LESSON 1 – HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION

The study of human development is endlessly fascinating because it is the study of real
lives: yours, mine and those of billions of people around the globe. Developmental psychology
is a scientific approach which aims to explain growth, change and consistency though the
lifespan. Developmental psychology looks at how thinking, feeling, and behavior change
throughout a person’s life. Some developmental psycholo gists study developmental change
covering the life span from conception to death. By so doing, they attempt to give a complete
picture of growth and decline. A significant proportion of theories within this discipline focus
upon development during childhood, as this is the period during an individual's lifespan when
the most change occurs.

Developmental psychologists study a wide range of theoretical areas, such as biological,

social, emotion, and cognitive processes.  The three goals of developmental psychology are to
describe, explain, and to optimize development. To describe development, it is necessary to
focus both on typical patterns of change (normative development) and individual variations in
patterns of change (i.e. idiographic development). Although there are typical pathways of
development that most people will follow, no two persons are exactly alike.

Developmental psychologists must also seek to explain the changes they have observed
in relation to normative processes and individual differences. Although, it is often easier to
describe development than to explain how it occurs.

Finally, developmental psychologists hope to optimize development, and apply their

theories to help people in practical situations (e.g. help parents develop secure attachments
with their children).

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Understand the context of human development.

2. Explain the factors affecting the development of an individual (Nature vs. Nurture)

3. Describe the different research methods in human development

4. Familiarize with the theories pertaining to human development.

“THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNICU”

COURSE MATERIALS

What is Human Development?

Human development refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development of

humans throughout the lifespan. What types of development are involved in each of these three
domains, or areas, of life? Physical development involves growth and changes in the body and
brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness. Cognitive development involves
learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial
development involves emotions, personality, and social relationships. 

Aspects of Development

Physical Domain

Many of us are familiar with the height and weight charts that pediatricians consult to
estimate if babies, children, and teens are growing within normative ranges of physical
development. We may also be aware of changes in children’s fine and gross motor skills, as
well as their increasing coordination, particularly in terms of playing sports. But we may not
realize that physical development also involves brain development, which not only enables
childhood motor coordination but also greater coordination between emotions and planning in
adulthood, as our brains are not done developing in infancy or childhood. Physical development
also includes puberty, sexual health, fertility, menopause, changes in our senses, and primary
versus secondary aging. Healthy habits with nutrition and exercise are also important at every
age and stage across the lifespan.

Cognitive Domain

If we watch and listen to infants and toddlers, we can’t help but wonder how they learn
so much so fast, particularly when it comes to language development. Then as we compare
young children to those in middle childhood, there appear to be huge differences in their ability
to think logically about the concrete world around them. Cognitive development includes mental
processes, thinking, learning, and understanding, and it doesn’t stop in childhood. Adolescents
develop the ability to think logically about the abstract world (and may like to debate matters
with adults as they exercise their new cognitive skills!). Moral reasoning develops further, as
does practical intelligence—wisdom may develop with experience over time. Memory abilities
and different forms of intelligence tend to change with age. Brain development and the brain’s
ability to change and compensate for losses is significant to cognitive functions across the
lifespan, too.

Psychosocial Domain

Development in this domain involves what’s going on both psychologically and socially.
Early on, the focus is on infants and caregivers, as temperament and attachment are significant.
As the social world expands and the child grows psychologically, different types of play and

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interactions with other children and teachers become important. Psychosocial development
involves emotions, personality, self-esteem, and relationships. Peers become more important
for adolescents, who are exploring new roles and forming their own identities. Dating, romance,
cohabitation, marriage, having children, and finding work or a career are all parts of the
transition into adulthood. Psychosocial development continues across adulthood with similar
(and some different) developmental issues of family, friends, parenting, romance, divorce,
remarriage, blended families, caregiving for elders, becoming grandparents and great
grandparents, retirement, new careers, coping with losses, and death and dying.

As you may have already noticed, physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development
are often interrelated, as with the example of brain development. We will be examining human
development in these three domains in detail throughout the modules in this course, as we learn
about infancy/toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, young adulthood,
middle adulthood, and late adulthood development, as well as death and dying.

Periods of the Life Span

Think about the life span and make a list of what you would consider the periods of
development. How many stages are on your list? Perhaps you have three: childhood,
adulthood, and old age. Or maybe four: infancy, childhood, adolescence, and
adulthood. Developmentalists break the life span into nine stages as follows:

 Prenatal Development
 Infancy and Toddlerhood
 Early Childhood
 Middle Childhood
 Adolescence
 Early Adulthood
 Middle Adulthood
 Late Adulthood
 Death and Dying

This list reflects unique aspects of the various stages of childhood and adulthood that will be
explored in this book. So, while both an 8 month-old and an 8 year-old are considered children,
they have very different motor abilities, social relationships, and cognitive skills. Their nutritional
needs are different and their primary psychological concerns are also distinctive. The same is
true of an 18 year-old and an 80 year-old, both considered adults. We will discover the
distinctions between being 28 or 48 as well. But first, here is a brief overview of the stages.

