Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm

Ethnobotany, phytochemistry and biological properties of Argan tree

(Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels) (Sapotaceae) - A review
Hicham Mechqoq a, Mohamed El Yaagoubi a, Abdallah El Hamdaoui a, Svetlana Momchilova b,
Jackson Roberto Guedes da Silva Almeida c, Fouad Msanda a, Noureddine El Aouad a, d, *
a
Laboratoire de Biotechnologies et Valorisation des Ressources Naturelles, Faculté des Sciences, Université Ibn Zohr-Agadir, Morocco
b
Institute of Organic Chemistry with Centre of Phytochemistry, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Str., bl. 9, 1113, Sofia, Bulgaria
c
Center for Studies and Research of Medicinal Plants (NEPLAME), Federal University of Vale Do São Francisco, 56304-205, Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil
d
Research Team on Biological Engineering, Agrifood and Aquaculture, Polydisciplinary Faculty of Larache, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan, Route de Rabat,
92000, Larache, Morocco

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ethnopharmacological relevance: The argan [Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels] is one of the most important floristic
Argania spinosa resource in Morocco, it is the only representative of the Sapotaceae family and Argania genus found in Morocco.
Traditional use This tree is fully exploited by the native populations for nutrition, medication and cosmetics. The argan oil
Argan oil
extracted from seed is the main tree product for his large use.
Phytochemistry
Biological activity
Aim of the review: This review describes the traditional uses, chemical composition and biological activities of
different the argan tree parts.
Materials and methods: This review covers the literature available from 1972 to 2021. The informations were
collected from electronic databases Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, SciFinder and Google Scholar.
Results: Argan oil have been used for nutrition, and to treat several diseases, namely rheumatisms, hypercho­
lesterolemia, atherosclerosis, lung infections, newborn gastrointestinal disorders, diabetes, skin and hair hy­
dration. The other parts of Argan tree have been used to treat intestinal disorders, dermatosis, and hair caring,
with additional uses such as livestock nutrition, carpentry and heating. The argan oil is primarily composed of
unsaturated fatty acids mainly oleic and linoleic acids furthermore the chemical composition, of the others part,
are very diversified (flavonoids, terpenoids, triacylglycerols, saponins. …). Diverse biological activities have
been reported for argan oil, such as antioxidant, skin water retention, hair protection, cholesterol stabilization,
antidiabetic, anticancer and antibacterial. Antimicrobial activities have been reported for argan leaves essential
oils, when the fruit pulp organic extract presented very interesting antioxidant activity due to the presence of
polyphenols. The argan cake is the seed waste produced during the extraction process, it is traditionally used for
skin care and for livestock nutrition. Different biological activities of argan cake have been cited essentially
antioxidant, haemoprotective, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial.

1. Introduction
Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels or argan formerly named Sideroxylon
spinosum (Morton and Voss, 1987) is an evergreen tree that belongs to
the Sapotaceae family. It is also the only representative of the Argania
genus (Fennane and Tattou, 2008). This specie is endemic to Morocco,
and located in the west-central part, where it occupies approximately
800 000 ha (Msanda et al., 2005).
For centuries, this slow growing tree played a key role in the econ­
omy of Berber native population (Morton and Voss, 1987). Furthermore,

