BISARE IRRIGATION PROJECT AGRONOMY FEASIBILITY STUDY

FINAL REPORT

Agust, 2016

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. iv

1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1
2. OBJECTIVE ................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 General objective .............................................................................................. 2
2.2. Specific objectives ........................................................................................... 2
3. METHODOLOGY.......................................................................................................... 3
3.1. Pre-field work .................................................................................................. 3
3.2. Field observation and data/information collection .......................................... 3
4. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT AREA .................................................................. 4
4.1. Crop production scenario in Sodo-Zurea woreda ............................................ 4
4.2. Irrigation practices in Sodo-Zurea woreda....................................................... 5
4.2 Climate .............................................................................................................. 6
4.2. Rain fall............................................................................................................ 6
4.3. Temperature ..................................................................................................... 6
4.4. Topography and soils ....................................................................................... 6
4.5. Water resources................................................................................................ 7
5. CROP PRODUCTION IN THE PROJECT AREA........................................................ 8
5.1 RAIN FED CROP PRODUCTION .................................................................. 8
5.1.1 Existing cropping system ............................................................................... 8
5.1.2 Production factors .......................................................................................... 9
5.1.3. Input use ........................................................................................................ 9
5.1.4 Farming practices ......................................................................................... 10
5.1.5 Cropping system ........................................................................................ 12
5.1.6 Crop protection ............................................................................................ 13
5.1.7 Agricultural extension.................................................................................. 14
5.1.8 Crop production constraints ......................................................................... 14
6. PROJECT RATIONAL ................................................................................................ 15
7. IRRIGATED CROP PRODUCTION .......................................................................... 16
7.1 Project description and background ................................................................ 16
7.2 Proposed cropping pattern .............................................................................. 16
8. Determination of crop water requirements for the command area ............................... 18
8.1. General Considerations .................................................................................. 18
8.2 Climate and rainfall......................................................................................... 19
8.3. Irrigation system and method......................................................................... 21
8.4. Irrigation scheduling ...................................................................................... 21
9.1. Crop rotation .................................................................................................. 22
9.2. Crop protection .............................................................................................. 22
9.3. Input requirement ........................................................................................... 22
9.5. Yield projection.............................................................................................. 24
10. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.......................................................... 26
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11. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 27
12. Annex I: Crop management practices ......................................................................... 28
Annex 2: Cropwat inputs data and outputs results............................................................ 40
Annex-3.........................................................................................................................- 45 -
13. Crop management ...................................................................................................- 45 -
Annex-4.........................................................................................................................- 47 -
14. Post-Harvest technologies.......................................................................................- 47 -
Annex-5.........................................................................................................................- 49 -
15. Farmers Research Groups (FRG) approach and Farmers’ Training Center (FTC) - 49 -
Annex-6.........................................................................................................................- 50 -
16. Compost making aids include any or all of the following ......................................- 50 -

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List of tables Page

Table 1:- Existing Cropping pattern and production of the command ...................................................8
Table 2: Existing Labor and Oxen requirement for various Farm Operations of major crops ............10
Table 3: Frequencies of Farm Activities...............................................................................................11
Table 4: Time schedule for different farm activates in the existing crop production ...........................12
Table 5: Insect pests and crops infested................................................................................................13
Table 6: Proposed cropping pattern ......................................................................................................17
Table 11: Input requirement of the proposed crops /ha ........................................................................23
Table 12: proposed projected outputs of crops under irrigated farming ..............................................25
Table 11: Summary of Cost/Benefit analysis per hectare for selected crops under conventional
production system .................................................................................................................................25

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1. INTRODUCTION

Southern Nations and Nationalities Regional State (SNNRS) have abundant land and water resources
that used for irrigation development. Encouraging efforts has been made by Government and non-
government organization to utilize these resources. Irrigation development project plays an essential
role in stabilizing crop production by either supplementing or replacing the need for natural
precipitation. Irrigation makes agricultural production more reliable and it reduces or eliminates crop
production failure by protecting against drought and by increasing crop yields.

At the same time irrigation also plays an important role to enhance, the income sources of farmers
improve their diet and their living standard. With this short premises, In the project area agriculture
comprises both crop and livestock production. Grain crops is produced under rain fed condition using
the traditional ox- drawn plowing and primitive farm tools by smallholder farmers at subsistence
level. From focused group discussion, farmers described that more than 50% farmers own oxen and
the remaining are obliged to rent the draught power from the rich one for land preparation and this
delays the planting time.

Few farmers use limited agricultural input and most of the farmers do not use inputs because of
periodical increasing of inputs price and farmers could not pay 50% first payment in cash. Therefore,
farmers obliged to grow high yielding crop varieties with minimum agro-inputs application and this
resulted low crop productivity. Crop production is severely affected by the utilization of back ward
farming practices, draught, land degradation, less diversified crops, inaccessibility to market places
and incidence of different crop pests and all these together leads to very low crop yields.

Therefore, development of irrigation project, which is supported by effective extension, training,

exposure visit, and credit service, timely and adequate supply of fertilizer, improved seeds and farm
implements, is very crucial for sustained and improved crop production. The Southern Region Water
Resources & Irrigation Development Bureau, in light of the above facts, identifies Bisare river for
modern irrigation development. This report provides the irrigation agronomy component of the
detailed study focusing on critical agronomic practices like crops produced in the project area,
production factors, cropping pattern, crop protection, extension service and the proposed irrigation
crop production and other recommended practices.
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2. OBJECTIVE

2.1 General objective

The objective of this project is to increase production and productivity by diverting Bisare river and
delivering to the farmers field, helping them to produce high value crops through strong extension
service and improved production system; and consequently reach at food self-sufficiency level for the
population of the area.

2.2. Specific objectives

To evaluate the existing agricultural resources of the area including crops grown; the cropping pattern
and farming practice; to investigate the suitability of soil, climate and water to irrigated agriculture;
to estimate crop water requirements and to estimate input requirements of irrigated crops

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 3. METHODOLOGY

The methodology used in this development study aimed at plainly defining and describing the
agronomic situation of the area, outlining the major crop production constraints and developing
recommendation for implementation.
3.1. Pre-field work
o Major relevant studied documents reviewed previous study reports of the project area.
o Checklists were prepared to collect information from Zone, woreda and PA levels through
semi-structured and open-ended questionnaires interview; participatory rural appraisal;
focused group discussion household survey and key informant interview.
o Field visit program to project area to observe existing crop production assessed and data
collected.

3.2. Field observation and data/information collection

o Field observation conducted in order to know the existing cropping pattern and agronomic as
well as cultural cropping practice of the project area collected in the checklist prepared ahead.
o Interview of the farmers and agricultural extension workers in the project area conducted.
o Useful data/information is collected from woredas agriculture and rural development office
and peasant association
o Assessment of the current status of crop production practices and identification of major crop
production constraints such as shortage of inputs, availability of credit, climatic vagaries,
storage conditions, access to market, availability of different services and other related issues.
o CROPWAT 8 a computer program software is applied for calculation of crop water and
irrigation requirements
o Crops were selected based on agro-climatically condition; soil suitability; adaptation of crops
to the growing condition of the study area; high yielding improved varieties; market potentials
of crops; crop rotation and crop diversification requirement; consumer test and food security
purpose.
 Development of a comprehensive production packages including suitable crop varieties and improved
management technologies of the selected crops for practical implementation of the project

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4. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT AREA

4.1. Crop production scenario in Sodo-Zurea woreda

The major crops types grow in 'belg' and 'meher' seasons are almost improved varieties of cereals,
pulses, and tubers used for household consumption and some crops are sold as sources of cash for
domestic expenditures. Haricot bean and tef are some of the major cash crops for framers and root
crops are mostly used for consumption. Root crops are remained in the field for longer time and
harvested when need arise to protect crop spoilage due to poor storage system. Total area cultivated
for belg and meher seasons are 9683.4 and 4619 ha respectively. Proper use of production packages
and extension support enhance crop productivity however, the effort is not effective as such. The
major challenges observed in the production year are weak extension support, soaring price of inputs,
credit facilities to cover improved seeds cost at once, and recurrent draught ' elino' see Tables 1 and 2
below.

Table: Crop types and productivity in belg season 2006-2007

Crop types Area (ha) Productivity (Qt/ha)

Belg season
Maize 864 42
H.bean 3661 14
S.potato 2432.4 225
I.potato 895 210
Taro 1831 150
Meher season
Wheat 1113 32
Tef 1122.5 11
H.bean 905 12
Barely 369 14
F.bean 225.5 13
I.potato 248 175
S.potato 636 280

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4.2. Irrigation practices in Sodo-Zurea woreda

Different types of traditional irrigation are exists in the woreda such as 250.5 ha pump irrigation, 8.5
ha HH harvesting, 6.75ha community pond, 28.25ha Hand dug well, 2166ha and from spring
development. As described by woreda agriculture office constraints for traditional irrigation are dry
of river because of draught, fuel cost, inaccessibility to transport products to market place and lack of
effective extension support. Generally, 2,751ha land is allocated for modern irrigation by diverting
water from Woja River and Lintale. Irrigated vegetable crop data are not recorded as per woreda
agronomist responded for 2006-2007 production year. The major challenges encountered in
vegetable production is discouraging market price, weak extension support, credit facilities, crop
pests, and recurrent draught that resulted yield loss see table 4 below.

Table: Vegetable production by 2006-2007 production years

Rainfed Irrigation
Crop types Area (ha) Productivity (Qt/ha) Area (ha)
Carrot 166.5 180 558.0
S.potato 52.5 170 -
Cabbage 21 220 586
Onion 18 185 820
Cassava 79 210 -
Maize - - 15
I.potato - - 581
Pepper - - 594
Tomato - - 916
Lettuice - - 64
B.root - - 513.8
Kosta - - 64

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4.1 Location

Bisare irrigation project is located at Sodo-zurea woreda, which is located 20 km from Wolayta sodo
town in Southern Nations and Nationalities Peoples Regional state. The project area is found in dry
woyina dega agro ecological zone with altitude range of 1740-1780 a.m.s.l and.

