Defence Standard 00-970 Part 1 Section 4: Issue 14 Date: 13 Jul 2015

Defence Standard 00-970 Part 1
Section 4
Issue 14 Date: 13 Jul 2015
_______________________________________
Design and Airworthiness Requirements
for Service Aircraft
Part 1: Fixed Wing
Section 4: Design and Construction

_______________________________________
DEF STAN 00-970 PART 1/14
SECTION 4
REVISION NOTE
This standard is raised to Issue 14 to update its content.
HISTORICAL RECORD
This standard supersedes the following:
Defence Standard (Def Stan) 00-970 Part 1 Section 4 Issue 13 dated 20 Jan 2015
Design and Airworthiness Requirements for Service Aircraft
Defence Standard (Def Stan) 00-970 Part 1 Section 4 Issue 12 dated 10 Jan 2014
Defence Standard (Def Stan) 00-970 Part 1 Section 4 Issue 11 dated 05 July 2013
Defence Standard (Def Stan) 00-970 Part 1 Section 4 Issue 10 dated 07 January 2013
Defence Standard (Def Stan) 00-970 Part 1 Section 4 Issue 9 dated 06 July 2012
Defence Standard (Def Stan) 00-970 Part 1 Section 4 Issue 8 dated 31 October 2011
Defence Standard (Def Stan) 00-970 Part 1 Section 4 Issue 7 dated 31 January 2011
Defence Standard (Def Stan) 00-970 Part 1 Section 4 Issue 6 dated 05 February 2010
Defence Standard (Def Stan) 00-970 Part 1 Issue 5 dated January 2007
Defence Standard (Def Stan) 00-970 Part 1 Issue 4 dated January 2006
Defence Standard (Def Stan) 00-970 Issue 3 dated October 2003
Defence Standard (Def Stan) 00-970 Issue 2 dated 01 December 1999
Defence Standard (Def Stan) 00-970 Issue 1 dated 12 December 1983
Aviation Publication (AvP) 970 dated 1959

Design Requirements for Service Aircraft
Air Publication (AP) 970 2nd Edition dated 1924

Handbook of Strength Calculations
Handbook (HB) 806 1st Edition dated 1918

Handbook of Strength Calculations
2
SECTION 4
CONTENTS
Description Page No
Preface 5
SECTION 4 - DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

4.0 Introduction 6
4.1 General Detail Design 8
4.2 Marking of Aeroplane Parts 18
4.3 Protection of Structure 29
4.4 Accessibility, Maintenance and Servicing 65
4.5 Material Strength Properties and Values 88
4.6 Processes and Working of Materials 95
4.7 Castings 102
4.8 Aero-Elasticity, Flutter and Vibration 106
4.9 Birdstrike Damage 110
4.10 Control Systems 116
4.11 Design of Undercarriages 125
4.12 Wheels, Tyres and Brakes 158
4.13 Operation from Rough Ground/Ground Clearance 173
4.14 Nose Wheel Steering 177
4.15 Crew Stations - General Requirements 181
4.16 Pilot’s Station - Layout 203
4.17 View and Clear Vision 209
4.18 Optically Transparent Components 217
4.19 Cockpit Controls 231
4.20 Doors 249
4.21 Seats, berths, safety belts and harnesses 254
4.22 Crash Landing & Ditching 259
4.23 Emergency Provisions 276
4.24 Ventilation & Heating 290
4.25 Pressurised Air Ducts 308
4.26 Fire Precautions 311
4.27 Electrical Bonding 343
Tables 354
Figures 410
SUPPLEMENTS
Leaflets 0 to 97 428
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SECTION 4
DESIGN AND AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR SERVICE AIRCRAFT
PART 1 – FIXED WING

