Journal of Petroleum Geology, 10(2), pp. 177-194.

1987 177

RESERVOIR GEOLOGY OF THE CERRO NEGRO

STEAM INJECTION AREA, ORINOCO OIL BELT,
VENEZUELA

Antonio Santos C. and Luis Frontado*

Several very favourable areas were defined in the Orinoco Oil Belt, after intensive geological,
exploration and evaluation studies were conducted between 1970 and 1982.
The Cerro Negro project area was selected as the first to be investigated. Subsequently, a small
part of this area, covering 5.9 hectares (14 5 acres), and containing about 159,000 cu. m
(1MM**brl) STOIIP of 8 to 11°API, in the objective sand, was chosen in which to initiate the Cerro
Negro Steam Injection Project (PIVCN), which is now under development. The Early Miocene
Oficina Formation, whose sands constitute the reservoir rock, show a fluvial to deltaic sequence at
the base (Morichal Member), a transgressive sequence in the middle section (Yabo-Jobo Member),
and finally a closing prograding sequence (Pilón Member) at the top. Qualitative analyses of the
sedimentary section indicate optimum textural, mineralogical and depositional conditions which
determined the final configuration of a sequence with excellent reservoir porosity and permeability.
The distributary channel facies show the best petrophysical parameters † ( 35%, So: 30%, Sw,
5%, Vsh, 6%, K: 50, 000 md). These values yield an oil content of 2,300 STB /acre-ft. in the objective
sand, namely unit 0-15 of the Morichal Member. Oil entrapment is primarily stratigraphic, and no
oil/water contacts or gas caps have been found in the PIVCN project or in the whole of the much
larger Cerro Negro area.

INTRODUCTION

The Cerro Negro project area is located 26 kms south of the Morichal oilfield, in the State of
Monagas, Venezuela; it is a small region within the 7,000 sq.km block assigned for evaluation to
Lagoven in the Orinoco Oil Belt (Fig. 1).

STRATIGRAPHY

The Cerro Negro project area exhibits a stratigraphic sequence which ranges in age from
PreCambrian (Guayana Basement Complex) to Recent (Las Piedras-Mesa Formations). The Oficina
Formation, of Early Miocene age, is economically the most important formation in the Eastern
Venezuela Basin, and also the primary objective of this study. The Oficina Formation has been
divided into 15 stratigraphic units as follows: the Morichal Member—units 0-16 to 0-12; the Yabo-
Jobo members—units 0-11 b to 0-7ab; the Pilón Member—units 0-6 to 0-4. Younger formations
overlying the Oficina, namely the Freites, Las Piedras and Mesa Fms. which contain oil in minor
volumes are not discussed in this study (Fig.2).
* Lagoven, S.A. (Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A.), Apartado 889, Caracas 1010A, Venezuela.
** MM brl: million (10 6) barrels; B:billion (10 9). porosity;
† : : porosity; So:oil saturation; Sw: water saturation; Vsh: shaliness; K: permeability.
178 Cerro Negro Area, Orinoco Oil Belt

SEDIMENTATION AND FACIES

Lithological, sedimentological and paleontological characteristics suggest a depositional model as

follows: an initial predominantly fluvial sequence in the lower half of the section (the Morichal
Member), is followed by an alternating regressive-transgressive sequence of more deltaic character
(Yabo-Jobo Member), and finally by a closing prograding cycle from an upper coastal or deltaic
plain, postulated for the Pilón Member. At the end of Oficina sedimentation, marine transgressive
shales appear at the beginning of the Freites Formation marine cycle (Figs. 3 and 4).

The Morichal Member

The sedimentary sequence between units 0-16 and 0-12 was deposited directly over the basement
complex in this area: the Morichal Member is about 120-m thick, and is characterized by a massive
interval of unconsolidated oil sands of the fluvial channel type, with a few layers of finer sediments,
such as siltstones, claystones and shales derived probably from levée, overbank or back-swamp
facies. Elsewhere, detailed analyses on Well PCN-7 and 11 cores confirm that the Morichal Member
has the most attractive facies in terms of reservoir quality prospects, showing a mean porosity of
32%; mean (core) permeability of 5,616 md; φSo of 30%; Sw of 10%; Vsh of 6%; and grain size of
2.16 Mφ (0.225 mm) for medium fine-grained sand, while sorting is moderate to good, with a mean
of 0.65φ. Units 0-16 to 0-12 of the Morichal Member show some vertical communication, due to the
lack of a persistent lithological seal throughout the project area. Fig. 5 illustrates structural and
petrophysical parameters for the 0-15 unit, which is representative of this member.