4.2 Climate

According to agro ecological classification of the woreda, the woreda consists of major woina- dega
(90%), and dega (10%). Similarly, in the project area the dominant agro ecologies are and dry
woyene dega agro ecological zone (Woreda agricultural office and kebele development agent).

4.2. Rain fall

The rainfall pattern of the project area is bimodal type in which one main rainy season is occurs
during the summer season mostly starting mid-June and ends mid end of August and the Belg rain,
which usually starts in the beginning of mid of February and extends up to end of March.

4.3. Temperature

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The mean maximum average annual temperature of the area is 26.4 c and the mean minimum
average annual temperature of 11.50 c, in which the highest mean maximum temperature of 28.10 C
and a mean minimum temperature of 7.9 0 C were recorded in June, February, and December months
respectively. All temperature ranges are favorable for the growth of various crops in the area.

4.4. Topography and soils

Topography is an important factor for the planning of any irrigation project as it influences method of
irrigation, drainage, erosion, and cost of land development, mechanization, labor requirement, and
choice of crops. Topographically most of the cultivated land of the project is located almost in a
plane lands.

The proposed command area lies in flat to gently sloping terrain, which is suitable for irrigation crop
production. The major soil type identified in the commend area is clay loam. From visual
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observation, the soil has good water holding capacity and medium drainage. In general, the soil is
conducive for crop growth together with compatible soil conservation measures and soil fertility
amendments.

Detail soil characteristics explained and discussed based on chemical and physical laboratory analysis
results. Farmers give different attention, treatment for different soil units across the farm, plots of
land near homesteads received FYM and household refuses, and outfields farm plots allocated to
maize, beans and tubers and this fields and sometimes applied with inorganic fertilizer is applied.

4.5. Water resources

Traditional irrigation is recently implemented in 4 ha of command area and the major crops cultivated
are onion and pepper using pump irrigation from Bisare river. The project area however does not
have any prior irrigation experience. As per farmers responded World Vision -Ethiopia has tried to
divert Bisare River for crop production as per framers request, however due to some management&
technical problems the irrigation infrastructure was not constructed. In the project area Bisare river is
the only perennial river for developing in to modern irrigation scheme. Neither traditional irrigation,
nor construction for modern irrigation has taken place before this study. Bisare is a river with a
sufficient base flow for the proposed small-scale irrigation project (irrigation team) as per hydrology
team report.

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5. CROP PRODUCTION IN THE PROJECT AREA

5.1 RAIN FED CROP PRODUCTION

5.1.1 Existing cropping system

Agriculture production is the main livelihood sources for the people in the project area and it is
mainly dependent on rainfall. The major crops grown in the kebele are maize,sesame, sweet potato,
tef, haricot bean, yam, chickpea, sorghum, Irish-potato, sweet potato and cassava. Tomato, onion,
pepper, mango, avocado and banana are among the minor horticultural crops grown in the kebele
with insignificant area coverage. The system of production is traditional in which plowing, harvesting
and threshing is done by labor and animal only. Harvested maize stalk are collected, pilled and stored
in the fields, which is not well dried and exposed to damage by weevils. For 2007-2008 G.C. fiscal
years, cropping pattern of the kebele for their total cultivated land is indicated Table 1 below.

Table 1:- Existing Cropping pattern and production of the command

Crop type Area coverage (ha) Productivity (Qt/ha)

ha %
Teff-Kuncho 40 10,6 7-8
Maize- Hawass 540 130 34.8 32-40
Haricot bean 79 21 8-9
Sorghum 5 1.3 7-10
Irish potato 13 3.5 13
Chick pea 5 1.3 9-10
Sweet potato 33 8.8 70-80
Vegetable-onion 12.5 3.4 100-120
Godere/Taro 56.5 15.3 40-50
Total 347 100
Source: kebele development agent and project beneficiaries

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5.1.2 Production factors

The major crop production factors area land, credit service providers, water, and production packages
and extension services support are mandatory for successful crop production. The size of cultivated
land per household ranges from 1.0 to 0.125 ha for the kebele. Although the average land holding
size of the households is comparatively small, intensification of crop production through use of
irrigation water and use of appropriate farm management including the introduction of improved
technologies is essential to overcome food insecurity due to climate uncertainty and backward
production is unquestionable. Irrigation development has its own contribution to reduce crop
production constraints related to land shortage – a challenge that confronts the future generation as
well.

5.1.3. Input use

Usually farmers apply compost for enset, coffee and fruits which grow at home garden and use
inorganic fertilizer for outfield crops such as barley, chickpea, tef, sweet potato and Irish potato with
blanket recommendation of Urea and DAP 100kg/ha. Farmers obtained improved packages from
woreda agricultural office with limited amount. A maize crop damaged by weevil at field and storage
level, mango, and coffee attacked by diseases, and thus it is advisable to strengthened extension
support to manage and minimize pest damage. Seeds of improved and adaptable varieties with agro-
ecologies and farmers preferences are expected to be distributing through the extension program
through verification at FTC.

Although, farmers in the project area normally believe that their land is naturally fertile and as a
result there is no need to apply additional inputs; the national emphasis on achieving and sustaining
food self-sufficiency requires increasing use of inputs (fertilizer and improved seed) from time to
time. Following these, the farmer’s attitude on fertilizer and improved seed is changed due to the

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regular awareness creation programs. These days, farmers realize the yield obtained from improved
technologies is far higher than that from the conventional agricultural practice see Table 2.

Table 2: Existing Labor and Oxen requirement for various Farm Operations of major crops

Tef maize haricot Vegetable tubers pepper

bean
Land Man 36 24 8 16 12 14
preparation
Oxen 24 16 8 15 12 12
Sowing Man 12 8 8 12 16 24
Oxen 8 8 8 8 8 8
Weeding Man 32 32 16 24 32 60
Oxen -- -- -- -- -- --
Oxen -- -- -- -- -- --
Harvesting Man 20 24 12 32 48 32
Oxen -- -- -- -- -- --
Threshing Man 6 24 8 32 -- --
Oxen 8 -- 6 -- -- --
Total Man 106 112 60 112 108 142
Oxen 40 24 22 24 20 20
Source: kebele development agent and project beneficiaries

5.1.4 Farming practices

Land Preparation:- Land preparation is done by using the traditional way of plow drawn by a pair
of oxen. The number of plowing vary from one crop to another, within a given crop also the
frequency of plowing vary from 4-5 times based on availability of labor and animal power. Land
preparation starts just after the harvest of the previous crop and continues to mid-May to June. The
small rains that occur in October-November facilitate land-plowing operation as it moistens the dry
soil.

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Sowing and weeding/ cultivation:- The method of sowing for most of the crops is by broad casting.
After the crop has sown, weeding is practiced to decrease the competition of weeds for nutrients,
light and moisture. Therefore, weeding is practiced through hand weeding see Table 3.

Table 3: Frequencies of Farm Activities

Crops Frequency of plowing Frequency of weeding

Maize 5 2-3
Haricot bean 4-5 1-2
Tef 5 2-3
Sweet potato 2-3 1-2
Source: Kebele development office and farmers interview

Harvesting and Threshing: - Harvesting is done by hand picking and with the help of sickles; this is
done when the crop reach at maturity. The harvested maize crop is collected, transported to their
home and piled wooden pole. Root crops area harvested when need arise and market price attached to
them is attractive. Staying ripe root crops in the field for longer time prolonged the growing of
succeeding crops, however post-harvest-handling system needs to be established to preserve
perishable crops and create market channels to sell harvested product see Table 4 below.

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Table 4: Time schedule for different farm activates in the existing crop production

Crop Land Sowing date Weeding Harvesting

Preparation date date
Maize Oct-Nov End of Feb& 1st of March April-May End of Aug
Haricot bean Jan-Feb March 15 April End of May
Tef May-June July-Aug Aug-Sep Oct-Nov
Taro-boloso-1 Oct-Nov First Feb June-July December
I. potato Oct-Nov Feb Mar-Apr May
Sweet potato Mar May July-Aug Sept-Oct
Sorghum Oct-Nov Beg Mar Apr-May Sept-Oct
Tef June July-15 Aug Sep-Oct-mer
I. potato June July-end Aug Sep Oct-Dec-mer
Haricot bean June 15 July Aug Sep-meher
Source: kebele development office and farmers interview

5.1.5 Cropping system

The dominant cropping system practiced in the kebele is sole cropping of, maize, haricot bean, tef,
and sweet potato. Mixed and row cropping of maize with Haricot bean, sorghum with coffee are
practiced in the project area to some extent. Dominant crop types cultivated in the project area are
cereal and tubers crops. Farmers lack different appropriate soil fertility maintaining techniques and
occasionally use pulse crops for rotation and mixed cropping maize, beans and tubers. Therefore, the
common crop rotations practiced by the farmer in the area are: Maize – Haricot bean; Maize – barley
and Tef -- Tubers.

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5.1.6 Crop protection

In addition to the other factors, which has great impact on crop production, a significant amount of
yield is lost due to pests, these pests include insect pests, diseases, weeds and rodents causing losses
at both the pre harvest and post-harvest stages. The types of crop pests are different depending on the
type of host crop. Important crop insect pests, diseases and weeds and the existing control measures
are mentioned below Table 5.

Table 5: Insect pests and crops infested

Crop Insect pests Diseases Control measure

Maize Stalkborer, weevils & Dawiny mildew The control measures farmers
porcupines practiced is that field sanitation
Tef Shoot fly Diseses at tip of i.e. they remove weeds and
shoot rouge out the affected plants.
sorghum Qulea bird -
Sweet potato SPB and late blight
Coffee Bacteria wilt Field sanitation
Source: Kebele development agent and farmers interview

In addition to insect pests and diseases, weeds are also causing a significant yield loss, through
competition for nutrients, light and moisture, as a host plant for insect pests and diseases, and used as
an oviposition site. Broad and grass weeds area the dominant weeds present in the farmland area are
and farmers control these weeds by hand weeding.

