic cable that accepts and transports signals in the
form of light.

29
Twisted Pair Cable
 A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper wires twisted
together to form a single media.
 Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used for
ground reference.
 The twists between wires are helpful in reducing noise (electro-magnetic
interference) and crosstalk.

There are two types of twisted pair cables:

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Example, The use in Telephone systems, its frequency range is suitable for
transmitting both data and voice.
Advantages:
 UTP are its cost and ease of use.
 UTP is cheap, flexible and easy to install.
 UTP are used in many LAN technologies including Ethernet and Token Ring.
 UTP cables are connected by RJ45 connectors.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

 STP cables comes with twisted wire pair covered in metal foil. This makes it
more indifferent to noise and crosstalk.
 STP uses same connectors as UTP.
 STP are more expensive than UTP.

30
Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cable has two wires of copper.
 The core wire lies in the center and it is made of solid conductor.
 The core is enclosed in an insulating sheath.
 The second wire is wrapped around over the sheath and that too in turn encased
by insulator sheath.
 This all is covered by plastic cover.

 Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450 mbps.

 There are three categories of coaxial cables namely,
 RG-59 (Cable TV),
 RG-58 (Thin Ethernet), and
 RG-11 (Thick Ethernet). RG stands for Radio Government.
 Cables are connected using BNC connector and BNC-T.
 BNC terminator is used to terminate the wire at the far ends.
 BNC stands for Bayonet Network Connector.
 Two other commonly used types of connectors are T-connectors and terminators.

31
Fiber Optics
 Fiber Optic works on the properties of light.
 When light ray hits at critical angle, it tends to refracts at 90 degree. This
property has been used in fiber optic.
 The core of fiber optic cable is made of high quality glass or plastic.
 From one end of it light is emitted, it travels through it and at the other end light
detector detects light stream and converts it to electric data.
 Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed. It comes in two modes, one is
single mode fiber and second is multimode fiber.
 Single mode fiber can carry a single ray of light whereas multimode is capable of
carrying multiple beams of light.

 Fiber Optic also comes in unidirectional and bidirectional capabilities.

 To connect and access fiber optic special type of connectors are used. These can
be Subscriber Channel (SC), Straight Tip (ST), or MT-RJ
Advantages:
 Noise resistance
 Less signal attenuation
 Higher bandwidth
Disadvantages
 Cost
 Installation/Maintenance
 Fragility

Unguided Media
 Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media.
 Wireless communication involves no physical link established between two or
more devices, communicating wirelessly.
 Wireless signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by
appropriate antennas.

32
  When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device,
it converts the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its
frequency range.
 The receptor on the other end receives these signals and converts them back to
digital data.
 A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

Radio Transmission
 Electromagnetic spectrum defines as radio communication is divided into eight
ranges, called bands, each regulated by government authorities. These bands are
related from very low frequency (VLF) to extremely high frequency (EHF).
 Radio wave transmission utilizes five different types of propagation: surface,
tropospheric, ionospheric, line-of-sight and space.
 Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can
penetrate through walls.
 Radio waves can have wavelength from 1mm – 100,000km
 Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to
1000 kilometers, over the earth’s surface.

 They use Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as
HF and VHF bands are spread upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they are
refracted back to the earth.
Microwave Transmission
 Microwaves travels in straight lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to
be strictly in line-of-sight.
 Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1mm – 1meter and frequency
ranging from 300MHz to 300GHz

33
  Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in
picture above, multiple antennas can be aligned to reach farther.
 Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the
frequency it is using.
Repeaters
 To increase the distance served by terrestrial microwave, a system of repeaters
can be installed with each antenna.
 Terrestrial microwave with repeaters provides the basis for most contemporary
telephone systems worldwide.
Antennas
 Two types of antennas are used for terrestrial microwave communications:
Parabolic dish antenna and Horn antenna.
 A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola.
 A horn antenna looks like a gigantic scoop.
Infrared Transmission
 Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves.
 It has wavelength of 700nm to 1mm and frequency ranges from 300GHz to
430THz.
 Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as
television and its remote.
 Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of high
frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.
Light Transmission
 Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for data transmission
is light or optical signaling. This is achieved by means of LASER.
 Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line. Hence
the sender and receiver must be in the line-of-sight.
 Because laser transmission is unidirectional, at both ends of communication the
laser and the photo-detector needs to be installed.
 Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors works as Rx (receiver).
 Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally,
laser beam is distorted by wind, atmosphere temperature, or variation in
temperature in the path.
 Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to tap 1mm wide laser
without interrupting the communication channel.

34
Performance
Transmission media are roads on which data travel. To measure the performance
of transmission media, using three concepts:
 Throughput
The throughput is the measurement of how fast data can pass through a
point.
 Propagation speed
Propagation speed measures the distance a signal or a bit can travel
through a medium in one second.
 Propagation time
Propagation time measures the time required for a signal (or a bit) to
travel from one point of the transmission medium to another.
Propagation time=Distance /Propagation Speed.
Types of Error
Data can be corrupted during transmission. For reliable communication, errors
must be detected and corrected.
There may be three types of errors:
Single bit error
In a single-bit error, only one bit in the data unit has changed.

In a frame, there is only one bit, anywhere though, which is corrupt.

Multiple bits error
In a multiple-bits error, more than one bits in the data unit have changed.

Frame is received with more than one bits in corrupted state.

35
Burst error
In a Burst error, more than one consecutive bits in the data unit have changed.

Frame contains more than 1 consecutive bits corrupted.

Error control mechanism may involve two possible ways:

 Error detection
 Error correction

Error Detection
Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means adding extra bits
for detecting errors at the destination.

Redundancy

Four types of redundancy checks are used in data communications:

 Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC) also called parity check.
 Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) and
 Checksum.

Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)

 Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC) also called parity check.
 In Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC), a parity bit is added to every data unit so
that the total number of 1s becomes even.

36
Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
In Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC), a block of bits is divided into rows
and a redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

 CRC technique involves binary division of the data bits being sent.
 The divisor is generated using polynomials.
 The sender performs a division operation on the bits being sent and calculates
the remainder.
 Before sending the actual bits, the sender adds the remainder at the end of the
actual bits.
 Actual data bits plus the remainder is called a codeword.
 The sender transmits data bits as codewords.

37
Checksum
The error detection method used by the higher layer protocols is called
checksum.

The sender follows these steps:

 The unit is divided into k sections, each of n bits.
 All sections are added together using one’s complement to get the sum.
 The sum is complemented and becomes the checksum.

38
  The checksum is sent with the data.

The receiver follows these steps:

 The unit is divided into k sections, each of n bits.
 All sections are added together using one’s complement to get the sum.
 The sum is complemented.
 If the result is zero, the data are accepted; otherwise, they are rejected.
Error Corrections
 Error correction can be handled in two ways.
 In one, when an error is discovered, the receiver can have the sender retransmit
the entire data unit.
 In the other, a receiver can use an error correcting code, which automatically
corrects certain errors.
Single-Bit Error Correction
Single bit errors can be detected by the addition of a redundant bit to the data
unit (VRC).
Hamming Code
 The Hamming code is a single –bit error correction method using redundant bits.
The number of bits is a function of the length of the data bits.
 In the hamming code, for a data unit of m bits, use the formula 2r > m + r + l to
determine r, the number of redundant bits needed.

In the hamming code, each r bit is the VRC bit for one combination of data bits:
The combinations used to calculate each of the four r values for a seven bit data
sequence are as follows:
r1: bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11
r2: bits 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11
r4: bits 4, 5, 6, 7
r8: bits 8, 9, 10, 11

39
Burst Error Correction
A Hamming code can be designed to correct burst errors of certain lengths. The
number of redundancy bits required to make these corrections.

40
 Expected Questions in Unit-II

Two marks
1. What is parallel transmission?
2. Define Serial Transmission.
3. What is Synchronous Transmission?
4. What is Asynchronous Transmission?
5. What is MODEM?
6. What is an interface?
7. Mention three different types of transmission media.
8. List the various Guided Media used for transmission.
9. Define: Guided media.
10. What is Unguided Media?
11. List the various Unguided Media used for transmission.
12. List the various performance of transmission media.
13. What is meant by single – bit error?
14. Define: Hamming distance.
15. Define: Burst Error.
Five marks
1. Distinguish between parallel and serial transmission.
2. Discuss briefly on: Serial Transmission.
3. Write short notes on: EIA-232 and X.21.
4. Discuss any TWO guided transmission media.
5. Discuss about Twisted-Pair cable.
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber?
7. Discuss any Two unguided media in computer networks.
8. What are MODEMs? Explain.
9. Write a short note on: Error detection.
10. Discuss briefly about different types of Error in Transmission.

Ten marks
1. Write a detail note on Parallel and Serial Transmission.
2. Discuss the various transmission media.
3. Explain about Guided Media used in Computer Networks.
4. Explain about Unguided Transmission Media used in Computer Networks.
5. Explain about error detection and error correction with examples.

-------------------******ALL THE BEST******-----------------

41
 Unit – III

Multiplexing – Types of Multiplexing – Multiplexing Applications –

Telephone system – Project 802 – Ethernet – Token Bus – Token Ring – FDDI – IEEE
802.6 –SMDS – Circuit Switching – Packet Switching –Message Switching –
Connection Oriented and Connectionless services.