Abbreviations: TE, traditional extraction; MP, mechanical press; SE, solvent extraction; SFE, supercritical fluid extraction; MAE, microwave assisted extraction;
TAG, triacylglycerol; O, oleic acid; L, linoleic acid; P, palmitic acid; S, stearic acid; MeOH, methanol; DPPH, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; ABTS, 2,2’-azino-bis(3-
ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid; FRAP, ferric reducing antioxidant power; TEWL, transepidermal water loss; WCE, water content of epidermis; LDL, low density
lipid; MIC50, Minimum Inhibitory Concentration of 50%; EC50, Effective Concentration of 50%; IC25, Inhibition Concentration of 50%.
* Corresponding author. Research Team on Biological Engineering, Agrifood and Aquaculture, Polydisciplinary Faculty of Larache, Abdelmalek Essaadi University,
Tetouan, Route de Rabat, 92000, Larache, Morocco.
E-mail address: n.elaouad@uae.ac.ma (N. El Aouad).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2021.114528
Received 26 April 2021; Received in revised form 12 August 2021; Accepted 15 August 2021
Available online 18 August 2021
0378-8741/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H. Mechqoq et al.
different parts of this tree are used for human nutrition (Boukhobza and
Pichon-Prun, 1988; Moukal, 2004), remediation (Charrouf and Guil­
laume, 1999; El Hafian et al., 2014; Khallouki et al., 2017; Rammal
et al., 2009), skin hydration (Alaoui, 2009; Saadi et al., 2013; Soheir and
Sirine, 2019), and hair care (Boukhobza and Pichon-Prun, 1988; El
Kabouss et al., 2002).
The argan tree is appreciated for its edible oil extracted from seeds.
This oil is the only edible part of the tree, and is known for its high
nutritional values. Argan oil is composed of a glyceridic fraction (99%)
and an unsaponifiable fraction (1%): The glyceridic fraction consists of
triacylglycerols, diacylglycerols, monoacylglycerols and free fatty acids,
80% of them are unsaturated as the oleic and linoleic acids (44.8 and
33.7% respectively) (Khallouki et al., 2003). When the unsaponified
matter contains carotenoids, polyphenols and sterols, the oil contain
also a non-negligible proportion of squalene (Charrouf and Guillaume,
2002). Argan oil biological proprieties include cosmetic properties such
as skin hydration (Boucetta et al., 2014), hair revitalizing (Faria et al.,
2013), antioxidant and antiradical actions (Marfil et al., 2011). Medic­
inal proprieties such as cholesterol stabilization (Drissi et al., 2004; El
Kharrassi et al., 2014), hypertension and diabetes controls (Berrada
et al., 2000), antibacterial activity (Naher et al., 2014).
Furthermore, the other tree parts (fruit pulp, leaves, cake and wood)
were used for medication to treat several diseases, such us skin derma­
tosis, gastritis, diabetes, rheumatisms, hypercholesterolemia, headache
and fever. The chemical composition of argan leaves and pulp featured
polyphenols including myricitrin and quercetin on argan leaves (Tah­
rouch et al., 2000), and protocatechuic acid and epicatechin on argan
pulp (Charrouf et al., 2007). Those tree parts extracts exhibited anti­
microbial (Bonvicini et al., 2017; Dakiche et al., 2016), and antioxidant
activities (Dakiche et al., 2016; El Monfalouti et al., 2012).
This aims of the present paper are, present the argan tree, define its
specificities and geographical origin, compare the studies conducted on
the Moroccan endemic argan with the late introduced among other parts
of the world. Report the argan tree traditional uses according to the
findings of ethnobotanical studies conducted in the original geographic
area of argan tree. And report and discuss all the chemical composition
and biological evaluations done up to now on different argan tree parts.
2. Methodology
Relevant literature was collected by probing scientific databases
(Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science and SciFinder).
Various keywords were used; Argania, Argania spinosa, traditional uses
of Argania, ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, chemical composition,
phytochemistry, pharmacology and biological activities of Argania spi­
nosa, relation structure-activity.
All bibliographic resources (English, French and Spanish) related to
Fig. 1. Numbers of publications related to argan chemistry and pharmacology per years.
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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528
Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharma­
cology were cited in this review. Chemical structures were drawn using
MarvinSketch software (version 16.1.4, 2016; ChemAxon; http://www.
chemaxon.com).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Bibliometric analysis
According to the inclusion criteria defined for this study, 207 articles
published from 1972 to 2021 involved ethnobotanical, phytochemical
and pharmacological studies, in addition to papers related to argan tree
geographical distribution, fruits phenology, oil quality control and plant
genetics. Of these articles, starting from 2006, there is a steep increase in
the number of publications. The recent increase in the number of pub­
lications related to the argan tree clearly reflects the increased invest­
ment on this topic in terms of economic and human resources over the
years (Fig. 1).
3.2. Botanical description
Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels (synonyms: Argania sideroxylon Roem. &
Schult., Sideroxylon spinosum L.) belongs to the tropical family Sap­
otaceae, it is the only representative species of this family in Morocco
(Msanda et al., 2005).
Argan tree presents an erect or weeping port with a short trunk with
a height about 2 m, which can even reach up to 10 m (Morton and Voss,
1987). The bark is rough and cracked, and surrounds a dense grain wood
with thorny branches. Argan tree also has a well-developed root system
that plays an important ecological role protecting the soil from erosion
(López Sáez and Alba Sánchez, 2009). The leaves are subpersistent,
alternate or fasciculate, obovate to lanceolate, tapering at base to a short
petiole. The flowers appear in spring as small axillary and sessile
glomeruli. They are hermaphrodite, protogynous, type 5, gamopetals
with a very short tube. The fruit appears after 9–16 months (Msanda
et al., 2005). The fresh fruit color is greenish, and turn to yellow-brown
at maturity, those fruits reach maturity between August and October
(Bani-Aameur et al., 1998) (Fig. 2). A single tree can produce about 8 kg
of fruits per year (M’Hirit et al., 1998).
3.3. Geographic distribution
The argan tree is endemic to Morocco, where it grow up exclusively
and spontaneously in the form of forests called arganraie, those forests
compose a unique steep or hilly landscape and were classed as biosphere
reserves by the UNESCO in 1998 (Guillaume et al., 2019).
The arganeraie is located in the central west area and covers
H. Mechqoq et al.
Fig. 2. (a) Argan tree general aspect, b. argan flower, (c) argan fruit, (d) different maturity stages of argan fruit.
approximately 800 000 ha (Msanda et al., 2021). Fig. 3 represents the
repartition of the argan forest in the central Moroccan area. According to
some authors this value is exaggerated and outdated, they state that the
argan this area may be around 550 000 ha (Benabdellah and Ibnezzyn,
2018), and they attribute this reduction to the anthropic pressure and
climate change.
The argan tree is mainly found in the central west of Morocco, along
the Atlantic seaboard, where its distributed from the mouth of the River
Tensift in the north, to the mouth of the Draa River in the South (Msanda
et al., 2005). Overhanging the plain of the Souss and bounded by the
southern slopes of the western High Atlas and the northern and southern
slopes of the western Anti-Atlas to the east, growing up in altitudes up to
1300 (Peltier, 1982).
Two additional vegetal groups have been reported in the north of
Morocco, the first is spread over 800 ha in the high valley of the Grou
River South of Rabat, and the second near to Oujda, in the North-
Western hills of the Beni-Snassen (Kechairi and Benmahioul, 2021;
Msanda et al., 2005). According to El Mousadik and Petit (1996), those
two isolated stations seem to result from a relatively recent dispersion,
probably due to nomads grazing activity.
The argan extends as far as the Hamada of Tindouf in Algeria
(Kechairi and Abdoun, 2016). In addition to the spontaneous vegetal
groups, the argan tree has also been introduced as a cultivated species in
the deserts of Tunisia, Israel, and South Africa, among other parts of the
world (Khallouki et al., 2017)
3.4. Traditional uses
Many ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological studies on Argan
tree had been abundantly reported. The populations of argan area uses
argan for human and animal nutrition, remediation, heating of shelters
and manufacturing. Moreover, the other tree parts (seed, pulp, leaf,
bark, wood and root) are used to treat several disorders as diabetes,
rheumatisms, eczema, dry skin, burns, hypercholesterolemia, gastritis,
ulcers, dysentery, headache, fever, hair and face ailments. Table 1
summarizes the parts of the plant and their traditional uses.
The dried argan nut kernels (seeds) are externally used as powder to
treat eczema (Ouhaddou et al., 2014), sprains, injuries (Moukal, 2004),
skin burns (Abouri et al., 2012), and for hair care (Moukal, 2004). They
can also be used in preparation with argan oil, as scalp serum or
shampoo to prevent hair loss as reported by El Kabouss et al. (2002).
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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528
Those seeds are also orally consumed by the local populations to prevent
diabetes (Barkaoui et al., 2017). In addition, Argan oil has been a culi­
nary staple in Morocco for centuries, not only because of its subtle, nutty
flavor but also its wide array of potential health benefits (Boukhobza
and Pichon-Prun, 1988).
The Argan oil is also recognized for its cosmetic proprieties. In matter
of fact, its externally applied for skin hydration (Soheir and Sirine,
2019), to treat different skin conditions such as burns (Saadi et al.,
2013), scars and skin marks (Alaoui, 2009), teenage acne (Charrouf and
Guillaume, 1999), chicken pox pustules (Boukhobza and Pichon-Prun,
1988) alone or in association with other ingredients such as euphorbia
latex and mugwort leaves to treat manges (Moukal, 2004). It has been
reported the use of this oil as anti-wrinkle agent, for nails care (Bou­
khobza and Pichon-Prun, 1988), and to prevent hair loss (El Kabouss
et al., 2002).
The argan oil have also proved to be efficient against atherosclerosis
(Charrouf and Guillaume, 1999), cardiac conditions (Rammal et al.,
2009), cholera and miscarriage (Charrouf and Guillaume, 2002).
Furthermore, Khallouki et al. (2017) mentioned the oral use of argan oil
in association with rosemary or mint essential oil as a remedy for
rheumatisms, and in association with red garlic to treat hypercholes­
terolemia. When, Moukal (2004) cited the use of argan oil with red
garlic clove, Peganum harmala, Nigella sativa, Coriandrum sativum,
Nasturtium officinale, thyme, oregano, cumin, galangal and cloves for
treating lung infections or gastrointestinal problems in the newborn.
Another ethnobotanical survey highlighted the use of drinkable prepa­
ration containing argan oil, Rosmarinus officinalis leaves, Soybeans,
Pennisetum typhoides, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Nigella sativa powders
to treat diabete (El Hafian et al., 2014).
The analysis of the ethnobotanical resources related to argan seeds
and oil proved that they are mainly used for skin and hair care, to treat a
lot of dermatitis and internal diseases such as gastritis, lung infections,
cardiovascular conditions and diabetes.
The argan cake resulting of the oil extraction process. Despite being
considered as a by-product, it is exploited by the Berber populations for
hair fortification, and as skin poultice to treat dermatitis, sprains and
skin injuries (Moukal, 2004). Additionally, Alaoui (2009) cited its use as
powder in association with argan leaves for livestock nutrition.
During the process of argan seed oil extraction the fruit pulp is
generated, and it is considered like the cake as a by-product. The argan
pulp is used for leather tanning (Moukal, 2004), It is also externally
H. Mechqoq et al.
Fig. 3. Geographic repartition of argan tree on its endemic area (Msanda et al., 2021).
applied as poultice to treat nettle rash, mycosis, parasites, mange, hives
and scabies (Alaoui, 2009). Similarly, El Hafian et al. (2014) mentioned
the use of argan pulp essential oil for skin conditions and facial skin
abscess. The same author featured the daily oral use of pulp infusion
with Saffron stigmas, Citrullus colocynthis leaves and Artemisia herba alba
aerial parts for gastritis and gastrointestinal disorders.
In addition to the use of argan leaves for livestock grazing (Khallouki
et al., 2017), many ethnopharmacological investigations featured their
medicinal uses, For instance, Abouri et al. (2012) revealed the oral use of
leaves decoction to treat gastritis and ulcers. When Katiri et al. (2017)
mentionned the anti-diabete potential of leaves decoction. Moreover,
the argan leaves can be orally used for gastritis, dysentery, headache and
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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528
fever (Ouhaddou et al., 2014), or applied externally to heal hives, fun­
gus, parasites and to stop scalp flaking causing dandruff (Abouri et al.,
2012). Moreover, the flowers were used as a decoction for skin condi­
tions (Moukal, 2004).
The argan wood is hard, heavy, and widely used by the locals for
manufacturing objects as outlined by Ruas et al. (2011). Other uses of
this wood features tanning leathers (Abouri et al., 2012), and making
charcoal for heating and cooking (Khallouki et al., 2017).
The argan bark is scratched and collected up of the wood as is cooked
with juniper leaves to prepare a decoction known to be efficient against
gastritis, ulcer and colonopathy as stated by Moukal (2004)
Finally, the argan roots decoction has been reported to be effective in
H. Mechqoq et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528

Table 1
Traditional uses of different parts of Argania spinosa.
part use Preparation Administration Reference

Seed Eczema, scalp treatment and hair care Powder External Ouhaddou et al. (2014)
Seed Chapped skin; burns Powder External Abouri et al. (2012)
Seed Hair fortifier Powder External Moukal (2004)
Seed Sprains, injuries or manges Powder External Moukal (2004)
Seed Treatment of diabetes Raw Oral Barkaoui et al. (2017)
Seed Nutrition Oil Oral Boukhobza and
Pichon-Prun (1988)
Seed Rheumatisms Argan oil, rosemary essential oil or mint Oral Khallouki et al. (2017)
Seed Hypercholesterolemia Argan oil and red garlic Oral Khallouki et al. (2017)
Seed Hepatoprotective agent, atherosclerosis Oil Oral Charrouf and Guillaume
(1999)
Seed Antioxidant and cardioprotective Oil Oral Rammal et al. (2009)
Seed Choleretic and miscarriage Oil Oral Charrouf and Guillaume
(2002)
Seed Lung infections or gastrointestinal problems Argan oil, red garlic clove, Oral Moukal (2004)
in the newborn Peganum harmala, Nigella sativa, Coriandrum sativum, Nasturtium officinale,
thyme, oregano, cumin, galangal and cloves
Seed Diabete Argan Oil, Rosmarinus officinalis leaves, Soybeans, Pennisetum typhoides, Oral El Hafian et al. (2014)
Trigonella foenum-graecum, Nigella sativa powders
Seed Increases the resistance of hair and nails Oil External Boukhobza and
Pichon-Prun (1988)
Seed Skin hydration Oil External Soheir and Sirine (2019)
Seed Anti-wrinkles Oil External Boukhobza and
Pichon-Prun (1988)
Seed Skin stretch marks Oil External Alaoui (2009)
Seed Skin pimples and chicken pox pustules; Oil External Boukhobza and
Pichon-Prun (1988)
Seed Juvenile acne Oil External Charrouf and Guillaume
(1999)
Seed Pealing skin; Hair care and against hair loss Argan oil and seed powder External El Kabouss et al. (2002)
Seed Burns Oil External Saadi et al. (2013)
Seed Mange Argan oil with euphorbia latex and mugwort leaves External Moukal (2004)
Pulp Gastritis Infusion with Saffron stigmas, citrullus colocynthis leaves and artemisia herba Oral El Hafian et al. (2014)
alba aerial parts
Pulp Nettle rash, mycosis, parasites, mange, hives Powder External Alaoui (2009)
and scabies
Pulp Facial skin abscesses Essential oil External El Hafian et al. (2014)
Pulp Tanning leather. Powder – Moukal (2004)
Leaf Livestock grazing Raw or with argan cake – Khallouki et al. (2017)
Leaf Diabetes Decoction Oral Katiri et al. (2017)
Leaf Gastritis and ulcers Decoction Oral Abouri et al. (2012)
Leaf Gastritis, dysentery, headache and fever Infusion Oral Ouhaddou et al. (2014)
Leaf Hives; fungus; parasites; anti-dandruff Decoction External use Abouri et al. (2012)
Flower Face skincare Maceration External Moukal (2004)
Root Diabetes and colonopathy Decoction (with juniper, oregano, fenugreek or caraway) Oral Abouri et al. (2012)
Bark Gastritis, ulcer and colonopathy Decoction with juniper leaves Oral Moukal (2004)
Wood Manufacturing tools, carpentry and Raw – Ruas et al. (2011)
construction materials
Wood Heating and cooking Charcoal – Khallouki et al. (2017)
Wood Tanning leather Decoction – Abouri et al. (2012)