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5.1.7 Agricultural extension

Like any other areas of the region, the agricultural extension system in the woreda is agricultural
training and advisory extension system. Two types of extension approaches / packages are under
implementation (minimum and family package). The development agents deliver agricultural
extension and the development agents supervise the farmers and give technical support about the
preparation of compost, fertilizer application, making terrace, row planting forage production. In the
Kebele there are development agents having different profession (animal science, plant science and
natural resource). Technical backup needs to be delivered to farmers to reduce yield loss by crop
pests such as coffee bacteria wilt and stalk borer and weevils for maize.

However, from farmers interviewed extension support, cross visiting and share of experiences from
model farmers area week and mostly farmers apply inputs from empirical knowledge and
experiences. Therefore assigned development agents expected to assist farmers on proper utilization
of inputs.

5.1.8 Crop production constraints

Crop productivity for most of the annual crops in the project area is still very low as compared to the
national average. From interviewed local farmers’ and group discussions with respective woreda
Agricultural staff and DAs of the project kebele. Major constraints of crop production are as follows:
recurrent draught, low input utilization due to the high cost of inputs and lack of awareness, lack of
transportation to market places, lack of credit for input purchase and insufficient crop protection
practices in the field and at post-harvest handling technologies, poor market channels and inefficient
extension support.

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6. PROJECT RATIONAL

Crop production in the project area is mainly relying on rainfall. However, the late starting and early
off set of the rain, uneven distribution, and the amount of rainfall govern the type and intensity of the
crops grown in the area. As a result, the people living in the area are not certain what to produce for
the coming seasons each year and exact time of planting. Harnessing the available resources of the
area, in time would be more appropriate. Irrigation in general and small-scale irrigation in particular
is one of the strategies that will respond to the need of the area.

With these short premises, there is a need to supplement the rain fed production with irrigation and
cultivate the land under full irrigation during the dry season by growing different crop types in order
to meet the objective of increasing household income, food security, and generally improve the living
standard of the people.

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7. IRRIGATED CROP PRODUCTION

7.1 Project description and background

Implementation of Bisare irrigation project is aimed at increasing crop production as well as income
of farmers in the project area through the application and use of improved technologies. Irrigation
water is to be drawn from Bisare River using a diversion structure to supplement the rain fed
production as well as dry season irrigation for about 86.6 ha of net command area.

7.2 Proposed cropping pattern

The proposed cropping pattern for the project area in the wet season includes Maize (seed) and
haricot bean. Dry season crops proposed are Onion, and Pepper. The wet season cropping calendar
ranges from March to August. Planting of the dry season crop will commence from September to
December. Crop calendar is designed for targeting the market demand, household food scarcity and
to allow enough time for the land preparation to the proceeding crop. Cropping calendar designed for
the project is also clearly indicated in the irrigation scheme calculation for each month in percentage

The above crops are selected based on farmers’ preference and experience in the production of the
crops, marketability and possibly potential for improved seed supply, labor required for production,
feeding habit of the people and environmental requirements of the crops (suitability of the soil and
the prevailing climate) command area is allocated for the following crops maize, haricot bean, onion
and pepper respectively and crops are cropping intensity is 200% as per AGP guide line see Table 6
below.

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Table 6: Proposed cropping pattern

Area in Percent Date of

S. No. Crop Type Wet Dry Date of Planting Harvesting
1 Maize 60 07-Mar 09-Jul
2 Haricot B 40 20--May 06-Sep
3 Pepper 50 05-Sep 07-Jan
4 Onion 50 10-Sep 13-Dec
Total 100% 100%
Net command are is 86.6 ha

The cropping pattern revised according to the market demand, farmer's diet change, pest outbreak and
other factors that prevail in the implementation period. The proposed cropping pattern opens up
significant opportunities to increase annual income, generate employment and stable occupation of
the available labor forces throughout the year, reduce soil erosion through effective and continuous
soil cover, changes the feeding habit of the family by providing different nutritional contents,
increase efficient use of natural resources and ultimately secure household food security.

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8. Determination of crop water requirements for the command area

8.1. General Considerations

Usually, rainfall is the natural way to supply water to crop plants. Its amount and distribution are of
paramount importance to support successful crop production in a situation where rain fed agriculture
is predominant. However very often-climatic vagaries in terms of rainfall on set, amount, distribution
as well as secession do occur and the need to apply supplemental or full-fledged irrigation becomes a
necessity.

In irrigated agriculture, one of the most important pre-requisites, which need to be given high
magnification, is determination of Crop Water Requirements of the different crops planned to be
included in the irrigation production system. Crop Water Requirement is defined as the depth of
water needed to meet the water lost through Evapo-transpiration (ETo) of a disease free crop grown
in large scale under non restricting soil and environmental conditions to achieve the full production
potential of the crop in question.

Evidently, highest values of Evapo-transpiration (ETo) are found in areas which are hot, dry, windy
and sunny whereas lowest ETo values are found in areas which are cool, cloudy and less windy in
general. The irrigation requirement is water, which is supplied through the irrigation system to ensure
that the crop receives its full crop water needs. In a situation where irrigation is the only source of
water supply for the crop, then the irrigation requirement should be at least equal to water
requirements of the crop in question.

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8.2 Climate and rainfall

In general, the irrigation requirement should be more than the actual requirements of the crop in
order to compensate for inefficiencies caused by a variety of factors. for the case of Bisare SSIP
adopted from ALABA-KOLITO metrological station which has similar altitude, 1700 mm, and
located nearby and local available metrological data were considered to make the calculation
represent local climate situation. See Table 7 below climate and RF data considered for the project.

Table 6 : Meteorology Data Adopted for Bisare Irrigation Project.

Temperatures.(oc) Relative Wind Sun Rad Recommended
Rainfall
Month Humidity Speed hours ETo.
(mm) MJ/m²/day
Max Min Mean (%). (km/day) (mm/day)
January 32 27.6 10.8 19.2 57 78 8.1 19.8 3.80
February 89 28.1 12.1 20.1 54 78 8.2 21.1 4.17
March 98 27.7 12.3 20.0 59 78 8.5 22.6 4.43
April 124 27.0 12.9 19.95 63 78 8.1 21.9 4.31
May 107 26.9 12.0 19.45 74 78 7.6 20.6 4.0
June 64 25.3 12.3 18.8 75 95 6.5 18.5 3.62
July 131 25.5 12.8 19.2 78 52 5.3 16.9 3.18
August 128 23.8 12.6 18.2 77 35 5.4 17.5 3.23
September 112 25.1 12.5 18.8 77 69 5.2 17.4 3.37
October 48 26.6 10.5 18.6 71 69 8.2 21.2 3.96
November 32 27.1 9.2 18.2 58 86 8.8 21.0 4.01
December 5 27.8 7.9 17.9 53 86 8.3 19.7 3.82
Average 80.33 26.5 11.1 19.01 66 73.5 7.4 19.9 3.83
Source: - ALABA-KOLITO FAO

Inputs data for CROPWAT software such as crop data and soil data and outputs of the model: crop
water requirements outputs area indicated in Annex 2 from Table 1 to Table 5. Duty calculated per
hectare is 1.13 lit/sec/ha for month of May considering maximum irrigation requirements for 12
hours irrigation, see Table 9 scheme supply. Application efficiency considered for the project is 55%
as per ministry of water resources guideline.

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 Table 7: Scheme supply calculated for Bisare SSIP

Precipitation
Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
deficit
Maize (seed) 0.0 0.0 34.6 104.4 145.7 105.3 13.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Onion 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 51 108.1 124 49.1
H.bean 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.6 65.2 111.8 100.8 8.9 0.0 0.0 0.0
Pepper 60.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 53.6 91.1 121.9 119.9
Net scheme
0.2 0.0 0.3 0.9 1.3 1.2 0.7 0.5 1.1 2.0 2.5 1.5
irr.req (mm/day)
Net scheme
irr.req 5.9 0.0 8.7 26.1 39.2 36.1 20.2 15.1 32.6 60.6 73.9 47.2
(mm/month)
Net scheme
0.02 0.00 0.03 0.10 0.15 0.14 0.08 0.06 0.13 0.23 0.28 0.18
irr.req (l/s/h)
Irrigated area (%
25 0.0 25 25 40 40 40 15 75 60 60 60
of total area)
Irr.req. for actual
0.09 0.00 0.05 0.03 0.12 0.27 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.29 0.33
area (l/s/h)
Irr.req. for actual
area (l/s/h) for
0.82 1.0 0.13 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.19 0.38 0.17 0.38 0.47 0.29
12 hours
irrigation
Duty calculated 1.13 lit/sec/ha taking for 12hours irrigation on the month of May for maize crop
which is 145.7mm/month 86.6ha

20
 8.3. Irrigation system and method

Irrigation is supplementing rainfall for crop production by bringing surface water or ground water to
fields. Artificial supply of water is needed for ensuring a regular supplement of water during the wet
season and providing irrigation during the dry season. Bisare irrigation project has an irrigation
system of diverting Bisare River. The method of irrigation proposed is furrow, which is suitable for
soils of regular topography and medium and heavy soils. It reduces water loss due to evaporation,
minimizes the puddling hazard in heavy soils, and minimizes soil loss by erosion.

8.4. Irrigation scheduling

Field irrigation schedules are based on the field water balance and are expressed in depth and interval
of irrigation. Frequent application of water in smaller quantities tends to reduce irrigation efficiency
and time consuming for the farmer. On the other hand, delayed irrigation - particularly when the crop
is sensitive to water stress - could affect yields that cannot be compensated for by subsequent over
watering. Correct time of irrigation application therefore bears great importance for the crop as well
as the effective use of (usually) scarce and/or expensive irrigation water see Table below Irrigate at
critical water depletion, efficiency 55 %, and refill soil to field capacity.