Multiplexing
 Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission
of multiple signals across a single data link.
 The devices on the transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which
combines them into a single stream(many to one).
 At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which
separates the stream back into its component transmissions (one to many).

Types of Multiplexing
Signals are multiplexed using three basic techniques:
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM), and
 Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM).
TDM is further divided into synchronous TDM and Asynchronous TDM also called
statistical TDM or Concentrator.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
 When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used.
 FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines signals.
 FDM divides the spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical channels and allocates
one user to each channel.
 Each user can use the channel frequency independently and has exclusive access
of it.
 In FDM, multiplexers modulate and combine signals while demultiplexers
decompose and demodulate.
 All channels are divided in such a way that they do not overlap with each other.
Channels are separated by guard bands.
 Guard band is a frequency which is not used by either channel.

42
Time Division Multiplexing
 TDM is a digital process that can be applied when the data rate capacity of the
transmission medium is greater than the data rate required by the sending and
receiving devices.
 TDM is a digital multiplexing technique to combine data.
 In TDM, digital signals from n devices are interleaved with one another, forming
a frame of data (bits, bytes, or any other data unit).
 TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer and De-
multiplexer are timely synchronized, and both switch to next channel
simultaneously.
 TDM can be classified as either synchronous or asynchronous(statistical).

Synchronous TDM
 The term synchronous means that the multiplexer allocates exactly the same time
slot to each device at all times, whether or not a device has anything to transmit.
 In synchronous TDM, each frame contains at least one time slot dedicated to each
device.
 The order in which each device sends it data to the frame is unvarying.
 If a device has no data to send, its time slot is sent empty.
 In synchronous TDM, a bit may be added to the beginning of each frame for
synchronization.

43
 Interleaving
 Synchronous TDM can be compared to a very fast rotating switch.
 As a switch opens in front of device, that device has the
opportunity to send a specified amount of data onto the path.
 The switch moves from device to device at a constant rate and in a
fixed order. This process is called interleaving.
 Interleaving can be done by bit, by byte, or by any other data unit.
Synchronous TDM, multiplexing process

Synchronous TDM, demultiplexing process

 Framing bits, follow a pattern, frame to frame, that allows the demultiplexer to
synchronize with the incoming stream so that it can separate the time slots
accurately.
 The synchronization information consists of one bit per frame, alternating
between 0 and 1.

44
  In Bit stuffing, the multiplexer adds extra bits to a device’s source stream to
force the speed relationships among the various devices into integer multiples of
each other.
Asynchronous TDM
 The term asynchronous means something different in multiplexing than it means
in other areas of data communications. Here it means flexible or not fixed.
 In asynchronous TDM, the time slot order of a frame depends on which devices
have data to send at that time.
 Asynchronous TDM adds device addresses to each time slot.

Wave Division Multiplexing

 WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and
demultiplexing involve light signals transmitted through fiber optic channels.
 WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.
 Light has different wavelength (colors).
 In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals are multiplexed into an
optical fiber by using different wavelengths.
 This is an analog multiplexing technique and is done conceptually in the same
manner as FDM but uses light as signals.
 Further, on each wavelength time division multiplexing can be incorporated to
accommodate more data signals.

45
Multiplexing Applications: The Telephone system
 Multiplexing has an essential tool of the telephone industry.
 The North American telephone system includes many common carriers that
offer local and long-distance services to subscribers.

Categories of telephone services

Analog services

Analog switched service

 Analog switched service is the familiar dial-up service most often encountered
when using a home telephone.
 It uses two-wire twisted pair cable to connect the subscriber’s handset to the
network.
 This connection is called the Local loop.
 The network it joins is sometimes referred to as a Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN).

46
Analog leased service
An analog leased service offers customers the opportunity to lease a line,
sometimes called a dedicated line, that is permanently connected to another customer.

Digital services
 Recently telephone companies began offering digital services to their subscribers.
 The advantage to digital transmission is its lower cost.

Switched/56 service
 Switched/56 is the digital version of an analog switched line.
 It is a switched digital service that allows data rates of up to 56 kbps.
 To communicate through this service, both parties must subscribe.
 It need a device called a digital service unit (DSU).

Digital Data Service (DDS)

 Digital Data Service (DDS) is the digital version of an analog leased line.
 It is a digital leased line with a maximum data rate of 64 kbps.
 Like switched/56, DDS requires the use of a DSU.

47
Digital Signal Service (DS)
After offering switched/56 and DDS services, the telephone companies saw a need
to develop a hierarchy of digital services much like that used for analog services.

 A DS-0 service resembles DDS. It is a single digital channel of 64 kbps.

 DS-1 is a 1.544 Mbps service.
 DS-2 is a 6.312 Mbps service.
 DS-3 is a 44.376 Mbps service.
 DS-4 is a 274.176 Mbps service.

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

 One example of multiplexing, demultiplexing and modulation is a technology is
called the DSL family.
 The digital subscriber line(DSL) is a newer technology that uses the existing
telecommunication networks such as the local loop telephone line to accomplish
high speed delivery of data, voice, video, and multimedia.
 DSL is a family of technologies; five of them are,
ADSL, RADSL, HDSL, VDSL, and SDSL.
ADSL
 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line(ADSL) is asymmetrical, which means it
provides higher bit rates in the downstream direction than the upstream
direction.
 ADSL divides the bandwidth of a twisted pair cable into three bands.
 The first band, normally between 0 and 25 KHz, is used for regular telephone
service known as plain old telephone service or POTS.
 The second band usually between 25 and 200 KHz, is used for upstream
communication.

48
  The third band, usually 200 KHz to 1 MHz, is used for downstream
communication.

RADSL
 The Rate Adaptive asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (RADSL) is a
technology based on ADSL.
 It allows different data rates depending on the type of communication: voice,
data, multimedia, and so on.
HDSL
 The High bit rate Digital Subscriber Line(HDSL) was designed by Bellcore as
an alternative to the T-1 line (1.544 Mbps).
 HDSL uses two twisted pair wires to achieve full-duplex transmission.
SDSL
The Symmetric (or Single-line) Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) is same as the
HDSL but uses one single twisted pair cable, available to most residential subscribers,
to achieve the same data rate as HDSL.
VDSL
The Very high bit rate Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL) is similar to ADSL, uses
coaxial, fiber optic or twisted pair cable for short distances.

Project 802
 In 1985, the computer Society of the IEEE developed Project 802, it covers the
first two layers of the OSI model and part of the third level.
 The IEEE has subdivided the Project 802 of data link layer into two sub layers:
logical link control (LLC) and medium access control (MAC).
LAN compared with the OSI model

49
  Project 802 contains a section governing internetworking.
 The strength of Project 802 is modularity.
 By subdividing the functions necessary for LAN management.
 Each subdivision is identified by a number:
 IEEE 802.1 (internetworking)
 IEEE 802.2 (LLC) and the MAC modules
 IEEE 802.3 (CSMA/CD)
 IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus)
 IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring).
Project 802

IEEE 802.1
IEEE 802.1 is the section of Project 802 devoted to internetworking issues in
LANs and MANs.
LLC
 IEEE Project 802 model takes the structure of an HDLC frame and divides it into
two sets of function.
 One set contains the end-user portions of the frame: the logical addresses, control
information, and data.
 IEEE 802.2 logical link control(LLC) is the upper sub layer of the data link layer.
MAC
 The second set of functions, the medium access control(MAC) sub layer, resolves
the contention for the shared media.
 It contains the synchronization, flag, flow and error control specifications.
 Medium access control (MAC) is the lower sub layer of the data link layer.
Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
 The data unit in the LLC level is called the protocol data unit(PDU).
 The PDU contains four fields familiar than HDLC:
 Destination Service Access Point(DSAP),
 Source Service Access Point(SSAP),
 Control field, and
 An information field.

50
PDU format

DSAP and SSAP

 The DSAP and SSAP are addresses used by the LLC to identify the protocol
stacks on the receiving and sending machines that are generating and using the
data.
 The first bit of the DSAP indicates whether the frame is intended for an
individual or a group.
 The first bit of the SSAP indicates whether the communication is a command or
response PDU.
Control
 The control field of the PDU is identical to the control field in HDLC.
 As in HDLC. PDU frames can be 1-frames, S-frames, or U-frames and carry all of
the codes and information corresponding to the carry.
 The PDU has no flag fields, no CRC, and no station address.
 These fields are added in the lower sub layer (MAC layer).
Control field in a PDU

Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)

 Ethernet is a widely deployed LAN technology.
 It was standardized in IEEE 802.3 in 1980.

51
  IEEE 802.3 defines two categories: baseband and broadband.
 The word base specifies a digital signal.
 The word broad specifies an analog signal.
 IEEE divides the baseband category into five different standards.
10Base5, 10Base2, 10Base-T, 1Base5, and 100Base-T.
 The first number(10,1,100) indicates the data rate in Mbps.
 The last number or letter (5,2,T) indicates the maximum cable length or type
of the cable.
 IEEE defines only one specification for the broadband category: 10Broad36.
 Again the first number 10 indicates the data rate.
 The last number defines the maximum cable length.
Access method: CSMA/CD
 Whenever multiple users have unregulated access to a single line, therefore is a
danger of signals overlapping and destroying each other.
 Such overlaps, which turn the signals into unusable noise are called collisions.
 As traffic increases on a multiple-access link, so do collisions.