SECTION 4 – DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
PREFACE
(a) This Part of the Defence Standard provides requirements for Airworthiness and Design
Certification for the design, development and testing of Fixed Wing Aircraft for UK Military
operation. The requirements stated herein shall be applied by the Ministry of Defence (MOD)
and the contractor as agreed and defined in the contract.
(b) This document has been produced on behalf of the Military Aviation Authority Executive
Board (MEB) by the Military Aviation Authority (MAA), MAA Technical Group, MOD Abbey
Wood.
(c) The appropriate Parts of this document are to be used, when called up in the Contract,
for all future designs, and whenever practicable for amendments to existing designs. If any
difficulty arises which prevents application of this document, DSA-MAA-Cert-ADS1 shall be
informed so that a remedy may be sought: e-mail: DSA-MAA-Cert-ADSGroup@mod.uk
(d) Where the requirements of other Standards are considered applicable, the relevant
chapters and/or clauses are cross-referenced by this Part of the Defence Standard.
(e) Any enquiries regarding this document in relation to an invitation to tender or a contract
in which it is incorporated are to be addressed to the relevant MOD Project Team Leader
(PTL) named in the invitation to tender or contract.
(f) Please address any enquiries regarding this standard, whether in relation to an
invitation to tender or to a contract in which it is incorporated, to the responsible technical or
supervising authority named in the invitation to tender or contract.
(g) Compliance with this Defence Standard shall not in itself relieve any person from any
legal obligations imposed upon them. Project Leaders are to ensure that equipment procured
from outside of the European Union (EU) meets or exceeds those legal requirements
mandated within the EU (See MAA 01 Chapter 1 and the RA1000 Series).
(h) This standard has been devised solely for the use of the Ministry of Defence (MOD)
and its contractors in the execution of contracts for the MOD. To the extent permitted by law,
the MOD hereby excludes all liability whatsoever and howsoever arising (including, but
without limitation, liability resulting from negligence) for any loss or damage however caused
when the standard is used for any other purpose.
WARNING
(i) The Ministry of Defence (MOD), like its contractors, is subject to both United Kingdom
and European laws regarding Health and Safety at Work. Many Defence Standards set out
processes and procedures that could be injurious to health if adequate precautions are not
taken. Adherence to those processes and procedures in no way absolves users from
complying with legal requirements relating to Health and Safety at Work.
Note: Where a design to the requirements of this document may result in an adverse
environmental impact the MOD PTL shall be advised.
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SECTION 4
SECTION 4 - DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
4.0 INTRODUCTION
4.0.1 This section specifies the requirements covering the design and construction of the aircraft. These requirements should be implemented with the
aim that no design features or details of the aircraft should be known to be hazardous or unreliable and that areas of doubt concerning design details and
parts should be confirmed by test and analysis.
4.0.2 Requirements are provided to cover the following aspects:
4.1 General Detail Design

4.2 Marking of Aeroplane Parts
4.3 Protection of Structure
4.4 Accessibility, Maintenance and Servicing
4.5 Material Strength Properties and Values
4.6 Processes and Working of Materials
4.7 Castings
4.8 Aero-Elasticity, Flutter and Vibration
4.9 Birdstrike Damage
4.10 Control Systems
4.11 Design of Undercarriages
4.12 Wheels, Tyres and Brakes
4.13 Operation from Rough Ground/Ground Clearance
4.14 Nose Wheel Steering
4.15 Crew Stations - General Requirements
4.16 Pilot’s Station – Layout
4.17 View and Clear Vision
4.18 Optically Transparent Components
4.19 Cockpit Controls
4.20 Doors
4.21 Seats, berths, safety belts and harnesses
4.22 Crash Landing & Ditching
4.23 Emergency Provisions
4.24 Ventilation & Heating
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SECTION 4
4.25 Pressurised Air Ducts

4.26 Fire Precautions
4.27 Electrical Bonding
4.0.3 This section is intended to provide information similar to that contained in CS 25 Section D.
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SECTION 4
4.1 GENERAL DETAIL DESIGN
4.1.1 This information is similar to CS 25.601 – 25.607
REQUIREMENT COMPLIANCE GUIDANCE

GENERAL
4.1.2 In the detailed design of the The design of parts and fittings shall be such as
aeroplane the variety of materials and parts shall to facilitate their manufacture in quantity.
be kept to a minimum consistent with structural
efficiency and without unduly sacrificing structure
weight.
4.1.3 Components and items of
equipment shall have at least the same factor as
the main structure in all the appropriate stressing
cases. Local loads at parts of attachment to the
main structure shall be carefully considered to
ensure that the main structure is not unduly
weakened thereby.
GRADING OF PARTS AND ASSEMBLIES
INTRODUCTION
4.1.4 In order to ensure that the material The grading requirements apply whether the The term "parts" relates to all parts of the
and processes used in the manufacture of a part part is designed to Damage Tolerance aeroplane except missiles (Def Stan 07-85);
are of suitable quality and that the part is Requirements or not. engines (Def Stan 00-970 Part 11) and propellers
satisfactory, quality control and testing, must be (Spec DERD 2006)(Obsolescent). The grading
appropriate to the design requirements and the requirements also apply to the structural and
application of the part. To this end all parts, except mechanical parts of all systems and equipment in
standard parts as defined in Clauses 4.1.10 to the aeroplane.
4.1.12 shall be designated Grade A or Grade B,
taking cognizance of strength and stiffness
requirements as promulgated in this publication,
quality requirements, maintainability and inspect
ability requirements, and also such factors as
failure by leakage, malfunction, or other defect.
4.1.5 Standard Parts shall not be graded
but shall be selected according to the grade of their
application.
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SECTION 4