treating diabetes and colonopathies (Abouri et al., 2012). A previous
report made by Alaoui (2009) cited the same use, but mentioned the use
of roots in association with juniper, oregano, fenugreek and caraway.
However, this use is very rare due to the fact that the process of col­
lecting the roots can damage the tree.
3.5. Extraction of argan oil
Argan oil is extracted following multistep procedures from the pit of
the fruit to the extraction using traditional press or cold press methods
(Charrouf and Guillaume, 1999). Prior to the extraction the argan seeds
can be roasted, providing an edible oil with golden color and unique
nutty flavor, when the unroasted seeds are pressed to extract cosmetic
oil (El Monfalouti, 2013).
The traditional extraction method is performed with a traditional
hand mill. Briefly, the fruits are pulped, the cores crushed to recover the
fruit seeds (kernels), the latter are roasted in order to reduce the water
content of the seeds to press them. For this kind of extraction, the
roasting process is crucial, and suppressing it makes the argan oil
recovery by manual pressing impossible. The roasted seeds are grind
milled giving a brownish paste, mixed with warm water for several
minutes. Then, the dough is pressed by hand, giving a clear oil with a
nutty taste (El Monfalouti, 2013). This technique has the disadvantages
of being very slow, in fact it requires about 10 h to obtain a liter of oil
with an extraction yield of 29% (Charrouf, 1984), and a storage time
limited to a few weeks (Charrouf and Guillaume, 2008).
The introduction of the mechanical cold press improved the oil
extraction process, in this technique the oil is obtained by pressing the
seeds with a hydraulic press, 2 h are required to obtain a liter of a high
quality oil with a yield of 55% (Charrouf, 1984). The use of presses has
significantly increased the oil quality and yield (Charrouf and Guil­
laume, 2008). The argan oil obtained from unroasted seeds have a fader
color and a relatively lighter organoleptic proprieties, and is exclusively
used for cosmetic purposes (Charrouf and Guillaume, 1999).
Argan oil can also be obtained by solvent extraction (Monfalouti
et al., 2010). The seeds are generally extracted with an apolar hydro­
carbon solvent, such us cyclohexane, petroleum ether, chloroform or
dichloromethane, in a stainless steel extraction device (Adlouni, 2010).

5
H. Mechqoq et al.
The extraction can be carried out using an assisted solvent extraction
apparatus (ASE) or a simple soxhlet extractor.. The solvent extraction
method leads to obtaining a yield ranging from 50 to 57%, just after one
or two cycles of extractions (Guillaume and Charrouf, 2011). Generally,
the argan oil extracted with this process is exclusively intended for
cosmetic uses (Adlouni, 2010).
Recently Taribak et al. (2013) reported the use of supercritical fluid
extraction for the obtention of argan oil, according to the authors the
highest obtained extraction yield was 48%, when the mechanical
cold-pressing yield was around 45%, which is lower than the previously
cited sources.
3.6. Chemical composition
Compounds belonging to different phytochemical classes, especially
polyphenols, fatty acids, terpenes, sterols, triacylglycerols and saponins,
have been isolated and identified from different parts (seed, fruit pulp,
leaves and wood) of Argania spinosa. The chemical composition of
different argan parts are summarized on Tables 2 and 3. Table 2 presents
the different argan oil composition of fatty acids expressed as percentage
of FAME (Fatty acid methyl esters) which are volatile form of fatty acids
easily detectable by GC-MS (gas chromatography coupled with mass
spectrometry), other components such as triacylglycerols and poly­
phenols were characterized by HPLC-MS (High performance liquid
chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry) and expressed in %,
when the tocopherols are expressed as mg per kg of oil. Table 3 presents
the saponins and polyphenols of the argan press-cake, leaves and pulp,
they are all expressed in % (w/w).
3.6.1. Argan seed oil
Many reports could be found representing chemical compositions of
the oil extracted from Argan seeds. Table 2 lists results and details of
previously published data from 1972 up to present.
Chemical investigation carried out by Berrada (1972) of the Argan
oil showed that the oil is composed mainly by two fractions. The glyc­
eridic fraction represents 99% of the oil and and an unsaponifiable
fraction (1%). The glyceridic fraction of argan oil represents 99% of the
total oil, this fraction includes 95% of Triacylglycerols, 1.1–2% of free
fatty acids, 0.68–1.53% monoacylglycerols, and 0.27–0.65% diac­
ylglycerols (Charrouf and Guillaume, 2008). 80% of them are unsatu­
rated as the oleic and linoleic acids (44.8 and 33.7% respectively)
(Farines et al., 1981, 1982, 1984a, 1984b, 1982; Khallouki et al., 2003).
The unsaponified fraction of argan constitutes 1% of the total oil con­
tains mainly sterols (Hilali et al., 2005), triterpene alcohols (Farines
et al., 1984a), tocopherols (Gharby et al., 2011), and few amounts of
phenolic compounds (Kamal et al., 2016), β-carotene (Gharby et al.,
2011), and squalene (Khallouki et al., 2003) (Fig. 4).
Triacylglycerols (TAGs) are by far the major and most typical con­
stituents of the argan oil (Maurin et al., 1992). They consist of a glycerol
bound to three fatty acid molecules. The TAGs of argan oils were iden­
tified as 16–20% for OOL, 14–17% for OLL, and 7–16% for POO 7–16%,
followed by POL with 12–14% and OOO (1) with 8–14 % (O – oleic, L –
linoleic, P – palmitic acyl residue; all the % values are relative to the
total triacylglycerol species) (Charrouf and Guillaume, 2008; Hilali
et al., 2005; Maurin et al., 1992).
The second group of lipids composing the argan oil glyceridic frac­
tion are the free fatty acids, presenting 2% of the argan oil. The main free
fatty acids are unsaturated, namely the oleic acid (2) with 46–48%, and
the linoleic acids (3) with 32–33%. When the lead saturated fatty acids
are the palmitic (4) and stearic acids (5) with 12–14 % and 5–7 %
respectively (Hilali et al., 2005; Taneva et al., 2021). Few amounts of
others fatty acids have also been reported such as myristic (6) , palmi­
toleic (7), arachidic (8) and linolenic acids (9) (Farines et al., 1984a;
Rahmani, 2005; Taneva et al., 2021; Taribak et al., 2013).
On the other hand, Argan oil is distinguished from other vegetable
oils by the presence of two sterols, schotenol (10) with 46–48% and
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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528
spinasterol (11) with 35–39%. This oil contains also Stigmasta-8,22-
diene-3β-ol (12) and 4-α-methylstigmasta-7,24-28-diene-3β-ol (13) with
3–5% and 4–5% respectively (Charrouf and Guillaume, 2008; Farines
et al., 1982; Hilali et al., 2005; Khallouki et al., 2003).
The chemical investigation carried out by Farines et al. (1984a)
showed that the oil composed mainly by six triterpene alcohols, namely
tirucallol (15) (27.9%), β-amyrin (16) (27.3%), butyrospermol (14)
(18.1%), lupeol (17) (7.1%), 24-methylene cycloartenol (18) (4.5%)
and citrostadienol (19) (3.9%).
Tocopherols had been reported on argan oil. According to Gharby
et al. (2011) the Traditional and mechanical press argan oils contains
γ-tocopherol (20) (460–590 mg/kg), δ-tocopherol (21) (50–190 mg/kg)
and α-tocopherol (22) (40–75 mg/kg). The same author mentioned a
total tocopherol content of 640–770 mg/kg. When Taribak et al. (2013)
investigated the supercritical fluid extracted argan oil and mentioned a
total tocopherol content value ranging from 586.9 to 698.7 mg/kg.
Moreover, the phenolic compounds of Argan oil had been identified
as ferulic acid (23) 30–31.5%, followed by syringic acid (24) 25–28.5%
p-hydroxybenzoic acid (25) 10.5–14%, and the vanillic (26) and caffeic
acids (27) with 11–13 % and 8–9% respectively.
Several parameters have been investigated in order to determinate
the factor responsible of the variability of Argan oil chemical
composition.
The harvest period effect on oil composition was investigated by
Harhar et al. (2014), the authors reported a higher contents of tocoph­
erols and phospholipids in the oils extracted from fruits collected in July
(July) than in others periods (April, May, June), those samples presented
also the best oxidative stability..
After harvesting, the argan fruits are dried. The optimal period for
this process is from 0 to 28 days as evaluated by Harhar et al. (2010b).
The chemical analysis showed no significant change on the fatty acids
content, however the authors noted that 10–14 days of sun-drying are
enough to dry the fruit pulp.
Charrouf et al. (2006) reported that the difference between the argan
roasted and unroasted oils are mainly due to the presence of aldehy­
de/ketone derivatives, those compounds forms during the roasting
process by Maillard reaction, they are mainly represented by aceto­
phenone and p-methylacetophenone. Moreover, the roasting process
improved the oxidative stability of the oil, this improvement can be
explained by the better extractability of antioxidant compounds such as
tocopherols, after the thermal treatment leading to the disrupt of the
oil-encapsulating structures. This process is accompanied by the for­
mation of Maillard reaction products (MRP) that may have antioxidant
properties (Matthäus et al., 2010).
The extraction of argan oil can be performed using different tech­
niques namely traditional manual pressing, mechanical cold press and
Soxhlet extraction, in addition to less conventional methods such as the
supercritical fluid extraction. The chemical composition of oils extracted
with traditional extraction, mechanical press, Soxhlet and Folch (liquid/
liquid extraction) methods had been discussed by Haloui et al. (2015).
They remarked that the fatty acids concentrations of the oil samples
were similar with values ranging from 18 to 20% of saturated fatty acids,
45–47% of monounsaturated fatty acids, and 32–35% of poly­
unsaturated fatty acids. When the Folch and Soxhlet extracted oils
showed tocopherols content significantly higher with 1256 mg/kg and
1158.5 mg/kg, respectively. In contrast with the traditional and Me­
chanical press extraction with values inferior to 870 mg/kg. Therefore,
the oil extracted by Folch and soxhlet methods were more stable
compared to the others, due to the higher content of antioxidants mainly
tocopherols and phospholipids (Haloui et al., 2015).
Finally, the effect of oil storage period were investigated as well, In
their study (Gharby et al., 2015) stored mechanically pressed roasted
and unroasted seed oils on dark and transparent glass bottles, under
different temperatures (5◦ C, 25◦ C and 40◦ C) for two years. They
concluded that the fatty acid and sterol profiles did not significantly
change over two years. However the physicochemical profile of roasted
H. Mechqoq et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528