Collisions in CSMA/CD

 A LAN needs a mechanism to coordinate traffic, minimize the number of

collisions that occur, and maximize the number of frames that are delivered
successfully.

52
  The access mechanism used in an Ethernet is called Carrier Sense Multi
Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) .
Addressing
 Each station on an Ethernet network has its own Network Interface Card(NIC).
 It provides with a six-byte physical address.
 The number on the NIC is unique.
Electrical Specification
Signaling
 The base band systems use digital signals.
 There is one broadband system, 10Broad36 uses digital/analog conversion.
Data Rate
Ethernet LANs can support data rates between 1 and 100 Mbps.
Frame Format
IEEE 802.3 specifies one type of frame containing seven fields: Preamble, SFD,
DA, SA, Length/type of PDU, 802.2 frame, and the CRC.

Preamble
The first field of the 802.3 frame, the preamble, contains seven bytes of
alternating 0s and 1s.
SFD - Start Frame Delimiter
The second field of the 802.3 frame signals the beginning of the frame. It has 1
byte.
DA - Destination Address
 DA field is allotted six bytes and contains physical address of the packet’s next
destination.
 A system’s physical address is a bit pattern encoded on its Network Interface
Card (NIC).
SA – Source Address
The SA field is also allotted six bytes and contains physical address of the last
device to forward the packet.
Length/type of PDU
 These next two bytes indicate the number of bytes in the coming PDU.
 If the length of the PDU is fixed, this field can be used to indicate type or as a
base for other protocols.
802.2 frame
 The PDU can be anywhere from 46 to 1500 bytes long, depending on the type of
frame and the length of the information.

53
  The PDU is generated by the upper(LLC) sublayer, then linked to the 802.3
frame.
CRC
The last field of 4 bytes in the 802.3 frame contains the error detection information.
Implementation
In the 802.3 standard, the IEEE defines the types of cable, connections, and
signals that are to be used in each of five different Ethernet implementations.
 10Base5: Thick Ethernet or Thicknet
 10Base2: Thin Ethernet or (Thinnet,cheapnet,Thin-wire Ethernet)
 10Base-T: Twisted pair Ethernet
 1Base5: Star LAN
 100Base-T: Fast Ethernet

Other Ethernet Networks

Switched Ethernet
In Switched Ethernet, a switch that can direct a transmission to just the
destination replaces a hub.
Fast Ethernet
In Fast Ethernet, the data rate is increased to 100 Mbps, but the collision domain
is reduced to 250 meters.
Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet, with a 1-Gbps data rate, serves a backbone to connecting Fast
Ethernet networks.
Token Bus (IEEE 802.4)
 Token Bus (IEEE 802.4), used in factory automation and process control,
combines features of Ethernet and Token Ring.
 Token Bus is a physical bus that operates as a logical ring using tokens.

Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)

 Token Ring resolves this uncertainty by requiring that stations take turns
sending data.
 Each station may transmit only during its turn and may send only one frame
during each turn.
 The mechanism that coordinates this rotation is called token passing.
 Token Ring allows each station to send one frame per turn.
Access method: Token Passing
 Token Passing circulates a simple three byte token.
 The token is passed from NIC to NIC in sequence until it encounters a station
with data to send.

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 Priority and Reservation
 Each station has a priority code.
 A station with a higher priority may remove a lower priority reservation and
replace it with its own.
 Among stations of equal priority, the process is first come, first served.
Time Limits
A starting delimiter must reach each station within a specified interval (usually
10 milliseconds).
Monitor Stations
The monitor sets a timer each time the token passes.
Addressing
 Each station on an Ethernet network has its own Network Interface Card(NIC).
 It provides with a six-byte physical address.
Electrical Specification
Signaling
 Token Ring uses digital signals.
Data Rate
Token Ring supports data rates of up to 16 Mbps.
Frame Formats
Token Ring protocol specifies three types of frames: data/command, token, and
abort.

55
 1. Data/Command Frame
IEEE 802.5 specifies data/command type of frame containing nine fields:
SD, AC, FC, DA, SA, 802.2 PDU frame, CRC, ED and FS.
SD - Start Delimiter
The first field of the data/command frame. It has 1 byte.
AC – Access Control
The AC field is one byte long and includes four subfields.
FC – Frame Control
The FC field is one byte long and contains two fields.
DA - Destination Address
The two to six byte DA field contains the physical address of the frame’s next
destination.
SA – Source Address
The SA field is also two to six bytes long and contains physical address of the
sending station.
Data
The sixth field, data is allotted 4500 bytes and contains PDU.
CRC
The CRC field is 4 bytes and contains the error detection information.
ED - End Delimiter
The ED is a second flag field of one byte and indicates the end of the sender’s
data and control information.
FS – Frame Status
The last byte of the frame is the FS field.
2. Token Frame
 It includes only three fields: the SD, AC, and ED.
 The SD indicates that a frame is coming.
 The AC indicates that the frame is a token and includes the priority and
reservation fields.
 The ED indicates the end of the frame.
3. Abort Frame
An abort frame carries no information at all-just starting and ending delimiters.

56
Implementation
 Ring
Each station in the Token Ring regenerates the frame.
 Switch
 Each station’s NIC, has a pair of input and output ports combined in a
nine pin connector.
 A nine wire cable connects the NIC to the switch.
 MAU – Multi station Access Unit
Automatic switches are combined into a hub called a Multistation Access Unit.

FDDI –Fiber Distributed Data Interface

 FDDI is a local area network protocol standardized by ANSI and the ITU-T.
 It supports data rates of 100 Mbps and provides high speed.
 Comparable speeds are available using copper cable.
 The copper version of FDDI is known as CDDI.
Access method: Token Passing
 In FDDI access is limited by time.
 FDDI has two types of data frames: synchronous and asynchronous.
 Synchronous refers to information that is real time.
 Asynchronous refers to information that is not.
 These frames are usually called S-frames and A-frames.
Time Registers
 FDDI defines three time registers to control circulation of the token.
 The registers are called SA, TTRT and AMT.
 SA –Synchronous Allocation
The SA register indicates the length of time allowed each station for
sending synchronous data.
 TTRT - Target Token Rotation Time
The TTRT register indicates the average time required for a token to
circulate around the ring exactly once.
 AMT- Absolute Maximum Time
The AMT register holds a value equal to twice the TTRT.
Timers
 Timers can be set and reset, and their values decremented or incremented at a
rate set by the system clock.
 The two timers used by FDDI are called the TRT and THT.
 Token Rotation Timer (TRT)
The TRT runs continuously and measures the actual time taken by the
token to complete a cycle.
 Token Holding Timer (THT)
The THT is to show how much time remains for sending asynchronous
frames once the synchronous frames have been sent.

57
Addressing
 Each station on an Ethernet network has its own Network Interface Card(NIC).
 It provides with a six-byte physical address.
Electrical Specification
Signaling
 FDDI uses special encoding mechanism called four/five bits (4B/5B).
Data Rate
FDDI supports data rates of up to 100 Mbps.
Frame Formats
 The FDDI standard divides transmission functions into four protocols: Physical
Medium Dependent (PMD), Physical (PHY), Medium Access Control (MAC),
and Logical Link Control (LLC).
 These protocols correspond to the physical and data link layers of the OSI model.
FDDI Layers

 FDDI protocol specifies two types of frames: data/command and token frame.

Data/Command Frame
FDDI specifies data/command type of frame containing eight fields: SD,
FC, DA, SA, 802.2 PDU frame, CRC, ED and FS.
SD - Start Delimiter
The first field of the data/command frame. It has 1 byte.
FC – Frame Control
The FC field is second byte of the frame identifies the frame type.

58
 Addresses
The next two fields are the destination and source addresses (DA and SA). Each
address consists of two to six bytes.
Data
Data is allotted 4500 bytes and contains PDU.
CRC
The CRC field is 4 bytes and contains the error detection information.
ED - End Delimiter
The ED field consists of half a byte in the data frame or a full byte in the token
frame.
FS – Frame Status
The last byte of the frame is the FS field and consists of 1.5 bytes.
Token Frame
 It includes only three fields: the SD, FC, and ED.
 Each field having one byte.
Implementation: Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) Layer
The PMD layer defines required connections and electronic components.
 Dual Ring
 Data transmission is confined to the primary ring.
 The secondary ring is provided in case the primary fails.
 Nodes
 Nodes connect to one or both rings using a Media Interface Connector
(MIC).
 FDDI defines three types of nodes: DAS, SAS and DAC.
Dual Attachment Service (DAS)
DAS has two MICs and connects to both rings.
Single Attachment Service (SAS)
An SIS has only one MIC and therefore can connect only to one ring.
Dual Attachment Concentrator (DAC)
DAC connects an SAS to the dual ring.
IEEE 802.6 (DQDB)
 The protocol in the IEEE Project 802 (IEEE 802.6) is Distributed Queue Dual Bus
(DQDB).
 It is designed to be used in MANs.
Access Method: Dual Bus
Each device in the system connects to two backbone links.

