1. INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION.

DEFINATION OF TERMS
Nutrition

Is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other substances in food in relation to
maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It includes food intake,
absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism and excretion.

Good nutrition is an important part of leading a healthy lifestyle. Combined with physical

activity, your diet can help you to reach and maintain a healthy weight, reduce your risk of
chronic diseases (like heart disease and cancer), and promote your overall health.

Benefits of good nutrition

1. Reduce the risk of some diseases, including heart disease, diabetes, stroke, some cancers,
and osteoporosis
2. Reduce high blood pressure
3. Lower high cholesterol
4. Improve your well-being
5. Improve your ability to fight off illness.
6. Improve your ability to recover from illness or injury
7. Increase your energy level

Tips for eating well

1. Eat plenty of fruit

2. Eat plenty of vegetables
3. Choose low fat or fat free milk
4. Eat plenty of whole grains
5. Choose lean meats
6. Try other sources of protein-Try replacing meats and poultry with fish, beans,

Over nutrition

 Is a form of malnutrition in which the intake of nutrients is over supplied. The amount of
nutrients exceeds the amount required for normal growth, development, and metabolism.

Under nutrition
Lack of proper nutrition, caused by not having enough food or not eating enough food containing
substances necessary for growth and health.

Malnutrition

Refers to deficiencies, excesses or imbalances in a person’s intake of energy or nutrients.

Health:

A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity.

Nutritional status

Is the balance between the intake of nutrients by an organism and the expenditure of these in the
processes of growth, reproduction, and health maintenance. 

 If your BMI is less than 18.5, it falls within the underweight range.
 If your BMI is 18.5 to <24.9, it falls within the normal.
 If your BMI is 25.0 to <29.9, it falls within the overweight range.
 If your BMI is 30.0 or higher, it falls within the obese range.

Obesity is frequently subdivided into categories:

 Class 1: BMI of 30 to < 34.4

 Class 2: BMI of 35 to < 39.9
 Class 3: BMI of 40 or higher. Class 3 obesity is sometimes categorized as “extreme” or
“severe” obesity.

Food Pyramid.

Is designed to make healthy eating easier. Healthy eating is about getting the correct amount of

nutrients – protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals you need to maintain good
health. ... This gives you a choice of different foods from which to choose a healthy diet.
FOOD
It refers to anything solid or liquid that when taken in the body it enables it to function properly.
It includes solids, semi-solids and liquids. Thus, two important features for any item to be called
food are:

1. It should be worth eating, that is, it should be ‘edible’.

2. It must nourish the body.

FUNCTIONS OF FOOD
1. It provides the fundamental types of materials required to keep our bodies functioning.
2. For growth and repair of tissues,
3. It maintains body temperature
4. Gives the body with fuel for physical activity
5. Build new cells and tissues for growth;
6. Prevent and fight infections
7.  Maintain a healthy weight

Nutrients

A substance obtained from food and used in the body to promote growth, maintenance, and
repair of body tissues”, or simply as “a substance that provides nourishment”.

There are two main types of nutrients,

a) Macronutrients
b) Micronutrients.

Both macronutrients and the micronutrients are equally essential for good health. Each nutrient
plays a significant role in the body.

Macronutrients
These are present in large quantities in foods and are also required in large amounts by the body.
They include:

a) Carbohydrates,
b) Proteins,
c) Fats and oils.

1. Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk
products
Carbohydrates are a type of macronutrient found in many foods and beverages. Most
carbohydrates occur naturally in plant-based foods, such as grains. Food manufacturers also add
carbohydrates to processed foods in the form of starch or added sugar.

Carbohydrates are divided into three.

1. Monosaccharide
2. Disaccharides
3. Polysaccharides

MONOSACCHARIDES
Also called simple sugar

They are the simplest form of sugar and the most basic units of carbohydrates.

The general formula is CnH2nOn. 

They are usually colorless, water-soluble, crystalline solids and sweet taste.

Monosaccharaides are the building blocks of disaccharides (such as sucrose and lactose)

and polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch).

Examples of monosaccharaides include:

a) Glucose (dextrose),
b)  Fructose (levulose),
c)  Galactose

Glucose 

Is a simple sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6. 

Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. 

Glucose is mainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water and carbon
dioxide, using energy from sunlight.

It is found in fruits and honey and is the major free sugar circulating in the blood of higher

animals. It is the source of energy in cell function, and the regulation of its metabolism is of great
importance.

Fructose (levulose)
Fructose is a type of sugar found in many fruits and vegetables and in honey. Fructose is used to
sweeten some diet foods, but this type of sweetener is typically not recommended for people with
diabetes because it could negatively affect blood sugar levels.

Galactose

Galactose, which is metabolized from the milk sugar, lactose (a disaccharide of glucose
and galactose) .Galactose is found in dairy products, avocados, sugar beets.

DISACCHARIDE

A disaccharide, also called a double sugar, is a molecule formed by two monosaccharides, or

simple sugars.
Disaccharides are carbohydrates found in many foods and are often added as sweeteners.
Sucrose, for example, is table sugar, and it is the most common disaccharide that humans eat.
They have 12 carbon atoms, and their chemical formula is C12H22O11.
Three common disaccharides are 
a) Sucrose,
b) Maltose,
c) Lactose

Sucrose

Sucrose also known as table sugar is obtained from sugar cane or sugar beets. Sucrose is made
from glucose and fructose units. Sucrose is a very important component of the human diet as a
sweetener.

Sucrose glucose + fructose

Maltose

Maltose, also known as malt sugar, is formed from two glucose molecules. Malt is formed when
grains soften and grow in water, and it is a component of beer, starchy foods like cereal, pasta,
and potatoes, and many sweetened processed foods. In plants, maltose is formed when starch is
broken down for food. It is used by germinating seeds in order to grow.
Maltose Glucose + Glucose

Lactose

Lactose, or milk sugar, is made up of galactose and glucose. The milk of mammals is high in
lactose and provides nutrients for infants. 

Lactose Glucose + Galactose

POLYSACCHARIDE

A polysaccharide is a large molecule made of many smaller monosaccharides.

Examples of a Polysaccharide

Cellulose
Cellulose is a molecule found in the cellular structure of almost all plants. It is made up of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and it is considered to be the most abundant organic compound.
Cellulose is the main substance that makes up the cell walls and fibers of plants.
Cellulose has a number of uses due to its unique structure and chemical makeup.

 Because it is a complex carbohydrate that takes longer to burn off than simple
carbohydrates (e.g., sugars), cellulose has become a very popular additive to a number of
different foods.
 Cellulose is added to foods as a preservative. Many pre-packaged cheeses contain
cellulose because it works as an anti-clumping agent.
 Cellulose is added to foods as a fiber supplement and as a means to add volume to
specific recipes without significantly raising their caloric values. Foods that have
cellulose added to them will generally make you feel fuller without eating a lot more
calories.
 When combined with water, cellulose will tend to thicken into a gel, making it a good
additive for stabilizing, thickening, and emulsifying pre-packaged foods and beverages,
such as pre-made milkshakes, sauces, whipped cream, and other products.
 Cellulose is also used in the production of paper and paperboard products, as well as
rayon, cellophane, and other similar products.

Glycogen
A polysaccharide, produced and stored in animal tissues, esp. in the liver and muscles, and
changed into glucose as the body needs it.

A substance deposited in bodily tissues as a store of carbohydrates. Mainly found in muscle and
liver cells. 

Glycogen is synthesized from glucose when blood glucose levels are high, and serves as a ready
source of glucose for tissues throughout the body when blood glucose levels decline.

Starch

An odorless, tasteless white substance occurring widely in plant tissue and obtained chiefly from
cereals and potatoes. It is a polysaccharide which functions as a carbohydrate store and is an
important constituent of the human diet. An enzyme found in saliva and the pancreas that breaks
down starch to get energy. Starchy foods include bread, pasta, rice, couscous, potatoes, breakfast
cereals, oats and other grains like rye and barley.
Functions of carbohydrates are summarized here:-

1. Regulation of blood glucose.

2. Carbohydrates are the main source of energy
3. Carbohydrates spare proteins for body building function
4. Dietary fibre increases the bulk in stool and helps in defecation
5. Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis.
6. Flavor and Sweeteners.
7. Energy Storage - If the body already has enough energy to support its functions, the
excess glucose is stored as glycogen (the majority of which is stored in the muscle and
liver)

Food sources of carbohydrates are:

1. Cereals - wheat, rice, maize, etc.

2. Pulses
3. Roots and tubers - potatoes, sweet potatoes, beetroot and tapioca
4. Sugar

Characteristics of sugars
 2. Proteins
Proteins are body for body building foods. Proteins are made up of smaller units known as amino
acids. There are all together 22 amino acids, out of which there are 9 amino acids which our
body cannot manufacture. Rest of the amino acids can be manufactured by the body.

Two types of amino acids

a) Essential amino acids are those which our body cannot manufacture and hence have to
be supplied through the diet.
Examples include: histamine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine,
threonine, tryptophan, and valine
b) Non-essential amino acids are those amino acids which our body can manufacture.
Examples include: alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid,
glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine.

Functions and sources of proteins

1. Needed for growth, maintenance and repair of tissues.

2. Necessary for production of enzymes, hormones, antibodies, hemoglobin, etc.
3. Help in the clotting of blood
4. Provide energy, when CHO and fats are in short supply.
5. Maintain proper pH and fluid balance.
6. Help in digestion of food by catabolizing nutrients into monomeric units
7. Protect the body from foreign pathogens

Types of protein

Complete proteins: These foods contain all the essential amino acids. Also known as high
biological value proteins (HBV) this is because they mostly occur in animal foods, such as meat,
dairy, and eggs.

