ec8652 wireless communication

UNIT IV MULTIPATH MITIGATION

TECHNIQUES

S.Rosaline
AP/ECE
RMKEC
 Contents
 Equalization
 Linear and Non-Linear equalization
 Adaptive Equalization
 Zero forcing
 LMS Algorithms
 Diversity –
 Micro and Macro diversity
 Diversity combining techniques
 Error probability in fading channels
with diversity reception
 Rake receiver
 Introduction

•Three techniques are used independently or

in tandem to improve receiver signal quality
•Equalization compensates for ISI created by
multipath with time dispersive channels
(W>BC)
Linear equalization, nonlinear equalization
•Diversity also compensates for fading
channel impairments, and is usually
implemented by using two or more receiving
 Introduction
• The former counters the effects of time
dispersion (ISI), while the latter reduces the
depth and duration of the fades experienced by
a receiver in a flat fading (narrowband) channel
• Channel Coding improves mobile
communication link performance by adding
redundant data bits in the transmitted message
•Channel coding is used by the Rx to detect or
correct some (or all) of the errors introduced by
the channel (Post detection technique)
 Equalization
Techniques
 The term equalization can be used to describe
any signal processing operation that minimizes
ISI
 Two operation modes for an adaptive
equalizer: training and tracking
Three factors affect the time spanning over
which an equalizer converges:
 Equalizer algorithm
Equalizer structure
Time rate of change of the multipath radio
 Equalizers
 The goal of equalizers is to eliminate intersymbol interference (ISI) and
the additive noise as much as possible.
 Intersymbol interference(ISI) arises because of the spreading
of a transmitted pulse due to the dispersive nature of the channel,
which results in overlap of adjacent pulses.
 In Fig there is a four‐level pulse amplitude modulated signal (PAM), x(t).
This signal is transmitted through the channel with impulse response
h(t). Then noise n(t) is added. The received signal r(t) is a distorted
signal, which results in overlap of adjacent pulses.


 Equalization Techniques
• Equalizers are used to overcome the negative effects of
the channel.
• In general, equalization is partitioned into two broad
categories:
1. Maximum likelihood sequence estimation (MLSE)
 which entails making measurement of channel impulse
response and then providing a means for adjusting the
receiver to the transmission environment.
• (Example: Viterbi equalization)

2. Equalization with filters

 uses filters to compensate the distorted pulses. The
general channel and equalizer pair is shown in Fig
 Equalization Techniques
• These type of equalizers can be grouped as
preset or adaptive equalizers.
Preset equalizers assume that the channel is
time invariant and try to find H(f) and design
equalizer depending on H(f).

Adaptive equalizers assume channel is time

varying channel and try to design equalizer
filter whose filter coefficients are varying in
time according to the change of channel, and
try to eliminate ISI and additive noise at each
time. The implicit assumption of adaptive
equalizers is that the channel is varying
 Equalization
Techniques
Equalizer is usually implemented at baseband or at
IF in a
receiver
y( t )  x( t )  f ( t )  n ( t )
b

f*(t): complex conjugate of f(t)

nb(t): baseband noise at the input of the equalizer
heq(t): impulse response of the equalizer
 Equalization
Techniques

Fig. 1
Equalization Technologies
dˆ t   y t   heq t 
 x t   f  t   heq t   mb t   heq t 

 δt 
 F   f   H eq  f   1

 If the channel is frequency selective, the equalizer

enhances the frequency components with small
amplitudes and attenuates the strong frequencies in
the received frequency response
 For a time-varying channel, an adaptive equalizer is
needed to track the channel variations
 Basic Structure of Adaptive
Equalizer
•Transversal filter with N delay elements, N+1 taps, and N+1 tunable
complex weights

•These weights are updated continuously by an adaptive algorithm

•The adaptive algorithm is controlled by the error signal ek
 Equalization Techniques
• •Classical equalization theory : using training sequence to
minimize
• the cost function
• E[e(k) e*(k)]
• •Recent techniques for adaptive algorithm : blind algorithms
• Constant Modulus Algorithm (CMA, used for constant
envelope
• modulation) [3]
• Spectral Coherence Restoral Algorithm (SCORE, exploits
spectral
• redundancy or cyclostationarity in the Tx signal) [4]
 Solutions for Optimum Weights of Figure 2 (一)
•Error signal ek  xk  ykT  k  xk   kT yk
where
yk   yk yk  N 
T
yk 1 yk 2 ....