Table: irrigation scheduling proposed for selected crops

Total Total net Total Effective Total Moist Actual irrigation Method of
gross irrigation rainfall rainfall rainfall deficit at water use days irrigation
crop types
irrigation (mm) (mm) loss (mm) harvest by crop
(mm) (mm) (mm)
Pepper 0 0 432.1 344.5 87.7 8.9 353.3 6-7 days Furrow
H. bean 0 0 375 292.4 82.6 4.4 296.8 7-14 Furrow
Maize Furrow,
139.6 76.8 415.9 336.6 79.3 6 419.3 14-21
(seed) Border
Onion 289 158.9 153.9 113.1 40.8 60.6 332.6 5-7 Furrow

21
9. Recommended practices

9.1. Crop rotation

Crop rotation can be defined as sequence of planting by changing crops in a definite planed order on
a particular field over a period of one or more years. Each crop directly or indirectly leaves beneficial
or harmful effects in the field after its harvest. Soil fertility and incidence of crop pests etc. on the
succeeding crops raised on the same field in the next season/year are therefore, influenced by the
preceding crops. Other different crops rotate crops of the same family for consecutive season to
manage crop pest and soil fertility. Rather, following improved crop rotation pattern is critical for the
successful and sustainable operation of the project. Therefore, the following are existing cropping
pattern observed in the project area Sweet potato --onion; maize -- onion; sesame - maize/sweet
potato; and onion--sweet potato/maize.

9.2. Crop protection

Traditional pest control measures are effective crop protection practice at household as well as at
kebele levels together with improved pest management practices. Supply the necessary crop
protection inputs on time, pest monitoring at different pest development stage, training of farmers,
development agents and woreda experts on integrated pest management, conduct on farm
demonstration trail of pest control techniques, improve post-harvest handling of crops and use
biological control measures not to affect the environment and crop quality.

9.3. Input requirement

Quality agricultural input supplies are imperative for successful crop production. These include
planting seeds, fertilizers and agro chemicals mainly for pest control. Recommended crop verities and
yield estimation is adopted from reviewing crop variety register (2004-2009) of Ministry of
Agriculture. Crop verities are recommended based on recommendations from South Regional
Agricultural Research Institute (SRARI) and from Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research
(EIAR) research centers with similar agro ecology to the project area see Table 11 and 12 below.

22
Table 11: Input requirement of the proposed crops /ha

S.No Crop Crop variety Seed Fertilizer(kg/ha) Pesticide Herbicide

recommended rate(kg/ha) UREA DAP
1 H.bean Naser, Roba 23-30 100 100 Sivene 2-4-D
(carbaril) 1 Lit/ha
1.5kg/ha
2 Maize Pioneer, BH-540 25-30 125 150 Perimyphos 1kg/ha, 50-
methyl 50% 60gm/Qt
W.P, and and
Acettlicf 2% 2lit/ha
and
Endosulphan
35%
3 Pepper Mareko 3.5 100 100 Oxycholoride 50gm/ha
Fana/Bako local 0.5% and and
Kocide 0.2% 20gm/ha
4 Onion Bombay/Adama 3.5 100 100 Mancozeb or 3kg /ha
red Zeneb and
Ridomil

The total number of man days and oxen days required for the growth of the crop to execute activities
like land preparation, sowing, weeding, bird scaring, irrigation application, harvesting and threshing
is given below.
Table: Labor and oxen days requirements per hectare for selected crops
Land Fert Chem
Plant Weed Irrig Harv Thresh Trans
Crop Prep Apl appl
S.n OD MD
Type (OD) (MD) (MD) (MD) (MD) Appl (MD) (MD) (MD)
(MD)
1 Maize 10 3 4 27 3 5 15 10 3 10 70
2 Pepper 10 3 4 27 3 5 15 10 3 10 70
3 Onion 10 3 4 27 3 5 15 10 3 10 70
4 H.bean 7 1 2 22 1 4 10 7 2 7 49

23
9.4. Extension and research demonstration

Despite of the fact that, there is an already existing extension system in different agricultural
activities it is not effective as of its stage. So, to identify and overcome production problems at the
farm level through the exchange of information among farmers, extension staff and researchers, the
primary extension technique would be participatory technology development, supplemented and
supported through a variety of other modern extension systems.

9.5. Yield projection

To build the yield of the proposed crops throughout the project year references are used on results
obtained from research centers, on farm trials and demonstration sites, existing yield of the farmer
and the ability to adopt and practice the proposed agricultural practices and so on. The yield of the
proposed crops increases with a smaller rate at the start and increases when the extension services
become strong and farmers’ awareness for technologies escalates.

Recommended crop verities and yield estimation is adopted from reviewing crop variety register
(2004-2009) of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural development, Crop development department. Crop
verities are recommended based on recommendations from South Regional Agricultural Research
Institute (SRARI) and from Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) research centers with
similar agro ecology to the project area. Implementation of full improved technology package is
critical to realize the calculated yield build up. Yield with and without project is submitted to socio-
economist to calculate crop budget and economic feasibility of the project.

24
 Table 7: proposed projected outputs of crops under irrigated farming
Project years
Crops Unit
Year-1 Year-2 Year-3 Year-4 Year-5
35 40 45 50 60
Yield (qt/ha)
Maize
17 18 20 22 25
Yield (qt/ha)
Haricot bean
7 8 9 10 11
Yield (qt/ha)
Pepper
150 175 200 250 300
Yield (qt/ha)
Onion

Table 8: Summary of Cost/Benefit analysis per hectare for selected crops under conventional
production system
Cost Items Revenue Profit
Total
Gross =Gross R-
S.N Crop Type Land Labor Input Cost Main Bi-
Revenue T.C.
culitiva Cost Cost. (Birr) Prod. Prod.
(Birr)
1 Pepper 325 1380 3105 4810 120000 ---- 120000 115190
2 Maize 250 1050 2137 3437 14000 2363 16363 12926
3 Harcot B 175 735 1693 2603 7200 1035 8235 5632
4 Onion 325 1380 3105 4810 120000 ---- 120000 115190

25
10. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The crop production constraints in the project area are low input utilization, high cost of inputs, lack
of awareness on the need for inputs and extent of application, lack of transportation to market places,
insufficient crop protection practices in the field and at post-harvest. With these and other related
problems, the productivity of each crop is below the expected yield.

The agro-climatic condition of the project site, the suitability of the soil for crop production, physical
feature of the command area and the availability of irrigation water offer exceptional opportunities to
undertake development of irrigation project. This irrigation project addresses the pressing need of the
area by adequately responding to food security problems of the local population. It will widen social
and economic benefits including employment creation, access to service and inputs, improve crop
yields, increased incomes and better living standards.

The sustainability of the project is very much dependent on the full participation of the beneficiaries
starting at the early stage of the implementation of the project through involving beneficiaries starting
from the construction up to implementation of the project. This will create a sense of responsibility
and ownership and greatly contributes to the success of the project.

The objectives of the scheme will only be achievable if and only if the following recommendations
are applied. effective extension service should be delivered; effective credit, storage, transport and
marketing services should be available; development of irrigation agronomy packages; adequate and
regular supply of fertilizer, improved seeds and agro- chemicals; provision of periodical training for
extension staffs and beneficiary farmers. The cropping pattern proposed for the scheme is based on
the existing knowledge of the farmers, market demand and other contributing factors. However, it can
be revised according to the prevailing situation including market demand and change in production
objective of the farmers.

26
11. REFERENCES

FAO, 2000. Crop evapo transpiration-Guideline for computing crop water requirements, FAO
Irrigation and drainage papers, #56, Rome, Italy.

ANRS Bureau of Agriculture and Rural development,2002., Coffee and horticulture development
package, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia (Amharic version)

ANRS Bureau pf Agriculture, 2000, crop production and protection manual, Bahir dar, Ethiopia

Ministry agriculture and rural development; Crop Development Department, Crop variety register,
2005. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

National seed Agency, 2001. Crop variety register, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

27
12. Annex I: Crop management practices

Improved cultural practices of proposed crops under rain fed and irrigated agriculture

MAIZE (Zea mays)

Maize grows well over a wide range of climates ranging from lowlands of less than 1,000 to about
2000 m.a.s.l. But its performance is poor in altitudes of more than 2000 m.a.s.l. It grows well on most
soils, but it does better on medium textured and well drained soils. It is sensitive to water logging
conditions.

Field Preparation: On the average, maize fields require three plowings to ensure fine, compact and
weed free seedbed.

Time of Planting & Seed Rate: Planting season is from early April to late May, depending on the
start of the rains or availability of irrigation water. Maize is usually row planted at a spacing of 30cm
between plants and 75cm between rows. Seeding rate is 25-30kg/ha.

Fertilizer: Maize is a heavy feeder of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. Where manure is
available, heavy manuring is required. Fertilizer recommendation for maize varies with the type of
the soil. However, the general recommendation is to apply 100kg DAP and 100kg Urea/ha. Urea
should be applied in split applications.

Weed Control: Maize is sensitive to weed competition in the early stages of its growth. Two hand
weedings are recommended, the first at four leaf stage and the second at knee high stage. In between,
however, inter row cultivation ensures good growth and higher yields. Herbicides like atrazine can
control leafy weeds if applied at a rate of 4 lit/ha before emergence.

Diseases: Maize rust, leaf blight and headsmut are commonly found diseases of the crop. Seed
dressing, crop rotation and the use of resistant varieties are recommended.

28
Insect Pests: Stalk borer, African bollworm, maize aphids and army worrm are the major insect pests
of maize. Destroying the previous crop residues controls stalk borrer infestation. Application (inside
each leaf funnel of the plant) of Cypermetrin 1% granular or Endosulfan 3% granular or Diazinon 5%
granular at the rate of 2.5-5kg/ha controls stalk borer. For the other pests, Endosulfan 35% E.C. can
be applied.