GRADING REQUIREMENTS
4.1.6 Grade A - A part shall be Grade A if Advice on the interpretation of these definitions
the deformation or failure of the part would result in and requirements is given in Leaflet 1.
one or more of the following:
(a) structural collapse at loads up to

and including, the design ultimate load,
(b) loss of control,
(c) failure of motive power,
(d) unintentional operation of, or

inability to operate, any systems or
equipment essential to the safety or
operational function of the aeroplane,
(e) incapacitating injury to any

occupant,
(f) unacceptable unserviceability or

maintainability.
4.1.7 Grade B. - A part may be Grade B at
the designers’ discretion if none of the provisions
of Clause 4.1.6 apply.
DRAWINGS AND QUALITY CONTROL
4.1.8 All drawings shall state the quality
control requirements applicable to the grade of the
part or assembly and the reference number of the
specification or design designation of the material
or process.
4.1.9 Where parts, or designated areas of
parts irrespective of their grade, require quality
control in addition to visual and dimensional
examination (e.g. non-destructive tests) the
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SECTION 4

additional inspection requirements shall be detailed
or referenced on the drawing.
STANDARD PARTS
4.1.10 The requirements of the appropriate Where these requirements standardize a given
Defence Standards and other Standards shall be item, no other items shall be used to perform
applied (see MAA Regulatory Publication RA 5203 functions for which this standard item is
for order of preference) suitable, unless the use of an alternative item is:
(a) authorised by the Aeroplane

Specification,
(b) permitted by the requirements of

this publication, or,
(c) approved by the appropriate

Project Team Leader.
4.1.11 When a suitable item is not covered
by Defence Standards but is available in one of the
following series:
(a) AGS parts,
(b) ADS standard parts,
(c) BSI standard parts,
(d) ASD-STAN standard parts,
such items shall be used.

4.1.12 All standard items incorporated in
the aeroplane shall be in accordance with the
latest approved issue of the relevant drawings, but
the issue number of such drawings shall not
appear on the aeroplane drawings.
MATERIALS AND PROCESSES
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SECTION 4

4.1.13 For Grade A parts the material and For ease of reference the situation on some See Clauses 4.3.11 to 4.3.12 for materials and
process of manufacture shall normally conform to national and international standards is as processes used for protective treatment.
an approved Aerospace Specification (see MAA follows:
Regulatory Publication RA 5203 for order of
preference) Approved Aerospace Specification
(a) British Standards: Aerospace

Series, including ISO and EN Standards
published by BSI in the Aerospace Series.
(b) PR EN Standard Specifications

issued by ASD-STAN.
(c) DTD Specifications, including

DTD 900 (Obsolescent) approvals.
Unapproved
(a) British Standards: General

Engineering Series. These will require to
be covered by a Contractors' Specification.
4.1.14 Where it is proposed to use an
unapproved material or process specification for a
Grade A part, a Contractors' Specification shall be
used.
4.1.15 Grade B parts may be manufactured
from materials specified in Clause 4.1.13, or from
less closely controlled materials (e.g. general
engineering materials) at the Designer's discretion.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
4.1.16 See Clause 4.5
USE OF WOOD
4.1.17 No part of an aeroplane shall be See also Clauses 4.3.87 to 4.3.93
made of wood, unless authorised either in the
Aeroplane Specification or by the Project Team
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SECTION 4

Leader in writing after application has been made
with evidence that it will be satisfactory in tropical
and sea-going conditions.
LOCKING OF THREADED FASTENERS
4.1.18 The standard of locking of a Where the preferred method of locking conflicts
threaded fastener shall be determined by the grade with an operational requirement (e.g. where
of the application of the fastener within the joint or quick release of parts is required), or where
assembly. value engineering assessment clearly indicates
an advantage, other methods may be used
provided that it can be shown to the satisfaction
of the Project Team Leader, by tests, that they
are satisfactory for the environment they will
have to withstand.
4.1.19 Threaded fasteners in Grade A (a) Acceptable means of locking to Standard
applications shall have Standard A locking. A are given in Leaflet 4 Para. 2.
Additionally, those nut and bolt fasteners in Grade
A applications at Clause 4.1.6 (b) and (c) shall be (b) This secondary device should be
provided with a secondary means of retention such automatic in operation and should not depend
that, once the fastener is placed in position, the upon maintenance personnel remembering to
secondary retaining device becomes automatically carry out a separate action such as the bending
effective in preventing it from dropping out of of locking tabs or the fitting of locking wire.
position even though the usual retaining device Secondary means of retention which depend
may have been omitted. upon friction or springs are usually acceptable.
4.1.20 Threaded fasteners in Grade B Acceptable means of locking to Standard B are
applications shall have Standard A or B locking. given in Leaflet 4, Para. 3.
4.1.21 Locking wire shall not be used in
pure shear or where movement of the joint could
result in rotation of the fastener.
4.1.22 Centre-popping shall not be used.
4.1.23 Peening shall not be used to lock:
(a) titanium fasteners or titanium alloy