Table 2
Chemical composition of different argan fractions and extracts.
Oil fraction Compounds Traditional Mechanical Solvent Supercritical Reference
extraction press extraction fluid extraction

Glyceridic Fatty acids (%) Myristic acid 0.11 ± 0.01 ≤0.2 0.1 ± 0.1 0.35 ± 0.05 TE (Hilali et al., 2005) MP (Rahmani,
fraction (C14:0) 2005) SE (Farines et al., 1984b;
Palmitic acid 12.26 ± 0.19 13.25 ± 13.7 ± 0.2 12.35 ± 1.95 Taneva et al., 2021) SFE (Taribak
(C16:0) 1.75 et al., 2013)
Palmitoleic acid 0.03 ± 0.02 ≤ 0.2 0.1 ± 0.1 Nd
(C16:1)
Stearic acid (C18:0) 5.55 ± 0.42 5.75 ± 1.45 5.6 5.6 ± 1.1
Oleic acid (C18:1 n- 47.66 ± 0.56 46.05 ± 46.05 ± 47.2 ± 1.8
9) 3.05 0.85
Linoleic acid (C18:2 32.96 ± 0.76 32.65 ± 33.1 ± 1.5 32 ± 2.8
n-6) 3.35
Linolenic acid 0.08 ± 0.01 — 0.05 ± 0.05 1.65 ± 0.05
(C18:3)
Arachidic acid 0.38 ± 0.04 ≤ 0.5 0.2 ± 0.2 Nd
(C20:0)
Behenic acid 0.12 ± 0.01 ≤ 0.2 0.05 ± 0.05 Nd
(C22:0)
Monoacylglycerols Palmitoyl 14.95 ± 0.95 — — — TE (Khallouki et al., 2003)
(%) Stearoyl 4 ± 0.5 — — —
Oleoyl and linoleoyl 81.8 ± 1.5 — — —
Triacylglycerols (%) OOL 15.78 19.5 19.9 — TE (Hilali et al., 2005)
POL 13.84 13.6 12.4 — MP (Charrouf and Guillaume, 2008)
OLL 13.65 13.6 17.3 — SE (Maurin et al., 1992)
OOO 13.48 12.8 7.6 —
POO 15.46 11.5 7.1 —
LLL 7.32 7.4 5.1 —
PLL 6.09 6.3 5.5 —
SOO 4.67 3.4 3.9 —
PPO 4.14 3.2 1.8 —
Unsaponified Sterols (%) Schottenol 47.37 ± 0.77 46.5 ± 2.5 — — TE (Hilali et al., 2005)
fraction Spinasterol 35.80 ± 1.34 39 ± 5 — — MP (Charrouf and Guillaume, 2008;
Stigmasta-8,22- 4.53 ± 0.29 4.45 ± 1.25 — — Hilali et al., 2005)
diene-3β-ol
stigmasta-7,24-28- 4.86 ± 0.18 3.9 — —
diene-3β-ol
Campesterol 0.2 ± 0.02 0.043 — —
Stigmasterol Nd 0.393 — —
Triterpene alcohols Lupeol — 7.1 — — MP (Farines et al., 1984a)
(%) Butyrospermol — 18.1 — —
Tirucallol — 27.9 — —
β-amyrin — 27.3 — —
24-methylene — 4,5 — —
cycloartanol
Citrostadienol — 3.9 — —
Tocopherols (mg/ alpha-tocopherol 72 ± 10 59 ± 8 — 642.8 ± 55.9 TE (Gharby et al., 2011)
kg) beta-tocopherol 7±2 6±2 — MP (Gharby et al., 2011)
delta-tocopherol 82 ± 12 51 ± 8 — SFE (Taribak et al., 2013)
gamma-tocopherol 585 ± 25 531 ± 25 —
Phenolic compounds Vanillic acid 12.38 ± 8.7 11.25 ± 6.4 — — TE (Kamal et al., 2016)
(%) Syringic acid 28.25 ± 6.66 25.48 ± 6.6 — — MP (Kamal et al., 2016)
Ferulic acid 30.52 ± 22.4 31.49 ± — —
26.72
Caffeic acid 8.35 ± 2.04 9.06 ± 6.7 — —
Sinapic acid 1.9 ± 0.32 1.63 ± 0.9 — —
p-Hydroxybenzoic 10.86 ± 6.23 14.01 ± — —
acid 7.11
p-Coumaric acid 3.57 ± 3.44 3.68 ± 4.1 — —
Epicatechin 1.02 ± 1.4 0.99 ± 1.1 — —
Quercandin 1.44 ± 1.5 0.88 ± 1.25 — —
β-carotene (mg/kg) 14.5 ± 4.0 20.5 ± 1.0 21.5 19.3 ± 2.2 TE (Gharby et al., 2011)
MP (Gharby et al., 2011)
SE (Charrouf and Guillaume, 2002)
SFE (Taribak et al., 2013)
Squalene (mg/100g) — 320 ± 7 317.5 ± 3.5 — MP (Khallouki et al., 2003)
SE (Charrouf and Guillaume, 2002)

TE: Traditional extraction.

MP : Mechanical press.
SE : Solvent extraction.
SFE : Supercritical fluid Extraction.
P – palmitic.
S – stearic.
O – oleic.
L – linoleic acyl residue.

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H. Mechqoq et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528

Table 3
Saponins and polyphenols of argan leaf, shell, cake, pulp and wood.
Secondary metabolite Compounds Leaf Shell Cake Pulp Wood Reference

Saponins (%) Arganine A — — 39.0 — — Cake (Charrouf et al., 1992)