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Prenatal Development

Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are
forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens
(or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and delivery are primary
concerns.

Infancy and Toddlerhood

The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A
newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a walking, talking
toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also transformed from someone
who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety inspector
for a mobile, energetic child.

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Early Childhood

Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years consisting of the years which
follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the child is busy
learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to
learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly, however, and
preschoolers may have initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance
such as fearing that they may go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub or by
demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches
apart. A toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense
of guilt for doing something that brings the disapproval of others.

Middle Childhood

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 The ages of six through eleven comprise middle childhood and much of what children
experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the
world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by assessing one’s abilities
and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. Schools compare
students and make these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms
of recognition. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this
point in life. And children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through
interaction with friends and fellow students.

Adolescence

Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical

growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as
the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as
love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at
greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have
lifelong consequences.

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Early Adulthood

The twenties and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood. (Students who are in
their mid-30s tend to love to hear that they are a young adult!). It is a time when we are at our
physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. It
is a time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into making choices that will help
one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of others. Love and work are primary concerns at
this stage of life.

Middle Adulthood

The late thirties through the mid-sixties is referred to as middle adulthood. This is a

period in which aging, that began earlier, becomes more noticeable and a period at which many
people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period of gaining expertise

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in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency
than before. It can also be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life previously
considered; of recognizing the difference between what is possible and what is likely. This is
also the age group hardest hit by the AIDS epidemic in Africa resulting in a substantial decrease
in the number of workers in those economies.

Late Adulthood

This period of the life span has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in
industrialized countries. Late adulthood is sometimes subdivided into two or three categories
such as the “young old” and “old old” or the “young old”, “old old”, and “oldest old”. We will follow
the former categorization and make the distinction between the “young old” who are people
between 65 and 79 and the “old old” or those who are 80 and older. One of the primary
differences between these groups is that the young old are very similar to midlife adults; still
working, still relatively healthy, and still interested in being productive and active. The “old old”
remain productive and active and the majority continues to live independently, but risks of the
diseases of old age such as arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular disease increases
substantially for this age group. Issues of housing, healthcare, and extending active life
expectancy are only a few of the topics of concern for this age group.  A better way to
appreciate the diversity of people in late adulthood is to go beyond chronological age and
examine whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured
above who is in very good health for his age and continues to have an active, stimulating
life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age),
or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease than
others of the same age).

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Death and Dying

This topic is seldom given the amount of coverage it deserves. Of course, there is a
certain discomfort in thinking about death but there is also a certain confidence and acceptance
that can come from studying death and dying. We will be examining the physical, psychological
and social aspects of death, exploring grief or bereavement, and addressing ways in which
helping professionals work in death and dying. And we will discuss cultural variations in
mourning, burial, and grief.

How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development?

Are we who we are because of nature (biology and genetics), or are we who we are
because of nurture (our environment and culture)? This longstanding question is known in
psychology as the nature versus nurture debate. It seeks to understand how our personalities
and traits are the product of our genetic makeup and biological factors, and how they are
shaped by our environment, including our parents, peers, and culture. For instance, why do
biological children sometimes act like their parents—is it because of genetics or because of
early childhood environment and what the child has learned from their parents? What about
children who are adopted—are they more like their biological families or more like their adoptive
families? And how can siblings from the same family be so different?

We are all born with specific genetic traits inherited from our parents, such as eye color,
height, and certain personality traits. Beyond our basic genotype, however, there is a deep
interaction between our genes and our environment. Our unique experiences in our

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environment influence whether and how particular traits are expressed, and at the same time,
our genes influence how we interact with our environment. There is a reciprocal interaction
between nature and nurture as they both shape who we become, but the debate continues as to
the relative contributions of each.

Research Methods in Developmental Psychology

There are various methods of research, each with its specific advantages and
disadvantages. The one that a scientist chooses depends largely on the aim of the study and
the nature of the phenomenon being studied.

Research design provides a standardized framework by which to test a hypothesis and

evaluate whether the hypothesis was correct, incorrect, or inconclusive. Even if the hypothesis
is untrue, the research can often provide insights that may prove valuable or move research in
an entirely new direction. There are a number of different ways to conduct research. Here are
the most common. 