k  ωk ωk 1 ωk 2 .... ωk N T
•Mean square error
•Expected MSE
ek  xk2   kT yk ykT  k  2 xk ykT  k
2

where
   
  E ek  E xk2   T R  2pT 
2

 yk2 yk yk 1 yk yk  2 .... yk yk  N 
 
  y y
R  E yk y*k  E  k 1 k
 ....
yk21 yk 1 yk 2 .... yk 1 yk  N 
.... .... .... .... 
 2 
 yk  N yk yk  N yk 1 yk  N yk  2 .... yk  N 

p  Exk yk   Exk yk xk yk 1 xk yk 2 .... xk yk N 

T
 Solutions for Optimum Weights of Figure 2 (二)

• Optimum weight vector

• ωˆ  R 1p
• Minimum mean square error (MMSE)
 E   p R
T 1
ξmin 2

p
 
 E 2  pΤω̂
• Minimizing the MSE tends to reduce the bit error rate
 Equalization
Techniques
Two general categories - linear and
nonlinear equalization
if d(t) is not the feedback path to adapt
the equalizer, the equalization is linear
if d(t) is fed back to change the
subsequent outputs
of the equalizer, the equalization is
nonlinear
Classification of
Equalizers

Fig.3 Classification of equalizers

 linear
Equalization
 Linear transversal
equalizer
• Linear transversal equalizer (LTE, made up of tapped
delay lines as shown in Fig.

Fig.4 Basic linear transversal equalizer structure

Finite impulse response (FIR) filter (see Fig.5)

Infinite impulse response (IIR) filter (see Fig.5)
 Linear transversal
equalizer
A weighted tap delayed line that reduces the effect of ISI by proper
adjustment of the filter taps.

Fig.5 Tapped delay line filter with both feedforward and

feedback taps
Linear transversal
equalizer

N2
 dˆk   Cn* y k n
n N1

  T T N
 E e(n)   jt o2
2

2 T F(e )  N o
d

e jωt )
F(:frequency response of the channel
N:noise
o spectral density
 Linear transversal
equalizer
Zero‐forcing equalizer:
– The filter taps are adjusted such that the
equalizer output is forced to be zero at N
sample points on each side:
Mean Square Error (MSE) equalizer:
– The filter taps are adjusted such that the MSE
of ISI and noise power at the equalizer output is
minimized.
Lattice Equalizer

Fig.7 The structure of a Lattice Equalizer

Characteristics of Lattice
Filter
•Advantages
Numerical stability
Faster convergence
Unique structure allows the dynamic assignment of
the most effective
length
•Disadvantages
The structure is more complicated
 Nonlinear
Equalization
Nonlinear Equalization
•Used in applications where the channel distortion is
too severe
•Three effective methods
Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)
Maximum Likelihood Symbol Detection
Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimator (MLSE)
 Decision Feedback
Equalization
•Basic idea : once an information symbol has been
detected and decided
upon, the ISI that it introduces on future symbols can
be estimated and
subtracted out before detection of subsequent
symbols N N

 Cn ykinn either
  Fi dthe
2 3

•Can d̂be
k realized
*
k i direct transversal form or
n N i 1
as a 1

 Ee(n) min  exp{   ln[ jT 2

lattice filter T T No
]d}
2

2
T F(e )  N o
Decision Feedback
Equalization

Fig.8 Decision feedback equalizer (DFE)

Decision Feedback
Equalization
Decision Feedback
Equalization

Fig.5 Tapped delay line filter with both feedforward

and feedback taps
 Predictive Decision
Feedback
•Predictive DFE Equalization
•Consists of an FFF and an FBF, the latter is called a
noise predictor
•Predictive DFE performs as well as conventional DFE
as the limit
in the number of taps in FFF and the FBF approach
infinity
•The FBF in predictive DFE can also be realized as a
lattice structure [9].
The RLS algorithm can be used to yield fast
convergence
Predictive Decision
Feedback
Equalization

Fig.9 Predictive decision feedback equalizer

 Maximum Likelihood
Sequence Estimator
•MLSE tests all possible data sequences (rather than
decoding each received symbol by itself ), and chooses
the data sequence with the maximum probability as
the output
•Usually has a large computational requirement
•First proposed by Forney using a basic MLSE
estimator structure and implementing it with the
Viterbi algorithm
•The block diagram of MLSE receiver
 Maximum Likelihood
Sequence Estimator