fasteners,
(b) high tensile strength (over 1100
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SECTION 4

MPa specification minimum) steel fasteners,
(c) bolts in joints which have to be

dismantled regularly in service.
4.1.24 Locking adhesives shall not be used
in tapped holes and other locations where the
mating parts could be damaged or are not readily
replaceable.
4.1.25 In all cases where the method of
locking, whether by Standard A or B, does not
demand more, the end of the bolt or stud shall
protrude beyond the nut by a dimension equal to at
least 1.5 thread pitches.
4.1.26 Any damage to protective treatment
applied to the structure caused by locking shall be
adequately repaired.
USE OF LEAD SEALS ON LOCKING WIRE
4.1.27 The use of lead seals on locking Where equipment is supplied with lead seals
wire is prohibited on aeroplanes and aeroplane they shall be removed, unless they form part of
equipment. the equipment's warranty. When the lead seals
form part of the equipment's warranty the
aeroplane designer/manufacturer shall inform
the Project Team Leader who will decide
whether the lead seals are to be retained,
bearing in mind the possible danger to flight
safety.
USE OF COLD FORGED STEEL BOLTS
4.1.28 Where cold forged steel bolts are Specification DTD 5162 (Obsolescent)
used in Grade A applications and are:
(a) likely to be subjected to any

conditions conducive to fatigue failure, or,
(b) used in positions where no

relaxation of the initially applied torque is
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SECTION 4

permissible,
the bolts shall be to a specification which has been

approved by the PTL in consultation with the
Design Organisation.
USE OF MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
4.1.29 Magnesium alloy skins or parts (a) Magnesium based alloys in cast or See Leaflet 2.
made from magnesium alloy sheet shall not be wrought forms may be acceptable subject to
used in military aeroplane structures. appropriate precautions.
(b) Where the Aeroplane Design

Organisation considers it necessary to use
magnesium alloy to meet the draft specification
for the aeroplane this shall be made known
during the pre-contract negotiations, so that the
implications can be assessed. Where
magnesium alloy is permitted to be used the
Aeroplane Specification will identify the parts,
and conditions for use including protective
treatment.
4.1.30 Magnesium alloys shall not be used
in the construction of crew seats.
4.1.31 Magnesium alloy parts shall not be
used in places where they are liable to continuous
exposure to corrosive fluids, for example:
(a) for enclosed systems where water

may collect, such as fuel systems (See Part
1, Section 5, Clause 5.2)
(b) for structure in areas where water

may collect, such as bilge areas, gaps in
control surfaces or folding joints in
aeroplanes,
USE OF ASBESTOS
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SECTION 4

4.1.32 Asbestos shall not be included in the If the requirement conditions apply, asbestos
composition of materials, products or equipment shall only be used when the Design
unless: Organisation has obtained prior written
agreement for the use of the material from the
(a) It is essential for the satisfactory Project Team Leader.
performance of the materials, products or
equipment.
(b) The use of any alternative material

would be equally or more hazardous.
4.1.33 Any material, product or equipment
which contains asbestos shall be marked in
accordance with the symbol and wording of Def
Stan 81-41 Part 6 Para 10.2.2 and 21.1.3
CONTROLLED TIGHTENING OF BOLTS
OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
4.1.34 The application of controlled See Leaflet 3.
tightening to those bolts in joints which may require
dismantling during servicing shall be limited to
those joints where the loss of tightness could result
in unacceptable degradation of structural integrity,
or failure of the part to perform its function.
4.1.35 The bolt elongation technique shall See Leaflet 3.
not be used in such applications.
4.1.36 When the torque loading technique
is to be used, adequate access shall be available
for the use of standard service tools.
SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
4.1.37 The drawing shall show the type of Consideration shall be given to controlling the See Leaflet 3.
pre-loading to be used, the necessary data to pre-load of bolts in the following applications:
achieve the correct pretension and the lubricant
required. (a) heavily loaded tension joints,
(b) heavily loaded shear joints,
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SECTION 4

(c) joints with a group of bolts
sharing the load,
(d) joints subject to thermal strain

(see Clause 4.1.39)
(e) joints where the manner of

carrying load in the joint is affected by the
pre-load of a bolt,
(f) joints subjected to cyclic loading.