Irrigation: Maize is an efficient user of water in terms of total dry matter production. Depending on
the local climate and soil type, the crop requires between 500-800mm of water. It is very sensitive to
water deficit during flowering period including silking, tasselling and pollination. Application of pre-
plant irrigation encourages root development and reduces weed infestation. An immediate post-
planting irrigation may be required depending on prevailing climatic conditions.

Recommended varieties: BH-540, and BH-660

Onion (Allium cepa var Cepa)

Onion grows well between altitude ranges of 1800-2500 m.a. s.l. It can be grown on many soils but
well drained loamy or sandy loam soils are preferred. High level of organic matter is required for the
optimum growth of the crop. A PH of 5.8-6.8 is most favorable.

Field preparation
Seeds are normally sown in seedbeds and transplanted to prepared fields after about 45-60 days when
seedlings are 8-12 cm in height. As onions are shallow rooted, meticulous watering and mulching
with straw is advisable to minimize evaporation losses and suppress weed control.

Seed rate: The seed rate for direct planting is 12-15kg/ha. But for transplanting, the normal seed rate
is between 5-8 kg. Recommended spacing is 40 cm between rows and 20 cm between plants. Onion
can also be directly sown to the field and latter thinned to a given spacing.
Transplanting:- the proposed vegetable crop has to planted in rows with the proposed depth and
spacing. The seedlings will be transplanted when it attains a height of 10 to 15cm to the main field.

29
Fertilizer: For optimum yield application of 150 -200kg DAP and 100-150kgurea per hectare is very
appropriate.

Weed Control: A minimum of two hand weeding are required

Disease: Purple bloch, dawney mildew and anthracnose are the major diseases of onion. Control
measures include crop rotation, plant hygiene and removal and burning of onion stubble after harvest.

Insect pasts: Onion trips are the major insect pest of the crop. Other pests include cut warms, onion
fly and armyworm. Endosulfan 35% E.C. at the rate of 1.5 lit/ha controls these pests.

Irrigation: Onion requires 350-550mm water during its growth period. It is sensitive to water stress
and the crop requires frequent, light irrigation, which are scheduled when about 25% of available
water in the first 30cm soil depth has been depleted by the crop. Irrigation applications of every 5-7
days are commonly practiced. The most common methods used are furrow and basin.
Recommended varieties: Adama red and Melkam

1. Haricot Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Introduction
Haricot Bean is a native crop to tropical South America. It was probably cultivated with Maize and it
seems likely that the crops evolved together in a cereal-legume farming system. The leading countries
in Haricot Bean production are Mexico, Brazil, USA, India and China.
Haricot Bean is an important source of protein and contains about 22 % of crude protein and its
amino acid composition is high in Lysine and Tryptophane. As a result, it is an important proteins
supplement in the diet of many tropical people when it is consumed with cereals as a staple food.
Haricot Bean is an important pulse crop in Ethiopia and it is widely grown in the hot areas
particularly in the rift valley regions of the country. It has got many uses which include:-
improvement of soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, cheap source of protein for humans,
high quality and protein rich livestock feed and an important precursor crop in rotation programme
with cereals in general.
General Growth Requirements.
Altitude
Haricot Bean is a warm season crop and its climatic requirements are the same as that of Maize.
Haricot Bean can be successfully grown from 900-2100 m.a.s.l.

30
Annual Rainfall
For proper growth and development Haricot Bean requires about 600 mm of rain provided that the
distribution is uniform through out the growing season. In general Haricot Bean is produced in areas
receiving annual rain fall ranging from 400-700 mm. In areas where the amount of rainfall is very
low, the crop should receive supplemental irrigation in order to ensure successful production. The
crop requires sufficient amount of soil moisture particularly during flowering and pod setting stages.
Water stress during these stages cause excessive shading of flowers and pods resulting in reduced
yield. Haricot Bean grows well and produce high yield under irrigated condition.
Temperature
o
Optimum growing temperature for Haricot Bean production is 24-25
for better performance Haricot Bean should be produced in areas with minimum risk of frost
occurrence.
Soil Condition
Haricot Bean can grow on a wide range of soil types. However, for better performance it requires
fertile, well drained light clay loam, sandy loam and alluvial soils with a PH range of 6.5-7.0.
Cultural Practices
Land Preparation
For maximum production Haricot Bean requires a fine and properly prepared seed bed. Poorly
prepared seed bed will adversely affect germination thereby resulting in reduced yield. In this case 2-
3 plowings/harrowing should be done using oxen drawn plough or tractors.
Planting Time
Planting time can vary from place to place. Under rain fed condition Haricot Bean can be planted
from the last week of May until the last week of June. Under irrigated condition planting can be
adjusted as required, however consideration should be made regarding time of frost occurrence and
availability of irrigation water.
Planting Method
Either row or broadcast planting method can be used to produce Haricot but for maximum production
row planting method is recommended. When Haricot Bean is planted in rows, depending upon the
growth habit of the varieties (Erect, Semi-erect and Trailing or climbing types) spacing of 60-75 cm
between rows and 5 cm between plants are recommended.
Planting Depth
Improper planting depth adversely affects germination and crop establishment. The recommended
planting depth for Haricot Bean is 3-5 cm. usually, 5 cm is considered to be optimum.

31
 Seed Rate
Seed rate can be influenced by different factors such as variety, seed size, seed health, germination
capacity planting method, moisture and fertility status of the soil, etc. For Haricot Bean 80-100 kg/ha
seed is recommended.
Fertilizer Application
Haricot Bean produce good yield when grown on fertile soils and it is important and preferable if soil
test based fertilizer application is adopted. However, in the absence of soil test based specific
fertilizer recommendations, use 50 kg/Ha DAP for moisture stress areas and 100 kg/Ha for high
rainfall areas in general.
Crop Protection
Weed Control
At an early stage, Haricot is very sensitive to heavy weed infestation. Two hand weddings are
recommended. The first 25-30 days after emergence, and the second 50-60 days after emergence. In
addition to hand weeding using clean and weed free seeds, proper seed bed preparation, inter row
cultivation can reduce weed problem.
Insect Control
Major insects on Haricot Bean include African boll worm, Leaf hoppers, Flower beetle, Aphids and
Bean weevil. If the infestation level is beyond the economic threshold level appropriate insecticides
should be used to control them.
To control African boll Worm and Flower Beetles use
 Endosulphan 35 % E.C.at the rate of 2.0lts/Ha mixed with 200-300 liters of water.
 Dimethoate 40 % E.C. at the rate of 1.0lts/Ha mixed with 200-300 liters of water.
To Control Aphids:-
 Thimethone 15 % ULV at the rate of 1.5 lt/Ha.
To Control Bean Weevil use:-
 Actelic 2 % powder at the rate of 40 gm for one quintal of seed.
Disease control
In humid areas the crop is attacked by many diseases most of which are not very severe in drier areas.
The major diseases on Haricot Bean include:-Anthracnose, common Bacterial Blight (CBB), Root
Rot and Rust.

Anthracnose is one of the most destructive Haricot Bean disease world wide. Sunken spots with pink
centers and darker borders appear on the pods. The disease is seed born and transmitted through
infected seeds. Therefore, it is important to use clean and disease free seed.Haricot Bean is also
attacked by several bacteria that cause foliar blight. Effective control measure is to use disease frees
32
seed and use resistant varieties. Root rot is caused by Fusarium oxsysporium. The pathogen persists
in the soil for a long time and only a long term rotation is effective to control it. Rust is a common
disease world wide. Reddish spores which turn in to dark brown colour later on are observed on the
leaves and stem. The best method to control the disease is to use resistant variety.
Harvesting and Threshing
Haricot Bean is physiologically mature and ready for harvest when the color of the leaves turn from
green to yellow and start dropping. Since shattering is a major problem, Haricot Bean should be
harvested at the right time and should not be left in the field to over mature. Dry weather condition is
required for harvesting and threshing. Once the harvested crop is properly dry it can be threshed on
clear threshing ground and safely stored when the moisture content of the seed drops to 10 % or
below.
PEPPER /Capsicum annum/
CROP DESCRIPTION AND ITS USE
Pepper is thought to originate from tropical America. Most of the peppers grown in most of the areas
belong to C. annum, but the small pungent peppers belong to C. frutescens. Hot pepper is extensively
being used and it is a very well known diet in Ethiopian dish. The crop has great economic
importance in the traditional dish in the form of fresh green pepper as vegetable and after full
maturity as a spice for food flavouring. Hot pepper with a high content of capsicin makes the fruit
very pungent. It is also used industrially in the dry state for production of colour oleorescon by a
solvent extraction process and used for export. Therefore, pepper is economically important crop both
for home consumption and for marketing and it is one of the most important crops for cash generating
to farmers.VARIETIES
Hot pepper varieties recommended are Bako local and Marako Fana. However, in the absence of
improved varieties, it is also possible to use local varieties that are widely adaptable and with
promising yield potential. The varietal characteristics of Bako local are; red with thin skin, highly
pungent and the size slightly less than Mareko Fana. It is short maturing variety as compared to
Mareko Fana. But the variety Mareko Fana characterized by deep red colour of the fruit, long fruit,
and thick skin and pungent as well. Due to thick skin this variety is, particularly suited for processing
plants of spices.

33
SOIL AND CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS
Soil
Light- textured fertile and well-drained soils with a high level of organic material and adequate
reserves of essential elements and adequate water-holding capacity are preferable. Good drainage is
important, since waterlogging is likely to cause leaf drop. Plants are slightly tolerant to acidic soils
but a pH of 5.5 to 7 is optimum.