Fig.10 The structure of a maximum likelihood sequence

equalizer(MLSE) with an adaptive matched filter
MLSE requires knowledge of the channel characteristics in order
to compute the metrics for making decisions
MLSE also requires knowledge of the statistical distribution of the
noise corrupting the signal
 Adaptive
Equalization
Algorithm for Adaptive
Equalization
•Performance measures for an algorithm
Rate of convergence
Misadjustment
Computational complexity
Numerical properties
•Factors that dominate the choice of an equalization
structure and its algorithm
The cost of computing platform
The power budget
The radio propagation characteristics
Algorithm for Adaptive
Equalization
•The speed of the mobile unit determines the channel
fading rate and the Doppler spread, which is related to
the coherent time of the channel directly
•The choice of algorithm, and its corresponding rate of
convergence, depends on the channel data rate and
coherent time
•The number of taps used in the equalizer design
depends on the maximum expected time delay spread
of the channel
•The circuit complexity and processing time increases
with the number of
taps and delay elements
 Algorithm for
Adaptive
Linear equalization
(LE): Equalization
Performance is not very good when the
frequency response of the frequency
selective channel contains deep fades.
Zero-forcing algorithm aims to eliminate the
intersymbol interference (ISI) at decision
time instants (i.e. at the center of the
bit/symbol interval).
Least-mean-square (LMS) algorithm will be
investigated in greater detail in this
presentation.
Recursive least-squares (RLS) algorithm
offers faster convergence, but is
computationally more complex than LMS
(since matrix inversion is required).
 zero-forcing algorithm

• Zero Forcing (ZF) Algorithm Criterion: to force

the samples of the combined channel and
equalizer impulse response to zero at all but
one of sample points in the tapped delay line
filter. Disadvantage: may excessively amplify
noise at frequencies where the folded channel
spectrum has high attenuation.
• Suitability: Wireline communications 1 1 Heq (
f ) = , f < H ( f ) 2Tch
 zero-forcing
Z  f   B f  H  f  E  f 
algorithm
Basic
idea:
Raised Transmitt Channel Equalize
cosine = ed symbol frequency r
spectru spectrum response frequen
m (incl. T & R cy
filters) respons
e
B f 
H f 
E f 
Z f 
0 fs = f
1/T
 zero-forcing
algorithm
Transmitt
ed Communica
r k 
Equalizer
z k 
impulse tion Input
sequence channel to
FIR filter FIR filter
Overa decisi
contains contains
ll on
2N+1 2M+1
chann circuit
coefficients coefficients
Channel
el impulse Equalizer impulse
response
N responseM
hk    h  k  n
n  N
n c k    c  k  m
m  M
m

M
Coefficients of f 
equivalent FIR
k
m  M

cmhk m (  M  k  M )
filter
(in fact the equivalent FIR filter consists of
2M+1+2N coefficients, but the equalizer can
only “handle” 2M+1 equations)
 zero-forcing
algorithm
We want overall filter
1, k  0 M
response to be non- f  c h   m k m
zero at decision time k 0, k  0
k
m  M
= 0 and zero at all other
sampling times k  0 :
h0c M  h1c M 1  ...  h2 M cM  0 (k = –
M)
h1c M  h0c M 1  ...  h2 M 1cM  0
This :
leads to a
set of hM c M  hM 1c M 1  ...  h M cM  1 (k = 0)
2M+1 :
equations
: h2 M 1c M  h2 M 2c M 1  ...  h1cM  0
h2 M c M  h2 M 1c M 1  ...  h0cM  0 (k =
M)
Minimum Mean Square
Error (MMSE)
J  E ek
2
The aim is to
minimize:
ek  zk  bˆk ( bˆk  zk depending on the
o source)
Input r
Estima
to te of
decisio k:th Error
n symbo ek
circuit l +
zk bˆk
Channel Equalizer
s k  r k  z k  b̂  k 
 MSE vs. equalizer
coefficients
J  E ek 
2
quadratic multi-dimensional
function of equalizer coefficient
values
J
Illustration of case for two
c2 real-valued equalizer
coefficients (or one complex-
c1 valued coefficient)

MMSE aim: find minimum value directly

(Wiener solution), or use an algorithm that
recursively changes the equalizer
coefficients in the correct direction (towards
the minimum value of J)!
 Wiener solution
We start with the Wiener-Hopf equations in
matrix form:
Rc opt  p

R = correlation matrix (M x M) of received

(sampled)
rk signal values

p = vector (of length M) indicating cross-

rk received signal values
correlation between bˆk
and estimate of received symbol
copt = vector (of length M) consisting of the
optimal equalizer coefficient values