4.1.38 The lubricant shall be compatible
with any seals or non-metallic materials in the
vicinity.
4.1.39 Where a joint is subject to sufficient
heat to affect the torque values on re-assembly of
threaded items this shall be identified on the
drawings, together with instructions on:
(a) Whether items can be re-used if the

appropriate run-down maximum and
minimum torque values and the final
tightening torque value can be achieved
when the used items are re-assembled.
(b) Whether the items are to be

replaced on re-assembly.
(c) The extent to which reconditioning,

re-coating/re-lubrication or re-plating (where
appropriate) is permitted.
REDUCTION OF VULNERABILITY TO BATTLE DAMAGE
4.1.40 Cockpit furnishings, paints, See Part 13, Section 3, Clause 3.9
finishings and plastic materials having good
repairability and resistance to the nuclear,
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SECTION 4

biological and chemical effects of Defined and
Specified Threats shall be used in preference to
any alternative wherever possible.
4.1.41 Preference should be given to
structural materials which are easily repairable.
4.1.42 The response of structural
adhesives to nuclear, biological and chemical
effect shall be considered before they are
incorporated in the design.
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SECTION 4
4.2 MARKING OF AEROPLANE PARTS
4.2.1 This Clause defines requirements for the marking of aeroplane parts to make them easily identifiable. The requirements of this Clause shall apply to
all aeroplane parts.
4.2.2 Definitions of terms used in this clause are contained in Part 0.

GENERAL
4.2.3 The Design Organisation shall be In addition to the markings required by this
responsible for the selection of the types of Clause, the contractor shall apply such
marking to be used and the method(s) by which permanent and/or temporary markings as may
such markings are applied to a particular part. be called for by the Project Team Leader.
4.2.4 No method of marking shall be used
in such a manner or in such a place that it would
reduce the strength or the life or affect the
performance of the part or the aeroplane in any
other way.
4.2.5 The method of marking adopted
shall not increase the risk of corrosion. In
particular, where a plate made from a different
material to the component is affixed to it for
marking purposes, precautions shall be taken so
that no risk of corrosion is introduced.
4.2.6 Details of identification markings See Def Stan 05-10.
used, the methods by which they are applied and
their location shall be stated on the drawing of the
part.
4.2.7 The number of markings on any one
part shall be kept to a minimum.
4.2.8 Parts shall be marked so that they
can be easily identified for maintenance purposes
when assembled on the aeroplane.
4.2.9 Identification symbols which can be
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SECTION 4

mistaken as representing a direction of movement
or flow shall not be used.
MARKING
PARTS
4.2.10 Each part shall be marked with: The contractor may impose such private Note: Items which are too small or fragile to carry
markings as necessary to facilitate the assembly the required marking, will be identified by the
(a) the detail drawing number for the of parts provided that they are not located in a marking required to be put on the packaging by
part or a code number for the part or a code position where they will confuse other Def Stan 81-41 Part 6.
number corresponding thereto; the latter identification marks.
being recommended in all cases where the
drawing number consists of more than 5
characters,
(b) the 13-digit NATO Stock Number

(NSN), wherever possible prefixed by the
relevant Service Domestic Management
Code (DMC). If the space available is
inadequate for the full NSN to be used, then
the last 7 digits may be shown.
4.2.11 Where 2 or more parts are identical
and therefore strictly interchangeable but are used
on different types of aeroplanes, the same
numbers shall be used. For parts which differ from
each other as regards 'hand' (though otherwise
identical), different numbers shall be allotted.
4.2.12 Non-standard hexagon headed bolts
having a feature significantly different from the
basic standard but which is visually
indistinguishable shall have a raised disc on the
head in addition to the part number.
4.2.13 The following parts are, however,
(subject to Clause 4.2.3) excluded from all forms of
marking:
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SECTION 4
(a) hardened steel springs,
(b) standard bolts and screws of any

diameter not greater than 5.6 mm (7/32 in),
nuts of any diameter not greater than 9.5 mm
(3/8 in), ordinary and spring washers of any
diameter,
(c) split pins, taper pins and parts

similar in respect of size.
ASSEMBLIES
4.2.14 Elements of assembled parts as
defined in Part 0 under (a) shall be marked in
accordance with the requirements of Clause 4.2.10
4.2.15 The fabricated parts as defined in
Part 0 under (b) shall be marked in with the
number of the assembly drawing. The elements
shall be marked in accordance with the
requirements of Clause 4.2.10 if these elements
are stocked separately or if so required by the
COMPONENTS
4.2.16 Components or complete units
including those assemblies that are regarded as
complete units for service storage shall be marked
with the followings:
(a) The name and mark or type number

of the item.
(b) The 13 digit NATO Stock Number

(NSN) and wherever possible prefixed by the
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SECTION 4

Service Domestic Management Code (DMC)
(c) The manufacturer's name, or NATO

manufacturer's 5-character code (if allotted)
(d) The serial number (where required).