59
DQDB Topology
The two unidirectional buses are labeled as Bus A and Bus B. Each bus connects
to the stations directly to through input and output ports.
 Directional Traffic
Each bus supports traffic in one direction.
 Upstream and Downstream stations
The source station must choose the bus for which the destination station is
considered downstream.
 Transmission slots
 Data travel on each bus as a steady stream of 53-byte slots. These slots are
not packets; they are continuous stream of bits.
 A station can transmit data only in the downstream direction.
 Slot reservation
To send data on one bus, a station must use the other bus to make a
reservation.
 Distributed Queues
 Making reservations and tracking the reservations of the other stations on
a bus require each station store two queues – one for each bus.
 Each station has one queue for Bus A, called Queue A, and one queue for
Bus B ,called Queue B.
 The queue storage mechanism with First-in ,First-out(FIFO) functionality.

Implementation
 Ring Configuration
 DQDB can also be implemented as a ring.
 This topology has the advantage of being reconfigurable whenever a link or a
station fails.
 The DQDB standard defines the electronic device used to access the dual bus.
 Access media can be either coaxial or fiber-optic cable with a variety of data
rates.

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Operation: DQDB Layers
 The IEEE defines both the medium access control (MAC) sublayer and the
physical layer for DQDB.
 In the MAC sublayer, a 5-byte header is added to a 48-byte payload.
 In the Physical layer, the protocols defines the electronic devices, media and data
rates.
The DQDB Header
The five bytes of the DQDB header are distributed among five major fields:
access, address, type, priority, and CRC.

Access Field
The DQDB access field is an eight-bit field that controls access to the bus. It is
subdivided into five subfields:
 Busy (B).
The B bit indicates whether or not the slot is carrying data.
 Slot Type(ST)
The ST bit can defines two types of slots, one for packet transmissions and
the other for isochronous transmission.

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  Reserved(R).
The R bit is reserved for future use.
 Previous Slot Read (PSR)
The two-bit PSR field is set to 0 by the addressed station once it has read
the contents of the slot.
 Request(RQ)
The Request field consists of three bits set by stations to make reservations
for slots.
Address Field
The address field holds a 20-bit virtual channel identifier(VCR) to be used for
MAN and WAN transmission.
Type Field
The 2-bit type field identifies the payload as user data, management data, and so
on.
Priority Field
The priority field identifies the priority of the slot in a network that uses
priorities.
CRC Field
The CRC field carries an eight bit cyclic redundancy check using x 8+x2+x+1 as
the divisor that is used to detect single bit or burst errors and to correct single bit errors
in the header.

SMDS
 Switched Multimegabit Data Services(SMDS) is a packet-switched datagram
service used to handle high-speed communication in a MAN.
 SMDS is a good choice for users who
a. Require a data rate greater than that of switched/56 or DDS.
b. Do not need full-time use of a link.
SMDS Architecture
 Access to SMDS is coordinated through SMDS interface protocol (SIP).
 SMDS uses DQDB for media access.
 The SIP protocol defines three levels, SIP level 3, SIP level 2, SIP level 1.

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SIP Levels
 SIP level 3
This level accepts the user data, which should be less than 9188 bytes and
add a header and trailer to it.
The header and trailer contain management and control fields.
After the header and trailer are added, the packet is divided into 44 byte
sections.
 SIP level 2
At this level DQDB comes into play. Level 2 receives the 48 bit sections
and a five byte header is added.
 SIP level 1
This is the physical level that defines the physical interface and the types
of transmission medium and signaling system.

An Address in SMDS

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Switching
 Switching is a method in which multiple communication devices are connected
to one another efficiently.
 A switch is intermediary hardware or software that links devices together
temporarily.
 There are three fundamental switching methods.

Circuit Switching
 Circuit switching creates a direct physical connection between two devices such
as phones or computers.
 Circuit switching was designed for voice communication.
 The PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) is an example of a circuit-
switched network.

In this diagram, computer A is connected through switches I,II and III to computer D.
A Circuit Switch
A circuit switch is a device with n inputs and m outputs that creates a temporary
connection between an input link and an output link.

A folded Switch
An n-by-n folded switch can connect n lines in full-duplex mode.

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Circuit switching can use either of two technologies:

Space-Division switches
In Space-division switching, the path is in the circuit are separated from each
other spatially.
Crossbar switches
A crossbar connects n inputs to m outputs via n x m crosspoints.

Multistage Switches
 The solution to the limitations of the crossbar switch is to use multistage
switches, which combine crossbar switches in several stages.
 In multistage switching, devices are linked to switches that, in turn, are
linked to hierarchy of other switches.

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 Multiple paths
 Multistage switches can reduce the number of crosspoints needed, but
blocking may result
 Blocking occurs when not every input has its own unique path to every
output.

Time-division switches
 Time-division switching uses time-division multiplexing to achieve switching.
 There are two popular methods used in time division multiplexing: the Time-Slot
Interchange (TSI) and the TDM Bus.
Time-Slot Interchange (TSI)
 A TSI changes the ordering of the slots based on the desired connections.
 In this diagram, it changes the order of the data from A, B, C, D to C, D, A, B.
 Now, when the demultiplexer separates the slots it passes them to the proper
outputs.

TDM Bus
 The input and output lines are connected to a high-speed bus through input and
output gates.
 Each input gate is closed during one of the four time slots.
 During the same time slot, only one output gate is closed.
 A folded TDM Bus can be made with duplex lines (input and output) and dual
gates.

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Packet Switching
 In a Packet-Switched network, Data are transmitted in discrete units of
potentially variable length blocks called packets.
 Each packet contains not only data but also a header with control information.
 The packets are sent over the network node to node.
 There are two popular approaches to packet switching:

Datagram Approach
 In the datagram approach to packet switching, each packet is treated
independently from all others.
 Packets in this technology are referred to as datagrams.

 In this diagram, devices A and B are sending datagrams to devices X and Y.

Virtual Circuit approach
 In the Virtual circuit approach to packet switching, the relationship between all
packets belonging to a message or session is preserved.

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  Virtual circuit transmission is implemented in two forms: Switched Virtual
Circuit (SVC) and Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC).
Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC)
 The switched virtual circuit (SVC) format is comparable to dial-up-lines in
circuit switching.
 Once the connection is in place, the packets are sent one after another in
sequential order.
 When the last packet has been received and if necessary, acknowledged, the
connection is released and that virtual circuit ceases to exist.

Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC)

 Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC) are comparable to leased lines in circuit
switching.
 The circuit is dedicated to the specific users.
 No one else can use it.
 Two SVC users may get a different route every time but two PVC users
always get the same route.

Message Switching
 In message switching (also known as store and forward), a node receives a
message, stores it, and then sends it.
 Message switching is replaced by packet switching.
 Message switching was not a solution for streaming media and real-time
applications.

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  Store and forward is considered a switching technique because there is no direct
link between the sender and receiver of a transmission.
 A message is delivered to the node along one path then rerouted along another
to its destination.
 In message switching, the messages are stored and relayed from secondary
storage (disk), while in packet switching the packets are stored and forwarded
from primary storage (RAM).

Connection Oriented and Connectionless services

 Switching is a mechanism by which data/information sent from source towards
destination which are not directly connected.
 Networks have interconnecting devices, which receives data from directly
connected sources, stores data, analyze it and then forwards to the next
interconnecting device closest to the destination.
 A communication system may include number of switches and nodes. At broad
level, switching can be divided into two major categories:
 Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No
previous handshaking is required and acknowledgements are optional.
 Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination,
there is a need to pre-establish circuit along the path between both endpoints.
Data is then forwarded on that circuit. After the transfer is completed, circuits
can be kept for future use or can be turned down immediately.

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 Expected Questions in Unit-III
Two marks
1. What is meant by Multiplexing?
2. Distinguish between Multiplexer and Demultiplexer.
3. Mention the differences between a multiplexer and concentrator.
4. What is TDM?
5. Mention the two features of Ethernet.
6. Write a note on: Token Bus.
7. What is FDDI?
8. What are orphans?
9. Define: Circuit Switching.
10. Define: Packet switching.
11. Define virtual circuit.
12. Specify the benefits of virtual circuits.
13. Define: Message Switching.

Five marks
1. Discuss briefly about any two multiplexing.
2. Write Short Notes on: Ethernet.
3. Discuss briefly on: Token bus.
4. Write short notes on: FDDI.
5. What is meant by switching? Specify different methods of switching followed by
network layer.
6. Write a short note on packet switching.
7. Distinguish between Connection Oriented and Connectionless Services.

Ten marks
1. Explain different types of multiplexing.
2. Describe in detail, Token Bus and Token Ring.
3. Write short notes on:
(a) Ethernet
(b) IEEE 802.6.
4. Compare various Switching Techniques.
5. Explain Ethernet and packed switching.
6. Explain the Ethernet MAC Sublayer with a neat diagram.
7. Discuss the following:
(a) IEEE 802.6
(b) Token ring.
8. Explain circuit switching.
9. Explain in detail the working of token ring LAN taking a particular architecture.