(We assume here that the equalizer contains

M taps, not 2M+1 taps like in other parts of
this presentation)
Correlation matrix R & vector p

R  E r  k  r*T  k 

r  k    rk , rk 1,..., rk M 1 
T
wher
e

p  E r  k  bˆk 
*
M
samples

Before we can perform the stochastical

expectation operation, we must know the
stochastical properties of the transmitted
signal (and of the channel if it is changing).
Usually we do not have this information =>
some non-stochastical algorithm like Least-
mean-square (LMS) must be used.
 Algorithms

Stochastical information (R and p) is

available:
1. Direct solution of the Wiener-Hopf
equations:
1 Inverting a
Rc opt  p copt  R p large matrix
is difficult!

2. Newton’s algorithm (fast iterative

algorithm)
3. Method of steepest descent (this iterative
algorithm is slow but easier to implement)
R and p are not
available:
Use an algorithm that is based on the received
signal sequence directly. One such algorithm is
Least-Mean-Square (LMS).
 Conventional linear
equalizer of LMS type
Widr
Received Transversal FIR ow
complex filter with 2M+1 LMS
signal filter taps algorithm for
rk  M samples rk  M adjustment of
T T T
tap
ek
coefficients
c M c1M cM 1 cM
+

zk bˆk


Complex-valued tap Estimate of k:th

coefficients of equalizer symbol after
filter symbol decision
Joint optimization of
coefficients and
r k  phase
Equalizer
z k

filter
e j bˆk
Coefficie Phase
nt synchroniz +
updating ation ek
Goda
rd
Proakis, Ed.3, Section
Minimiz 11-5-2
e:  M

J  E ek ek  zk  bk    cm rk m  exp  j   bˆk
ˆ
2

 m M 
 Least-mean-square (LMS)
algorithm
(derived from
for convergence “method
towards of steepest
minimum mean
square error (MMSE)
descent”)
 ek
2

Real part of n:th Re cn  i  1  Re cn  i   

coefficient:  Re cn 

 ek
2

Imaginary part of n:th Im cn  i  1  Im cn  i   

coefficient:  Im cn 

 ek
2

ek  ek ek
2
Phas   i  1    i   
e: 
2  2M 1 1
equatio Iteration Step size of
ns index iteration
LMS algorithm (cont.)
After some calculation, the recursion equations
are obtained in the form

 j M   
Re cn  i  1  Re cn  i   2 Re  e  cm rk m  bˆk  rk n e j 
 m M  

 j M   
Im cn  i  1  Im cn  i   2 Im  e  cm rk m  bˆk  rk n e j 
 m M  

 ˆ  j M  ek
  i  1    i   2 Im bk e  cm rk m 
 m  M 
Effect of iteration
step size
smaller larger


Slow Poor stability

acquisition
Poor tracking Large
performance variation
around
optimum
value
 Least-mean-square (LMS)
algorithm
• Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm Criterion:
to minimize the mean square error (MSE)
between the desired equalizer output and the
actual equalizer output.
• Minimize Must be solved iteratively Simplest
algorithm, requires only 2N + I operations per
iteration.
• The LMS equalizer maximizes the signal to
distortion ratio at its output within the
constraints of the equalizer filter length.
Least-mean-square (LMS)
algorithm
• Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm
Disadvantage: low convergence rate.
Because of the only one parameter
Especially when the eigenvalues of the input
covariance matrix RNN have a very large
spread, i.e,
• If an input signal has a time dispersion
characteristic that is greater than the
propagation delay through the equalizer,
then the equalizer will be unable to reduce
distortion.
 Recursive Least Squares
(RLS) Algorithm
• Recursive Least Squares (RLS) Algorithm RLS
is Proposed to improve the convergence
rate of LMS algorithm.
• Error measures expressed in terms of a time
average of the actual received signal instead
of a statistical average. is too small, the
equalizer will be unstable
• λ is the weighting coefficient that can
change the performance of the equalizer.
• If a channel is time-invariant, λ can be set to
 Recursive Least Squares
(RLS) Algorithm
• Recursive Least Squares (RLS) Algorithm
Advantage: high convergence rate
• Disadvantage: sometimes unstable
• The RLS algorithm described above, called the
Kalman RLS algorithm Uses 2.5N2 + 4.5N
arithmetic operations per iteration.
 Summary of algorithms
• There are number of variations of the LMS
and RLS algorithms
• RLS algorithms have similar convergence and
tracking performances, which are much better
than the LMS algorithm.
• Usually have high computational requirement
and complex program structures. Some RLS
algorithms tend to be unstable.
• Among the RLS algorithms, fast transversal
filter (FTF) algorithm requires the least
 Summary of
algorithms