The Yabo-Jobo Member

The sedimentary sequence between units 0-11b and 0-7ab, deposited above the Morichal Member,
is about 90-m thick, and is characterized by lenticular unconsolidated oil-sands of channel and bar.
types. They were deposited in a fluvio-deltaic environment. The finer-grained sediments (low energy)
belong to levée, tidal, overbank splay and swamp conditions (Robertson Research, 1981). Detailed
core analyses of this interval indicate a decrease in reservoir quality due to the normal porosity-
permeability reduction associated with finer-grained interdistributary and transgressive deposits.
However, the lenticular channels (coarser facies) show a remarkable improvement in the
0-7ab, 0-11a and 0-11b units respectively. The overall section is composed mainly of sand, siltstone
and shale layers, interbedded with carbonaceous and calcareous shales and silts, which exhibit
extensive bioturbation and contain fossil fragments. The coarser sediments in the member show a
variable grain size, with a mean phi-value of 2.37 (0.165 mm); good to poor sorting, with a mean of
0.37φ; porosity—32%; permeability— 3,597 md (from cores); φSo—30%; Sw— 12%; and V sh—15%.
If the above values are compared with those of the fine-grained facies, one observes general decreases
in porosity (to 12%), permeability (to 1,500 md), and φSo (to 20%); while other values, such as
Sw (37%) and Vsh(35%) are increased. Most of the units from the Yabo-Jobo member are vertically
sealed due to the presence of persistent shaly intervals. Structural and petrophysical parameters for
the 0-7ab unit are illustrated in Fig. 6; this unit is representative of the best sand units of the member.

The Pilón Member

The sedimentary sequence between units 0-6 and 0-4, which overlie the Yabo-Jobo Member, is
about 50-m thick, and is characterized by lenticular unconsolidated oil-sand bodies
interbedded with minor calcareo us sand, siltstone, and sandy shales, locally carbonaceous. This
interval is interpreted as a single progradational sequence, composed mainly of channels, stream-
mouth bars, tidal flats or similar facies. Detailed core analyses indicate an improvement
180 Cerro Negro Area, Orinoco Oil Belt

in the reservoir quality compared to the Yabo-Jobo Member. The coarser fraction deposits exhibit the
best petrophysical values, for example: porosity—24-30%; permeability—6,315 md; ØSo—20-25%;
Sw—20-25%; Vsh—15-20%, grain size from fine to very fine—2.9 MØ (0.134mm); and good to
moderate sorting (mean of 0.72Ø). The reservoir quality of the finer grained deposits decreases
towards the top of the member due to a deterioration of sorting, plus an increase of the calcareous and
fine matrix contents which may have originated from the reworking of the sediments near the delta
front, prior to deposition of the marine transgressive Freites Formation. This interval also shows
bioturbation and abundant shallow-marine fossil fragments. Vertical stratigraphic sealing between
units is restricted only to the centre of the project area. Fig. 7 illustrates structural and petrophysical
maps for the 0-5 unit, which is representative of the best quality sand.
 A. Santos and L. Frontado 185

STRUCTURE AND TRAPS

The structural configuration of the PIVCN area is generally interpreted as a monocline, striking
east-west and dipping 3-4° north. There is no apparent faulting or local folding in the Oficina
Formation section which might be responsible for oil entrapment.
In the oil belt and the project area, most of the oil traps result from lateral facies changes, caused
by sudden variations of the petrophysical parameters, and also by wedging-out of the fluvial sand fills
against the basement paleotopography. No oil/water contacts or gas caps have been found in the area.