Contractors' symbols shall precede all serial
numbers. The symbol/serial number
combination for any part shall not have been
used previously for any other part or
component on the same aeroplane.
(e) Any additional identification marking

required by the contract or particular
specification.
AIRFRAME COMPONENTS
4.2.17 Components such as fuselages, (a) The Serial Number and Modification See MAA Regulatory Publication RA 5307 for
main planes, control surfaces, alighting gears, etc, Record Plates shall be manufactured of details of the modification recording procedure.
shall bear a Serial Number Plate and a approved corrosion-resistant material. Their
Modification Record Plate. Where the fuselage, dimensions and inscriptions shall be in
wing, etc, is built in sections to comply with the accordance MAA Regulatory Publication RA
requirement of Clauses 4.4.8 to 4.4.24 similar 5307(4) where practical and the plates when
plates shall be fixed to each section. The method completed may be protected with clear varnish
of fixing the plate shall not increase the risk of as necessary.
corrosion, stress corrosion or fatigue.
(b) The serial number (where required). The
number shall be constructed to meet the
requirements of AECMA Specification 2000M,
Appendix 4, Data Element Definition - Serial
Number. The number shall consist solely of
alphanumeric characters with no spaces,
punctuation or special characters. The serial
number shall not have been used previously for
any other part or component with the same
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SECTION 4

Manufacturers Part Number.
(c) The Modification Record Plate shall bear

the NATO Stock Number and the contractor's
symbol/serial number of the component to which
it relates and shall be located adjacent to its
companion serial number plate but may be
detachable for the endorsement of modification
numbers provided that, when fitted, it is
positively locked in position. When it is not
detachable it shall be mounted in a position
where stamping of numbers on the plate will not
damage the surrounding structure.
OIL TANKS
4.2.18 All oil tanks whether they are
covered or otherwise shall have the NATO Stock
Number, the serial number, drawing number, issue
number and inspector's stamp applied in white
colouring by stencil. Such markings shall be
reproduced in a similar manner on the outside of
the self-sealing or crash-proof cover, where fitted,
in a position adjacent to the inspection access
panel.
FUEL TANKS
4.2.19 The marking of fuel tanks shall be to Specification No. DTD 1101(Obsolescent)
a specification which has been approved by the
PTL in consultation with the Design Organisation.
REPAIRABLE PARTS
4.2.20 During system development and This Repairable Component Tracking Serial Where the contractor has allocated a serial
procurement phases the MOD, in conjunction with Number shall be confined to 13 alpha-numeric number already, for identification or other
the manufacturer and in accordance with the characters in accordance with ASD-STAN purposes, this serial number will be utilised by
procedures of MAA Regulatory Publications RA S2000M 'International Specification for Materiel MOD for repair control purposes, and there will be
5000 series, will identify those items perceived to Management - Integrated Data Processing for no need to allocate an additional Repairable
22
SECTION 4

require regular repair in Service or Industry. During Military Equipment: Appendix 1'. Component Tracking Serial Number.
initial manufacture the manufacturer shall allocate
to each item a 'Repairable Component Tracking
Serial Number' (but see guidance) to enable them
to be tracked during Repair and throughout their
Service life.
RECONDITIONED PARTS
4.2.21 Components which have been Where used the Repairable Component
reconditioned shall have a new serial number plate Tracking Serial Number is to be retained
affixed either alongside the existing one or, if this is unaltered.
not practicable, on top of it. The new plate shall
show the original markings with the original serial
number. In no circumstances are the old markings
to be removed.
TYRES
PROTOTYPE TYRES
4.2.22 Each new type of tyre shall be The tyre drawing will give the dimensions of the
defined by a drawing prepared by the tyre firm and tyre and wheel rim, its load deflection
prototype tyres will be known by this drawing characteristics over the permissible range of
number. inflation pressures, and particulars of the tyre
construction in general terms.
PRODUCTION TYRES
4.2.23 For production tyres, the stores Tyres intended for the same, application will
reference number shall be added to the drawing. bear the same stores reference number.
When a tyre design is altered in such a way as to
affect its application, the drawing number and
stores reference shall be changed.
SIZE OF MARKINGS
4.2.24 The markings shall be in
accordance with the requirements of Specification
No. DTD 1097(Obsolescent)
TRANSPARENT COMPONENTS
4.2.25 All markings shall (as signified on A preferable standard serial number code would
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SECTION 4