------------------------------******ALL THE BEST******--------------------------------------

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 Unit – IV

History of Analog and Digital Network – Access to ISDN – ISDN Layers –

Broadband ISDN – X.25 Layers – Packet Layers Protocol – ATM – ATM Topology –
ATM Protocol.

History of Analog and Digital Network

Voice Communication over Analog Networks
 Analog networks are used for the transmission of analog information in the form
of voice.
 The local loops are connecting the subscriber’s handset to the telephone
company’s central office.

Voice and Data Communication over Analog Networks

 With the advent of digital processing, subscribers needed to exchange data as
well as voice.
 Modems were developed to allow digital exchanges over existing analog lines.

Analog and Digital Services to Subscribers

Three types of customers were identified at this time:
 Traditional customers using their local loops only for analog purposes.
 Customers using analog facilities to transmit digital information via modem and
 Customers using digital services to transmit digital information.

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Integrated Digital Network (IDN)
 An IDN is a combination of networks available for different purposes.
 Access to these networks is by digital pipes, which are multiplexed channels
sharing very high speed paths.
 Customer can use their local loops to transmit both voice and data to their
telephone company’s central office.
 The office then directs these calls to the appropriate digital networks via the
digital pipes.
 The majority of subscribers today continue to use analog local loops, although
digital local loop services such as switched/56, DDS, and DS are available.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

 ISDN was developed by ITU-T in 1976.
 It is a set of protocols that combines digital telephony and data transport
services.
 An ISDN provides digital services to users over integrated digital networks.
Digital services fall into one of three classes:
a. Bearer Services – no network manipulation of the information contents.
b. Teleservices – network may change or process information contents.
c. Supplementary services – cannot stand alone, must be used with bearer or
teleservices.
 ISDN incorporates all communication connections in a home or building into a
single interface.

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Subscriber Access to ISDN
 A digital pipe is a high speed path composed of time multiplexed channels.
 There are three types of channels:
a. Bearer channels (B) – basic user channel (64 kbps).
b. Data channels (D) – for control of B channels, low rate data transfer, and
other applications (16 or 64 kbps).
c. Hybrid channels (H) – high data rate applications (384, 1536, or 1920 kbps).
User interfaces
Digital subscriber loops are of two types: Basic Rate Interface (BRI) and Primary
Rate Interface (PRI).
Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
 A BRI is a digital pipe composed of two B channels and one D channel.
 The BRI is designed to meet the needs of residential and small office customers.
Primary Rate Interface (PRI).
A PRI is a digital pipe composed of 23 B channels and one D channel.
Functional Grouping
 Three functional groupings of equipment enable users to access an ISDN:
Network Terminations (NT), Terminal Equipment (TE) and Terminal
Adapters (TA).
 There are two types of network terminations:
 NT1 – equipment that controls the physical and electrical termination of the
ISDN at the user’s premises.
 NT2 – equipment that performs functions related to layers one through three
of the OSI model.
 Terminal equipment (data sources similar to DTEs) can be classified as follows:
 TE1- subscriber equipment conforming to ISDN standards.
 TE2 – subscriber equipment that does not conform to ISDN standards.
 TA – converts data from TE2s to ISDN format.
Reference Points
A reference point defines ISDN interfaces. The reference points are:
 Reference Point R - between a TE2 and a TA.
 Reference Point S – between a TE or TA and an NT.
 Reference Point T – between an NT1 and an NT2.
 Reference Point U – between an NT1 and the ISDN office.
ISDN Layers
 ISDN architecture consists of three planes, each made up of the seven layers of
the OSI model.
 The planes are:
 User plane – defines the functionality of the B and H channels.
 Control plane – defines the functionality of the D channel when used for
signaling purposes.

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  Management plane – encompasses the other two planes and is used for
network management.
ISDN layers

Simplified layers of ISDN

Physical Layer
 The physical layer of the user and control planes is the same.
 The ISDN physical layer specifications are defined by two ITU-T standards: I.430
for BRI access and I.431 for PRI access.
Physical layer specifications for BRI
 A BRI consists of two B channels and one D channel.
 BRI has a data rate of 192 kbps.
 A subscriber connects to the BRI using the R, S, and U interfaces.
 R-interface - The R interface is not defined by the ISDN. A subscriber can use
any of the EIA standards (such as EIA – 232, EIA – 449, or EIA – 530) or any of
the V or X series standards.
 S –interface - For the S – interface, the ITU-T specifies the ISO standard, ISO8887.
This standard calls for four, six or eight wire connections.
 U-interface - For U interface, the ITU-T specifies a single pair twisted pair cable
in each direction.

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  BRI Frame - The format of a BRI frame contains each B channel is sampled twice
during each frame. The D channel is sampled four times during each frame. The
balance of the frame as black space, reserved.

 Connection and Topology - BRI services can be supported by either a bus or star
topology.
Physical layer specifications for PRI
 PRI consists of 23 B channels and 1 D channel
 Interfaces associated with PRI usage include R, S, T and U.
 The R and S standards are same as in BRI.
 The T standard is identical to the S standard with the substitution of B8ZS
encoding.
 PRI has a data rate of 1.544 Mbps.
 PRI Frame – the B and D channels are multiplexed using synchronous TDM to
create a PRI frame.

 Connections and Topology – NT2 is a LAN topology

Data Link Layer
In the data link layer, the B channel (user) uses (Link Access Procedure for B-
channel) LAPB protocol. The D channel (control) uses (Link Access Procedure for D -
channel) LAPD protocol, which is also similar to HDLC.
LAPD Addressing

The address field of the LAPD is two bytes long.

 The first byte contains a six-bit field called a Service Access Point Identifier
(SAPI) and

75
  The second byte contains a seven bit field called a Terminal Equipment
Identifier (TEI).
SAPI field
 The SAPI field indicates the type of upper layer service using the frame.
 It indicates the intended use of D – channel.
 It is a six bit field and can therefore define up to 64 different service access
points.
TEI field
 The TEI field is the unique address of the TE.
 It consists of seven bits and can therefore identify up to 128 different TEs.
Network Layer
In the Network Layer, the D channel data packet is called a message. It has four fields:
 Protocol discriminator – identifies the protocol used.
 Call reference – identifies sequence number.
 Message type – identifies purpose of the message.
 Information elements (multi field) – information about the connection.

Broadband ISDN
 Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN), using fiber optic media, fulfills the needs of users
who require a higher data rate than that offered by ISDN.
 B-ISDN has a data rate of 600 Mbps.
Services

B-ISDN offers two services:

 Interactive Services
– Two way services (two subscribers or a subscriber – service provide pair).
– These services are of three types: conversational, messaging and retrieval.
– Conversational services are those, such as telephone calls, that support
real-time exchanges.
– Messaging services are store and forward exchanges.

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 – Retrieval services are those used to retrieve information from a central
source called an information center.
 Distributive Services
– One way service from service provider to subscriber.
– These services can be without or with user control.
– Distributed services without user control are broadcast to the user
without the user’s having requested them. Example commercial TV.
– Distributed services with user control are broadcast to the user in a round
– robin fashion. Example Tele advertising and Pay TV.
Physical specifications
 Access Methods
Three access methods in B-ISDN are available:
 155.520 Mbps, full duplex.
 155.520 Mbps outgoing and 622.080 Mbps incoming, asymmetric full- duplex.
 622.080 Mbps, full duplex.
 The functional grouping and reference points of B – ISDN are the same as for
regular ISDN (also known as narrowband ISDN, N – ISDN).
X.25 Layers
 X.25 is a packet-switching wide area network developed by ITU-T in 1976.
 X.25 defines how a packet-mode terminal can be connected to a packet network
for the exchange of data.
 X.25 is what is known as a Subscriber Network Interface (SNI) protocol.

 It defines how the user’s DTE communicates with the network and how packets
are sent over that network using DCE’s.
 It uses a virtual circuit approach to packet switching (SVC and PVC) and uses
asynchronous (statistical) TDM to multiple packets.
X.25 layers in relation to the OSI layers

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  X.25 protocols specify three layers: the physical layer, the frame layer, and the
packet layer.
 These layers define functions at the physical, data link, and network layers of the
OSI model.
Physical Layer
At the physical layer, X.25 specifies a protocol called X.21, which has been
specially defined for X.25 by the ITU-T.
Frame Layer
At the frame layer, X.25 provides data link controls using a bit-oriented protocol
called Link Access Procedure, balanced (LAPB), which is a subset of HDLC.
Format of a frame

Three categories of Frames

HDLC has three categories of frames: I-frames, S-frames, and U-frames.
 I-frames - I-frames are used to encapsulate PLP packets from the network layer.
 S-frames - S-frames are for flow and error control in the frame layer.
 U-frames -U-frames are used to setup and disconnect the links between a DTE
and a DCE.
Frame Layer Phases
In the frame layer, communication between a DTE and a DCE involves three
phases: link setup, packet transfer, and link disconnect.