Temperature
Pepper thrives best in climates with growing season temperatures in the range of 20 to 27 0 C during
the day and 15 to 20 0 C during the night. Lower night temperatures result in greater branching and
more flowers, while warmer night temperatures induce earlier flowering and this effect is more
pronounced as light intensity increases. Excessive hot weather may produce infertile pollen and
reduce fruit set. The optimum growing temperatures are, however, 21 to 29 0 C for the hot peppers
and 21 to 24 0 C for the sweet pepper.
Altitude and rainfall
Pepper is growing below 2200 m above sea level, but best suited altitude ranges between 1400 and
2000 m above sea level. The crop is extensively growing under rainfed conditions and high yields are
obtained with rainfall of 600 to 1250 mm, well distributed throughout the growing period. However,
the crop can also be grown successfully under irrigation, particularly of sweet pepper
COMMENDED IRRIGATION AGRONOMIC PRACTICES

Seedbed preparation and sowing

In addition to the recommended practices discussed under general consideration for vegetable
growing the following need to be undertaken under pepper: (1) Preparing the seedbed using mixed
soils in a ratio of 3:2:1 soil, manure and pure sand; (2) The total area required to raise seedlings
sufficient for 1 ha is 300 m2; (3) The distance between beds is 40- 50 cm; distance between rows on
the seedbed is 15 cm and the distance between plants when it is sown on seedbeds is from 2 to 4 cm;
(4) A total of 600 g of seeds/ha are required and a depth of 0.5- 1 cm should be maintained for
sowing.

34
 Land preparation

 The permanent field should be ploughed frequently and leveled, then make furrows or ridges
 by maintaining 75 cm distance between rows;
 Plant spacing is 75 cm between rows and 25 cm between plants;
 Irrigate the field a day before transplanting;
 The field must not be covered with the same crop or related species for the last 3- 4 years;
 Transplanting should be carried out in the morning hours or late in the afternoon hours;
 Apply irrigation water immediately after transplanting.

Time of planting

Under rainfed condition during the main rainy season it is necessary to plant pepper startingfrom mid
of April to first half of May. However, under irrigation condition it will be very importantto plan
planting of pepper by taking into consideration factors such as; season of high market demand,
harvesting period for the main season crops and frost free periods.

Transplanting
 Seedlings of 15 to 20 cm are transplanted in the field, this is coinciding with 25 to 35 days
 after sowing at nursery beds or 6- 7 weeks time /approximately 55- 60 days after sowing/;
 Prior to transplanting, seedlings need to be hardened;
 Seedlings are sometimes topped 10 days before transplanting to encourage branching.
Planting

Under rainfed condition the planting distance will be 60 cm between rows and 40 cm between plants.
Under irrigation condition, it is planted in double rows on flat-topped ridges. The distance between
rows will be 80 cm and 40 cm between plants. Double row spacing is 40 cm and the spacing between
double rows is 80 cm. Spacing within the row is 40 cm. Plant population estimate 180 per hectare is
about 42, 000 plants. Three to five years should elapse before planting pepper on the same field in
order to avoid the build up of insect pests and diseases and reduce their attack.

Weed control

Pepper is susceptible to weed competition, particularly at the early stages of growth. Therefore, the
field should be free of weeds. The first weeding will take place after 20 days of transplanting and the
second one after 40 days. It is also important to weed the field at least once just before flowering.

Fertilizer application

 Apply 100 kg/ha of DAP during land preparation;

 Split application of 100 kg/ha of Urea is recommended. The first will be applied after 20 days
 of transplanting and the second half at flowering and incorporate with the soil immediately;
 If the soil is so fertile, application of Urea may not be required;
 Irrigate the field after fertilizer application;
 Recommended to use decomposed compost or well rotted manure.
35

Water requirements

The total water requirements are 600 to 900 mm and even sometimes up to 1250 mm for long
growing varieties and for several pickings. For high yields, an adequate water supply and relatively
moist soils are required during the total growing period. Irrigation water supply shortage during the
growing period in general has an adverse effect on yield and the greatest reduction when there is a
continuous water shortage until the time of first picking. In particular, the period at the beginning of
flowering period is most sensitive to water shortage and soil water depletion in the root zone during
this period should not exceed 25 %. Water shortage just prior and during early flowering reduces the
number of fruits. The effect of water deficit on yield during this period is greater under conditions of
high temperature and low humidity.

Irrigation scheduling

Foe optimum yield levels the soil water depletion in most climates should not exceed 30 to 40 % of
the total available soil water. Due to low depletion level light irrigation applications are required.
Irrigation frequencies of 5 to 7 days interval are common, particularly in the early growth stages but
at latter growth stages it might extend up to 7 to 10 days interval. When there a water supply
shortage, irrigation should preferably be adequate up to the first picking and water savings may be
made thereafter. Controlled irrigation is essential for high yields because the crop is sensitive to both
over and under irrigation. Water deficit during yield formation period leads to shriveled and
malformed fruits. Pepper has a tap root system, which is broken at the time of transplanting and
profusely branched lateral root system subsequently develops. Root depth can extend up to 1.0 m but
under irrigation condition roots are mainly concentrated in the upper 0.3 m soil depth. Normally 100
% of the water uptake occurs in the first 0.5 to 1.0 m soil depth. Irrigation method
Pepper is grown under surface, sprinkler and drip irrigation methods. However, considering the
Ethiopian condition the commonly used and recommended method of irrigation for pepper is the
furrow method.

CROP PEST CONTROL

Disease control
Different plant diseases attack pepper. Bacterial leaf spot /Colletotrichum capsici/, phytophtora,
powdery mildew /Leveillula faurica/, bacterial wilt /Pseudomonal solanacearum/, anthracnose /
Colletotrichum nigrumi/ and mosaic virus are among the major diseases that attack pepper.
36
 Symptoms of powdery mildew: chlorotic blotches on the upper side of the leaf and powdery blotches
on the lower side. The recommended control measures are: (1) use disease free seeds for planting; (2)
use disease resistant varieties; (3) keep strictly a 4 year cycle of crop rotation with cereals, pulses and
fodder crops; not planting pepper after eggplant, tomato and potato on the same field within 2- 4
years time; (4) avoid host plants that serve for disease transmission; (5) roughout infested plants and
buried them; (6) avoid contamination and wounding of fruits; (7) for leaf spot or phytophtora spray
copper oxychloride 0.5 % 50g /ha mixed with 10 litre of water; (8) for controlling of powdery
mildew spray with kocide 0.2 % 20g mixed with 10 litres of water.

Insect pest control

Aphids, leaf miners, cutworms, fruitfly, false codling moth, Heliothis armigera and lesser armyworm
are among the major insect pests that attack pepper. Damage of fruit fly: Infected fruits often contain
several maggots, and usually rot and drop prematurely and substantial losses can be occurred. The
control methods are: eveloping maggots with the infested fruits can be collected and killed, as soon
as attacks are observed apply sprays of dimethoate, malathion, or trichlorophon, but during the
harvesting period use only malathion and/or trichlorophon.

Harvesting

 For using as fresh food it can be harvested when the fruit is fully developed and still green;
 For dry or hot pepper it is important to harvest fully matured and reddish pepper;
 Pepper as a fresh food is not possible to store for long time, therefore, recommended to use
 it immediately for home consumption or marketing;
 Fully matured and picked pepper can be kept in the field on well-prepared clean area for
 sometimes in order to dry it completely;
 Mareko Fana under improved production system it can yield up 15- 20 qt/ha;
 Bako Local under research condition- 20- 25 qt/ha and under farmers condition- 10 qt/ha, whereas in
the form of fresh product it can be obtained about 200 qt/ha.

Weed control
Pepper is susceptible to weed competition, particularly at the early stages of growth. Therefore, the
field should be free of weeds. The first weeding will take place after 20 days of transplanting and the
second one after 40 days. It is also important to weed the field at least once just before flowering.

Fertilizer application
 Apply 100 kg/ha of DAP during land preparation;
 Split application of 100 kg/ha of Urea is recommended.
 If the soil is so fertile, application of Urea may not be required;
37
 Irrigate the field after fertilizer application;
 Recommended to use decomposed compost or well rotted manure.
 The first will be applied after 20 days of transplanting and the second half at flowering and
incorporate with the soil immediately;

Water requirements
The total water requirements are 600 to 900 mm and even sometimes up to 1250 mm for long
growing varieties and for several pickings. For high yields, an adequate water supply and relatively
moist soils are required during the total growing period. Irrigation water supply shortage during the
growing period in general has an adverse effect on yield and the greatest reduction when there is a
continuous water shortage until the time of first picking. In particular, the period at the beginning of
flowering period is most sensitive to water shortage and soil water depletion in the root zone during
this period should not exceed 25 %. Water shortage just prior and during early flowering reduces the
number of fruits. The effect of water deficit on yield during this period is greater under conditions of
high temperature and low humidity. Irrigation scheduling

Foe optimum yield levels the soil water depletion in most climates should not exceed 30 to 40 % of
the total available soil water. Due to low depletion level light irrigation applications are required.
Irrigation frequencies of 5 to 7 days interval are common, particularly in the early growth stages but
at latter growth stages it might extend up to 7 to 10 days interval. When there a water supply
shortage, irrigation should preferably be adequate up to the first picking and water savings may be
made thereafter.

Controlled irrigation is essential for high yields because the crop is sensitive to both over and under
irrigation. Water deficit during yield formation period leads to shriveled and malformed fruits. Pepper
has a tap root system, which is broken at the time of transplanting and profusely branched lateral root
system subsequently develops. Root depth can extend up to 1.0 m but under irrigation condition roots
are mainly concentrated in the upper 0.3 m soil depth. Normally 100 % of the water uptake occurs in
the first 0.5 to 1.0 m soil depth.
Irrigation method
Pepper is grown under surface, sprinkler and drip irrigation methods. However, considering the
Ethiopian condition the commonly used and recommended method of irrigation for pepper is the
furrow method.
CROP PEST CONTROL
Disease control
38
 Different plant diseases attack pepper. Bacterial leaf spot /Colletotrichum capsici/, phytophtora,
powdery mildew /Leveillula faurica/, bacterial wilt /Pseudomonal solanacearum/, anthracnose
/Colletotrichum nigrumi/ and mosaic virus are among the major diseases that attack pepper.
Symptoms of powdery mildew: chlorotic blotches on the upper side of the leaf and powdery blotches
on the lower side.