Incomplete proteins: These foods contain at least one essential amino acid, so there is a lack of
balance in the proteins. Also known as low biological value proteins (LBV) Plant foods, such as
peas, beans, and grains mostly contain incomplete protein.
Complementary proteins: These refer to two or more foods containing incomplete proteins that
people can combine to supply complete protein. Examples include rice and beans or bread with
peanut butter.

Sources

1. lean meat, poultry and fish

2. Eggs
3. Dairy products like milk, yoghurt and cheese
4. Seeds and nuts
5. Beans and legumes
6. Oats

Characteristics of proteins

1. Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur.

2. Serve as structural components of animals.
3. Serve as control molecules.(enzymes)
4. Serve as transport and messenger molecules.
5. Basic building block is amino acids.

3. Fats and Oils

 Fats are solids at room temperature while Oils are actually fats that take a liquid form when at
room temperature.

Fats and oils are the concentrated source of energy in our diet.

Fats are made up of small units called fatty acids. The nature of fats is dependent on the type of
fatty acids present. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids are found in
solid fats whereas oils contain more of unsaturated fatty acids. Vegetable oils are rich in
unsaturated fatty acids.

Functions and sources of fats and oils

1. Provide concentrated source of energy

2. Reduce the use of proteins for energy
3. Carry fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) into the body and help in the absorption of
these vitamins
4. Help to maintain body temperature. The layer of fat under the skin helps to conserve
body heat
 5. Act as a cushion to certain vital organs
6. Delay the feeling of hunger.
7. Long term storage of energy.
8. Helps in building cell membrane

Types of fats

Saturated fats

 Saturated fat is a type of dietary fat. It is one of the unhealthy fats, along with trans fat.
These fats are most often solid at room temperature.
 The majority come mainly from animal sources, including meat and dairy products. In
addition, many baked goods and fried foods can contain high levels of saturated fats.
Some plant-based oils, such as palm oil, palm kernel oil and coconut oil, also contain
primarily saturated fats, but do not contain cholesterol.
 Sources of saturated fats include: fatty beef, lamb, pork, Poultry with skin, beef fat
(tallow), lard and cream, butter, cheese.

Monounsaturated fats
 They are also referred to us healthy fats or good fat.
 Are typically liquid at room temperature but start to turn solid when chilled.
 They are found in plant foods,
 Benefits of monounsaturated fats: They can help with weight loss, reduce the risk of
heart disease and decrease inflammation.
 Sources include: avocados, almonds, cashews and peanuts. Cooking oils made from
plants or seeds like canola, olive, peanut, soybean, rice bran, and sesame and sunflower
oils.

Polyunsaturated fats
 Also considered as healthy fats. 
 Are found in plant and animal foods.
 Have been shown to yield anti-inflammatory properties.
 Can help reduce bad cholesterol levels in your blood which can lower your risk of heart
disease and stroke.

Sources include:

1) Fish (such as herring, mackerel, salmon, trout, and tuna)

2) Mayonnaise and oil-based salad dressings
3) Nuts (such as pine nuts and walnuts)
4) Seeds (such as flax, pumpkin, sesame, and sunflower seeds)
5) Soft margarine (liquid, spray, and tub)
6) Vegetable oils (such as corn, cottonseed, soybean, and sunflower oils)
Tran’s fats
 It is an unsaturated fatty acid of a type occurring in margarines and manufactured cooking
oils as a result of the hydrogenation process, having a trans arrangement of the carbon atoms
adjacent to its double bonds.
 Trans fat raise your bad (LDL) cholesterol levels and lower your good (HDL) cholesterol
levels. Eating Tran’s fats increases your risk of developing heart disease and stroke. It's also
associated with a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

Sources include:

1) Crackers, cookies, cakes, frozen pies, and other baked goods

2) Snack foods (such as microwave popcorn)
3) Frozen pizza
4) Fast-food
5) Vegetable shortenings and some stick margarines
6) Coffee creamer
7) Refrigerated dough products (such as biscuits and cinnamon rolls)
8) Ready-to-use frostings

Special features

(i) Fats improve the texture as well as absorb and retain flavors making meals more
appetizing.
(ii) Fats have properties that help them to remain in the stomach longer and prolong the
feeling of fullness.

Micronutrients
Other important nutrients which are present in small quantities in foods but are essential for our
body are called micronutrients.

If these micronutrients are not eaten in required amounts, it results in deficiency diseases.

Examples include:

1. Minerals
2. Vitamins
Vitamins
It is any of a group of organic compounds substances essential in minute amounts for normal
growth and activity of the body and obtained naturally from plant and animal foods because they
cannot be synthesized by the body.

Vitamins are classified into two:

1. Fat soluble: A, D, E and K

2. Water soluble: B and C

Fats soluble vitamins

Characteristics of fat soluble vitamins

1. Examples include: vitamin A, D, E, and K.

2. Fat-soluble vitamins are most abundant in high-fat foods and are much better absorbed
into the bloodstream when you eat them with fat.
3. They are stored in the body's fatty tissue and liver.
4. They come from plant and animal foods or dietary supplements. 
5. Last longer in the body, because are not needed every day.

Vitamin A

Other name is retinol, beta carotene (pro-vitamin A) or anti -infective vitamin

Functions of vitamin A

 Vision maintenance: Vitamin A is essential for maintaining the light-sensing cells in the

eyes and for the formation of tear fluid.

 Immune function: Vitamin A deficiency impairs immune function, increasing

susceptibility to infections

 Body growth: Vitamin A is necessary for cell growth. Deficiency may slow or prevent
growth in children.

 Hair growth: It is also vital for hair growth. Deficiency leads to alopecia, or hair.

 Reproductive function: Vitamin A maintains fertility and is vital for fetal development.

Minerals
Minerals constitute a very small amount of the total body tissues. However, these are essential
for many vital processes and also for the maintenance of the body. In total, there are about 19
minerals required by the body in various amounts. Let us now study some of the important
minerals.

Calcium
Calcium and phosphorus are available in sufficient quantities in milk, curd, green leafy
vegetables, eggs and oil seeds. Other foods also provide fair quantity of calcium. The major
function of calcium is the formation and development of bones and teeth. Calcium is also
required in blood clotting and muscular contraction.
Calcium is necessary for bone formation, blood clotting and muscular contraction Deficiency
of calcium in the body results in poor bone development, particularly in children, women and
elderly. The deficiency disease is known as osteoporosis. In this, the bones become brittle and
people become prone to frequent fractures.

Iron
Iron is required in very small quantity by the body. It is an important material present in
hemoglobin which is a part of red blood cells and is responsible for the red color of blood.
Whole grain cereals and pulses are the major sources of iron in our diet. Other sources of iron are
green leafy vegetables, egg yolk, liver and meat. In our country, majority of the population,
especially women and children, suffer from iron deficiency disease called anemia. Young girls
(12-18 yrs.) need move iron rich foods in their diets because of loss of iron during the menstrual
cycle. Extra iron is also needed during pregnancy for healthy development and growth of the
focus. (Refer to Table 4.3) This is not because people do not consume foods which are rich in
iron but because the absorption and utilization of iron is poor. This is due to the presence of
certain naturally occurring constituents in food called oxalates and phytates. These oxalates and
phytates are called inhibitors of iron. Vitamin C and proteins help in better absorption of iron
and are known as enhancers of iron.

Functions of Iron:

The chief functions of iron in the body are :

1. Iron forms a part of the protein – hemoglobin which carries oxygen to different parts of the
body.

2. It forms a part of the myoglobin in muscles which makes oxygen available for muscle
contraction.

3. Iron is necessary for the utilization of energy as part of the cells metabolic machinery.

4. Detoxification of drugs in the liver.

Iodine:
Iodine is an important substance present in thyroxin hormone produced from thyroid gland.
Thyroxin regulates various functions of the body. We get iodine from water and food. The foods
which grow in iodine rich soil provide iodine for us. Sea foods are also rich in iodine. Iodine
deficiency disorder is known as goiter or enlargement of the neck region. Deficiency of iodine
causes mental retardation in children. Recent studies have shown a direct link between iodine
deficiency and academic performance of children. Iodine deficiency disorders have been
identified in many parts of the world.
Iodine is necessary for growth and development. To avoid goiter we must have iodine rich
food sources in our daily meals. Iodized salt is a good source of iodine and we must consume it
instead of the non-iodized salt.
Make iodized salt a part of your daily diet. Certain foodstuffs like cabbage, cauliflower,
radish, ladies finger, oilseeds etc., contain substances known as goitrogens which interfere with
the body’s ability to produce and use thyroxin. These goitrogens are destroyed on cooking.
Therefore, these foodstuffs should be cooked before eating.

Zinc
Zinc is primarily intracellular substance. Largest stores of Zinc are present in the bones. Zinc
forms a constituent of the blood. Zinc is an important element performing a range of function in
the body as it is a cofactor for a number of enzymes.
Functions of Zinc

1. Zinc is a constituent of enzymes such as carbonic anhydrase, alkaline phosphatase, and lactic
dehydrogenase.

2. It is a constituent of the hormone insulin

3. It plays a major role in the synthesis of DNA and proteins.

Sources

Meat, un-milled cereals and legumes are good sources. Fruits and vegetables are poor sources.

WATER
Water is the major constituent of our body. It forms about two-thirds of the body weight. We can
do without food more readily than water. It is present in all the cells, being a vital part of all
living tissues. It surrounds tissues and organs, and gives protection from shock. Water helps in
digestion, absorption and transportation of nutrients in the body. It helps to excrete unwanted
materials in the form of urine and maintains body temperature through perspiration. Normally,
we need to drink 6-8 glasses of water every day. Other forms in which we can receive water are
milk, juice, kanji, etc.