Cross-Sectional Research

Cross-sectional research involves looking at different groups of people with specific

characteristics. For example, a researcher might evaluate a group of young adults and compare
the corresponding data from a group of older adults.

The benefit of this type of research is that it can be done relatively quickly; the research
data is gathered at the same point in time. The disadvantage is that the research aims to make
a direct association between a cause and an effect. This is not always so easy. In some cases,
there may be confounding factors that contribute to the effect.

To this end, a cross-sectional study can suggest the odds of an effect occurring both in
terms of the absolute risk (the odds of something happening over a period of time) and the
relative risk (the odds of something happening in one group compared to another).

Longitudinal Research

Longitudinal research involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended

period of time. Data is collected at the outset of the study and gathered repeatedly through the
course of study. In some cases, longitudinal studies can last for several decades or be open-
ended. One such example is the Terman Study of the Gifted, which began in the 1920s and
followed 1528 children for over 80 years.

The benefit of this longitudinal research is that it allows researchers to look at changes
over time. By contrast, one of the obvious disadvantages is cost. Because of the expense of a
long-term study, they tend to be confined to either a smaller group of subjects or a narrower
field of observation.

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 While revealing, longitudinal studies are difficult to apply to a larger population. Another
problem is that the participants can often drop out mid-study, shrinking the sample size and
relative conclusions. Moreover, if certain outside forces change during the course of the study
(including economics, politics, and science), they can influence the outcomes in a way that
significantly skews the results.

We saw this with the Terman study wherein the correlation between IQ and achievement
was blunted by such confounding forces as the Great Depression and World War II (which
limited educational attainment) and gender politics of the 1940s and 1950s (which limited a
woman's professional prospects).

Correlational Research

Correlational research aims to determine if one variable has a measurable association

with another. In this type of non-experimental study, researchers look at relationships between
the two variables but do not introduce the variables themselves. Instead, they gather and
evaluate the available data and offer a statistical conclusion.

For example, the researchers may look at whether academic success in elementary
school leads to better-paying jobs in the future. While the researchers can collect and evaluate
the data, they do not manipulate any of the variables in question.

A correlational study is useful if you are unable to manipulate a variable because it is

either impossible, impractical, or unethical. While you might submit, for instance, that living in a
noisy environment makes you less efficient in the workplace, it would be impractical and
unreasonable to inject that variable artificially.

Correlational research clearly has its limitations. While it can be used to identify an
association, it does not necessarily suggest a cause for the effect. Just because two variables
have a relationship does not mean that changes in one will affect a change in the other.

Experimentation

Unlike correlational research, experimentation involves both the manipulation and

measurement of variables. This model of research is the most scientifically conclusive and
commonly used in medicine, chemistry, psychology, biology, and sociology.

Experimental research uses manipulation to understand cause and effect in a sampling

of subjects. The sample is comprised of two groups: an experimental group in whom the
variable (such as a drug or treatment) is introduced and a control group in whom the variable is
not introduced. Deciding the sample groups can be done in a number of ways:5

Population sampling, in which the subjects represent a specific population

Randomization, in which subjects are chosen randomly to see if the effects of the
variable are consistently achieved

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 While the statistical value of an experimental study is robust, it's one major shortcoming
may be confirmation bias. This is when the investigator's desire to publish or achieve an
unambiguous result can skew the interpretations, leading to a false-positive conclusion.

One way to avoid this is to conduct a double-blind study in which neither the participants
nor researchers are aware of which group is the control. A double-blind randomized controlled
trial (RCT) is considered the gold standard of research.

Theories of Human Development

Psychosexual development

Sigmund Freud believed that everyone has a conscious, preconscious, and unconscious

level of awareness. In the conscious, one is aware of their mental process. The preconscious
involves information which, though not currently in our thoughts, can be brought into
consciousness. Lastly, the unconscious includes mental processes that a person is unaware of.

He believed there is tension between the conscious and unconscious because the
conscious tries to hold back what the unconscious tries to express. To explain this, he
developed three personality structures: the id, ego, and superego. The id, the most primitive of
the three, functions according to the pleasure principle: seek pleasure and avoid pain. [5] The
superego plays the critical and moralizing role; and the ego is the organized, realistic part that
mediates between the desires of the id and the superego.[6]

Based on this, he proposed five universal stages of development, that each is

characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the child's psychosexual energy. The
first is the oral stage, which occurs from birth to 12 months of age. During the oral stage, "the
libido is centered in a baby's mouth." The baby is able to suck. The second is the anal stage,
from one to three years of age. During the anal stage, the child defecates from the anus and is
often fascinated with their defecation. The third is the phallic stage, which occurs from three to
five years of age (most of a person's personality forms by this age). During the phallic stage, the
child is aware of their sexual organs. The fourth is the latency stage, which occurs from age five
until puberty. During the latency stage, the child's sexual interests are repressed. Stage five is
the genital stage, which takes place from puberty until adulthood. During the genital stage,
puberty starts happening.