PETROPHYSICS

The evaluation methodology was performed using a computer program assemblage called ZEUS
(Fig. 8). The program is supplied primarily with input data from logs and cores and with
petrophysical parameters (m, n, a, Rw, φ, K, etc. — see below). Three subprograms (SANDAN,
ZEUS and CPIP) are responsible for the log zoning process, and separate sands and shales for each
well. The program also evaluates each unit with respect to given petrophysical parameters, and
generates a data file. The RESUM subprogram is then run, providing correlation data and graphs for
petrophysical control, including Rt versus φ, Rt versus φSo, Rt versus Sw, φ versus K, Rt versus FP (weighing factor),
φSo versus Sw, and Rt versus Vsh. Data are then used to feed the NEWSAND program which, in turn, gives the final
evaluation for each unit or interval of the project area, such as: ANP (oil-sand); ANPP (oil-sand corrected for
shaliness effect); φ (porosity); φSo (oil saturation); S w (water saturation); K (permeability); and
Vsh (shaliness). Each of these parameters can be mapped either by the computer program (SACM) or
manually, depending on the interpretation requirements.
Some of the parameters input to ZEUS were: formation water salinity (S) = 7,000 ppm NaCl;
formation water resistivity (R w) = 0.74 at 75°F; cementation exponent (m) = 1.80; tortuosity
(a) = 0.62; saturation exponent (n) = 2.00; and grain density (Dg) = 2.65 gm/cu. cms (Santos and
Frontado 1985; León, 1983).
As a result of using this methodology, the following petrophysical parameters were obtained for
the fluvial sands of the Morichal Member (units 0-12 to 0-16): porosity (φ) = 35%; oil saturation
(φ S o ) = 32.2%; and irreducible water saturation (S w i r r) = 7%. All these values apply to
the best quality sands of a reservoir which exhibits an Rt of over 200 Ohm.m2/m, read from Dual
Laterolog.

Shaliness (Vsh)
Shaliness determinations for steam injection projects are extremely important, because shaliness
has a significant influence on the character of the rock reservoir due to the intimate relationship
between clay minerals and formation water. Shaliness can thus affect primary reservoir properties
such as porosity, water saturation and permeability.
In the Cerro Negro steam project area the shaliness, from petrophysical analysis of the Morichal
Member, averages 5 .5 8%. For the Jobo and Pilón Members, the average shaliness is 18.53% (Fig. 9)
(Robertson Research, 1981).
Fluvio-deltaic channels (CD) and tidal channels (CM), common in the upper Oficina Formation
(Jobo-Pilón), exhibit the lowest shaliness (Vsh: 9-9.5%), whereas the flood plain and interdistributary
deposits (LL) show high values of Vsh (30-40%). The optimum values are present, as expected, in the
fluvial channels and fills of the Morichal Member (CD), (Vsh: 3.7-6.1%) (INTEVEP, 1981) (Fig. 10).
Clay minerals in the PIVCN area have been identified and quantified from samples taken from
cores (Wells PCN-11 and 7). X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopic and cation exchange
capacity analyses were run in previously selected intervals. The most important clay minerals present
are kaolinite (90%), illite (5%), and smectite and chlorite (1-2%).
186 Cerro Negro Area, Orinoco Oil Belt

The analyses of the project objective sands have shown that high shaliness conditions, which
might endanger the steam project as it is planned, do not exist (Santos and Frontado, 1985).

Permeability (K) and Porosity (Ø)

The coring of an unconsolidated sand and its laboratory analysis are difficult tasks. However,
some of these problems are minimized by current petrophysical and computer techniques, and results
may be theoretically checked and verified. Laboratory test reports show that cores from Wells PCN-7,
11 and CI-74 have high porosity and permeability values. Porosities range from 19% to 38%, with a
mean of 32%. Permeabilities range from 80.5 to 17,760 md, with a mean of 4,499 md.
Log interpretations show larger porosity values up to 48%. Frequency histograms for 139 samples
tested show an unimodal porosity plot that approaches a normal distribution. However, the
permeability histograms show a log-normal distribution, and these values tend to be concentrated in
the 500—4,000 md range (Fig. 11) (INTEVEP, 1981; Leon, 1983).
McGee (1981) determined permeability by several methods, based on pressure build-up and fall-
off. Among the methods employed, the most reliable was Horner’s, and this was applied to 13 wells
located in and around the project area, for the objective sand units lying below 700 m (2,300 ft).
Values obtained range from 23,000 md to 64,300 md (Fig. 12).
 A. Santos and L. Frontado 187

Finally, analytical and laboratory methods have demonstrated that further discussion of porosity-
permeability parameters is irrelevant, due to the high values encountered everywhere in the Belt
(Leon; 1983; Santos and Frontado, 1985).