Arganine B — — 8.0 — — Pulp (Alaoui et al., 2001)
Arganine C — — 3.2 — — Wood (Oulad-Ali et al., 1996)
Arganine D — — 4.2 — —
Arganine E — — 3.4 — —
Arganine F — — 3.2 — —
Arganine G — — — — 0.012
Arganine H — — — — 0.004
Arganine J — — — — 0.010
Arganine K — — — 0,02 —
Misaponin A — — 3.8 — —
Phenolic compounds (%) Catechol — — 0.69 — — Leaf (Tahrouch et al., 2000)
Resorcinol — — 0.65 — — Shell (El Monfalouti et al., 2012)
Vanillin — — 0.55 — — Cake (Rojas et al., 2005)
Tyrosol — — 3.08 — — Pulp (Charrouf et al., 2007)
Epicatechin — 0.6 54.72 14.7 —
Catechin — — 5.47 2.8 —
Rutin — 0.2 – 0.1 —
Quercetin 0.53 — – 1.6 —
Hyperoside 0.25 0.1 — 13.4 —
Myricitrin 1.68 — — — —
Isoquercetin — 0.4 — 10 —
Isorhoifolin — — — 7.2 —
Hesperidin — — — 4.5 —
Procyanidin — — — 2.7 —
Luteolin — — — 0.2 —
Hydroxytyrosol — — 0.9 — —
Protocatechuic acid — — 15.2 21.8 —
Syringic acid — — 6.6 — —
Vanillic acid — — 16.3 — —
Gallic acid — — — 5 —
p-Hydroxybenzoic acid — — 7.01 — —
Vanillyl alcohol — — 1.79 — —
4-Hydroxy benzyl alcohol — — 4.27 — —
(4-Hydroxyphenyl) acetic acid — — 0.5 — —
3,4-Dihydroxy benzyl alcohol — — 0.45 — —

oil was slightly better than unroasted oil.
The arganeraie biosphere extends over a very large area. The dif­
ference in geographic locations suggests variation in biotic and abiotic
factors such as soil composition and bioclimate, these variations have a
significant impact on the chemical composition of argan oil. Aithammou
et al. (2019) reported the effect of the harvested period, clones and
geographical origins on quality and chemical composition of argan oil.
The chemical composition of argan oil are influenced by the
geographical origins, the unsaturated acid contents (oleic and linoleic
acids) are ranged from 79.73 ± 0.06 % to 81.10 ± 0.10 %; while the
saturated acid contents (palmitic and stearic acids) are ranged from
18.80 ± 0.0 % to 20.60 ± 0.10 %. Furthermore, the fatty acid compo­
sition of argan oil samples collected in different area in Morocco are
affected by the geographical origin, for all samples the fatty acid
composition were composed mainly by oleic acid (44–49%), followed by
linoleic acid (30–35%), palmitic acid (12–15%) and stearic acid (5–7 %)
(Kharbach et al., 2019). In addition, Ait Aabd et al. (2013) reported fatty
acid composition of twenty samples from four provenances, the results
showed a variation on fatty acid composition, the unsaturated acid
contents are ranged from 79.56 to 80.29 % and while the saturated acid
contents 19.53–20.29 %. The oils were composed mainly by oleic acid
(42.81–47.84%), followed by linoleic acid (31.32–37.23%), palmitic
acid (12.32–13.94%) and stearic acid (5.61–6.99 %). Previously, the
study carried out by Hilali et al. (2005) reported the effect of origin and
extraction methods on physico-chemical properties and chemical
composition of twenty one samples of argan oils. The results showed that
the sample acidity ranged from 0.14 to 1.40%, unsaponifiable matter
from 0.34 to 0.79%, saponification value from 180.0 to 199.6. The
chemical composition of all argan oil samples showed the geographical
origins had no, or little influence the oil composition.
In conclusion, all argan oils samples are composed mainly by oleic,
linoleic, palmitic and stearic acids. The studies of chemical composition
of argan oil carried out showed that geographic origin have significantly
affect the fatty acid composition, this variability can be explained in our
point of view by extraction and climatic conditions, genetic factors and
ripening grade of fruits.
In addition to the chemical investigation conducted on the Moroccan
argan oil, many others described the chemical profiles of Algerian and
Tunisian oils. They all proved to have similar lipids compositions,
phytosterols, tocopherols and phenolic contents with slight variations
(Hanana et al., 2018; Kouidri, 2008; Yousfi et al., 2009).
Many studies compared the argan oil with different vegetal oils, The
most recent one published by Taneva et al. (2021) compared the
chemical profiles of both argan and cactus (Opuntia ficus indica L.) seed
oils, the determination of fatty acids profiles showed that argan oil have
higher amounts of oleic (cis 9–18:1), palmitic (16:0) and stearic (18:0)
acids with 46%, 14% and 6% respectively. When the cactus oil con­
tained more linooleic (cis,cis 9,12–18:2) with a percentage of 60%.
According to the same study the argan oil contained more α-tocopherols
when the cactus oil had more γ-tocopherols. Additionally, Khallouki
et al. (2017) investigated the chemical difference between argan and
olive (Olea europaea L. cv. Moroccan picholine) oils, in spite of having
different chemical compositions with olive oil richer in oleic acid, the
both oils present very interesting profiles with high amount of unsatu­
rated fatty acids, and a good chemical stability due to the polyphenols
and other antioxidants found on these oils.
Many other oils were compared to argan oil (Monfalouti et al., 2010),
and all the investigations demonstrated that despite this rarity, argan oil
is a good substitute for other vegetable oils, its oxidation stability makes
its storage and use relatively easy.

8
H. Mechqoq et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528

Fig. 4. Structures of the main fatty acids, sterols, tocopherols, phenolic compounds of Argan oil: (1) troacylglycerol, (2) oleic acid, (3) linoleic acid, (4) palmitic acid,
(5) stearic acid, (6) myristic acid, (7) palmitoleic acid, (8) arachidic acid, (9) linolenic acid, (10) schottenol, (11) spinasterol, (12) stigmasta-8,22-diene-3β-ol, (13) 4-
α-methylstigmasta-7,24-28-diene-3β-ol, (14).

9
H. Mechqoq et al.
Fig. 4. (continued).
3.6.2. Argan press-cake
The argan press cake is the by-product produced during the oil
extraction process, there is two types of press cakes depending on the
pressed seeds (roasted or unroasted). The argan cake is mainly
composed of fragmented seed structural polymers composed of carbo­
hydrates (cellulose and sugars such as glucose, arabinose and xylose)
(Hu et al., 2017), the press cake contains also residues of oil that
couldn’t be extracted with mechanical press.
Moreover, Rojas et al. (2005) confirmed the presence of 16 phenols
on the argan press cake, with epicatechin (28), catechin (29) and tyrosol
(30) as lead compounds (Fig. 5). A family of saponines had also been
identified exclusively in both Argan oil and cake, and had been named
arganines, those molecules are the arganines A, B, C, D, E, F and mis­
aponin A (31) (Charrouf et al., 1992).
3.6.3. Argan fruit pulp
Harhar et al. (2019) reported the chemical composition of oil ob­
tained from pulp, the chemical analysis showed the oil composed mainly
by linoleic acid (3) (29 %) followed by palmitic acid (4) (25%), oleic
acid (2) (14%) and linolenic acid (9) (12%). Similarly to the Argan seeds
the pulp contains also an oil with some similarities in the fatty acids
profiles. Despite having high amounts of saturated fatty acids, the
presence of both oleic and linoleic acids makes it use as an edible oil
quite interesting.
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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528
The chemical investigation carried out by Charrouf et al. (2007) of
the methanolic extract of fruit pulp reported the presence of simple
phenols such as gallic acid (32) and protocatechic acid (33). Flavonoid
glucosides in form of rutin (34), isorhoifolin (35) and hesperidin (36),
hyperoside (37), isoquercetin (38) and naringenin-7-O-glucoside (39).
In addition to flavonoid aglycones mainly catechin (28), epicatechin
(29) and procyanidin (40).
On the other hand, the chemical analysis of pulp essential oils was
described by two studies. In those the pulp was extracted by conven­
tional hydrodistillation and microwave-assisted extraction. For the both
extracted samples the lead compounds were camphor (41) with 34–36%
and 1,8-cineole (42) with 7–16% (Fig. 6) (Harhar et al., 2010a, 2011).
3.6.4. Argan leaves
Chemical constituent of Argan leaves have been reported in the
literature by several studies. Tahrouch et al. (1998) reported the
chemical composition of volatile compounds obtained from leaves, they
identified the 14-methylidcne-2,6, 10-trimcthylhexadecene (43) as a
major compound (Fig. 6), this compound had also been described in the
pulp essential oil, but it is not exclusive to the argan tree (Fons et al.,
1998; Loughrin et al., 1990).
In the two papers Tahrouch et al. (2000) and (2011), the main fla­
vonoids of the Argan leaves were the myricitrin (44) (16.8 mg/g DW)
and quercetin (45) (5.3 mg/g DW). Moreover, the histochemical
H. Mechqoq et al.
Fig. 5. Structures of the main polyphenols and saponins found on argan press-cake, pulp and leaves: (28) epicatechin, (29) catechin, (30) tyrosol, (31) arganines A, B,
C, D, E, F & Misaponin A, (32) gallic acid, (33) protocatechuic acid, (34) rutin, (35) isorhoifolin, (36) hesperidin, (37) hyperoside, (38) isoquercetin, (39) naringenin-
7-O-glucoside, (40) procyanidin, (44) myricitrin, (45) quercetin. (46).
investigation located those compounds on the peripherical tissue of the
leaves, giving credits to the photoprotective proprieties of these
compounds.
3.6.5. Argan wood
For decades, most of the research efforts were focusing on the argan
kernel and its oil, the majority of the research works aimed the argan oils
uses in food and cosmetics. Recently, many researchers started showing
interest on the argan tree other parts such as the fruit pulp and the
leaves, but there was a lack of information about the wood.
The only phytochemical report featuring the argan wood composi­
tion was made by Oulad-Ali et al. (1996), where they described 3 new
saponines exclusively found on the Argan wood, those saponines were
named arganines G, H and J, and had very low yields values with
0.012%, 0.004% and 0.010% respectively.
This lack of studies can also be due to the fact that, the obtention of
the argan wood may harm the plant. In addition to this, the argan wood
is the least used part by the Berber population and can be easily replaced
with other types of wood. And the extraction of phytochemicals from the
wood is relatively hard and needs heavy process.
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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528
3.7. Biological activities
The biological properties of different parts (seed oil, cake, leaves,
pulp and flower) of Argania spinosa have been investigated. Specifically,
their skin treatment, antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, anti-diabetic and anti-cancer activities (Table 4).
3.7.1. Argan seed oil
Marfil et al. (2011) reported the antioxidant activity of 22 samples of
the argan oils obtained by the half-industrialized and traditional
methods using different assays (DPPH, ABTS and FRAP), the results
showed that the oil extraction method doses not influence the antioxi­
dant capacity of oils, and the values ranged from 2.31 to 14.15,
0.19–0.87, and 0.62–2.32 mmol Trolox/kg (ABTS, DPPH and FRAP
respectively).
A synergetic effect have been reported on Argan oil with hydrogen
peroxide by Naher et al. (2014), this combined compound showed a
strong antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa similar to
antibiotics such as amikacin, tobramycin, ceftazidime, aztreonam or
norfloxacin.
The main important aspect of argan oil is its efficiency against
chronic diseases induced by unhealthy life style such as diabetes, heart
H. Mechqoq et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528