FUNCTIONS OF WATER
 a. It is an essential constituent of all the cells of the body and the internal
environment.
b. Serves as a transport medium by which most of the nutrients pass into the cells
and removes excretory products.
c. Water is a medium for most biochemical reactions within the body and sometimes
a reactant.
d. It is a valuable solvent in which various substances such as electrolytes, non –
electrolytes, hormones, enzymes, vitamins are carried from one place to another
e. Plays a vital role in the maintenance of body temperature. Heat is produced when
food is burnt for energy. Body temperature must be kept at 80º - 108º Fahrenheit
for higher or lower body temperature will cause death. Body heat is lost through
the skin, lungs, urine and faeces.
f. It forms a part of fluids in body tissues; (eg) the amniotic fluid surrounds and
protects the fetus during pregnancy.
g. Saliva is about 99.5 percent water. In healthy individuals it makes swallowing
easier by moistening the food.
h. Water helps in maintaining the form and texture of the tissues.
i. Water is essential for the maintenance of acid base and electrolyte balance.

3 Food Pyramid

The food guide pyramid was introduced in 1992 by USDA (United States Department of
Agriculture) as a general plan of what to eat each day. The food guide pyramid is a valuable tool
for planning a health promoting diet. By incorporating the principle of balance, variety and
moderation, an individual can still eat their favorite foods while following the food guide
pyramid.
Balance: It means choosing food from different food groups.

Variety: This means including different foods within each food group. For eg. consuming a
variety of fruits.
Moderation: This means keeping serving sizes reasonable. This involves self-control. The food
guide pyramid provides recommendation for the number of daily servings that should be
consumed from each of the food groups. The diagram Fig. 1.3 clearly represents that cereals
should form the major bulk of the diet followed by fruits and vegetables, pulses, milk and meat
products and sugars and oil.

7. Food Composition Table/groups.

Significance of the five-food group system

The five food group system can be used for the following purposes:
 1. Planning wholesome balanced menus to achieve nutritional adequacy.
2. Assessing nutritional status – a brief diet history of an individual can disclose
inadequacies of food and nutrients from any of the five groups. Based on the
assessment, nutrition education can be imparted to the individual.

8. Nutritional Diseases and Disorders

Nutrient deficiencies can be due to

1. Inadequate ingestion (e.g. decreased total caloric intake)

2. Inadequate absorption (e.g. malabsorption)

3. Inadequate utilization (e.g. cirrhosis)

4. Increased requirement (e.g. pregnancy and lactation) 5. Increased excretion (e.g. actual loss
of nutrients in urine and/or feces)

Protein-Calorie Malnutrition

A. Marasmus 1. Definition: low calorie intake

Manifested as:

a. growth failure

b. alert and hungry

c. muscle wasting

d. mild anemia

B. Kwashiorkor 1. Definition: normal total caloric intake but a decreased intake of protein.

Fat soluble vitamin disorder

1. Vitamins that are fat-soluble (ADEK) are primarily stored in the liver

2. Greater chance for toxicity with fat soluble vitamins than with water soluble vitamins
B. Vitamin A disorders

1. Poor night vision

b. Poor wound healing

c. liver disease

Vitamin D disorders 1. Vitamin D comes from sunlight and diet

a. Poor diet

b. Malabsorption

c. Chronic pancreatitis

d. Bile salt deficiency

e. Abnormal metabolism

f rickets
CLINICAL SIGNS OF NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY DISORDERS
Clinical examination is an important practical method for assessing the nutritional status of a
community. Essentially, the method is based on examination for changes, believed to be related
to inadequate nutrition that can be seen or felt in the superficial epithelial tissues especially the
skin, eyes, hair or in organs near the surface of the body such as the parotid and thyroid glands.

Clinical assessment must always be carried out by individuals with adequate training. The
following simple guide is employed to interpret the following deficiencies.
9. Digestion
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Carbohydrates are classified, depending on the number of sugar units they contain, as simple
carbohydrate and complex carbohydrates. Monosaccharaides and disaccharides make up simple
carbohydrates, called simple sugars containing one and two sugar units respectively.
Polysaccharides called complex carbohydrates are structurally larger and more complex than
simple sugars. They include starch, dietary fibre and glycogen.

DIGESTION, ABSORPTION AND UTILIZATION OF CARBOHYDRATES

Digestion: The first stage of digestion of carbohydrate takes place in the mouth. Chewing breaks
up food and exposes starch and sugars to the action of enzymes. Saliva contains salivary amylase
(ptyalin). It converts starch to maltose but time limits the action of salivary amylase, because as
food enters the stomach, the acid present in the stomach blocks the action of salivary amylase. In
the stomach the acid causes hydrolysis of sucrose. In the small intestine pancreatic amylase and
intestinal amylase digest starch up to the stage of maltose.

Glycogen is also broken by these enzymes to disaccharides. Enzymes maltase, sucrose and
lactase present in the brush borders of the columnar cells of small intestine convert disaccharides
to monosaccharaides.

Cellulose and other polysaccharides are not digested by enzymes, so undigested material passes
to large intestine forming bulk which contributes to faeces. The end products of carbohydrate
digestion are monosaccharaides – glucose, galactose and fructose. They are absorbed by process
of active absorption by the mucosa of the small intestine.

Metabolism

Metabolism occurs inside the various cells of the body. There are two types of metabolism;
anabolism (building up) and catabolism (breaking down). The major carbohydrate anabolic path
ways are conversion of glucose into glycogen (glycogenesis) in the liver and muscles. The
conversion of glucose into fat (lipogenesis) in the liver and adipose tissue. Carbohydrates follow
two major catabolic pathways: The breakdown of glucose releasing energy (glycolysis) and
converting it into usable energy (ATP) and the conversion of glycogen to glucose
(glycogenolysis)

After digestion and absorption of glucose into the blood stream it is utilized directly by the
tissues for energy. When the absorbed glucose exceeds the body’ s need for energy it is stored as
glycogen in the liver and muscle and excess glucose is converted to triglycerides and stored as
fat in adipose tissue.
PROTEIN
One fifth of an adults total body weight is protein. Protein is found in every cell of our body. All
the tissues in our body such as muscle, blood, bone, skin and hair are made up of proteins. Many
hormones and enzymes are either protein or protein derivatives. The nucleic acids in the cell
nucleus occur in combination with proteins as nucleoproteins. Protein is thus essential to
maintain cellular integrity and function and for health and reproduction.
Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. They are distinguished from
carbohydrates and fats by the presence of nitrogen. Protein is synthesized from basic units called
amino acids. Protein molecules, which contain up to hundred amino acids, are much larger than
carbohydrates or lipid molecule.

ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

Amino acids are classified into two groups – essential (indispensable) and non-essential
(dispensable). An essential amino acid is one that cannot be synthesized by the body to meet the
physiological needs and hence should be supplied by the diet. The essential amino acids are
histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine threonine, tryptophan and valine.
Non-essential amino acids are those that the body can synthesize. They are alanine, arginine,
aspargine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine and tyrosine.

DIGESTION, ABSORPTION AND UTILIZATION OF PROTEINS

Proteins taken in the diet are digested to amino acids in the stomach and small intestine. Gastric
juice contains enzymes pepsin which digests protein in acid medium. It hydrolyses proteins to
polypeptides.

In the small intestine, pancreatic and intestinal juices contain proteolytic enzymes. Pancreatic
juice contains trypsin, chymotrypsin and carboxyl peptidase. They hydrolyse large protein
molecule to smaller polypeptide.

Intestinal juices contain polypeptidases & dipeptidases which hydrolyse polypeptide & dipeptide
to individual amino acids. There are several peptidases acting on different proteins. When
undigested proteins enter large intestines, bacteria causes nitrification of proteins leading to foul
smelling flatus.

Proteins are mainly absorbed in the form of amino acids. Amino acids are absorbed by active
transport mechanism in the intestinal cells. Sometimes whole protein may be absorbed by the
mechanism of pinocytosis. Absorbed amino acids pass into the portal blood and reach liver
where they are converted to proteins. Other amino acids are transported through general
circulation and are utilized for protein synthesis in the tissues.
Utilization of proteins in the body
The amino acids from digested proteins are absorbed rapidly into the blood and passed onto
different tissues to meet their needs. Some non-essential amino acids are synthesized in the liver
and also released into the circulation. The amino acids released by hydrolysis of tissue proteins
are also added to the amino acid pool in the body. The protein metabolism of mammals is in a
dynamic state and the synthesis and breakdown of tissue protein takes place constantly. The
unwanted amino acids are oxidized in the liver to yield energy and urea.

LIPID
Lipids more commonly known as fats and oil, are integral part of our food. They are insoluble in
water but soluble in organic solvents. They occur in both plant and animals. Lipids are a
concentrated source of energy.

DIGESTION ABSORPTION AND UTILIZATION

Digestion In the mouth: Fat digestion starts in the mouth with hard fats beginning to melt when
they reach body temperature. The salivary glands at the base of the tongue release a lipase
enzyme which digests fat to a less extent in adults.
In the stomach: In the stomach fat floats as a layer above the others components of swallowed
food. As a result little fat digestion takes place.
In the small Intestine: When fat enters the small intestine, the hormone cholecystokinin signals
the gall bladder to release bile. Bile emulsifies fat and also provides an alkaline medium for the
action of pancreatic lipase and intestinal lipase. The triglycerides are acted upon by these lipases
and hydrolyzed to monolycerides and fatty acids. The cholesterol esters are hydrolyzed to give
cholesterol and fatty acids.