Table 1 Comparison of various algorithms for adaptive

equalization
 BER vs. SNR in a flat fading channel

In a flat fading channel (or narrowband system), the CIR (channel impulse
response) reduces to a single impulse scaled by a time-varying complex
coefficient.
The received (equivalent lowpass) signal is of the form

r t   a t  e s t   n t 
j  t 

We assume that the phase changes “slowly” and can be perfectly

tracked
=> important for coherent detection
 BER vs. SNR (cont.)
We assume:
the time-variant complex channel coefficient changes slowly (=> constant
during a symbol interval)
the channel coefficient magnitude (= attenuation factor) a is a Rayleigh
distributed random variable
coherent detection of a binary PSK signal (assuming ideal phase
synchronization)

Let us define instantaneous SNR and average SNR:

  a 2 Eb N 0  0  E a 2   Eb N 0
 BER vs. SNR (cont.)
Since
2a  a2 Ea2 
p a  e a  0,
E a 
2

using

p a 
Rayleigh distribution
p   
d  da
we get Exponential distribution

1
p    e 0
  0.
0
 BER vs. SNR (cont.)
The average bit error probability is
Important formula for
 obtaining statistical
Pe   Pe   p   d  average

where the bit error probability for a certain value of a is

Pe    Q
We thus get
 2a 2 Eb N 0  Q   2  . 2-PSK

1 

0
Pe   Q  2 1
e   0
d   1 
2 1  0
 .
0 0 
 BER vs. SNR (cont.)

Approximation for large values of average SNR is obtained in the following way.
First, we write

1 0  1 1 
Pe  1     1  1  
2 1  0  2 1  0 
Then, we use

1 x  1 x 2 
which leads to

Pe  1 4 0 for large 0 .
 BER vs. SNR (cont.)

Frequency-selective channel
BER (equalization or Rake receiver)
(  Pe )
Frequency-selective channel (no
equalization)
“BER floor”
AWGN
channel (no Flat fading channel
fading)

SNR ( 0)
Pe  1 4 0 means a straight line in log/log scale
 BER vs. SNR, summary

Modulation Pe   Pe Pe ( for large  0 )

2-PSK Q  2  1

2 
1 
0
1  0



1 4 0

DPSK e  2 1  2 0  2 1 2 0

2-FSK
(coh.) Q   
1

2 
1 
0
20



1 2 0

1  0  2 
2-FSK
(non-c.) e 2
2 1 0
Better performance through diversity

Diversity  the receiver is provided with multiple copies of the transmitted

signal. The multiple signal copies should experience uncorrelated fading in the
channel.
In this case the probability that all signal copies fade simultaneously is reduced
dramatically with respect to the probability that a single copy experiences a
fade.
As a rough rule:

1
Pe is proportional to Diversity of
 0L L:th order

BER Average SNR

 Better performance through diversity
 Diversity is most efficient when the different transmission channels (also called
diversity branches) carry independently fading copies of the same signal. This
means that the joint probability density function (pdf) of field strength (or
power) pdfr1 ,r2 ,...(r1, r2,.. .) is equal to the product of the marginal pdfs for
the channels, pdfr1 (r1), pdfr2 (r2), . . .
 Any correlation between the fading of the channels decreases the effectiveness
of diversity.
 The correlation coefficient characterizes the correlation between signals on
different diversity branches.

 For two statistically independent signals, correlation coefficient becomes zero

 Signals are often said to be “effectively” decorrelated if ρ is below a certain

threshold (typically 0.5 or 0.7).
 MICRODIVERSITY
Micro diversity : Methods that combat small scale fading
Space diversity:
Several receiving antennas spaced sufficiently far apart (spatial
separation should be sufficently large to reduce correlation between
diversity branches, e.g. > 10l).

Time diversity:
Transmission of same signal sequence at different times (time
separation should be larger than the coherence time of the channel).