Fig. 5. (continued).

conditions, and cholesterol instability. Furthermore, several studies re­

Fig. 6. Structures of the main terpens found on argan pulp and leaves essential
oils: (41) camphor, (42) 1,8-cineole, (43) 14-methylidene-2,6,10-
trimethylhexadecene.
ported the effect of argan oil on cardiovascular diseases such as,
hyperlipidemia (Drissi et al., 2004), hypercholesterolemia (El Kharrassi
et al., 2014), and high blood pressure related diseases (Charrouf and
Guillaume, 2008). In addition, the modulation of plasmatic lipids and
lipoproteins of Argan oil have been evaluated (Alaoui et al., 2001; El
Abbassi et al., 2014).
Berrada et al. (2000) related the effect of argan oil on spontaneously
hypertensive rats, and described the stabilization of blood pressure and
induction of hypocholesterolemia in another group of rats that suffer
from hyperinsulinemia. The daily treatment with argan oil for two
months, decreased glycaemia of 4.4%. They explained this activity by
the action of polyunsaturated fatty acids of the argan oil.
Carrageenan-induced paw edema is one of the most popular tests
used for anti-inflammatory activity evaluation. This test has the
advantage of being highly sensitive for nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs and is used to detect orally active anti-inflammatory agents
(Willoughby and DiRosa, 1972). Various studies suggested that the
regular consumption of edible oils rich in polyphenols such as olive oil,
may reduce the manifestation of chronic inflammations (Cicerale et al.,
2012). Regarding the argan oil, Kamal et al. (2019) described the
reduction of induced edema after injection of argan oil concentration of
300 mg /Kg of mouse weight, when the positive control Indomethacine
showed activity from 10 mg /Kg of mouse weight. Despite using higher
volume of oil the inhibition activity was up to 72%, similar to the

12
H. Mechqoq et al.
Table 4
Biological activities of Argania spinosa extracts.
Plant Extraction technique
part
Oil Traditional Extraction and
Mechanical Press
Then
Extraction with methanol/water
(80:20)
Mechanical Press extracted oil
Mechanical Press extracted oil
Mechanical Press extracted oil
Mechanical Press extracted oil
Traditional Extraction and
Mechanical Press
Mechanical Press
Then
Extraction with MeOH/water
(80:20)
Mechanical Press extracted oil
Mechanical Press extracted oil
Mechanical Press extracted oil
Mechanical Press extracted oil
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528
Metabolites Biological activity Results Reference
Total Polyphenols Antioxidant DPPH: Marfil et al.
TE: 62.29 ± 35.41 mg GAE/ TE: 0.41 ± 0.21 mmol Trolox/kg oil (2011)
kg MP: 0.34 ± 0.13 mmol Trolox/kg oil
MP: 77.34 ± 42.45 mg ABTS:
GAE/kg TE: 5.07 ± 2.96 mmol Trolox/kg oil
Total Tocopherols MP: 4.62 ± 1.97 mmol Trolox/kg oil
TE: 535.5 ± 69.52 mg/kg FRAP:
MP: 499 ± 30.58 mg/kg TE: 1.10 ± 0.32 mmol Trolox/kg oil
MP: 1.2 ± 0.58 mmol Trolox/kg oil
— Antibacterial Pseudomonas aeruginosa (resistant) inhibition Naher et al.
diameters: (2014)
- H2O2 (1.5%) alone = 12.5 mm
- Argan oil alone = 2.1 mm
- Argan oil + H2O2 (1:1) = 23.8 mm
- Argan oil + H2O2 (2:1) = 24.6 mm
- Argan oil + H2O2 (1:2) = 23.1 mm
Phenolic compounds (3.3 Hypolipemiant Plasma LDL cholesterol: Drissi et al.
mg/kg) Non-consumer of argan oil: (2004)
Sterols (295 mg/100 g) Plasma LDL cholesterol = 2.83 mmol/l plasma
Tocopherols (637 mg/kg) lipoperoxides = 39.68 mmol/ml
α-tocopherol = 9.78 mg/l
Consumers of argan oil:
Plasma LDL cholesterol = 2.47 mmol/l plasma
lipoperoxides = 16.53 mmol/ml
α-tocopherol = 11.09 mg/l
Sterols Cholesterol stabilization - no cytotoxicity to microglial BV2 cells El Kharrassi et al.
Schottenol (91.24 mg/100g - modulation of gene expression LXRa, LXRb (2014)
of oil) and their target genes, ABCA1 and ABCG1.
Spinasterol (68.92 mg/100g
of oil)
Polyunsaturated fatty Antidiabetic After two months : decreases in - glycaemia Berrada et al.
acids 4.4% (2000)
- insulinaemia 26.8%
- plasmatic cholesterol 14.4%
- LDL 32.5%
- Blood systolic pressure 28.8%
-Blood diastolic pressure 30.5%
Increases in - LDH 27.9%
- Triacylglycerols 16.2%
Phenolic compounds Anti-inflammatory - Reduction of inflammation from volume Kamal (2019)
300 mg /kg of mouce weight
- control Indomethacine = 10 mg /kg of
mouce weight
Phenolic compounds Anticancer MTT test for evaluating cytotoxicity: Bennani (2009)
-antiproliferative action on PC3 and DPC1
cells lines.
Fatty acids, Anticonvulsant The daily administration of argan oil prior Bahbiti et al.
Phenolic compounds, to epilestic shock induced by Pilocarpine (2018)
tocopherols in Wistar rats:
- increased the latency to 1st seizures
- decreased the weight loss
- reduced mortality rate
- increased the catalase activity in rat
hippocampus after seizures.
Fatty acids Skin hydration Transepidermal Water Loss (TEWL) Boucetta et al.
Oleic acid (44.8%) Before : 8.92 ± 2.44 g/m2/h (2014)
Linoleic acid (33%) After : 7.32 ± 1.47 g/m2/h
Palmitic acid (13.4%) Water Content of Epidermis (WCE)
Stearic acid (5.1%) Before : 44.74 ± 7.68 AU
After : 54.59 ± 10.74 AU
Fatty acids, Melanogenesis inhibition Expression of melanogenic enzymes in B16 Villareal et al.
Phenolic compounds, Cells after 72h of treatment: (2013)
tocopherols
- TYR expression decreased by 60%
-DCT expression decreased by 80%
Fatty acids oleic acid Hair protective Untreated hair Protein loss = 451 μg Faria et al. (2013)
(46%–48%) albumin equivalent/g of hair
linoleic acid (31%–35%)
(continued on next page)
13
H. Mechqoq et al.
Table 4 (continued )
Plant Extraction technique Metabolites
part
Cake Maceration Saponines
Methanolic extract Arganine A,
Arganine B,
Arganine C,
Arganine D,
Arganine E,
Arganine F and misaponin A
Soxhlet extraction
Ethanol-water (80:20)
Maceration Ethanol/water
(70:30)
Solvent partition acetone/water/ Phenolic compounds
formic acid Then collect acetonic
phase
Leaves Hydrodistillation Essential oil
1,l0-di-epicubenol(20.5%)
Viridiflorol (6.0%)
Selina-3,7(1l)-diene (5.1%)
Camphor (2.6%)
δ-cadinene (2.3%)
Maceration Phenolic compounds
Ethanolic extract Ursolic acid (1.9 μg/mg
DW)
Oleanolic acid (1.5 μg/mg
DW)
Quercetin (6.1 μg/g)
Ultrasound assisted extraction Phenolic compounds
Methanolic-aqueous extract
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528
Biological activity Results Reference
Argan oil treated hair Protein loss = 444 μg
albumin equivalent/g of hair
Antioxidant DPPH Radical scavenging activity Alaoui (1998)
-IC25 = 85 mM
ABTS antioxidant activity
-IC25 = 560 mM
haemoprotective Free radical induced haemolysis: (Amzal, 2010;
Amzal et al.,
-1 mg/l of Saponins = 53.2% 2008)
-0.3 μM vitamin E = low activity
-1 mg/l of Saponins + 0.3 μM vitamin E =
68%
Anti-inflammatory -Reduction of inflammation from sample Bouroud (1995)
concentration 10 mg /kg of mouce weight
(same as control Indomethacine)
Molluscicide Against Biomphalaria glabrata (Shistosomia Charrouf (1991)
mansoni) inhibition from 400 μg
Antifungal Minimal Inhibition Concentration Charrouf (1991)
-Cladosporium cucumerinum = 12.5 μg
-Polysticus versicolor = 50 μg
Antidiabetic α-amylase inhibition : Kamal et al.
IC50 = 209.10 ± 0.17 μg/ml (2021)
α-glucosidase inhibition :
IC50 = 0.89 ± 0.17 μg/ml
Hair growth promoting Treatments with press cake extract: Bejaoui et al.
(2021)
-Improved the hair follicle dermal cells
proliferation
-Reduced the oxidation caused by H2O2,
preventing the hair follicle dermal cell from
senescence.
Melanogenesis inhibition Expression of melanogenic enzymes in B16 Bourhim et al.
Cells after 72h of treatment: (2018)
- TYR expression decreased by 47%
- TRP1 expression decreased by 49%
- DCT expression decreased by 36%
Antioxidant DPPH Radical scavenging activity El Monfalouti
et al. (2012)
-0.01 ± 0.001 mM Trolox Eq/mg
ABTS antioxidant activity
-0.009 ± 0.001 mM Trolox Eq/mg
Antibacterial Gram positive bacteria: El Kabouss et al.
(2002)
- Staphylococci, Bacillus and Micrococci:
inhibition from 1 to 1/1000.
Gram negative bacteria:
- Escherichin coli, Klebsielln, Enterobacter and
Pseudomonas: inhibition from 1 to 1/1000
- Enterobacter (Ent2) and Pseudornonas (Pa2):
inhibition from 1 to 1/500.
Antifungal Molds: Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger : El Kabouss et al.
inhibition up to and to 1/500 (2002)
Yeasts: Candida sp, Saccharomycezs cervisiae :
inhibition up to and to 1/500
Antibacterial MIC50: Staphylococcus aureus resistant Bonvicini et al.
(2017)
- Lipophilic extract = 174.2 ± 5.1 μg/ml
- Aqueous extract = 224.4 ±.12.6 μg/ml
Antibacterial Diameter Inhibition: Dakiche et al.
Gram positive bacteria: (2016)
- Staphylococcus aureus = 12 ± 1 mm
- Bacillus cereus = 15.6 ± 0.5 mm
- Bacillus subtilis = 16.6 ± 1.1 mm
Gram negative bacteria:
- Escherichin coli = 10.3 ± 1.5 mm
(continued on next page)
14
H. Mechqoq et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528