Absorption and Utilization

Small molecules of digested triglycerides (glycerol, short & medium chain fatty acids) can
diffuse into intestinal cells and are absorbed directly into the blood stream. Larger molecules
(Monolycerides, long chain fatty acids) merge into spherical complexes known as micelles. The
lipid contents of the micelles diffuse into the intestinal cells. Once inside the monolycerides and
long chain fatty acids are reassembled to new triglycerides. Within the intestinal cells the new
triglycerides and larger lipids like cholesterol and phospholipids are placed into transport vehicle
called chylomicrons. The intestinal cells then release chylomicrons into the lymphatic system.
The lymph circulation empties into the thoracic duct which in turn enter the subclavian vein and
subsequently into the blood stream. The blood transport lipids to the rest of the body and cells
absorb them and utilize for energy. This breakdown of fat to yield energy is called lipolysis.
Majority of lipids enter via the lymph to the liver where the protein and lipid (cholesterol,
triglycerides) are bound together to form lipoproteins.
There are four types of lipoproteins, they are:

i) chylomicrons,
ii) ii) very low density lipo protein (VLDL)
iii) iii) low density lipo protein (LDL) and
iv) iv) high density lipo proteins (HDL).

Chylomicrons, VLDL and LDL serve to transport and deposit lipids from the intestine and liver
to the tissues for absorption. Low-density lipoprotein, which has the highest cholesterol fraction,
favors lipid deposition in tissues including blood vessels and hence termed ‘bad’ cholesterol.
HDL cholesterol removes the lipids from the tissues and transports it back to liver for disposal;
hence it is termed as ‘good cholesterol’. High levels of LDL cholesterol indicate a high risk of
cardiovascular disease. Apart from lipoproteins, triglycerides, cholesterol and phospholipids are
synthesized in the liver. This is called lipogenesis.

10. Food Commodities

MEAT:
Meat is probably the most important food that is used and includes cattle, sheep, and pigs are
reared for fresh meat. Meat is used.

BEEF
Beef is the meat obtained from domesticated cattle. Compared to other types of meat, it has
longer connective tissues which make it to be tougher taking longer cooking time and also
digestion period. However, beef can be made more tender (soft) by:

1. Hanging the meat after slaughtering as in butcheries for up to 14 days under the right
conditions.
2. Marinating by use of vinegar or lemon juice.
3. Use of tenderizing salts or chemicals.
4. Beating up meat pieces by use of meat hammer (steak hammer) before grilling or frying.
5. Use of enzymes that break down the protein e.g. papain from the leaves of pawpaw tree is
injected to the blood stream of the animal just before slaughtering to ensure that it is
evenly distributed.

Quality purchasing points for fresh beef

1. Fat- should be firm, brittle in texture and creamy white. Older animals have fat which is
softer and yellowish in colour. Should be moderate and not too much.
 2. Marbling- in lean meat is formed by small droplets of fat which should be evenly
distributed, especially in sirloin steak wing and also fore ribs.
3. Colour- the colour of the meat should be bright red. The cut surface may become dull and
sticky after it is exposed to air for some time.
4. Touch- lean beef should be firm and elastic to the touch and not flabby.
5. Fluid- any moisture on the cut surface should be watery, not thick and sticky to the
touch. The beef should not be over moist or too dry.
6. Grains- the grains should be fine. Long coarse fibres are a sign of cheaper quality cut of
beef.

Storage
Large sections of meat such as sides, fore quarters, hind quarters, whole sirloins and rumps
should be suspended on meat hooks from racks fixed to the ceiling of the cold room.

Cuts of beef should be stored on trays at 2°c and covered to prevent drying out of the cut
surfaces. The trays need to be changed daily to prevent the meat from lying on the collected
blood.

Chilled beef should be stored at -2°c (28° F) and frozen beef at -18°c (0° F)

VEAL
Refers to the meat obtained from young calf especially below the age of 2 years and may weigh
upto 100 kgs. Good quality veal should be:

 Pale pink and firm

 Not soft or flabby

 Cut surfaces should not be dry, but moist

 Bones in young animals should be pinkish white, porous and with a small amount
of blood in their structure.

 The fat should be firm and pinkish white

 The kidney too should be firm and well covered with fat

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

Milk is a white liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the primary source of
nutrition for young mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation
milk contains colostrum, which carries the mother's antibodies to the baby and can reduce the
risk of many diseases in the baby. It also contains many other nutrients.
As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from mammals during or soon after pregnancy and
used as food for humans though it has to be treated before consumption to make it safe.

The females of all mammal species can by definition produce milk, but cow milk dominates
commercial production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from
cows.

Fresh milk should be taken care of to ensure that it is not contaminated and therefore it should:

• kept in the container in which it is delivered.

• Stored in the refrigerator for maximum of 5 days

• Be kept covered as it easily absorbs smells from other foods such as onions and fish

• Order fresh milk daily

• Tinned milk should be stored in cool and dry, well ventilated rooms

• Dried milk is packaged in air tight tins and kept in a dry store

• Sterilised milk will keep for 2-3 months if un-opened, but once opened, must be treated
just as fresh milk

Composition of milk
 Lipids/ fats

 water

 Protein- Normal bovine milk contains 30–35 grams of protein per liter

 Salts, minerals, and vitamins

Minerals or milk salts are traditional names for a variety of cations and anions within bovine
milk. Calcium, phosphate, magnesium, sodium, potassium, citrate, and chlorine are all included
as minerals and they typically occur at concentration of 5–40 mM. The milk salts strongly
interact with casein, most notably calcium phosphate. It is present in excess and often, much
greater excess of solubility of solid calcium phosphate. In addition to calcium, milk is a good
source of many other vitamins. Vitamins A, B6, B12, C, D, K, E, thiamine, niacin, biotin,
riboflavin, folates, and pantothenic acid are all present in milk.

 Carbohydrates

Milk contains several different carbohydrate including lactose, glucose, galactose, and other
oligosaccharides. The lactose gives milk its sweet taste and contributes approximately 40% of
whole cow's milk's calories. Lactose is a disaccharide composite of two simple sugars, glucose
and galactose.

Types of milk based on fat content

 Standardized milk- This is made by combining buffalo milk and skimmed milk. The fat
percentage is maintained at 4.5% while the SNF is 8.5%.

 Whole milk: Whole milk must contain at least 3.25% milk fat and 8.25% milk solids by
weight—which means it derives about 50% of its calories from fat. Because of this
relatively high fat content, whole milk is best used only for infants and young children up
to age 2. 

 Reduced-fat milk (2%): This milk contains 2% milk fat. The percentage of milk fat
refers to the percentage of fat by weight, and much of milk's weight is water. Once you
subtract the water from 2% milk, for example, you're left with a product that contains
20% fat by weight; such milk actually derives 35% of its calories from fat. Drinking 2%
milk is a good way to wean oneself from whole milk at first, but is too high in fat as a
permanent choice, unless your diet is otherwise very low in fat.

 Low-fat milk (1%): One-percent milk gets 23% of its calories from fat. Many people
find low-fat milk more appealing and a good compromise.

 Skimmed milk/non-fat milk: This type of milk has as much fat removed as possible. It
may not contain more than 0.5% milk fat by weight, and usually contains less than 0.5
gm of fat per cup, deriving just 5% of its calories from fat. Skimmed milk has about half
the calories of whole milk. It is the best choice for adults, and is the only type of milk that
should be consumed by people on strict low-fat diets. Unfortunately, skim milk has a
very "thin" flavor and an unappealing bluish cast.

Types of milk based on method of treatment/ processing

 Pasteurized milk- this is milk which has been heated to - 72˚c for 15 seconds and then
cooled quickly to less than 8˚c or - 63 ˚c for 15 minutes and then cooled quickly to less
than 8˚c or.

 Homogenised milk – this is Pasteurized milk which has its fat content being evenly
distributed all through by passing it through a fine mesh under pressure.

 Sterilized milk- this is homogenised milk that has been packed in to bottles and then
heated to 113˚c through either batch process(where the bottles are placed in a chamber
with hot air) or using the continuous process (where the bottles are placed on a conveyer
belt which then passes under water) for 15-30 minutes.
  UHT milk – this is homogenised which is heated to a temperature of 132 ˚c for 1 second,
the milk is then cooled and packed under sterile conditions.

 Evaporated milk- this is milk which has been heated at 80˚c until most of the water
evaporates as vapour to get an end product which is 2 times heavier than the original
milk.

 Condensed milk- it is evaporated milk but with the addition of sugar.

 Dried milk- this is milk produced by the evaporation of water from the milk by heat to
produce solid that contain 5% or less moisture. Methods used include spray method and
the roller method.

Food value
• Fat
• Protein
• Mineral salts
• vitamins

POULTRY
Poultry is a category of domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of collecting their
eggs, or raising for their meat and/or feathers. Poultry also includes other birds which are killed
for their meat, such as pigeons or doves or birds considered to be game, like pheasants. Poultry
comes from the French/Norman word, poule, itself derived from the Latin word Pullus, which
means small animal. Examples of poultry are chicken, guinea fowl, duck, ostrich, pigeons,
doves, pheasants, turkey

Poultry is the second most widely eaten meat in the world, accounting for about 30% of meat
production worldwide, after pork at 38%.

The meatiest parts of a bird are the flight muscles on its chest, called breast meat, and the
walking muscles on the first and second segments of its legs, called the thigh and drumstick,
respectively. The wings are also eaten, usually (in the United States) without separating them, as
in Buffalo wings; the first and second segment of the wings are referred to as drumette (meatier)
and flat when these need to be distinguished, though these are technical terms.