Stages of Psychosocial Development

German-American psychologist Erik Erikson and his collaborator and wife, Joan Erikson,

conceptualized eight stages of psychosocial development that they theorized healthy individuals
pass through as they develop from infancy to adulthood.  At each stage the person must resolve
a challenge, or an existential dilemma. Successful resolution of the dilemma results in the
person ingraining a positive virtue, but failure to resolve the fundamental challenge of that stage
reinforces negative perceptions of the person or the world around them and the person's
personal development is unable to progress.

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 The first stage, "Trust vs. Mistrust", takes place in infancy. The positive virtue for the first
stage is hope, in the infant learning whom to trust and having hope for a supportive group of
people to be there for him/her. The second stage is "Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt" with the
positive virtue being will. This takes place in early childhood when the child learns to become
more independent by discovering what they are capable of whereas if the child is overly
controlled, feelings of inadequacy are reinforced, which can lead to low self-esteem and doubt.
The third stage is "Initiative vs. Guilt". The virtue to be gained is a sense of purpose. This takes
place primarily via play. This is the stage where the child will be curious and have many
interactions with other kids. They will ask many questions as their curiosity grows. If too much
guilt is present, the child may have a slower and harder time interacting with their world and
other children in it. The fourth stage is "Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority". The virtue for this
stage is competency and is the result of the child's early experiences in school. This stage is
when the child will try to win the approval of others and understand the value of their
accomplishments. The fifth stage is "Identity vs. Role Confusion". The virtue gained is fidelity
and it takes place in adolescence. This is when the child ideally starts to identify their place in
society, particularly in terms of their gender role. The sixth stage is "Intimacy vs. Isolation",
which happens in young adults and the virtue gained is love. This is when the person starts to
share his/her life with someone else intimately and emotionally. Not doing so can reinforce
feelings of isolation. The seventh stage is "Generativity vs. Stagnation". This happens in
adulthood and the virtue gained is care. A person becomes stable and starts to give back by
raising a family and becoming involved in the community. The eighth stage is "Ego Integrity vs.
Despair". When one grows old, they look back on their life and contemplate their successes and
failures. If they resolve this positively the virtue of wisdom is gained. This is also the stage when
one can gain a sense of closure and accept death without regret or fear.

Theories of cognitive development

Jean Piaget, a Swiss theorist, posited that children learn by actively constructing
knowledge through hands-on experience. He suggested that the adult's role in helping the child
learn was to provide appropriate materials that the child can interact with and use to construct.
He used Socratic questioning to get children to reflect on what they were doing, and he tried to
get them to see contradictions in their explanations.

Piaget believed that intellectual development takes place through a series of stages,
which he described in his theory on cognitive development. Each stage consists of steps the
child must master before moving to the next step. He believed that these stages are not
separate from one another, but rather that each stage builds on the previous one in a
continuous learning process. He proposed four stages: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete
operational, and formal operational. Though he did not believe these stages occurred at any
given age, many studies have determined when these cognitive abilities should take place.

Stages of moral development

Piaget claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding
on Piaget's work, Lawrence Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was
principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime.

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 He suggested three levels of moral reasoning; pre-conventional moral reasoning,
conventional moral reasoning, and post-conventional moral reasoning. The pre-conventional
moral reasoning is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning that is based on
rewards and punishments associated with different courses of action. Conventional moral
reason occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by reasoning
based on rules and conventions of society. Lastly, post-conventional moral reasoning is a stage
during which the individual sees society's rules and conventions as relative and subjective,
rather than as authoritative.

Kohlberg used the Heinz Dilemma to apply to his stages of moral development. The
Heinz Dilemma involves Heinz's wife dying from cancer and Heinz having the dilemma to save
his wife by stealing a drug. Preconventional morality, conventional morality, and post-
conventional morality applies to Heinz's situation.

SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES:

Developmental Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/developmental-psychology.html

Defining Human Development.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/chapter/defining-human-
development/

Periods of Development.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/lifespandevelopment2/chapter/periods-of-development/

Research Methods in Developmental Psychology. https://www.verywellmind.com/research-

methods-in-developmental-psychology-2795070

Santrock, J. W. (2019). Life-Span Development. Seventeenth Edition. McGraw-Hill Education.

Shaffer, D. & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental Psychology: Childhood & Adolescence 8th edition.
Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Theories of Development. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cOjvbEQ2KSo

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS: (Group Work)

How much have you changed since you were younger? Cite examples on the changes
you have experienced in terms of the domains of development.

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