The recommended control measures are: (1) use disease free seeds for planting; (2) use disease
resistant varieties; (3) keep strictly a 4 year cycle of crop rotation with cereals, pulses and fodder
crops; not planting pepper after eggplant, tomato and potato on the same field within 2- 4 years time;
(4) avoid host plants that serve for disease transmission; (5) rough out infested plants and buried
them; (6) avoid contamination and wounding of fruits; (7) for leaf spot or phytophtora spray copper
oxychloride 0.5 % 50g /ha mixed with 10 litre of water; (8) for controlling of powdery mildew spray
with kocide 0.2 % 20g mixed with 10 litres of water.

Insect pest control

Aphids, leaf miners, cutworms, fruitfly, false codling moth, Heliothis armigera and lesser armyworm
are among the major insect pests that attack pepper. Damage of fruit fly: Infected fruits often contain
several maggots, and usually rot and drop prematurely and substantial losses can be occurred. The
control methods are: Developing maggots with the infested fruits can be collected and killed, as soon
as attacks are observed apply sprays of dimethoate, malathion, or trichlorophon, but during the
harvesting period use only malathion and/or trichlorophon.

Harvesting

 For using as fresh food it can be harvested when the fruit is fully developed and still green;
 For dry or hot pepper it is important to harvest fully matured and reddish pepper;
 Pepper as a fresh food is not possible to store for long time, therefore, recommended to use it
immediately for home consumption or marketing;
 Fully matured and picked pepper can be kept in the field on well-prepared clean area for sometimes
in order to dry it completely;
 Mareko Fana under improved production system it can yield up 15- 20 qt/ha;
 Bako Local under research condition- 20- 25 qt/ha and under farmers condition- 10 qt/ha, whereas in
the form of fresh product it

39
Annex 2: Cropwat inputs data and outputs results

40
Table 1 : General soil data considered to calculate cropwat

Total available soil moisture (FC-WP) 290 mm/meter Remark

Maximum rain infiltration rate 40 mm/day Soil name medium

(loam)
Maximum rooting depth 900 centimeter

Initial soil moisture depletion (as % TA) 0%

Initial available soil moisture 290 mm/meter

Table 2: Crop water requirements for pepper

Month Decade Stage Kc ETc ETc Eff rain

Irr. Req.
coeff mm/day mm/dec mm/dec
mm/dec

Sep 1 Init 0.60 2.00 12.0 0.0

12.0
Sep 2 Init 0.60 2.02 20.2 0.0
20.2
Sep 3 Init 0.60 2.14 21.4 0.0
21.4
Oct 1 Deve 0.63 2.36 23.6 0.0
23.6
Oct 2 Deve 0.75 2.98 29.8 0.0
29.8
Oct 3 Deve 0.89 3.54 38.9 0.0
38.9
Nov 1 Mid 1.02 4.09 40.9 0.0
40.9
Nov 2 Mid 1.06 4.25 42.5 0.0
42.5
Nov 3 Mid 1.06 4.19 41.9 0.0
41.9
Dec 1 Mid 1.06 4.12 41.2 0.0
41.2
Dec 2 Late 1.06 4.05 40.5 0.0
40.5
Dec 3 Late 1.00 3.81 42.0 0.0
42.0
Jan 1 Late 0.93 3.55 24.8 0.0
24.8

419.8 0.0
419.8

41
 Table 3: Crop water requirements for haricot bean

Month Decade Stage Kc ETc ETc Eff rain

Irr. Req.
coeff mm/day mm/dec mm/dec
mm/dec

May 2 Init 0.40 1.60 1.6 0.0

1.6
May 3 Init 0.40 1.55 17.0 0.0
17.0
Jun 1 Deve 0.41 1.53 15.3 0.0
15.3
Jun 2 Deve 0.58 2.09 20.9 0.0
20.9
Jun 3 Deve 0.81 2.82 28.2 0.0
28.2
Jul 1 Mid 1.04 3.46 34.6 0.0
34.6
Jul 2 Mid 1.11 3.51 35.1 0.0
35.1
Jul 3 Mid 1.11 3.53 38.9 0.0
38.9
Aug 1 Mid 1.11 3.55 35.5 0.0
35.5
Aug 2 Late 1.08 3.50 35.0 0.0
35.0
Aug 3 Late 0.77 2.51 27.6 0.0
27.6
Sep 1 Late 0.44 1.48 8.9 0.0
8.9

298.6 0.0
298.6

42
Table 4: crop water requirements for maize

Month Decade Stage Kc ETc ETc Eff rain

Irr. Req.
coeff mm/day mm/dec mm/dec
mm/dec

Mar 1 Init 0.30 1.30 5.2 0.0

5.2
Mar 2 Init 0.30 1.33 13.3 0.0
13.3
Mar 3 Deve 0.33 1.47 16.1 0.0
16.1
Apr 1 Deve 0.56 2.45 24.5 0.0
24.5
Apr 2 Deve 0.81 3.51 35.1 0.0
35.1
Apr 3 Deve 1.07 4.48 44.8 0.0
44.8
May 1 Mid 1.18 4.83 48.3 0.0
48.3
May 2 Mid 1.18 4.71 47.1 0.0
47.1
May 3 Mid 1.18 4.56 50.2 0.0
50.2
Jun 1 Late 1.18 4.40 44.0 0.0
44.0
Jun 2 Late 1.00 3.61 36.1 0.0
36.1
Jun 3 Late 0.72 2.51 25.1 0.0
25.1
Jul 1 Late 0.46 1.53 13.8 0.0
13.8

403.7 0.0
403.7

43
Table 5: Crop water requirements for onion

Month Decade Stage Kc ETc ETc Eff rain

Irr. Req.
coeff mm/day mm/dec mm/dec
mm/dec

Sep 1 Init 0.70 2.33 2.3 0.0

2.3
Sep 2 Init 0.70 2.36 23.6 0.0
23.6
Sep 3 Deve 0.70 2.50 25.0 0.0
25.0
Oct 1 Deve 0.78 2.93 29.3 0.0
29.3
Oct 2 Deve 0.89 3.55 35.5 0.0
35.5
Oct 3 Mid 1.02 4.04 44.4 0.0
44.4
Nov 1 Mid 1.05 4.21 42.1 0.0
42.1
Nov 2 Mid 1.05 4.23 42.3 0.0
42.3
Nov 3 Late 1.05 4.15 41.5 0.0
41.5
Dec 1 Late 1.01 3.91 39.1 0.0
39.1
Dec 2 Late 0.97 3.70 11.1 0.0
11.1

336.3 0.0
336.3

44
Annex-3

13. Crop management

Intercropping
Intercropping is the crop production practice in which one crop is planted in the open areas of another
in the same piece of land to grow together. In the first 3-4 growth years’ period of mango and in the
first year of banana, intercropping of haricot bean with them is important for effective utilization of
space, time and the resources of sunshine, water, and soil nutrients. This in turn will increase the land
productivity and crop production per unit area.
Irrigation
The cost of water for irrigation is often high. Therefore, farmers in the area should use water more
efficiently to increase crop profitability. To maintain farm profitability, it is imperative that producers
need to increase water-use efficiency through proper farm water management. Water management
pertains to optimum and efficient use of water for best possible crop production keeping water losses
to the minimum. Serious water loss can occur unless it is properly monitored and controlled while
irrigating the fields. Irrigation water management involves the management of water allocation and
related inputs in irrigated crop production for enhanced economic returns.
Over and under irrigation should be avoided. Wastage of irrigation water in the field through furrows
must be avoided. Furrow irrigation method proposed to be applied for all crops in order to manage
and it is the appropriate method for the current development situation of the region. The length of
furrow varies mainly depending on soil type, and the slope of the specific farm, which determines the
slope of the furrow. In coarse soils, the length of furrow is shorter and longer in heavy soils. The
higher the field slope, the longer will be the furrow length. For efficient use of irrigation water, it is
better if the furrow length for this project is not more than 100 meters. Attention needs to be given for
irrigated crops at critical growing periods.
Proposed crop rotation
Shallow Crop rotation is the growing of multiple crops on the same piece of land, one after the other.
Here, different crops do not interact but separated temporally. Crops that can be attacked by the same
pest should not follow each other in order to avoid pest buildup. Moreover, crops that are heavy
feeder of nutrients should not follow each other. Deep-rooted crops need to be rotated with shallow
rooted crops to improve soil structure. For further specific information it is better to consult improved
agronomic practices suggested for individual crops.
Harvesting

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Appropriate time of harvesting is important and recommended for good result as it has implications
in its yield use, quality and storage. Delaying harvesting or harvesting prematurely often adversely
affects product quality. If the crop is left in the field for too long after maturity, it becomes
predisposed to pest attack and deterioration from the vagaries of the weather. Moreover, delayed
harvesting affect double cropping system since the first crop stays longer time in the field; the second
season crop will not have enough time to grow. Manual harvesting is proposed for crops proposed for
this irrigation project.

- 46 -
Annex-4

14. Post-Harvest technologies

Modern post harvesting technologies are recommended for all proposed irrigated crops for and the
next operations are product assembling, selection, packaging and transportation. At existing
condition post-harvest is not practiced at the irrigation project area and the following considerations
should be taken in account in planning of post-harvesting services;
 The function of packaging is to protect the product, enable efficient transportation and enhance its
market value by accommodating the products to markets' handling standards, improving the
display and appeal of the products, visually differentiating the products, etc.
 Selection and packaging operations can be made directly in the farm or in central installations,
communal or cooperative. Selection comprises elimination of unfit product, cleaning sorting – by
size, colour, etc.
Community, cooperative or union central facilities will be functional in three main areas:
collecting and/or assembling produce to facilitate economic transportation to further markets,
help farmers collect revenues and provide relevant information and market advice to the farmers.
Other activities that central facilities may perform are washing and cleaning, pre-cooling, quality
grading, packing, refrigerated storage, etc. Additional services may be the supply of production
inputs and packaging materials.