Nutritive value of poultry

- Chicken is a easily digested source of protein to the human body as it has no strong connective
tissues as in meat.

- It provides some B vitamins, calcium and a little iron to the body.

- It is suitable for invalids, infants and convalescent diets because it is easy to chew and digest.

Signs of quality
-plumb breast

-pliable breast bone

-firm flesh

-white skin, unbroken and with a faint bluish tint

-long hairs on the skin

STORAGE OF POULTRY
Chilled birds should be stored between 3˚c and 5˚c. oven ready birds are eviscerated and should
be stored in a refrigerator.

Frozen birds should be kept in a deep freezer until required but must be thoroughly thawed,
preferably in a refrigerator before being cooked.

Frozen poultry should be checked that:

- The packaging is undamaged

- There are no signs of freezer burns which are indicated by white patches on the skin.

EGGS
The term egg applies to not only those of a hen but also to the edible eggs of other domesticated
birds e.g. turkey, goose, guinea fowl, e.t.c. Most caterers make use of hen’s egg for much of the
purposes compared to others.

Eggs are an extremely versatile food commodity, suitable for inclusion in a wide range of
products and dishes.

Shell quality characteristics that must be considered are as follows:

 cleanliness

 soundness (unbroken)

 smoothness

 shape

In quality eggs the yolk should be:

  round,

 firm and stand up well, and

 be yellow in colour.

Factors that may cause loss of quality are as follows:

 natural factors

 temperature

 humidity

 time

 handling

 storage

 tainting

Value of eggs

 They are good sources of high biological value protein,

 Provide little quantities of iron to the body.

 They are also poor sources of calcium since its only concentrated in the shell which is not
eaten.

Quality points for fresh eggs

 Shell-should be clean, undamaged and slightly rough

 White-when broken, the egg should have a large proportion of thick white to thin white.

 Yolk-should be firm, round/dome shaped and good yellow colour.

 Smell- pleasant, bad eggs smell of hydrogen sulphide.

STORAGE OF EGGS

The storage of shell eggs during the main laying season, in order to conserve them for
consumption when they are scarce, has been practised for many centuries.

For the successful storage of eggs, the following conditions must be met.

 The eggs placed in storage must be clean; they must not be washed or wet.
  Packaging material used should be new, clean and odourless.

 Loss of water due to evaporation should be reduced to a minimum.

 The storage room must be free from tainting products and materials and should be
cleaned regularly with odourless detergent sanitizers.

 The storage room must be kept at a constant temperature and humidity must be checked.

 There should be air circulation in the storage room.

 Eggs should be stored so that they are allowed to breathe.

 As far as possible, interior quality should be monitored; there should be a good

proportion of thick white, the yolk should stand up well, and the flavour of white and
yolk should be good.

If all of the above requirements are to be met, refrigerated storage is necessary.

Cold storage of eggs

In the tropics, eggs can deteriorate very quickly unless they are stored at low temperatures. The
ideal temperature for storage in such climates is 13°C or lower (usually between 10° and 13° C).
Here refrigeration is a necessity for successful commercial storage; however, it may be
unavailable or the costs too high.

The most important factors in successful cold storage are as follows.

 The selection and packaging of eggs.

 The equipment and preparation of the cold store.

 Proper temperature, humidity and air circulation.

 Periodic testing for quality.

 The gradual adjustment of eggs to higher temperatures when removed from storage.

FISH AND SEAFOODS

INTRODUCTION
Because of health considerations, many people choose to eat fish in preference to meat and
consequently consumption of fish has steadily increased. Over 200 types of fish are on sale
throughout the year.
Sea food - is any form of sea life regarded as food by humans. Though, Seafood
prominently includes fish and shell fish.

Purchasing requirements / specifications

i) It should be firm to touch

ii) The skin of really fresh fish is bright in appearance and glistering; it is moist and has a
transparent outer slime and the scales are plentiful

iii) The eyes should be clear, full and shiny – almost glistening.

iv) The gills should be red.

v) It should not, under any circumstances smell ‘fishy’, but should have a clean, fresh smell.

vi) When buying crab, tab it gently to make sure it doesn’t contain water.

vii) Mussels should not be bought if their shells don’t close when tapped.

viii) The scales should be flat, moist and plentiful.

ix) Fish should be purchased daily, if possible direct from the market or supplier.

x) The fish should be well iced so that it arrives in good condition.

xi) Fish may be brought on the bone or filleted

xii) Medium sized fish are usually better than big fish which may be coarse, small fish often
lack flavor.

Storage of fish

Refrigeration

i) Scales, clean and gut fish. Place on a plate or tray or a lidded container, cover with a
damp cloth and then with plastic wrap or the lid. Store in the coldest part of the fridge
and use within 2-3 days.

ii) Clean and rinse squid, cuttle fish and octopus. Place on the plate or tray or in a lidded
container, cover with a damp cloth and then with plastic wrap or the lid. Store in the
coldest part of fridge and use within 2-3 days.

iii) Dead crustaceans (such as crab) should be consumed as soon as possible after purchase.
Refrigerate, covered plastic wrap, on a plate or tray in a covered container in the coldest
part of the fridge.
 iv) Live crustacean (such as crabs) should be consumed as soon as possible after purchase.
Keep in a cool place with a damp cloth over the container ensuring that the cloth remains
damp.

v) Live molluscs (such as mussels) should be consumed as soon as possible after purchase.
Place in container, cover with a damp cloth and keep in the warmest part of the
refrigerator, usually the crisper (optimum 5˚c), ensuring that the cloth remains damp.

Before cooking discard any shells that are open and don’t close when tapped or gently squeezed.

Freezing

i. Scale, gut, gill and wipe out all fish before freezing. Place in an airtight freezer bag,
extract as much air as possible, lable and date.

ii. Whole non-oily fish can be frozen for up to 6 months at -18 ˚c or less.

iii. Whole oily fish, and all fish fillets, steaks and cutlets can be frozen for up to 3 months at
-18 ˚c or less.

iv. Meat from mulluscs (such as squid and mussels) can be frozen for up to 3 months at -18
˚c or less. Gut, clean, squid, cuttle fish and octopus remove meat from the shell place in
an airtight freezer bag, extract as much air as possible, label and date.

v. Crustaceans can be frozen for up to 3 months at -18 ˚c or less.. place crustaceans (other
than prawns) in an airtight freezer bag, extract as much air as possible, label, and date.

vi. Place unpeeled prawns in a plastic container appropriate to the volume of prawns. Cover
with water, seal and freeze. This forms a large ice block, which insulates the prawns. Do
not add salt as it draws out the moisture. Label, date and freeze as above.

VEGETABLES
In culinary terms, a vegetable is an edible plant or its part, intended for cooking or eating raw.

Vegetables are most often consumed as salads or cooked in savory or salty dishes.

Vegetables are classified according to the part of the plant they belong/represent e.g.

Above the ground - Fruits and seeds

- Flower bud

- Leaves

- Stems and shoots

 - Brassicals

Below the ground - Tubers

- Bulbs

- Roots

FOOD VALUE

Roots vegetables contain starch, or sugar for energy a small but valuable amount of protein,
some mineral salts and vitamins. They are also useful sources of cellulose and water. Green
vegetables are rich in minerals salts and vitamins, particularly vitamin c and carotene. The
greener the leaf the larger the quantity of vitamins present. The chief mineral salts are calcium
and iron.

Vegetables are eaten in a variety of ways, as part of main meals and as snacks. The nutritional
content of vegetables varies considerably though generally they contain little protein or fat and
varying proportions of vitamins A, vitamin K, vitamin B6, provitamins dietary minerals and
carbohydrates.

Some vegetables also contain fiber, important for gastrointestinal function.

Vegetables contain important nutrients necessary for healthy hair and skin as well.

A person who refrains from dairy and meat products and eats only plants is known as a vegan.

Diets containing recommended amounts of vegetables may help lower the risk of heart diseases
and type 2 diabetes. These diets may also protect against some cancers and decrease bone loss.

The potassium provided by vegetables may help prevent the formation of kidney stones.

DIETARY RECOMMENDATIONS

The USDA Dietary guidelines recommend consuming 3 to 5 serving of vegetables daily.

These recommendations can vary based on age, gender, and is determined based upon standard
portions sizes typically consumed as well as general nutritional content. Most of vegetables are
serving is equal to half cup and be eaten raw or cooked.

I.e. for leafy greens such as lettuce and spinach a single serving is typically one cup.

PURSHASING REQUIREMENTS
 1. The purchasing of vegetables is affected by,
2. The perishability nature of products.
3. Varying availability owing to seasonal fluctuation and supply and demand.
4. The effects of preservation e.g. freezing, drying, canning vegetables.
5. Fresh vegetables are living organisms and will lose quality quickly if not properly
stored and handled.
6. Automation in harvesting and packaging speed the handling process and helps retain
quality.

STORAGE

1. Store all the vegetables in a cool dry well ventilated room at an even temperature of 4-8
c (39-46F) which will help to minimize spoilage. Check vegetables daily and discard any
that are unsound.
2. Remove root vegetables from their sacks and store in bins or racks.
3. Store green vegetables on well ventilated racks.
4. Store salad vegetables in a cool place and leave in their containers.
5. Store frozen vegetables at -18C or (00F) or below keep a check on use by dates, damaged
packages and any sign of freezer bun.
6. The fresher the vegetables the better the flavor so ideally they should not be stored at all.
However as in many case storage is necessary. Then it should be for the shortest time
possible.
7. Green vegetables lose vitamin C quickly if they are bruised, damaged, stored for too long
or overcooked.
8. To prevent bacteria from raw vegetables passing on to cooked vegetables, store them in
separate areas.
9. Thaw out frozen vegetables correctly and never refreeze them once they have thawed out.