Table 4 (continued )
Plant Extraction technique Metabolites Biological activity Results Reference
part

- Pseudomonas aeruginosa = 11.6 ± 0.5 mm

Maceration Ethanol/water
(70:30)
- Yersinia enterocolitica = 13.3 ± 0.5 mm
Antioxidant DPPH (IC50): Dakiche et al.
(2016)
- extract = 125.595 ± 1.868 μg
- Control (Trolox) = 50.55 ± 0.785 μg
Phenolic compounds Melanogenesis promoting Expression of melanogenic enzymes in B16 Bourhim et al.
effect Cells after 72h of treatment: (2021)

- TYR expression increased by 80%

- TRP1 expression increased by 60%
- DCT expression increased by 20%
Aqueous Extract Phenolic compounds Antidiabetic Blood glucose level evolution on diabetic Hebi and Eddouks
rats: (2019)

- 1st day ¼ 21 mmol/l

- After 2 days ¼ 15 mmol/l
- After 15 days ¼ 4 mmol/l
Pulp Raw Fatty acids Cholesterol stabilization Lipids on goats longissimus dorsi muscle fed (Bas et al., 2005)
and anti-obesity activity with argan pulp:
Cholesterol level = 46 mg/100g
Lipid content = 1.7%
Fatty acids:

- Oleic acid = 4.3 mg/100g of FA

- Linoleic acid = 7.1 mg/100g of FA
- Stearic acid = 18.3 mg/100g of FA
- Palmitic acid = 21.2 mg/100g of FA
Lipids on goats longissimus dorsi muscle fed
without argan pulp:
Cholesterol level = 80 mg/100g
Lipid content = 3.0%
Fatty acids:

- Oleic acid = 3.3 mg/100g of FA

- Linoleic acid = 3.1 mg/100g of FA
- Stearic acid = 15.1 mg/100g of FA
- Palmitic = 22.2 mg/100g of FA
Pulp Acetone/water/formic acid Phenolic compounds Antioxidant DPPH Radical scavenging activity El Monfalouti
extract Isoquercitrin (28.4 mg/100 et al. (2012)
g) - 0.17 ± 0.005 mM Trolox Eq/mg
Hyperoside (21.1 mg/100g) ABTS antioxidant activity

- 0.37 ± 0.07 mM Trolox Eq/mg

Flower Maceration Ethanol/water Phenolic compounds Antioxidant DPPH (IC50) in μg/ml: Azizi et al. (2021)
buds (70:30)
- Extract ¼ 64.68 ± 3,5
- Control (ascorbic acid) ¼ 21.65 ± 0.7
FRAP (IC50) in μg/ml:

- Extract ¼ 250.87 ± 17,25

- Control (ascorbic acid) ¼ 63.93 ± 1

DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl.
ABTS: 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid.
FRAP: ferric reducing antioxidant power.
MIC50: Minimum Inhibitory Concentration of 50%.
EC50: Effective Concentration of 50%.
IC50: Inhibition Concentration of 50%.
TYR: tyrosinase.
TRP1: tyrosinase-related protein 1.
DCT: dopachrome tautomerase.

Indomethacine inhibition value.
Moreover, the anticancer activity of argan oil was evaluated. Ben­
nani (2009) investigated the effect of polyphenols extracted from argan
oil on the proliferation of two human epithelial cell lines PNT1A and
PC3 respectively, and one epithelial cell line from dog adenocarcinoma
(DPC1). The obtained results showed that the polyphenols of argan oil
have a significant antiproliferative action on both adenocarcinomic cells
lines (PC3 and DPC1). However, no effect has been detected on PNT1A
cell lines.
Recently Bahbiti et al. (2018), reported the effect of argan oil
consumption on rats with induced epileptic shock. This investigation
confirmed that the daily administration of argan oil, increased the
catalase activity in rat hippocampus after seizures, reducing the mor­
tality rate.
The human skin lipids plays a very important role in the preservation
of the dermis structure, protecting it from dehydration. However, during
menopause the hormonal changes negatively affect the skin equilibrium,
making it more predisposed to develop dryness (Dunn et al., 1997). The
potential skin hydration propriety of argan oil on a group of
post-menopausal women had been conducted by Boucetta et al. (2014).