Transmissibility and mobility

The parameter of transmissibility (McGee, 1985) is very closely related to the permeability and
porosity of the reservoir rock—fluid system. Therefore, the relationship among these factors in the
Cerro Negro project area and those in the nearby heavy-oil fields is necessary for a dimensional
approach (McGee, 1981).

K (Permeability X (h) (Thickness)

Transmissibility (T) = ____________________________
µ (crude viscosity)
For the Cerro Negro Area: K = 50,000 md, h = 35 feet, µ = 5,500 cp;
T= 318
For the Morichal field: K = 500 md, h = 35 feet, µ = 500 cp;
T = 35

The above results indicate that Cerro Negro heavy crude has a transmissibility nine times higher
than the Morichal field’s lower-density crude, which has been in production for 30 years.
 A. Santos and L. Frontado 189

The mobility (Sxo—Sw)/(1-Sw), calculated from log interpretations, and without core data
calibration has values between 5% and 30% in the invaded zone or sand-face (León, 1983).

THE CERRO NEGRO STEAM INJECTION PROJECT

The Cerro Negro project (PIVCN) consists of an inverted seven-spot pattern with a well-spacing
of 100 m. In addition, three observation wells (PCN-6, 7 and 8) were drilled midway between the
central injector and the peripheral producing wells. Two steam generator feedwater source wells and
one produced water disposal well were also drilled in the vicinity of the pilot project and completed in
the Las Piedras Formation (Fig. 13).
The project is located in the SW corner of the Morichal-20 reservoir, which contains 2 B cu.m
(12 B brl STOIP). The seven pattern wells were completed with inside gravel packs in a 35-ft thick
lens of the 0-15 sand-body of the Morichal Member. The objective interval in the project area
contains about 160,000 cu.m (1 MM brl STOIP) inside a theoretical drainage radius of 150 m around
well PCN-1.
All seven wells were cold-produced from 1982 until 1984, when they received their first steam
stimulation cycle of about 100,000 cu.m (15,000 brl) of steam (CWE) each. The response to the
steam stimulation was considered very satisfactory. By end-May 1986, the project had produced
about 630,000 brl of 8.5° API oil, of which 2,500 cu.m (159,000 brl) was estimated to be incremental
production above the extrapolated cold-produced rates. The very low pressure decline measured at the
observation wells and the high accumulated production in relation to the oil in-place, indicates that
substantial oil migration into the project area was taking place.
190 Cerro Negro Area, Orinoco Oil Belt

GEOLOGY APPLIED TO THE STEAM PROJECT

Sands in the project area are mostly immature, and are composed chiefly of quartz, feldspars,
chert, mica and accessory minerals. The matrix content is constituted by 10-20% microporous clay
and organic material. Cement and diagenetic effects are low or nonexistent. Authigenic minerals,
such as calcite cement, is present in some layers of the Jobo-Pilon Member, plus pyrite and clay
minerals such as kaolinite, illite and smectite. Authigenic clay minerals, identified in thin section and
by XRD and SEM appear as grain coatings and pore linings. Kaolinite is present in most sands, silts
and shales. Illite-chlorite occurs in most sands and shales, concentrated as fibrous masses at the pore
throats. Smectite occurs above (in the Jobo-Pilon Members), as an expandable clay mineral. The
compositional trend of the clay minerals indicates a strong marine influence towards to the top of the
Oficina Formation. The pore system, examined in thin section and by SEM, shows macroporosity,
microporosity, intragranular porosity, intergranular porosity and secondary porosity.
Some of the problems which may arise and need to be understood during steam injection are:
(a) the clay mineral effect on the reservoir rock; (b) the dissolution, precipitation and/or
transportation-deposition of fine particles derived from the formation and/or gravelpack; and (c) high
water production due to local or regional aquifers associated with the basement unconformity.