RULES FOR PREPARATION AND COOKING GREEN VEGETABLES

1.Use all vegetables as fresh as possible and gathered when young or just mature for maximum
value and for the best flavor.

2 Soak the vegetable to drown and float any caterpillars or slugs for not more ten 10minutes in
cold water to which salt has been added to slow up the absorption of vitamins and minerals.

NB flies are more easily floated in unsalted water.

3 Rinse them thoroughly to remove all the above pests.

4 Discard only the fibrous or withered parts. Dark outer leaves contain more vitamins.
5 Shred or slice hard and large vegetables with sharp knife. A blunt knife will crash cells and
release oxidase enzymes which will destroy vitamin. The shredded vegetable takes shorter time
to cook thus saving nutrients.

FRUITS
DEFINITION

‘Fruit’ means the fleshly seed – associated structures of plant that are sweet or sour and edible in
raw state, such as apples, oranges, grapes, bananas and lemons.

Fruits can be available as fresh, frozen, canned, dried or crystallized.

Fruits are vey important commodities in our daily diet for the following reasons: -

 They provide fiber and bulk to the diet.

 They make a meal more attractive because of their interesting colours and textures.

 Fresh fruits provide approximately 90% of the vitamin C in the diet.

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS

They can be classified into: -

1. Berry fruits – They have a fragile cell structure.

Some of the fruits which fall under berry are: -

Black berries Black currant

Cranberries Goose berries

Grapes Raspberries

Red currant Straw berries

NB: Some of berry fruits fall under the class of dried fruits which include sultanas, currants,
raisins, dates and prunes.

2. Citrus fruits – They have a tough leathery pad which surrounds a succulent juicy mass of
segments. Some have seeds and others don’t.

Some of the fruits which fall under citrus are: -

Grape fruit Lemons

Oranges Tangerines
3. Fleshly fruits – They may be seedless or have seeds throughout the flesh or in a centre core.

Some of the fruits which fall under fleshly are: -

Apples Bananas

Kiwi Melon

Water melons Papaya

Pineapple Pears

Pomegranates Passion fruits

4. Stone fruits – They have a single seed which is surrounded by a fleshy portion.

Some of the fruits which fall under fleshly are: -

Apricots Avocado pears

Cherries Dates

Mango Peach

Plums

5. Tropical fruits – They include dates, figs, guavas, mangoes, passion fruit, pawpaw, etc.

FOOD VALUE
 Eating fruits provide healthy benefits to the consumers.

 People who eat more fruits as part of an overall healthy diet are likely to have a reduced
risk of some chronic diseases.

 The nutritive value of fruits depends on its vitamins content especially vitamin C.
therefore they are valuable as protective food.

 Eating fruits protects against certain types of cancers.

There are vitamins obtained from these fruits.

 Vitamins are organic food substances found only in living things, that is plants and
animals.

 They are essential for our bodies to function properly.

 For growth, energy and for the general well being.

  With very few exceptions, the human bodies cannot manufacture or synthesize vitamins.
They must be supplied in our diet or in man-made dietary supplements.

We are going to look at different types of vitamins, their functions in the human body, and the
fruit source of these vitamins.

Vitamin A

 Helps cell reproduction

 Stimulates immunity

 It is needed for formation of some hormones

 Helps vision

 Promotes bone growth and tooth development

 Helps maintain healthy skin, hair and mucus membrane

 An effective preventive against measles

Deficiency

Can cause: - Night blindness

- Dry skin

- Poor growth

Fruit source

Cantaloupes Grape fruit

Guava Tomatoes

Mango Papaya

Passion fruit Water melon

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

 It is important in the production of energy

  It helps body cells convert carbohydrates into energy

 It is essential for the functioning of the heart, muscles and nervous system

 Lack of it or not getting enough can leave one fatigued and weak.

Fruit source

Avocado Dates

Grapes Guava

Mango Orange

Pine apple

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

 It is important for body growth

 Red cell production

 Helps in releasing energy from carbohydrates

Sources

Avocado Banana Dates Grapes

Mango Passion fruit Pomegranate Prickly pear

Vitamin B3 (Niacin)

 Assists in the functioning of the digestive system, skin and nerves

 Important for the conversion of food to energy

Fruit source

Avocado Mango

Dates Passion fruit

Guava Peach

Vitamin B5 (Pentothenic acid)

It is essential for metabolism of food as well as in the formation of hormones and (good)
cholesterol.

Sources

Avocado Gooseberry Pomegranate

Black currant Grape fruit Raspberries

Dates Guava Water melon

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

 It plays a role in the creation of antibodies in the immune system.

 It helps maintain hormonal never function

 It acts in the formation of red blood cells

 It is required for the chemical reaction of proteins

Too little B6 in the diet can cause dizziness, nausea, confusion, irritability and convulsions.

Fruit sources

Avocado Gooseberry Mango

Banana Grapes Passion fruit

Dates Guava Pineapple

Water melon Pomegranate

Vitamin 9 (Folate / Folic acid)

 Folate occurs naturally in fresh foods whereas folic acid is the synthetic form found in
supplements.

 Folate is needed to produce red blood cells as well as components of the nervous system.
  It helps in the formation and creation of DNA and maintaining normal brain function and
is a critical part of spinal fluid.

 It reduces the risk for neural tube defect (NTD) affected pregnancy by 50 – 70%.

 Folic acid is vital for proper cell growth and development of the embryo.

Fruit source

Avocado Mango Pineapple

Black berry Orange Pomegranate

Dates Pawpaw Raspberries

Guava Passion fruit Strawberries

Vitamin C

 Protects body cells against the effects of free radicals which are potentially damaging by-
products of the body’s metabolism.

 Free radicals can cause cell damage that may contribute to the development of
cardiovascular disease and cancer.

 It is an effective antiviral agent.

Fruit source

Black currants Kiwi Orange Pineapple

Grape fruit Lemon Pawpaw Strawberries

Guava Mango Passion fruit

Vitamin E

 Antioxidants – Which protects body tissues from damage of oxidation.

 Assists in the formation of red blood cell and the use of vitamin K.

 Women use it to minimize the appearance of wrinkles.

 Mothers use it to help heal minor wounds without scarring.

  It has the ability to sooth and heals broken or stressed skin tissue.

Sources

Avocado Guava Peach

Blackcurrant Kiwi Pomegranate

Blue berries Mango Raspberries

Cranberries Pawpaw (among others)

Vitamin K

 It is fat soluble and plays a critical role in blood clothing

 It regulates blood calcium levels

 Activates at least three proteins involved in bone health

Fruit sources

Avocado Cranberries Mango Pomegranate

Black berries Grapes Pear Raspberries

Blueberries Kiwi Plum Tomatoes

Minerals

Some fruits supply a small amount of iron and calcium, plus some trace elements.

Sources

Avocado Bananas Cantaloupe

Cherries Apple Pineapples

Kiwi is a good source of potassium and magnesium.

Other nutrients
  Most fruits are naturally low in fat, sodium and calories. None have cholesterol.

 Fruits are sources of many essential nutrients that are under-consumed including
potassium, dietary fiber, vitamin C and folate (folic acid).

 Diets rich in potassium help maintain healthy blood pressure. Fruit sources of potassium
include bananas, prunes, prune juice, dried peaches and apricots, honeydew melon and
orange juice.

 Dietary fiber from fruits as part of an overall healthy diet helps reduce blood cholesterol
levels and may lower risk o heart disease.

PURCHASING REQUIREMENTS OF FRUITS

The following points should be adhered to when purchasing fresh fruits

1. Clean, free from traces of pesticides and fungicides

2. Free from external moisture

3. Whole and of fresh appearance (for maximum flavor – the fruit must be ripe but not
overripe).

4. Firm according to the type and variety

5. Free from any unpleasant foreign smell or taste

6. Free from pests or diseases

7. Sufficiently mature must be capable of being handled and travelling without damage.

8. Free from any defects characteristics of the variety in shape size and colour.

9. Free of bruising and any other damage due to weather conditions. E.g. soft fruits deteriorate
quickly; especially if not sound therefore care must be taken to see that they are not damaged
or overripe when purchased. They should look fresh and no signs of wilting, shrinking or
mould.

10. Colour of certain soft fruits is an indication of ripeness e.g. strawberries or dessert
gooseberries.

STORAGE OF FRUITS
There are different methods of storage that depends on the type of fruits to be stored.

Cold storage
Apples are stored at temperatures of between 1-40C (34 – 390F), depending on the variety of
apple.

Gas storage

Fruits can be kept in a sealed storeroom where the atmosphere is controlled; the amount of air is
limited, the oxygen content of the oar is decreased and the carbon dioxide increased, which
control the respiration rate of the fruit.

i. Hard fruits e.g. apples are left in boxes and in a cool ventilated store.

ii. Soft fruits e.g. raspberries and strawberries should be left in their punnets or baskets in a
cold room or a refrigerator as they deteriorate rapidly warm weather.

iii. Stone fruits – Best placed in trays so that any damages fruit can be seen and discarded.

iv. Peaches and citrus fruits are left in their delivery trays or boxes.

v. Bananas should not be stored in too cold a place because their skin turns black

CEREALS
Definition:

-Cereals are cultivated grasses, but the term is broadened to include sago, rice and arrowroot. All
cereal products contain starch, and may have some similar characteristics.