Frequency diversity:
Transmission of same signal at different frequencies (frequency
separation should be larger than the coherence bandwidth of the
channel).
 MICRODIVERSITY

Angular diversity: Multiple antennas (with or without spatial separation

)with different antenna patterns

Polarization diversity:
Multiple antennas with different polarizations (e.g Vertical & Horizontal)

Correlation Coefficient :
 Spatial Diversity
 The transmit signal is received at several antenna elements,
and the signals from these antennas are then further processed
 Performance is influenced by correlation of the signals
between the antenna elements. A large correlation between
signals at antenna elements is undesirable, as it decreases the
effectiveness of diversity.
 So, relationship between antenna spacing and the correlation
coefficient is found. This relationship is different for BS
antennas and MS antennas:

2 3
Distance/wavelength
 Spatial Diversity
• MS in cellular and cordless systems: points of constructive and destructive
interference of Multi Path Components (MPCs) – i.e., points where we have
high and low received power, respectively – are spaced approximately λ/4
apart. This is therefore the distance that is required for decorrelation of
received signals.
• BS in cordless systems and WLANs
The angular distribution of incident radiation at indoor BSs is also uniform – i.e.,
radiation is incident with equal strength from all directions. Therefore, the same
rules apply as for MSs.
• BSs in cellular systems :
all waves are incident essentially from one direction, the correlation coefficient
(for a given distance between antenna elements da ) is much higher.
 Temporal diversity
As the wireless propagation channel is time
variant, signals that are received at different
times are uncorrelated.
For “sufficient” decorrelation, the temporal
distance must be at least 1/(2νmax), where
νmax is the maximum Doppler frequency.
• Repetition coding :
The signal is repeated several times, where the
repetition intervals are long enough to achieve
decorrelation.
 Temporal diversity
• Automatic Repeat reQuest ( ARQ):
 The RX sends a message to the TX to indicate whether
it received the data with sufficient quality, If this is not
the case, then the transmission is repeated (after a wait
period that achieves decorrelation)
• Combination of interleaving and coding :
 The different symbols of a codeword are transmitted
at different times, which increases the probability that
at least some of them arrive with a good SNR. The
transmitted codeword can then be reconstructed.
 FREQUENCY DIVERSITY
In frequency diversity, the same signal is
transmitted at two (or more) different
frequencies.
 If these frequencies are spaced apart by more
than the coherence bandwidth of the channel,
then their fading is approximately
independent, and the probability is low that
the signal is in a deep fade at both
frequencies simultaneously
FREQUENCY DIVERSITY
 FREQUENCY DIVERSITY
 Spreading can be done by different methods:

• Compressing the information in time: – i.e., sending

short bursts that each occupy a large bandwidth –
TDMA
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):
• Multicarrier CDMA and coded orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing
• Frequency hopping in conjunction with coding :
different parts of a codeword are transmitted on
different carrier frequencies
 Angle diversity
 A fading dip is created when MPCs, which
usually come from different directions, interfere
destruc- tively.
 If some of these waves are attenuated or
eliminated, then the location of fading dips
changes.
 Two colocated antennas with different patterns
“see” differently weighted MPCs, so that the
MPCs interfere differently for the two antennas.
 This is the principle of angle diversity (also
known as pattern diversity ).
 Angle diversity
 Angular diversity is usually used in
conjunction with spatial diversity; it
enhances the decorrelation of signals at
closely spaced antennas.
 Different types of antennas have different
patterns
 Even identical antennas can have different
patterns when mounted close to each other
 The different patterns are even more
pronounced when the antennas are located on
different parts of the casing.
Angle diversity
 Polarization diversity
 Horizontally and vertically polarized MPCs
propagate differently in a wireless channel, as the
reflection and diffraction processes depend on
polarization
 Even if the transmit antenna only sends signals with
a single polarization, the propagation effects in the
channel lead to depolarization so that both
polarizations arrive at the RX.
 Receiving both polarizations using a dual-polarized
antenna, and processing the signals separately, offers
diversity
 Macro diversity
• Macro diversity : Methods that combat large
scale fading
•Use on-frequency repeaters that receive the
signal and retransmit an amplified version of it.
•Simulcast the same signal is transmitted
simultaneously from different BSs.
 Macro diversity
 A disadvantage of simulcast is the large amount of
signaling information that has to be carried on landlines.
Synchronization information as well as transmit data have
to be transported on landlines (or microwave links) to
the BSs.
 The use of on-frequency repeaters is simpler than that of
simulcast, as no synchronization is required.
 On the other hand, delay dispersion is larger, because
(i) the runtime from BS to repeater and repeater to
MS is larger (compared with the runtime from a second BS)
(ii) the repeater itself introduces additional delays
due to the group delays of electronic components, filters,
etc.
 Combination of Signals

 how to use diversity signals in a way that

improves the total quality of the signal that is to
be detected?
• Selection diversity
 The “best” signal copy is selected and processed
(demodulated and decoded), while all other
copies are discarded.
• Combining diversity
 All copies of the signal are combined (before or
after the demodulator), and the combined signal
is decoded.
 Selection Diversity