Clay mineral effects

The most important factor to be considered is that while the clays in the reservoir are stable, they
may react to changes in the dissolved ionic content of the water, caused by steam, additives, etc.
(Moore, 1960). The flow capacity of the reservoir sands containing clays will therefore depend on the
type and quantity of clay present in the rock, and of the water in contract with it. Von Engelhard and
Tunn (1955) plotted the reduction in permeability due to the clay mineral effect. In the PIVCN,
according to the PCN-11 and PCN- 7 analyses (XRD, SEM, CEC) the types of clays and their
percentage and mode of occurrence within the porous framework do not support the possibility of
damage to the reservoir rock (Figs. 14 and 15).
192 Cerro Negro Area, Orinoco Oil Belt

Fine particles
Granulometry measurements of fine-grained particles from the Morichal Member show a grain-
size below 1/16 mm. These represent 5—30% of the total rock volume. Quartz is the main constituent
(75-96%), with feldspars (8-18%) and kaolinite (4-8%). Data from the core of Well PCN-11 show
very similar values (Fig. 16). These fine particles could easily be drawn out of the formation by the
steam production current flow, and then accumulate in the well pumping systems. The dissolution of
quartz and other minerals due to high temperatures and increased flow during steam injection might
also contribute to the mobility of fine particles (Fig. 17) (Reed, 1980).
The migration of fine particles and clay-sized minerals through the porous medium will probably
clog and/or drastically reduce the permeability of the sand body (Hower, 1974). The short production
history of the Cerro Negro project makes it difficult to predict the ideal conditions needed to keep fine
particles immobile during injection and production.

High water production

The water cut in the Cerro Negro project area behaved as expected (3-33%), both before and after
steam injection. Determinations of the source and origin of water is very important if high water
production is maintained for a long period of time, because of the proximity of the basement
unconformity, which is believed to have low-salinity (or almost fresh) water circulating on its surface.
Morris et al. (1959) pointed out that brines produced simultaneously with oil from the reservoir will
cause little or no damage to permeability, because the clay is in equilibrium with the solution.
However, reduction of permeability will occur if the electrolyte contents of the clay and water are not
compatible. The sands are least permeable to fresh water, and most permeable to brines (Johnston,
1955) (Fig. 18).
 A. Santos and L. Frontado 193

CONCLUSION

Detailed analyses of cores and well-log interpretations indicate the excellent reservoir quality of
the objective sands in the Cerro Negro project (Morichal Member). Texture and mineralogy do not
negatively influence the porosity, permeability and other reservoir characteristics. Fluvio-deltaic
channels are the most attractive facies in terms of reservoir quality, and may yield up to 366 cu.m/d
(2,300 brl STOIP per day).
REFERENCES

HOWER, F.W., 1974. Influence of Clays on the Production of Hydrocarbons. AIME. SPE 4785, pp, 165-172.
INTEVEP, S.A., 1978. Faja Petrolifera del Orinoco. Estudio Sedimentologico de Nucleos Pozo
PCN-7. Intevep. S.A. (Unpublished).
JOHNSTON, N. 1955. Role of Clays in the Oil Reservoir. State of California. Dept. of Natural
Resources. Bull. 169, 306-313.
LEON, H., 1983. Importancia de las Facies Sedimentarias en la Correlación de Petrofisica de Nucleos
contra Perfiles. Trabajo presentado en ARPEL. Buenos Aires, Argentina, Lagoven, S.A. Caracas.
MCGEE, J., 1981. Proyecto Piloto de Inyección de Vapor Cerro Negro (FPO). Simulación
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___________, 1985. Pruebas de Presión para la Caracterización de Yacimientos Candidatos a
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Crudos. Maracaibo.
MOORE, J.E., 1960. Clay Mineralogy Problems in Oil Recovery. Petroleum Engineer, February
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__________, 1960. How to Combat Swelling Clays. Petroleum Engineer, March, B78-B101.
MORRIS, F.C., et al., 1959. Clay in petroleum reservoir rocks. Bureau of Mines, Rept. of Inv. 5425.
REED, M.G., 1980. Gravel pack and Formation Sandstone Dissolution During Steam Injection.
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194 Cerro Negro Area, Orinoco Oil Belt

ROBERTSON RESEARCH, INC. AND INTEVEP, S.A., 1981. Detailed Study of the Lagoven PCN-II Core,
Faja del Orinoco, Venezuela. Report 310. Houston, Texas, 83 p. (Unpublished).
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Negro, Faja Petrolifera del Orinoco. I and II. Informe LGC-X-84-03, LAGOVEN, S.A. (Unpublished).
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Witherspoon). Illinois Geol. Survey Circ. 194.