the drawing) be in a readily visible position when include; the manufacturer's code number,
installed in the aeroplane, and the lettering shall be manufacturer's plant number, the date (e.g. 01
large enough for all serial and part numbers to be June 83), followed by a serial number taken from
easily readable. a series of numbers which start from one each
day.
AS-CAST ACRYLIC SHEET
4.2.26 Transparent components such as
windows, windscreens, panels and canopies made
from as-cast acrylic sheet to DTD
5592(Obsolescent), shall be marked by one of the
following methods:
(a) A marked metal label attached to

the, metal frame.
(b) An engraved acrylic label attached

with an approved cement to the fibre-glass or
terylene reinforced edge member.
(c) Written in a suitable marking ink

direct on to the fibre-glass or terylene
reinforced edge member, and covered with a
thin layer of an approved acrylic cement.
(d) Written direct on the transparency

itself with a suitable marking ink prior to
annealing.
STRETCHED OR PRESSED ACRYLIC SHEET
4.2.27 Transparent components made from
stretched or pressed acrylic sheet shall be marked
by one of the following methods:
(a) Any of the methods mentioned in

Clause 4.2.26 provided subsequent
24
SECTION 4

annealing as mentioned in Clause 4.2.26 (d)
is not used.
(b) By abrasive blasting through a

stencil using 400 mesh white alumina. The
depth of marking shall not exceed 0.005 mm.
GLASS
4.2.28 Transparent components made from
glass shall be marked by one of the following
methods:
(a) Assemblies may have a small metal

part number or serial number label laminated
within the, panel and near the panel edge, or
in the case of an air space design, the part
number or serial number label may be
attached within the air space with an
approved silicone or polysulphide adhesive.
(b) Single piece thermally toughened

glass components may be marked by an
approved abrasive blasting process through
a suitable stencil or alternatively.
(c) Thermally toughened glass may be

marked with a ceramic paste subsequently
fired during toughening.
(d) Chemically toughened glass shall

be marked using an air drying ceramic paste
or paint.
LOCATION OF IDENTIFICATION MARKINGS
4.2.29 Markings shall not be placed in the Note: It is permissible to mark stressed areas
25
SECTION 4

following positions: using the Marking Ink Method.
(a) On bearing surfaces or areas

subject to wear.
(b) On mating surfaces or where bolts

etc., may obscure the markings.
(c) On areas subsequently removed or

obscured by mechanical or chemical
processing, except for temporary marking.
(d) In areas where there may be a

stress concentration, such as near holes, on
fillets, bends, radii, lug faces or edges of
parts.
METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION MARKING
PHYSICAL IDENTIFICATION METHODS
4.2.30 Physical identification methods shall However, physical identification may be used For example: metal die stamping, engraving,
not be used as follows: under requirements (b) at the designer’s vibro-percussion engraving.
discretion if all the safeguards contained in this
(a) On steels of maximum specified Clause and Leaflet 5 are followed. Leaflet 5 provides details of recommended
tensile strength exceeding 1450 MPa. methods of identification marking and shall be
taken into consideration when selecting methods
(b) In regions of high stress or where for the marking of aeroplane parts.
fatigue may be critical.
(c) On areas of high grade surface

finish.
(d) On surface hardened or nitrided

areas.
(e) On materials thinner than 0.9 mm.
26
SECTION 4
(f) On welded containers.
(g) On any surface that has been

painted, plated, anodised or conversion
coated.
(h) On hydraulic pipes or on the

pressurised walls of ducts.
4.2.31 Sharp cornered borders, sharp
angles and cuts shall be avoided and the depth of
marking shall be kept to a minimum consistent with
legibility.
MARKING INK
4.2.32 Marking inks, paints and lacquers
shall be compatible with the applied paint scheme
or the base material or protective treatment, if not
painted. The colour of the marking shall be a
distinct contrast with the background. For titanium
alloys inks shall be halogen free.
LABELS
4.2.33 Where transparent labels are used
the paint and adhesive shall be compatible with the
part and label.
4.2.34 The method to be used to attach
metal labels to the part shall be specified on the
drawing. The label shall not foul moving parts or
cause damage if it becomes detached.
4.2.35 Identification by marking ink,
transparent plastic labels or metal labels and self-
adhesive labels shall not be used to identify parts
that will be in contact with powerful oxidants such
as hydrogen peroxide, liquid oxygen.
27
SECTION 4