• Received-Signal-Strength-Indication-Driven
Diversity
 The RX selects the signal with the largest
instantaneous power (or Received Signal
Strength Indication – RSSI ), and processes it
further
 If the BER is determined by noise, then RSSI-
driven diversity is the best
 If the BER is determined by co-channel
interference, then RSSI is no longer a good
selection criterion
Selection Diversity
 Selection Diversity

• Bit-Error-Rate-Driven Diversity
 First transmit a training sequence – i.e., a bit
sequence that is known at the RX.
 The RX then demodulates the signal from each
receive antenna element and compares it with the
transmit signal.
 The antenna whose associated signal results in
the smallest BER is judged to be the “best,” and
used for the subsequent reception of data signals
Selection Diversity
 Selection Diversity
BER-driven diversity has several drawbacks:
1.The RX needs either Nr RF chains and demodulators (which makes the RX
more complex), or the training sequence has to be repeated Nr times (which
decreases spectral efficiency), so that the signal at all antenna elements can
be evaluated.

2.If the RX has only one demodulator, then it is not possible to continuously
monitor the selection criterion (i.e., the BER) of all diversity branches. This
is especially critical if the channel changes quickly.
3.Since the duration of the training sequence is finite, the selection criterion
– i.e., bit error probability – cannot be determined exactly. The variance of
the BER around its true mean decreases as the duration of the training
sequence increases.
There is thus a tradeoff between performance loss due to erroneous
determination of the selection criterion, and spectral efficiency loss due to
longer training sequences.
 Switched Diversity

 The selection criterion of just the active diversity

branch is monitored. If it falls below a certain
threshold, then the RX switches to a different antenna.
 Switched diversity runs into problems when both
branches have signal quality below the threshold in that
case, the RX just switches back and forth between the
branches.
 This problem can be avoided by introducing a
hysteresis or hold time, so that the new diversity branch
is used for a certain amount of time, independent of
the actual signal quality.
 Combining Diversity
 Each signal copy is multiplied by a (complex) weight and then
added up.
 Each complex weight wn∗ can be thought of as consisting of a
phase correction,10 plus a (real) weight for the amplitude
 Phase correction causes the signal amplitudes to add up, while, on
the other hand, noise is added incoherently, so that noise powers
add up.
 For amplitude weighting, two methods are widely used: Maximum
Ratio Combining (MRC) weighs all signal copies by their
amplitude. It can be shown that (using some assumptions) this is an
optimum combination strategy. An alternative is Equal Gain
Combining (EGC), where all amplitude weights are the same (in
other words, there is no weighting, but just a phase correction).
 Maximum Ratio Combining
MRC compensates for the phases, and weights
the signals from the different antenna branches
according to their SNR.
 Maximum Ratio Combining

Signal copies are weighted and combined

coherently:

L L
Z MRC   ai e   ai
j i  j i 2
ai e
i 1 i 1
 Equal Gain Combining
Signal copies are combined coherently:
L L
Z EGC   ai e e   ai
j i  j i

i 1 i 1
 Optimum Combining

 In order to maximize the Signal-to-Interference-and-

Noise Ratio (SINR), the weights should then be
determined according to a strategy called optimum
combining
 Optimum combining of signals from Nr diversity
branches gives Nr degrees of freedom. This allows
interference from Nr − 1 interferers to be eliminated.
 Alternatively, Ns ≤ Nr − 1 interferers can be
eliminated, while the remaining Nr − Ns antennas
behave like “normal” diversity antennas that can be
used for noise reduction.
 Hybrid Selection – Maximum
Ratio Combining
 A compromise between selection diversity and full
signal combining is the so-called hybrid selection
scheme, where the best L out of Nr antenna signals
are chosen, down converted, and processed.
 This reduces the number of required RF chains from
Nr to L
 The major difference from MRC is that the γ(n) are
ordered SNRs – i.e., γ(1) >γ (2) > ·· · >γ (N r ).
Error Probability in Fading Channels with
Diversity Reception