-A cereal is a grass, a member of the monocot family cultivated for the edible component of its
grain. It is composed of endosperm, germ and bran.

They are grown for their highly nutritious edible seeds which are known as cereal grains. They
include maize, rice, wheat, rye, barley, oats, millet, sorghum, tapioca, sago and arrowroot flour.

FOOD VALUE

(i) Carbohydrates in cereal grains

The principal nutrient is carbohydrates in form of starch. Most of the starch is found in the inner
part of the grain known as the endosperm. It is therefore present in both wholegrain and refined
cereals.

(ii) Protein in cereal grain

The protein in cereal grains is of lower biological value because only small amounts of some of
the essential amino acids present.eg wheat and many cereals are deficient in amino acid lysine.
Cereal protein also contain smaller amounts of amino acid methionine, tryptophane and
isoleucine than do animal proteins.

Cereal products are frequently eaten with animal protein or pulses to supplement the missing
amino acids.

(iii) Fat in cereal grains

Different types of grains vary in the amount of fat they contain .Oats contain the highest
proportion (8%), in wheat, the fat is mainly found in the germ. Wholemeal and wheatgerm flours
contain 2-3% fat. Maize yields a good oil suitable for cooking.

(iv) Vitamins and Minerals in cereal grains

Cereal grains provide some of the B-group vitamins, esp thiamin and niacin. Small amounts of
riboflavin are also present. There is also vitamin A, C and D in cereals. Cereal grains are also a
useful source of calcium esp. wheat and oats if not processed.

(v) Dietary fiber in cereal grains

The outer areas of cereal grains are less digestible, but are a valuable source of dietary fibre. The
highly refined cereal products are deficient in this fibrous matter.

Types of cereals

1) WHEAT

The wheat grain is a seed and has the following parts:

 The germ (2% of the grain). The embryo plant and is rich in protein, fat and B-vitamins.

- The bran (13% of the grain), contains the seeds coat which protects the
developing embryo. It is mainly fibre with some minerals and B-vitamins.

- The endosperm (85% of the grain), it is the food reserve; composed of starch
granules mixed with protein.

Products of wheat

 Flour eg whole meal flour Brown / wheat meal flour: the whole meal flour Wheat germ flour:
where only the germ is milled into flour. Can however keep up to 2 weeks.

White flour plain: Where the germ and bran are remove

Self-rising flour: usually white flour with raising agen

starch reduced flour:

 Semolina: Where particles of endosperm are ground slightly coarse and gritty. Used for
desserts

 Pasta: The term used for stiff pastes made of semolina or flour and water and sometimes eggs
are added. The pastes are rolled thinly or extruded into a variety of shapes. The shapes are
dried before cooking.

 Wheat breakfast cereals: Are ready to eat breakfast cereals or snacks. They are produced
from puffed wheat eg All-Bran cereal, weetabix,

Products made from wheat flour:

- Cakes

- Pastries

- Pancakes

- Breads

- Chapatis

- To thicken eg stews, sauces (roux based)

2) RICE

Aquatics plant and produce most successful crops when grown in water.

The main classifications include:

 Long grain: a narrow pointed grain suited for savoury dishes and plain boiled because of its
firm structure which helps to keep the rice grain separate. Eg patna, basmati

 Medium grain: an all purpose rice suitable for savoury and sweet dishes eg Arborio,
Carolina

 Short grain: short rounded grain best suited for milk puddings and sweet dishes because of
its soft texture eg Arborio.

Main Types

-Brown rice: has covering removed but retains its bran and as a result is more nutritious

-whole grain rice; whole and unprocessed

-wild rice; seeds of an aquatic plant related to the rice family

-ground rice; this is rice coarsely ground, used for milk puddings
-rice flour; used for thickening certain soups eg cream soups

-Rice paper- a thin edible paper produced from rice used in the preparation of macaroons, cake
decoration.

-pre-cooked rice

Products: rice breakfast cereal; produced alone or combined with wheat in the puffed form eg
rice krispies

3. MAIZE

Maize is also known as corn, sweet or corn-on-the-cob and besides served as a vegetable it is
processed into cornflakes and corn flour.

Dry maize is rich in starch thus a cereal. Young green maize can be used as a vegetable and is
rich in fiber eg corn-on-cob.

Products of maize.

a) corn flour’s flour produced from maize which is pure starch used for thickening
soups,sauces,gravies and also a main ingredient in custard powder.

b) Maize breakfast cereals;

Are cereals products made from maize taken for breakfast or as a snack eg corn flakes?

c) Savoury snacks.

Used to produce snack popular with children eg corn chips

d) Pop corn.

e) Cooking oil: ie the corn oil

f) Maize flour can be used for porridge, ugali, and can either be whole meal or white flour.

Storage of Cereals and Products

 Flour: Storeroom must be dry and well ventilated,Flour should be removed from sacks and
kept in wheeled bins with lids. Old flour should not be mixed with new.

NB. Storage time varies according to the amount of fat present in the flour.

 Oats: should be kept in containers with tight fitting lids and stored in a cool well
ventilated storeroom. Care should be taken because of its high fat content.
 Rice: should be kept in tight fitting containers in a cool well ventilated store.

 Arrow root: easily contaminated by strong smelling foods therefore must be stored in air-
tight tins.

 Breakfast cereals: are packed in sealed bags inside their cartons. After opening, carefully fold
down inside the carton to preserve crispness and freshness.

 Whole cereals should be stored in a well ventilated cool dry place. They absorb moisture in a
damp place and may go mouldy. Store in containers with well fitting lids to prevent mites,
rodents and other insects

Purchasing specification:

Buy cereals when they are being harvested if possible since they are fresh. Buy from a reliable
supplier.

Cereals should be nicely selected from any foreign objects and pests to avoid food hazards.

Avoid wet and torn packaging’s for those in packets / sacks

Check on the expiry date for the packaged products and try to establish the season for the other
cereals especially if from an open air market.

HERBS AND SPICES

Herbs are any green or leafy part of plant used for seasoning and flavoring a recipe but not used
as the main ingredient.

Comes from lartin word herbe which means grass or herbage

Herbs are green plants which include leaves flowers and seeds. The leaves of herbs contain an oil
which gives a characteristics, smell and flavor.

FOOD VALUE

Herbs have no food value but are important from a nutritive point of view in aidding digestion
because they stimulate the flow of gastric juices.

STIMULANTS AND FLAVOURINGS

Stimulant:

It’s a substance that activates the body activities e.g the heartbeat and blood flow.

Flavourings:
Its an additive that is incorporated to food or drink to improve its taste.

 Condiments – salt, pepper

 Colourings – either in powder or liquid form

 Essence

Used in hot kitchen, bakery and confectioners.

COFFEE

Coffee is obtained from mature dried beans of the coffee plant.

USES

Coffee is used as a beverage rich in caffeine.

Coffee has no nutritive value on its own unless sugar which is rich in carbohydrate and milk
which is rich in protein is added to the coffee.

Can be used as a flavouring for cakes and icecream

8 FOOD SANITATION AND HYGIENE

Food sanitation implies cleanliness in the producing, preparing, storing and serving of food and
water

Food comes into contact with human hands during harvesting, storage, preparation and service

Causes of food contamination

Food may be contaminated if;

 Water used for washing or cleaning is not portable

 Soil adhering to foods grown close to the ground

 Containers or utensils used for storage and preparation are not clean

 Personnel handling food are unhygienic

 Personnel handling the food suffer from communicable diseases.

Control of insects and rodents

One of the common insects contaminating foods is housefly. These have minute hair on their
legs thus can be carriers of harmful bacteria depending on where they come from. They may
carry faecal matter or other such sources of pathogenic bacteria and deposit it on the food.

The cockroach can cause diarrhea and dysentery.

Rodents such as rats and mice spoil food and may be carriers of disease such as plague.

To ensure good hygienic stards of food, it is important to;

 Cover the food or keep in the cup-board

 Filling cracks, fissures in the walls and flooring which are usually the places where
insects breed and multiply

 Covering drain holes

Practical Rules for Good Sanitation

 Tie hair neatly before starting food preparation

 Wash fruits vegetables, fruits and cereals thoroughly before preparation with plenty
ofwater

 Use running water in food preparation

 Cover cooked food

 Leftovers such as rice, vegetables, should be stored in a refrigerator and should be

reheated before use.

9 FOOD POISONING, FOOD SPOILAGE AND FOOD PRESERVATION

Food poisoning is an illness acquired from eating contaminated food. Food may be contaminated
with bacteria, viruses or a chemical. It is characterized by stomach pains and diarrhea and
sometimes vomiting generally developing after 1-36 hours after food consumption

Causes of food spoilage

 Chemicals spoilage

Chemicals that entered food accidentally during growth or during storage and cooking
  Germs that entered the food through hands or toxins produced by food during storage,
processing

 Bacteria and viruses that have come from people, animals, insects, raw food, rubbish,
dust, water and air.

 Microbial spoilage

Moulds: simple plants that appear like whiskers on foods , particularly sweet foods , cheese and
meat. Cause food to be wasted as it tastes bad.

Yeasts: are single –cell plants or organisms larger than bacteria that grow on foods containing
moisture and sugar.

Bacteria: are minute plants or organisms that require moist, warm conditions and suitable food to
multiply. their growth is checked by refrigeration and they are killed by heat. Vinegar in prickles
is capable of destroying bacteria, dehydrated foods and dry foods do not contain much moisture
and provided they are kept dry, spoilage from bacteria will not occur.