 Cold storage can help creating a regulative buffer in the supply areas and improving the
possibilities of leveling-off occasional production peaks or oversupply situations in the final
markets.
 Two levels of transportation can be distinguished: a) farmers have to deliver their products to a
collection point (cooperative or other first-buyer points), and b) trucks transport the produce to
terminal markets. At the farmer’s level the transportation requirements are donkeys, horses,
mules, driven carts, human driven carts and carrier motorcycles.
 As indicated above, post-harvest facilities and handling procedures should be adjusted to the final
outlets (wholesale and retail) systems. A more organized, formal and transparent wholesale setup
would definitely foster the development of post-harvest handling at the supply side of the food
chain.

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 Although not directly related with post-harvesting, small-scale processing units (at cottage or
community level) can process fruits (and to a lesser degree vegetables) so as to enable for their
preservation and use during year-round, and even selling it in the urban markets to generate
additional value.
 Planning of post-harvesting necessities is a complex task because it requires assessing how
products are going to be handled and by whom. Furthermore, as already indicated, the post-
harvesting system should be adjusted to the market structure and quality requirements.

Grading, Standardization and Packaging

Market infrastructure is poor and market operation is traditional in terms of grading and
standardizing quality. Norms and criteria in defining quality and setting prices is by brokers physical
observation, no measurement tools, or sorting and testing. There is no norm guiding buyers and
sellers in defining quality and grading, and there is no institution to set and enforce norms. Sorting is
done by buyers or their agents, and prices are set through negotiations that involve intermediaries,
buyers and sellers.
There is no quality and standards authority branch office at the project area and in order ensure
customer satisfaction and gain high market spheres it needs to undergo quality testing of the
agricultural product that mainly intended for export.
It is expected that the newly established Ethiopia Commodity Exchange (ECX) will promote the use
of quality standards among buyers and sellers, reduce transaction costs and reduce the long market
channels. It is therefore, recommended to expand its scope to the project area in the near future.

- 48 -
Annex-5

15. Farmers Research Groups (FRG) approach and Farmers’ Training Center (FTC)

FRG approach is a research approach by which a multi-disciplinary research team, extension

workers and groups of farmers jointly conduct research on selected topics based on farmers needs
on farmers’ field. Researchers facilitate the involvement of extension workers and farmer groups in
all the process of the research from planning through to implementation and from monitoring to
evaluation and sharing of outputs or results. The approach also involves other stakeholders when it is
necessary. FRG approach is one of the participatory research approaches for agricultural researchers
to actively and efficiently conduct research activities so that their contribution to improving farmers’
production and management activities, and reducing risks in their practices are realized. Irrigation
experts need to coordinate on farm FRG research activities and FTC demonstration trials on
familiarisations of improved technologies.

- 49 -
 Annex-6

16. Compost making aids include any or all of the following

Make a mixture of dry top soil, old compost and ashes. Then crush it and, if possible, sieve it
so it is like salt or a fine powder.
Mix the powder with fresh composting materials, particularly with dry or green plant
materials like grass and/or straw, and put this in layers between other materials.
Do NOT put the compost making aid material as a layer by itself. It needs to be mixed with
the other materials so it can accelerate the compost making process.
Ash is good as it contains minerals, BUT if you put a high quantity in one layer, the minerals
are strongly concentrated and can slow down or stop the microorganisms from making
compost. The production of good quality mature compost depends on the number and types of
micro- and macro-organisms living in the soil. These are living organisms that require air,
moisture and heat in the compost heap so that they can live, work and multiply/reproduce.

There are two main methods for preparing compost. The difference between the two methods is
in the way the materials are put together and in the time taken for completing the compost heap or
filling the pit. For our case only pit method is explained.

Preparing compost needs dedication

1. Decide when and what method to use to make the compost.
2. Look out and search for composting materials that can be collected and carried to the
compost-making place.
3. Find out who will provide the water, and how and decide if it is possible to collect and use
urine.
4. Be prepared to give time and effort, i.e. work hard, to prepare good quality compost.
5. Set a target for the area of farmland or garden to be covered by the mature compost.
6. Adding mature compost to a small field or even a small area in a field and then planting it
with a high value crop can show good economic returns in a year.
7. Collecting composting materials, layering or piling, and mixing are the main tasks during
compost making. These need physical and mental preparation to overcome the burden of hard
work, but it is only for a short time.
8. Seeing good crops grow well and getting good yields from well-composted soil is very
rewarding. In Ethiopia, particularly in the project area, and other places with warm to hot
climates, mature compost can be prepared in three to four months. In colder places,
decomposition to make mature compost can take from six months to a year.

- 50 -
 Pit Method
It is highly suitable where there is a shortage of both composting materials and water and it is
preferred for project site. This is because the pit holds moisture better than the heap, and the wind
cannot blow away the materials so easily in the dry season. However, inside house compounds,
the piling method is also convenient.
The main reasons for making pit compost in the dry season are as follows:

Selecting and preparing the site

1. It should be in a place that is easy to take the materials, including water and urine, to the pit as
well as for watching and follow-up.
2. The site should be protected from strong sunlight and wind. It can thus be, for example, in the
shade of a tree, or on the west or north side of a building or wall.
3. The pit should be marked or have a ring of stones or a fence of branches around it so that
people and animals do not fall into it.
4. The site should be protected and away from where floods can come.

Digging the pit

1. The minimum size of a pit should be:
1 metre deep (pits should NOT be deeper than 1 metre)
1–2 metres wide
1–2 metres long
2. If a farmer and his/her family, can collect more compost making materials, the pit can be
made longer, but NOT either wider or deeper.
3. If a pit is deeper than 1 meter, the material at the bottom does not get decomposed because
many of the micro-organisms cannot live so deep down as the oxygen will not reach them.
4. Before any materials are put into the pit, the sides and bottom should be checked to make sure
no water is leaking into the pit.
5. The bottom and sides should be plastered with a mixture of fresh animal dung and water, or
top soil and water, to seal the surface so that the moisture in the compost materials is kept in
the pit.

Filling the pit

The foundation layer

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1. Dry plant materials, e.g. strong straw, stalks of maize and sorghum or tall grasses, as well as
rose and hedge clippings from gardens, are used for the foundation. These need to be crushed
or chopped or broken into short lengths (about 10–15 cm). If possible, let the domestic
animals walk over them and sleep on them for one or two nights so the materials get broken
up and mixed with urine and dung.
2. Spread the materials evenly over the bottom of the pit to make a layer 15–25 cm thick. Then
sprinkle/scatter water evenly so that the materials are moist, but not wet.
3. This is a very important layer in making compost in a pit as it makes sure that air can
circulate to the bottom.
4. Cover the foundation layer with large leaves, e.g. those of pumpkin, banana, fig leaves etc.,
and/or plastic to keep the material moist.

Putting the other layers into the pit

1. Each week, collect materials and put them in a container such as an old jerry can or pile them
next to the compost pit. Mix the fresh moist materials with dry ones. These materials can
come from spoiled animal feed, old animal bedding, from cleaning the house and compound,
preparing vegetables for food, clearing paths, weeding, stems and leaves after harvesting
vegetables, damaged fruits and vegetables, etc.
2. If the farmer has a biogas digester, the bioslurry can be collected also to be mixed with the
other materials. The bioslurry is an excellent compost making aid.
3. At the end of a week, remove the large leaves or plastic covering the top of the foundation
layer so they can be used again, or leave the leaves to become part of the compost if they are
too damaged to be used again.
4. Make a mixture of compost making aids like good soil, manure and/or some ashes as a fine
powder. Mix these with the dry plant material, or with the mixture of dry and moist plant
material.
5. Add the prepared composting materials in layers. Each layer is 15–25 cm thick at the edge
and a bit thicker in the middle.
6. Cover each of the layers with a thin layer of soil and/or big leaves like those from banana or
pumpkin or fig trees so that the composting materials do not dry out.

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 7. Repeat this process each week, or whenever there are enough materials collected to make one
or two new layers, until the pit is full. Make the centre of the layers in the pit higher than the
sides so that the top has a dome shape. 8. Put ventilation and/or testing stick into the middle of
the pit.

Making the covering layer

The pit full of composting materials needs to be protected from drying out, and also from animals
disturbing it.
1. The covering layer should be made of mud plaster, with or without cow dung, with only the
ventilation stick coming out of the top. It is then covered with wide leaves of pumpkin,
banana, fig trees, etc. or plastic can also be used to protect the top of the pit. The leaves or
plastic: prevent rainwater from getting inside the pit; and help keep heat inside the pit.
2. The compost pit can be left untouched until there is mature compost inside it, or it can be
turned over and checked for the progress in decomposition. The top of the pit will sink down
as the compost materials get decomposed. However,
3. If the compost is turned over, it will lose moisture. So, it is best only to turn compost over if
there is enough water and/or urine to make it moist again while it is being turned over.
4. The process for turning over the compost from the pit is the same as that described for the
Indore pit method.
5. In a warm climate, mature compost can be made in three to four months. In colder climates,
decomposition can take six months or a year.
6. The mature compost can be left covered and stored in the pit until it is needed for adding to
the soil.

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 Turning over and making compost throughout the dry season

1. In warm climates, about one month after the pit has been filled the compost can be turned
over and checked.
2. In cold climates, the compost making materials take two or more months to start to
decompose well. The rate of decomposition can be checked through the use of the testing
stick.
3. A good farmer or gardener will soon learn how to judge the best time to turn over her or his
compost.
The compost which is ready for use is incorporated in the soil before 15 days of sowing or planting
and the nutrients in the compost is released and available for plant

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