Link Setup
 The link between DTE and DCE must be setup before packets from the packet
layer can be transferred.
 Either the DTE or the DCE can setup the link by sending an SABM (Set
Asynchronous Balanced Mode).

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Transferring Data
After the link has been established, the two parties can send and receive network
layer packets using I-frames and S-frames.
Link Disconnect.
 When the network layer no longer needs the link, one of the parties can issue
disconnect (DISC) frame to request disconnection.
 The other party can answer with a UA frame.
Packet Layers Protocol
 The network layer in X.25 is called the Packet Layer Protocol (PLP).
 The packet layer handles connection establishment, data transfer, connection
termination, virtual circuit creation, and negotiation of network services between
two DTEs.
 There are three types of X.25 packets: I – frames, S – frames, and U – frames.
 The first is a data packet; the latter two are control packets.
 There are flow and error control at both the frame layer and the packet layer.
Virtual Circuits
 The X.25 protocol is a packet switched virtual circuit network.
 This means that a physical connection established between a DTE and DCE can
carry several virtual circuits at the network layer with each circuit responsible for
carrying either data or control information, a concept called in-band signaling.

Virtual Circuit Identifiers

 Each virtual circuit in X.25 should be identified for use by the packets.
 The virtual circuit identifier in X.25 is called the Logical Channel Number
(LCN).
 X.25 uses both permanent and switched virtual circuits (PVCs and SVCs).
 The LCNs are permanently assigned by the network provider.
 The one-way LCNs are used for simplex communication.
 The two-way LCNs are used for duplex communication.
PLP Packets
 The general format of a PLP packet has three or four bytes of header and an
optional information field.
 The fields in the header are as follows

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  General Format Identifier (GFI)
 The GFI is a four bit field.
 The first bit, called the Q (qualifier) bit, defines the source of control
information: 0 for PLP, 1 for other high level protocols.
 The D (delivery) bit, defines which device should acknowledged the packet: 0
for the local DCE, 1 for the remote DTE.
 The last two bits of the GFI indicate the size of the sequence number fields.
 Logical Channel Number (LCN)
The LCN is a 12 bit field that identifies the virtual circuit chosen for a
given transmission.
 Packet Type Identifier (PTI)
 The PTI defines the type of packet.
 The content of this field is different for each packet.
Two Categories of packet
Packets at the PLP level can be divided into two broad categories: data packets
and control packets.

Data Packets
 Data packets are used to transmit user data.
 The general format is simple: a header and a user data field.
 The PTI field in the data packet consists of four sections.
 P(S) and P(R) carry the packet sequence numbers for flow control.
 P(S) stands for packet send and indicates the sequence number of packet being
sent.
 P(R) stands for packet receive and indicate the sequence number of the next
packet expected by the receiver.
 The M (more) bit is used to define a set of packets belonging to the same unit.

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Control Packets
The control packets have two formats: one used for RR, RNR, and REJ packets
and another for the remaining packets.
 RR, RNR, and REJ Packets
 RR (000) – Receive ready (RR) means the device (DTE or DCE) is ready to
receive more packets.
 RNR (001) – Receive not ready(RNR) means that the device cannot accept
packets at this time.
 REJ (010) – Reject (REJ) means that there was an error in the packet
identified by the P(R) field.

 Other control packets

 The other types of control packets may carry information in addition to
the header.

 The packet type field in these control packets is six bits long and can be
used to specify up to 64 different functions.
 The packet formats for the various types are;
– call request/incoming call
– call accepted/call connected
– clear request/clear indication
– clear confirm
– interrupt
– interrupt confirm
– reset request/reset indication
– reset confirm
– restart request/restart indication
– restart confirm
– registration request
– registration confirm.

ATM
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is the cell relay protocol designed by the
ATM Forum adopted by the ITU – T.

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  The combination of ATM and B – ISDN will allow high speed interconnection of
all the world’s networks.
Design Goals
In ATM, some software functions have moved to hardware; this can increase the
data rate.
Packet Networks
 Data communications today are based on packet switching and packet network.
 Packet is a combination of data and overhead bits that can be passed through the
network as a self-contained unit.
 Different protocols use packets of varying size.
Mixed Network Traffic
Traffic must travel over different paths, much the same way that automobile and
train traffic do.
Cell Networks
 A cell network uses the cell as the basic unit of data exchange.
 A cell is defined as a small fixed-sized block of information.
Asynchronous TDM
 ATM uses asynchronous time division multiplexing that is why it is called
Asynchronous Transfer Mode – to multiplex cells coming from different
channels.
 It uses fixed size slots (size of a cell).
ATM Topology
ATM Architecture
ATM is a cell-switched network.
A User-to-Network Interface (UNI) is the interface between a user and an ATM switch.
A Network-to-Network Interfaces (NNIs) is the interface between two ATM switches.

Virtual Connections
Connection between two end points is accomplished through Transmission
Paths (TPs), Virtual paths (VPs), and Virtual Circuits (VCs).
 The Transmission Path (TP) is the physical connection between an end point
and a switch or between two switches.
 The Virtual path (VP) provides a connection or set of connections between two
switches.
 Cell networks are based on Virtual Circuits (VCs).

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Identifiers
 A combination of a Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) and a Virtual Circuit Identifier
(VCI) identify a virtual connection.
 The VPI defines the specific VP and the VCI defines a particular VC inside the
VP.

Cells
 The basic data unit in an ATM network is called a cell.
 The ATM data packet is a cell composed of 53 bytes (5 bytes of header and 48
bytes of payload).

Connection Establishment and Release

ATM can use a Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) or a Switched Virtual Circuit
(SVC).
 PVC
 A Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) connection is established between two
end points by the network provider.
 The VPIs and VCIs are defined for permanent connections.
 SVC
In a Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC) connection, each time an end point wants
to make a connection with another end point, a new virtual circuit should be
established.

ATM Protocol
ATM Layers
The ATM standard defines three layers. They are, from top to bottom, 1. the
application adaptation layer, 2. the ATM layer, and 3. the physical layer.

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1. Application Adaptation Layer (AAL)
 The application adaptation layer (AAL) allows existing networks (such as packet
networks) to connect to ATM facilities.
 AAL protocols accept transmissions from upper layer services and map them
into fixed sized ATM cells.

Data types
The ATM designers identified four types of data streams: constant bit rate data,
variable bit rate data, connection oriented packet data, and connectionless packet data.
 Constant Bit Rate (CBR) data refers to applications that generate and consume
bits at a constant rate.
 Variable Bit Rate (VBR) data refers to applications that generate and consume
bits at variable rates.
 Connection oriented packet data refers to conventional packet applications
(such as the TCP protocol of TCP/IP) that use virtual circuits.
 Connectionless packet data refers to applications that use a datagram approach
to routing (such as the IP protocol of TCP/IP).
Convergence and segmentation
The AAL category has two layers. They are Convergence Sublayer (CS) and the
Segmentation and Reassembly (SAR) sublayer.
 Convergence Sublayer (CS)
The convergence sublayer divides the bit stream into 47 byte segments
and passes them to the SAR sublayer below.
 Segmentation and Reassembly (SAR) sublayer
This layer accepts a 47 byte payload from the CS and adds a one byte
header.

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2. ATM layer
 The ATM layer provides routing, traffic management, switching, and
multiplexing services.
 It processes outgoing traffic by accepting 48 byte segments from AAL sublayers
and transforming them into 53 byte cells by the addition of a 5 byte header.

Header Format
ATM uses two formats for this header, one for User to Network Interface (UNI)
cells and another for Network to Network Interface (NNI) cells.

 Generic Flow Control (GFC)

The four bit GFC field provides flow control at the UNI level.
 Virtual Path Identifier (VPI)
The VPI is an 8 bit field in a UNI cell and a 12 bit field in an NNI cell.
 Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI)
The VCI is a 16 bit field in both frames.
 Payload Type (PT)
In the three bit PT field, the first bit defines the payload as user data or
managerial information.
The interpretation of the last two bits depends on the first bit.
 Cell Loss Priority (CLP)
The one bit CLP field is provided for congestion control.
 Header Error Correction (HEC)
The HEC is a code computed for the first four bytes of the header. The
CRC used to correct single and multiple bits errors.
3. Physical Layer
 The physical layer defines the transmission medium, bit transmission, encoding,
and electrical to optical transformation.
 It provides convergence with physical transport protocols, such as SONET
(Synchronous Optical Network) and T-3, as well as the mechanism for
transforming the flow of cells into a flow of bits.

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 Expected Questions in Unit-IV

Two marks
1. What is an Analog data?
2. What is ISDN?
3. Mention any two services of ISDN.
4. Write a note on: Broadband ISDN.
5. Write a note on: X.25 layers.
6. Write a note on: Packet layer protocol.
7. What is ATM?

Five marks
1. Discuss about ISDN.
2. Explain the ISDN services.
3. Explain the data link layer in X.25.
4. Write short notes on: ATM topology.
5. Write about ATM protocol.

Ten marks
1. Discuss in detail, ISDN layers.
2. Explain Broadband ISDN.
3. Explain about X.25 Layers.
4. Write a detail note on ATM.
5. Write short notes on :
(a) History of Analog and digital network
(b) Packet layer protocol.

