THE MIXED RECORD OF ELITE DEMOCRACY

Liberal democracy, a legacy of America’s colonization of the Philippines (which lasted from 1898 to
1946), has always struggled to become deeply rooted in the country. The reasons given for this include
cultural factors (the power of familial and clientelistic ties); religious beliefs (Catholic fatalism); colonial
legacies (America’s empowerment of a land-owning elite); socioeconomic conditions (persistent poverty
and inequality); and institutional factors (a presidential system with winner-take-all elections). Between
1946 and 1972, democracy struggled under the weight of elite competition and avarice, flawed
economic policymaking, poor governance, and armed insurgency. In 1972, then president Ferdinand
Marcos declared martial law, and until 1986 democracy was dispensed with in favor of a dictatorship.
For nearly fifteen years, the Philippines experienced unprecedented repression and corruption.

The return to democracy following the People Power Revolution in February 1986 restored many of the
pre-martial-law era institutional features and political elites. Although it is generally accurate to view
1986 as a return to elite democracy, Philippine society, the state, and modes of political competition
have changed since 1972. Still, even the most positive views of democracy in the Philippines since 1986
see it as a flawed work in progress; harsher critics see it as a sham and a failure. Commonly cited flaws
include elections tainted by violence and vote buying, widespread rent-seeking and corruption, policies
that have benefited elites and special interests at the expense of the poor majority, and a dysfunctional
justice system.

However, since 1986 democracy has been institutionalized in many ways, and at times has worked fairly
well. Liberal values were central to the nonviolent People Power Revolution and informed the drafting
of the 1987 constitution. This resulted in constitutional guarantees of human rights; regular, competitive
elections for local and national offices; a system of checks and balances; and a free (if flawed) media and
robust civil society. The Philippine military remains somewhat politicized, but since 1992 it has been
reluctant to directly intervene in politics. Beginning in 1986, substantial deregulation and privatization,
as well as economic integration, set the stage for strong growth in the Philippines’ gross domestic
product (GDP) over most of the past decade. But even observers who applaud the post-1986 reforms
have questioned if they have been broad and deep enough to produce fundamental improvements in
politics, governance, and the economy.