Determine the Symbol Error Rate (SER) in

fading channels when diversity is used at the
RX.
Compute the statistics of the received power
and the BER in Flat fading channels
Then proceed to dispersive channels and
analyze how diversity can mitigate the
detrimental effects of dispersive channels on
simple RXs.
 Error Probability in Flat-Fading
Channels
• Classical Computation Method

 The SER of BPSK in AWGN is

 Apply to MRC

 For large values of γ , this can be approximated as

 (with N r diversity antennas) the BER decreases with the Nr-th power of the
SNR.
Error Probability in Flat-
Fading Channels
• Computation via the Moment-Generating
Function
In the previous section, we averaged the BER
over the distribution of SNRs, using the
“classical” representation of the Q-function
An alternative definition of the Q-function,
which can easily be combined with the
moment-generating function Mγ (s) of the
SNR.
 Symbol Error Rate in
Frequency-Selective
Fading Channels
To determine the SER in channels that suffer
from time dispersion and frequency
dispersion, We assume here FSK with
differential phase detection.
The analysis uses the correlation coefficient
ρ XY between signals at two sampling times
MRC improves the SER by a factor Nr ! compared with selection diversity. A further
important consequence is that the errors due to delay dispersion and random Frequency
Modulation (FM) are decreased in the same way as errors due to noise. This is shown by
the expressions in parentheses that are taken to the Nr-the power. These terms subsume
the errors due to all different effects. The SER with diversity is approximately the Nr -th
power of the SER without diversity
 RSSI-driven diversity is not the best selection strategy when errors are mostly
caused by frequency selectivity and time selectivity. It puts emphasis on signals that
have a large amplitude, and not on those with the smallest distortion.11 In these cases,
BER-driven selection diversity is preferable. For Nr = 2, the BER of Minimum Shift
Keying (MSK) with differential detection becomes
 Rake receiver
 The multipath components are time delayed by more
than one chip duration and remains uncorrelated at the
CDMA receiver
 No need of equalizer
 Time delayed versions are combined in CDMA receiver to
improve the SNR at the receiver
 RAKE receiver collects the time shifted versions of the
original signal by providing separate correlation receiver
for each of the multipath signals
 RAKE receiver is a diversity receiver for CDMA
Rake receiver
 Rake receiver

• The weighting coefficients are normalized to

output signal power of correlator such that
coefficients sum to unity
 Rake receiver
Rake receiver
a radio receiver designed to counter the effects of
multipath fading
uses several "sub-receivers" each delayed
slightly in order to tune in to the individual
multipath components
each component is decoded independently,
but at a later stage combined in order to make
the most use of the different transmission
characteristics of each transmission path
 Rake receiver
 the digital section of a CDMA receiver which
permits the phone (or cell) to separate out the
relevant signal from all the other signals
 is capable of receiving multiple signal sources
and adding them together using multiple
fingers
 Rake receivers are common in a wide variety
of radio devices including mobile phones and
wireless LAN equipment
 Rake receiver
Digitized input samples
received from RF (Radio Frequency) front-end
circuitry in the form of I and Q branches
Code generators and correlator
perform the despreading and integration to user
data symbols
Channel estimator and phase rotator
channel estimator uses the pilot symbols for
estimating the channel state which will then be
removed by the phase rotator from the received
symbols
 Rake receiver
Delay equaliser
the delay is compensated for the difference in the
arrival times of the symbols in each finger
Rake combiner
sums the channel compensated symbols, thereby
providing multipath diversity against fading
 Rake receiver
Matched filter
used for determining and updating the current
multipath delay profile of the channel
this measured and possibly averaged multipath
delay profile is then used to assign the Rake
fingers to the largest peaks
 Summary
 Diversity –
 Micro diversity
 Spatial diversity
 Temporal diversity
 Frequency diversity
 Angular diversity
 Polarization diversity
 Macro diversity
 Diversity combining techniques
 Maximum ratio combining
 Equal Gain Combining
 Optimum combining
 Hybrid selection – MRC
 Error probability in fading channels
with diversity reception
 Rake receiver
Unit 3 - Problems
Unit 3 - Problems
 Unit 3 - Problems
•
Unit 3 - Problems
 Unit 3 - Problems
• RF BW = 0.57R6= 0.57 x 270 x i03 = 153.9 kHz
 Unit 3 - Problems

• Occupied RF spectrum for 90% power BW is

given by RF BW = 0.57 Rb = 0.57 x 270 x 103

• 153.9 KHz

•
Unit 4 - Problems
Unit 4 - Problems
Unit 4 - Problems
Unit 4 - Problems