-----------------------------******ALL THE BEST******----------------------------------

-

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 Unit – V

Repeaters – Bridges – Routers – Gateway – Routing algorithms – TCP/IP Network,

Transport and Application Layers of TCP/IP – World Wide Web.

Connecting devices and the OSI model

Repeaters
 A repeater (or regenerator) is a device that operates in the physical layer of the
OSI model.
 Its purpose is regeneration of the signal.
 A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier.
A repeater in the OSI model

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A repeater

Bridges
 Bridges operate in the physical and data link layers of the OSI model.
 Bridges can divide a large network into smaller segments.
 They have access to station addresses and can forward or filter a packet in a
network.
A bridge in the OSI Model

 Types of Bridges
 Simple Bridge
A simple bridge links two segments and contains a table that lists the
address of all the stations included in each of them.
 Multiport Bridge
A multiport bridge can be used to connect more than two LANs.
 Transparent Bridge
A transparent or learning, bridge builds its table of station addresses
on its own as it performs its bridge functions.
 The solution to prevent loops in the LANs connected by bridges is called the
spanning tree algorithm.
 Another solution to prevent loops in the LANs connected by bridges is called the
source routing.

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A bridge

Routers
 Routers operates in the physical, data link and networks of the OSI model.
 Routers relay packets among multiple interconnected networks.
 Router forwards the packet to the next router in the network path until it reaches
the destination.
 They decide the path a packet should take.
A router in the OSI model

 Least-cost routing
 In least cost routing the term shortest can mean the combination of many
factors including shortest, cheapest, fastest, most reliable, and so on.
 We can combine all of the factors affecting a link into one number and call
that number the symbolic length of the link.
 The pathway requiring the smallest number of relays, it is called hop-count
routing.
 Hop – count algorithms usually limit the routers known by a single router to
those within 15 hops.
 Novell, AppleTalk, OSI, and TCP/IP protocols all use hop count as the basis
for their routing algorithms.
 Non adaptive versus Adaptive Routing
Routing is classifies as non adaptive or adaptive.

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 Non adaptive Routing (Static)
In some routing protocols, once a pathway to a destination has been
selected, the router sends all packets for that destination along that one route.
Adaptive Routing (Dynamic)
Other routing protocols employ a technique called adaptive routing in
which a router may select a new route for each packet in response to changes in
condition and topology of the networks.
 The solution is an added packet field is called packet lifetime, or time to live
(TTL).
Routers in an Internet

Gateway
 Gateways operate in all seven layers of the OSI model.
 A gateway is a protocol convertor.
 They convert one protocol to another and can therefore connect two dissimilar
networks.
 A gateway is generally software installed within a router.

A gateway in the OSI Model

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A gateway

Routing algorithms
There are two methods to calculate the shortest path between two routers:
distance vector routing and link state routing.
 Distance Vector Routing
 In distance vector routing, each router periodically shares its own knowledge
about the network with its immediate neighbor routers.
 The three keys to understanding how this algorithm works are as follows:
 Knowledge about the whole network
 Routing only to neighbors
 Information sharing at regular intervals
 In distance vector routing, the cost is based on hop count.
The concept of distance vector routing

 Routing table
A routing table has 3 columns: the network ID, the cost and the ID of the
next router.
 The network ID is the final destination of the packet.
 The cost is the number of hops a packet must make to get there.
 And the next router is the router to which a packet must be
delivered on its way to a particular destination.

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Distance vector routing table

 Link State Routing

 In link state routing, each router shares its knowledge of its neighborhood
with all routers in the internetwork.
 The following are true link state routing:
 Knowledge about the neighborhood
 To all routers
 Information sharing when there is a change
The concept of link state routing

 Link State Packet

 In link state routing, each router creates its own Link State Packet
(LSP).
 An LSP usually contains four fields: the ID of the advertiser, the ID of
the destination network, the cost, and the ID of the neighbor router.
Link state packet

 Link State Database

 Every other router receives every LSP and puts the information into a
link state database.
 All routers therefore have the same information; this is compiled into
the link state database.

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  From this common database, each router finds its own shortest paths
to other routers by using the Djikstra algorithm.
 A cost is assigned to a packet when it leaves the router in link state routing.
 Routing Table
 In link state routing, every router has its own unique routing table.
 In link state routing, the link state database is the same for all routers,
but the shortest path trees and the routing tables are different for each
router.
TCP/IP Network
 Transmission Control Protocol /Internetworking Protocol (TCP/IP) is a set of
rules and procedures that govern the exchange of message in an internetwork.
 TCP/IP was originally developed as a protocol for networks that wanted to be
connected to ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency), a U.S.
Department of Defense project.
 ARPANET is now known as Internet.
TCP/IP and OSI Model
 TCP/IP is a five layer protocol suite whose bottom four layers match the OSI
model fairly closely.
 The highest level, the application layer, corresponds to OSI’s top three layers.
 At transport layer, TCP/IP defines two protocols:
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and Internetworking Protocol (IP).
 A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a Local Area Network (LAN), a
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), or a Wide Area Network (WAN).

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TCP/IP Network Layer
 At the network layer, TCP/IP supports the Internetwork Protocol (IP).
 IP, in turn, contains four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.
 The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) finds the physical addresses of a
device if its IP address is known.
 The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) will find a host’s IP
address from its physical address.
 The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) handles control and error
messages in the IP layer.
 The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) has been designed to help a
multicast router identify the hosts in a LAN that are members of a multicast
group.
Internetwork Protocol (IP)
 The Internet Protocol (IP) is defined at the network layer.
 IP is unreliable and connectionless.
 IP Datagram
The IP packet, called the datagram, consists of two parts: a variable
header and a variable data field.

 Version
The first field defines the version number of the IP. The current version is
4 (IPv4).
 Header length (HLEN)
The HLEN field defines the length of the header in multiples of four bytes.
 Service type
The service type field defines how the datagram should be handled. It has
8 bits.
 Total length
The total length field defines the total length of the IP datagram. It a two
byte field (16 bits).
 Identification

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 The identification field is used in fragmentation. It has 16 bits.
 Flags
The bits in the flags field deal with fragmentation. It has 3 bits.
 Fragmentation offset
The fragmentation offset is a pointer that shows the offset of the data in
the original datagram. It has 13 bits.
 Time to live
The time to live field defines the number of hops a datagram can travel
before it is discarded. It has 8 bits.
 Protocol
The protocol field defines the upper layer protocol data are encapsulated
in the datagram (TCP, UDP, ICMP, etc.). it has 8 bits.
 Header Checksum
This is a 16 bit field used to check the integrity of the header, not the rest
of the packet.
 Source address
The source address field is a four byte (32 bit) Internet address. It
identifies the original source of the datagram.
 Destination address
The destination address field is a four byte (32 bit) Internet address. It
identifies the final destination of the datagram.
 Options
The option field gives more functionality to the IP datagram. It can carry
fields that control routing, timing, management, and alignment.
Addressing
 An internet address (IP Address) uniquely defines the connection of a host to its
network.

 Each IP address consists of four bytes (32 bits), defining three fields:
 Class type – A, B, C, D, or E
 Net id – network identification number
 Host id – Host address
 Classes
 Class A, B, C networks are unicast address. Unicast means one source to one
destination.
 Class D is reserved for multicast address. Multicasting means one source to
multiple destinations. It is similar to broadcasting.

95
  Class E addresses are reserved for future use. The original data is used for
some special purpose.
Internet classes

Class ranges of Internet addresses

Subnetting
 An IP address is 32 bits long.
 One portion of address indicates a network (net id), and other portion indicates
the host (or router) on the network (host id).
 Classes A, B, and C in IP addressing are designed for two level hierarchy.
A network with two levels of hierarchy (not subnetted)

96
  The hosts cannot be organized into groups and all of the hosts are at the same
level. The organization has one network with many hosts.
 One solution to this problem is subnetting, the further division of a network into
smaller networks called subnetworks.
 For example, the below figure shows the network divided into three
subnetworks.
A network with three levels of hierarchy (subnetted)

 Subnetting allows an additional level of hierarchy in IP addressing.

Masking
 Masking is a process that extracts the address of the physical network from an IP
address.
 Masking can be done whether we have subnetting or not.

 If we have not subnetted to the network, masking extracts the network address
from an IP address.
 If we have subnetted, masking extracts the subnetwork address from an IP
address.
Transport Layers of TCP/IP
 The transport layer is represented in TCP/IP by two protocols:
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 A protocol port is a source or destination point of an executing a program in the
application layer.