FOOD PRESERVATION

In order to preserve food, it is important to kill the micro-organisms that cause the spoilage and
then store the food in an environment where it cannot be re-infected or in conditions where
deterioration is slowed down or stopped.

Food may be preserved by;

 Removing the moisture from the food –drying, dehydration

Water is needed by microorganism to survive and reproduce. Therefore removing the water in
foods below a critical value spoilage is reduced.

Foods preserved by this methods are; vegetables, peas, onions, beetroot, beans, carrots, cabbage,
fruits like nuts, plums, apricots ,meat and fish

 Making the food cold-chilling, freezing

At low temperatures micro-organisms growth is much slower. Refrigeration prolongs the life of
food while chilling retards the decay of the food . Chilled food include; meat

 Applying heat-canning, bottling

Bottled and canned food are sealed in airtight bottles or tins and heated at a high enough
temperature for a sufficient period of time to destroy harmful organisms

 Radiation, using X or gamma rays

Food are exposed to ionizing radiation which transfers some of its energy as it passes through the
food, killing the pathogenic bacteria, which would otherwise make the food unsafe to eat or at
lower doses the spoilage bacteria would cause the food to rot.

 By chemicals

A number of chemicals in certain food such as sausages, meats and jams are permitted by law
but their use is strictly controlled. Chemical preservatives include

- Sulphur dioxide and sulphites used in sausages and fruits and fruit products, dairy products,
beer, wine and biscuits;

-Ascorbic acid used is soft drinks and sodium and potassium nitrate used in bacon, ham, cured
meat, corn beef and some cheeses

 Vacuum packing

 Smoking and salting

Micro-organisms cannot grow in high concentrations of salt. This method is used to mainly
preserve meat and fish.

Smoking is used to enhance flavor and color of the product as its preservation effect is mainly
limited to surface of the product. Food preserved through smoking include; maple, grapevines,
apple and cherry

 Sugar

High concentration of sugars prevents growth of moulds, yeasts and bacteria. This method of
preservation is applied in fruits in a variety of forms; jams, jellies, candid etc

 Gas storage

Gas storage is use in conjunction with refrigeration to preserve meat, eggs and fruit. Varying the
gas composition surrounding the food increases the length of time it can be stored.

Food Hygiene regulations (2006)

 Food premises should analyze food hazards

 Identify where hazards may occur

 Decide which points are critical for food safety

 Premises must be kept clean and in good repair

  Adequate, cleaning, disinfecting areas, toilets and washbasins.

 Food waste and refuse must not be accumulated in food rooms

 Food handlers must keep themselves clean

 Food handlers must be supervised and well trained

 Things must be kept clean and in good condition

10 FOOD ADDITIVES AND FOOD REGULATIONS

Food additives are substances added in food in small quantities to improve its functional
properties, freshness, sensory and nutritional qualities or as processing aids in the manufacture of
food, and are thus preservative in character.

Classification of food Additives

 Preservatives

 Anti-oxidants

 Emulsifiers, stabilizers, and thickeners

 Sequesting and buffering agents

 Bleaching and maturing agents

 Food colors

 Flavoring agents and flavor boosters

 Nutrient supplements

 Non-nutritive and special diets sweeteners

 Anti-caking agents

 Foaming and anti-foaming agents

 Leavening agents

 Firming agents

 Humectants and texturizers and

  Clarifying agents

Principles for the use of additives are;

All actual or proposed food must be tested and evaluated toxicologically in all pertinent aspects
including cumulative, synergistic and potentiating effects

Only food additives that are safe at the level of intended use should be recommended

All food additives should be revealed in the light of the latest information of their use and safety

Food additives should always conform to the approved specifications of F.A.O

Preservatives
Are chemical agents intentionally added to food products to prevent or inhibit spoilage caused by
moulds, yeast or bacteria or enzymic and chemical changes.

Natural preservatives are not restricted in any food, unless otherwise provided by in the rules of
natural preservatives e.g. of natural preservatives; salt, glucose, spices, vinegar or acetic acid and
honey

Synthetic preservatives are restricted to a specific group of food in concentrations not exceeding
limits prescribed for each. E.g Benzoic acid used bakery and beverages; sulphrous acid used I
fruit juices, cordials, squashes and meat products.

Anti-oxidants

Natural fats exhibit stability due to the presence of minute quantities of certain materials known
as anti-oxidants.

Emulsifiers, stabilizers and Thickeners

Food emulsifiers are characterized by having an amphiphilic nature, which means that they
possess both hydrophilic and lipophilic properties.

Stabilizers and thickeners help improve and stabilize the texture of foods, inhibits crystallization,
stabilize emulsions and foams, reduce stickiness of icings on baked products and encapsulate
flavors such as gum Arabic, starch and gelatin.

Sequestering and Buffering Agents

Used in the manufacture of breads, control of Ph , processing of fruits and vegetables

Bleaching and maturing agents

Bleaching of color during storage improves baking qualities of flour. Chemical additives like
nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen tetroxide act as maturing agents

Food colors

Adding color to food products helps improve their aesthetic appeal. Colors naturally present in
food are classified as water-soluble and water in-soluble and are of plant and animal origin
cumin of turmeric, carotenoids, chlorophyll of leaves, crocetin, turmeric, beta lines of beetroot
and alkaline of roots of Anchusa tinctora are some of natural organic colorants

Carotene is used to preserve margarine. Annatto is used in butter, cheese, margarine and other
foods. Turmeric is used in curries, while saffron finds its use as a coloring as well as flavoring
agent in sweets.

Synthetic colorants are called coal-tar dye. They are sold inform of powder, pastes and glycerol.

Problems associated with synthetic dyes;

The specking and spotting in bakery and confectionary products due to the sediments in liquid
dye

Dull shades due to excess color or exposure to high temperature

Inability of the dyes to withstand high temperatures

Inability of the dyes to withstand high temperatures in high protein foods

Precipitation of dyes from solution due to solubility limits or chemical reaction

Fading by exposure to sunlight, reaction with metals, presence of oxygen

Flavorings agents

Flavor and flavor enhancers include oils, esters or aliphatic and aromatic alcohols with fatty
acids, alcohols.etc

Nutrient supplements

During various processing conditions, food stuffs are subjected to, there may be a loss of one or
more valuable nutrients. These nutrients need to be replaced to restore the original food value of
the product.

Non-nutritive and specific Dietary Sweeteners

Sucrose is the main sweetener in food and it contributes to the positive hedonic response in
humans. Asartame is a white, crystalline, odorless powder that has a clean sweet sugar-like taste
used in many food products such as; lemonade, puddings, whipped topping etc
Tialin is used in milk drinks, ice creams, syrups etc due to its low sugar contents.

Anti caking agents

These are materials that absorb excess moisture or coat particles to impart a degree of water
repellency or impart insoluble particulate diluents to the mixture and thus help prevent particles
from adhering to each other and forming lumps. Examples of anticaking agents are; calcium
carbonate, used in hard candies, calcium silicate used in baking powder and Manito used in
chewing gums.

Foaming and anti-foaming Agents

Dextrins, peptones and cellulose gums are used for stabilizing the foam in beer. Cellulose gas,
albumin, modified proteins and glycerolizes of fatty acids are used for stabilization of foam in
fruit juice powder by foam mat drying technique.

Anti-foaming agents like silicones are used in boiling syrups and jellies, fermentation of wine or
bottling of fruit juices and beverages and acetyl alcohol used in fermentation industry.

Leavening agents

Leavening agents are responsible for the light fluffy characteristics in baked products. Leavening
is increasing the area of a dough or batter by creating or occluding in them, small bubbles of gas
mainly co2, air or water vapor. Vapor is formed from water during baking of all dough and
batter. Air is incorporated by beating the viscous batter.

Firming Agents

Softening of fruits and vegetables on canning and freezing is prevented by firming agents like
calcium chloride, calcium citrate, calcium carbonate, and calcium lactate and calcium mono
phosphate.

Humectants and Texturizers

They are polyhydric alcohols that are carbohydrate derivatives and are used to retain moisture in
foods, to control the viscosity and texture, bulking, crystallization and to improve the rehydration
of dehydrated food and solubilizing the flavor compounds.

Clarifying agents

Used for clarifying juices, pectin degrading enzyme preparations which contain other enzymes
like dictase. For chill proofing, of beer, tannin, gelatin, albumin, methyl cellulose and proteolytic
enzyme preparations like papain and bromine are suggested.
Other additives include enzymes like rennin in the production of curd and cheese, freezing
agents like liquid nitrogen that evaporates rapidly and packaging gases such as inert gases to
prevent oxidative changes in instant foods.

11 EMERGING TRENDS

Today IT is everywhere we look and when added to the potential of powerful communication
technology. Most equipment has computing technology.

The use of technology has been incorporated in the following areas;

Reservations used by guests to book online

Property management system; in hotels to manage reservations and guest billing

Electronic point of sale system; used for recording the details of transactions

Food and beverage management systems; add a control framework that when correctly
implemented, gives greatly improved levels of management control. Data is created of all recipes
in use together within ingredients used to support those dishes

Event management systems: targeted at hotels and conferences to deal with the elements of
taking bookings and managing one-off events such as conferences, meetings, weddings and
banquets.

Internet and marketing

Generic software: software that we use to support the operation of a business but that does not
have a purpose that is unique to any specific industry.

Legislation: is an area that has rapidly expanded from the mid 80’s reflecting the increasing use
of IT and the corresponding need to offer legal protection to suppliers, users and people on
whom data are held in computers

Further developments; impact on how guests select hotels, restaurants and catering services will
continue to be influenced by electronic promotion and access. There will be a wider availability
of access to electronic data sources, particularly in hotel guestrooms.