15
H. Mechqoq et al.
The results showed that the daily use of argan oil can enhance skin
hydration by maintaining water retention capacity. Argan oil proved to
inhibit the melanogenesis process by targeting 2 key enzymes that
initiate the melanin biosynthesis, the tyrosinase and the dopachrome
tautomerase, the daily application of argan oil led to the increase the
enzymes expression by 60% and 80% respectively. This activity is
mainly due to the oil polyphenols, tocopherols and sterols.
The results published by Faria et al. (2013) demonstrate the effect of
incorporation of argan oil as conditioner in post-treatment hair dye by
decreasing the damage caused to hair by the coloring process, According
to the authors this hair revitalizing and repairing property is mainly due
to the fatty acids of the argan oil.
All those findings are perfectly correlating with the ethno­
pharmacological surveys data found on the literature, the argan oil is the
argan tree most studied part and many investigations based their
research hypothesis on the ethnobotanical knowledge. However, the
mechanism of action behind these activities has not yet been fully
elucidated, and much research is ongoing.
3.7.2. Argan cake
The argan press-cake proved to have a large panel of biological ac­
tivities from the anti-inflammatory (Amzal et al., 2008), antifungal
(Charrouf, 1991), antidiabetic (Kamal et al., 2021), to the melanogen­
esis inhibition (Bourhim et al., 2018), and hair growth stimulation
(Bejaoui et al., 2021).
Charrouf (1991) evaluated the antifungal activity of saponines of
argan cake, the results showed an interesting activity against Clado­
sporium cucumerinum and Polysticus versicolor with respective MICs of
12.5 μg and 50 μg, these two fungi targets fruits such as melons and
zucchini. Moreover, the same compounds demonstated molluscicide
activity against Biomphalaria glabrata, an intermediate snail host for
schistosoma mansonii (the parasitic flatworm responsible of the
bilharzia), the inhibition of this parasitic agent started from 400 μg of
extract. These biological activities shows the hidden potential of argan
cake, and offers a good alternative of pesticides as bio-control agent.
Those arganines showed also a very good anti-inflammatory poten­
tial. Bouroud (1995) studied the effects of those molecules on the
carrageenan-induced paw edema or by experimental trauma in rats. The
author observed a reduction of inflammation from doses of 10 mg/kg,
similar to indomethacin, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
commonly used.
Despite having very low antioxidant activity as stated by Alaoui
(1998), the press-cake saponines showed an important haemoprotective
activity in association with vitamin E reducing the free radical hea­
molysis to 68%, when the vitamin E and argan press-cake alone
exhibited a low activity (Amzal, 2010; Amzal et al., 2008).
Another report cited the glycemic control potential of the press cake
saponines, Kamal et al. (2021) compared the α-amylase and α-glucosi­
dase inhibitions potentials of both argan press cake and argan oil. The
saponines presented the highest inhibition activity with values IC50 =
209.10 ± 0.17 μg/ml for the α-amylase inhibition, and IC50 = 0.89 ±
0.17 μg/ml for the α-glucosidase inhibition. When the argan oil showed
IC50 = 597.10 ± 0.26 μg/ml and IC50 = 7.56 ± 0.38 μg/ml,
respectively.
In the context of cosmetic activities. Findings demonstrated by
Bejaoui et al. (2021), suggests that the cake saponins have hair growth
promoting activity, Briefly the treatments with press cake extract
improved the hair follicle dermal cells proliferation, and protected them
from senescence by reducing the oxidation caused by H2O2. Rightly, the
hair care and anti-hair loss proprieties are the most reported traditional
uses according to the Berber population.
When Bourhim et al. (2018) presented the melanogenesis inhibition
activity of the saponines, protecting the skin from darkening caused by
melanin synthesis as a response to sunlight. Those results support the use
of argan cake for facial skin care, Moreover, preparation containing
press-cake saponines can be used for skin lightning.
16
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528
3.7.3. Argan leaves
The study of the biological activities of essential oils has taken on
great importance over the past 20 years (Di Martile et al., 2020), this is
mainly due to the variety of terpenes composing them, in addition to the
wide range of biological activities including antiallergic, enzyme
inhibitory, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, antiviral, insecticidal,
molluscicidal, and antibacterial (Nakatsu et al., 2000).
Unlike the melanogenesis inhibitory activity shown by the press-
cake. Bourhim et al. (2021) demonstrated on their study melanogen­
esis stimulating activity of the leaves hydroalcoholic extract. In fact, the
leaves hydro-ethanolic extract proved to stimulate the activity of 3 key
enzymes namely tyrosinase, tyrosinase-related protein 1 and dop­
achrome tautomerase improving their activities up to 80%, 60% and
20% respectively, these enzymes are responsible for the synthesis of
melanin.
El Kabouss et al. (2002) studied the antibacterial potential activity of
argan leaves essential oils, they conclude that those essential oils
permitted the inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus sp. and
Micrococci sp. (gram positive strains) and Escherichia coli, Klebsiella sp.,
Enterobacter sp. and Pseudomonas sp. (gram negative strains) with di­
lutions up to 1/1000 of essential oils, on the same study another stain of
Enterobacter, Pseudomonas and yeasts and molds showed inhibitions with
dilution 1/500. The authors highlighted that the oxidative bacteria were
more sensitive to the essential oils components than the Enterobacteria
species.
The leaves polyphenol extract were tested against the same bacteria
stains by Dakiche et al. (2016) the, those extracts have showed more
efficiency against Bacillus cereus and bacillus subtilis with inhibition di­
ameters of 15.6 ± 0.5 mm and 16.6 ± 1.1 mm, respectively, followed by
Staphylococcus aureus with 12 ± 1 mm. Moreover the antioxidant ac­
tivity of the antibacterial active extracts showed moderate DPPH inhi­
bition capacity with an EC50 value of 125.595 ± 1.868 μg/ml, in contrast
with the control (Trolox) = 50.55 ± 0.785 μg.
The biological evaluation carried out by Hebi and Eddouks (2019)
proved the potential anti-diabetic propriety of argan leaves aqueous
extract. The obtained data showed that the single administration had no
effect on the blood glucose level, while the repeated administration
decreased the glucose blood levels from the second day and the lowest
glucose level was recorded after 15 days. However, no correlation was
observed between the consumption of leaf extract and reduced body
weight.
The antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant and antidiabetic activities
of argan leaves extract may justify their use by the Berber population for
treating gastritis, ulcers, hives, fungus and parasites. However, many
ethnopharmacological investigations suggest that argan leaves may
have anti-inflammatory proprieties, currently no study has demon­
strated the presence of this activity.
3.7.4. Argan pulp
The antioxidant activity of the argan pulp extract have been evalu­
ated by El Monfalouti et al. (2012),. The obtained results showed a DPPH
scavenging activity of 0.17 ± 0.005 mM Trolox Eq/mg, and an ABTS
antioxidant activity 0.37 ± 0.07 mM Trolox Eq/mg of dry matter, highly
superior to the values obtained with the argan seeds and press cake. This
strong activity is mainly due to the polyphenols of the pulp such as
isoquercitrin and hyperoside(El Monfalouti et al., 2012).
The pre-established ethnopharmacological surveys suggests that the
argan pulp may have anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and skin healing
proprieties, unfortunately, no pharmacological investigation have been
conducted in order to confirm those activities and elucidate their
mechanisms of action.
3.7.5. Argan flower buds
Recently, Azizi et al. (2021) described the phenolic content and
antioxidant activity of argan flowers and leaves,. The authors stated that
the argan flowers buds are rich in polyphenols (498.9 ± 20.08 mg Eq
H. Mechqoq et al.
GA/mg DM), the total phenolic contents are even higher than the argan
leaves (410.6 ± 4.8 mg Eq GA/mg DM). According to the same authors
the hydroalcoholic extract of the flower buds showed relatively high
antioxidant activities with a DPPH IC50 value of 64.68 ± 3.5 μg/ml,
superior to the leaves extracts IC50 120.69 ± 2.7 μg/ml. When the FRAP
IC50 value was moderate (250.87 ± 17.25 μg/ml). Those results gives
credit to the ethnopharmacological use of argan flowers for face care.
Nevertheless, further pharmacological investigations are required in
order to identify potential additional biological activities related the
human face skin.
4. Conclusion
This review describes the botany, traditional uses, chemicals profiles
of oil, volatile compounds and extracts from different parts of Argania
spinosa, as well as the biological activities of Argan oil and different
extracts, in studies since 1972. In the Moroccan folk medicine, A. spinosa
have been used for a long time. Different preparation, such us decoction,
infusion, maceration, powder of seeds, leaves, flowers, pulp root and
bark have been used to treat several diseases, such us as diabetes,
rheumatisms, eczema, dry skin, burns, hypercholesterolemia, gastritis,
ulcers, dysentery, headache, fever, hair and face ailments.
Argania spinosa has been known for its pharmaceuticals properties,
many papers reported antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, anti-
diabetic, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activities of oil and
different extracts of A. spinosa. Moreover, different extracts obtained
from leaves against methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus strains showed an interesting activity. In addi­
tion, the essential oil of leaves demonstrated an interesting antifungal
and antibacterial activities against several bacteria and fungi strains.
Many papers have been reported a significant antioxidant activity of
A. spinosa using a wide array of antioxidant assays.
The chemical composition of A. spinosa oil, triacyclglycerols (TAG)
are by far the major and most typical constituents of the argan oil, they
constitute 95% of the oil. The fatty acids of argan oil are mostly unsat­
urated (80%). They are represented by the oleic and linoleic acids with
46–48% and 32–33% respectively, while the lead saturated fatty acids
were the palmitic acid with 12–14 % and the stearic acid with 5–7 %. On
the other hand, different phenolic compounds Ferulic, syrin, p-hydrox­
ybenzoic, protocatechuic, vanillic and caffeic acids, quercetin, myrici­
trin, epicatechin, rutin, hyperoside and isoquercetin have been
identified in seeds oil, leaves and fruit pulp. Moreover, different saponin
compounds were identified in argan kernel, pulp and wood. In addition,
the chemical composition of EOs of fruit pulp and leaves extracted using
different techniques, such as hydrodistillation microwave-assisted
extraction (MAE) and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), were
composed mainly by cubenol, 1-epi-cubenol, camphor, germacrene D,
bornyl acetate, viridiflorol, phytol and 1,8-cineole.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Hicham Mechqoq: Main writer of the article. Mohamed El Yaa­
goubi: co-writer of the article (ethnobotanical part). Abdallah El
Hamdaoui: co-writer of the article (ethnobotanical part). Svetlana
Momchilova: Supervision. Jackson Roberto Guedes da Silva
Almeida: Supervision. Fouad Msanda: correction, Supervision, of the
writing process (ethnobotanical part. Noureddine El Aouad: co-writer
of the article (chemical composition), correction and supervisión of the
writing process.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Butyrospermol, (15) tirucallol, (16) β-amyrin, (17) lupeol, (18) 24-
17
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 281 (2021) 114528
methylene cycloartenol, (19) citrostadienol, (20) γ-tocopherol, (21)
δ-tocopherol, (22) α-tocopherol, (23) ferulic acid, (24) syringic acid,
(25) p-hydroxybenzoic acid, (26) vanillic acid, (27) caffeic acid.
Compound Name R1 R2 R3
1 Arganine A Glucose OH Rhamnopyranose
2 Arganine B Glucose OH Apiofuranose
3 Arganine C H OH Rhamnopyranose
4 Arganine D Glucose H Rhamnopyranose
5 Arganine E Glucose H Apiofuranose
6 Arganine F H H Apiofuranose
7 Misaponine A H H Rhamnopyranose
Acknowledgements
Financial and technical support from the projects EXANDAS (MSCA-
RISE-2015, Grant Agreement No 691247). We would like to thank Mr.
Thomas A. Shively, from The American Center of Language & culture of
Tangier, Morocco, for his contributions through grammatical correc­
tions and language reviewing.
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