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User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 UDP is unreliable and connectionless.
 UDP communication is port-to-port.
 The UDP packet is called a user datagram.
 It is an end to end transport layer protocol that adds only port addresses,
checksum error control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.
UDP datagram format

 Source port address

The source port address is the address of its application program that has
created the message.
 Destination port address
The destination port address is the address of the application program that
will receive the message.
 Total length
The total length field defines the total length of the user datagram in bytes.
 Checksum
The checksum is a 16 bit field used in error detection.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 TCP is reliable and connection-oriented.
 TCP communication is also port-to-port.
 The packet is called a segment.
TCP segment format

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  Source port address
The source port address defines the application program in the source
computer.
 Destination port address
The destination port address defines the application program in the
destination computer.
 Sequence Number
A stream of data from the application program may be divided into two or
more TCP segments. The sequence number field shows the position of the data in
the original data stream.
 Acknowledgement Number
The acknowledgement number is used to acknowledge the receipt of data
from the other communicating device.
 Header Length (HLEN)
The four bit HLEN field indicates the number of 32 bit words in the TCP
header.
 Reserved
A six bit field is reserved for future use.
 Control
Each bit of the six bit control field functions individually and independently.
 Window size
The window is a 16 bit field that defines the size of the sliding window.
 Checksum
The checksum is a 16 bit field used in error detection.
 Urgent pointer
The sender is informing the receiver that there are urgent data in the data
portion of the segment.
 Options and padding
The remainder of the TCP header defines the optional fields.

Application Layers of TCP/IP

The TCP/IP application layer corresponds to the combined session, presentation,
and application layers of the OSI model.
Client-Server Model
 In the Client-Server model, the client runs a program to request a service and the
server runs a program to provide the service.
 These two programs communicate with each other.
 Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP)
 Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) is a client server protocol designed to provide
the information for a diskless computer or a computer that is booted for
the first time.
 RARP provides only the IP address and not the other information.
 BOOTP is a static configuration protocol.

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  Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
 The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) has provides dynamic
configuration.
 DHCP is an extension of BOOTP. DHCP is needed when a host moves
from network to network or is connected and disconnected from a
network.
 DHCP provides temporary IP addresses for a limited period of time.
Domain Name System (DNS)
 Domain Name System (DNS) is a client-server application that identifies each
host on the Internet with a unique user-friendly name.
 The domain name space is divided into three sections: generic domains, country
domains, and inverse domain.
 Generic Domain
 The generic domains define registered hosts according to their generic
behavior.
 There are seven generic domains, each specifying an organization type.
Label Description
com Commercial organization
edu Educational institutions
gov Government institutions
int International organizations
mil Military groups
net Network support centers
org Nonprofit organizations
 Country Domain
 Each country domain specifies a country.
 First level, country abbreviations (eg., “us” for united states).
 Second level, state abbreviations as a subdivision of “us” (e.g. ca.us -
California in the United States).
 Inverse Domain
The inverse domain finds a domain name for a given IP address. This is
called address –to-name resolution.
TELNET
 TELNET is an abbreviation of TErminaL NETwork.
 TELNET is a general purpose client-server application program.
 Local Login
When a user logs into a local time-sharing system, it is called local login.
 Remote Login
When a user wants to access an application program or utility located on a
remote machine, performs remote login.
 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT)
TELNET uses the Network Virtual Terminal (NVT) system to encode
characters on the local system.

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File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a TCP/IP client – server application for copying
files from one host to another.
 FTP requires two connections for data transfer: a control connection and a data
connection.
 The control connection is made between the control processes.
 The data connection is made between the data transfer process.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
 Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a simple file transfer protocol without the
complexities and sophistication of FTP.
 TFTP can read or write a file for the client.
 Reading means copying a file from the server site to the client site.
 Writing means copying a file from the client site to the server site.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 The TCP/IP protocol that supports e-mail on the Internet is called Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol(SMTP).
 Both SMTP client and server require a User Agent (UA) and a Mail Transfer
Agent (MTA).
 User Agent (UA)
o The UA prepares the message, creates the envelope, and puts the message
in the envelope.
o The UA is normally a program used to send and receive mail.
 Addresses
The addressing system used by SMTP consists of two parts: a local part
and a domain name, separated by @ sign.
 Local part
The local part defines the name of a special file called the user mailbox.
 Domain Name
An organization usually selects one or more hosts to receive and send
e-mail called mail exchangers. The form is localname@domainname.
 Mail Transfer Agent (MTA)
To send a mail, a system must have a client MTA, and to receive mail, a
system must have a server MTA.
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)
 MIME is a set of software functions that transform non-ASCII data to ASCII data
and vice versa.
 MIME is not a mail protocol and cannot replace SMTP; its only an extension to
SMTP.
Post Office Protocol (POP)
 Workstations interact with the SMTP host to retrieve messages by using a client-
server protocol such as Post Office Protocol, version 3(POP3).
 POP is a protocol used by a mail server in conjunction with SMTP to receive and
hold mail for hosts.

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Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
 SNMP is a framework for managing devices in an internet using the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
 It provides a set of fundamental operations for monitoring and maintaining an
internet.
 Concept
 SNMP uses the concept of manager and agent.
 The manager, usually a host, controls and monitors a set of agents, usually
routers that runs the SNMP client program.
 The agent is a router or host that runs the SNMP server program.
 Components
SNMP uses the services of two other protocols: Structure of Management
Information (SMI) and Management Information Base (MIB).
 SMI
Its functions are to name objects.
 MIB
MIB is a collection of groups of objects that can be managed by SNMP.
 SNMP messages
SNMP defines five messages; GetRequest, GetNextRequest,
SetRequest, GetResponse, and Trap.
 GetRequest
The GetRequest message is sent from the manager to the agent to
retrieve the values of a variable.
 GetNextRequest
The GetNextRequest message is sent from the manager to the agent
to retrieve the next values of a variable.
 GetResponse
The GetResponse message is sent from an agent to the manager in
response to GetRequest and GetNextRequest.
 SetRequest
The SetRequest message is sent from the manager to the agent to
set a value in a variable.
 Trap
The Trap message is sent from an agent to the manager to report an
event.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 The HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the main protocol used to access
data on the World Wide Web (WWW).
 HTTP functions like a combination of FTP and SMTP.
 SMTP messages are store and forward, but HTTP messages are delivered
immediately.
 Messages
There are two general types of HTTP messages, request and response.

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  Request messages
A request message consists of a request line, headers, and sometimes a body.
 Response message
A response message consists of a status line, headers, and sometimes a body.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
 URL is a standard for specifying any kind of information on the world wide web.
 URL defines four things: method, host computer, port, and path.
 The method is the protocol used to retrieve the document.
 The host is the computer where the information is located.
 If the port is included it should be inserted between the host and the path.
 Path is the pathname of the file where the information is located.

World Wide Web

 The World Wide Web (WWW) is a repository of information spread all over the
world and linked together.
 The WWW today is a distributed client server service in which a client using a
browser can access a service using a server, this locations called websites.
Hypertext and Hypermedia
 Hypertext and Hypermedia are documents linked to one another through the
concept of pointers.
 Hypertext documents contain only text.
 Hypermedia documents can contain picture, graphics and sound.
Browser architecture
 Browsers interpret and display a web document.
 A browser consists of a controller, client programs, and interpreters.
Categories of Web document
A web document can be classified as static, dynamic, or active.
Static document
A static document is one in which the contents are fixed and stored in a server.
HTML
 HyperText Markup Language (HTML) is a language used to create static web
pages.
 A web page has a head and a body.
 Tags provide structure to a document, define titles and headers, format text,
control the data flow, insert figures, link different document together, and
define executable code.
Dynamic document
A dynamic web document is created by a server only at a browser request.
CGI
 The Common Gateway Interface (CGI) is a standard for creating and handling
dynamic web documents.
 The use of Common in CGI indicates that the standard defines a set of rules that
are common to any language or platform.

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  The term gateway here means that a CGI program is a gateway that can be used
to access other resources such as databases, graphic packages and so on.
 The term interface here means that there is a set of predefined terms, variables,
calls, and so on that can be used in any CGI program.
Active document
An active document is a copy of a program received by the client and run at the
client site.
JAVA
 Java is a combination of high level programming language, a run time
environment, and a class library that allows a programmer to write an active
document and a browser to run it.
 Java is mostly used to create an applet (a small application program).

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 Expected Questions in Unit-V
Two marks
1. What are routers?
2. What is TCP/IP network?
3. What is WWW?
4. What are bridges?
5. What is TCP/IP?
6. What are repeaters?
7. What are Gateways?
8. How connection is formed at the transport layer?
9. Compare the Components Bridge and gateway.
10. What are the services of transport layer?
11. Sketch the format of IP address.
12. Define firewalls and gateways.
13. What are functions of applications layer?
14. What is the basic function of the transport layer?
15. What do you mean by congestion?
16. Define flooding.
17. Define DNS.

Five marks
1. Discuss briefly on: WWW.
2. Write Short Notes on: Bridges and Gateways.
3. Explain centralized routing and isolated routing.
4. Discuss briefly network layer of TCP/IP.
5. Discuss the design issues of transport layer.
6. Explain static routing.

Ten marks
1. Write short notes on:
(a) Repeaters.
(b) Bridges.
2. Discuss in detail, any ONE Routing Algorithm.
3. Discuss in detail, routers and gateways.
4. Describe the Transport and Application layers of TCP/IP.
5. Discuss the design issues of transport layer in detail.
6. Describe the TCP/IP Architecture in detail.

-----------------------------******ALL THE BEST******--------------------------------------

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