ELECTROCHEMICAL MARKING
4.2.36 Electrochemical Marking shall not
be used on:
(a) anodised aluminium parts,
(b) magnesium parts,
(c) non-metallic parts,
(d) steels of maximum tensile strength

exceeding 1550 MPa.
28
SECTION 4
4.3 PROTECTION OF STRUCTURE
4.3.1 This information is similar to CS 25.609 The clause contains the requirements for the protection of aeroplanes and their equipment against corrosion
and environmental deterioration including exfoliation corrosion of aluminium alloys and stress corrosion cracking. General protective materials and
processes are referred to in Table 1.

BASIC OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
4.3.2 The aim shall be that all parts of the The aeroplane should therefore be able to Notes:
aeroplane, both inside and outside, shall be so withstand satisfactorily:
designed, protected, drained and vented that, 1. Requirements relating to the
when the aeroplane is maintained in accordance (a) the effects of standing for long extremes of temperature and humidity that
with the Servicing Schedule, there will be no periods in the open in all weathers, may be experienced on the ground and in
unacceptable loss of airworthiness as a result of including the corrosive effects of flight are given in Part 1, Section 7, Clause
weathering, corrosion, abrasion, unavoidable contamination by an industrial 7.2
mechanical damage to protective treatment during atmosphere,
nominal maintenance or other causes. 2. Requirements on operational,
(b) the corrosive effects of operating camouflage and identification markings are
from salt-laden runways and of flying low given in Part 1, Section 7, Clause 7.4
over the sea, and,
(c) on Naval aeroplanes, the

corrosive effects of salt spray and funnel
gases, when stowed in the open or
operating from the deck of a ship.
EXCLUSION OF CONTAMINATING LIQUIDS
GENERAL
4.3.3 All static joints shall be sealed to (a) Unless otherwise excepted in Clauses Particular care shall be taken to prevent the
prevent the ingress of liquids. 4.3.110 to 4.3.114 sealing shall be effected by wetting of equipment and heat and sound
wet assembly with a suitable sealant, or jointing proofing material.
compound (Clauses 4.3.108 to 4.3.109)
(b) As a supplement to the sealant within the

lap joints, the application of sealing or caulking
29
SECTION 4

compounds to exposed edges of the lap to
prevent the ingress of liquids shall be
considered.
RAIN AND AIRBORNE SPRAY
4.3.4 Particular care shall be taken to Where sealing is not practicable, precautions See also Part 1, Section 7, Clauses 7.2.6, 7.2.7
prevent water leaking into, or being driven into, any shall be taken to ensure that any water that and 7.2.9
part of the aeroplane either on the ground or in does gain access to the interior of the aeroplane
flight. All windows, doors, panels, canopies etc does not constitute a direct or indirect danger.
shall be provided with sealing arrangements such
that the entry of water is prevented when these
items are correctly closed.
OTHER FLUIDS
4.3.5 The design of the aeroplane shall be (a) The following fluids should be taken into Further information on contamination by fluids
such as to minimise the possibility that any fluid - account: and the selection of tests for equipment installed
which may leak from a system, enter the aeroplane in fixed wing aircraft is given in Def Stan 00-35
from the outside, condense on cold surfaces (e.g. (1) Water, cleaning fluid, ground and Part 6 Chapter 7-01.
pressure cabin walls) or may be spilt within the airborne de-icing fluids, fuel, oil, hydraulic
aeroplane - will cause corrosion. fluid, battery electrolytes, and fluids
associated with galley and toilets.
(2) Slush (including grit, salt or other

runway de-icing chemicals) which will
impinge on, or possibly enter, parts of the
aeroplane during taxying, take-off or
landing on precipitation-covered runways.
(b) The use of corrosive fluids should be

avoided in aeroplane systems. Adequate
access, to the satisfaction of the Project Team
shall be provided for the maintenance of all
joints and unions in pipe lines.
4.3.6 Particular attention shall be given to See also Leaflet 12.
the design of those compartments where liquids
30
SECTION 4

are likely to be spilt. Sealed floors with suitable
drainage shall be provided in battery areas and
any other compartments subject to the spillage of
corrosive liquids may occur.
4.3.7 Heat and sound proofing materials Suitable provision shall be made so that it is
shall not cause corrosion either by direct contact or practicable to inspect for any signs of corrosion
as a result of leachants if wetted. Precautions shall due to these causes.
be taken against the possibility of corrosion caused
by materials acting as a wick.
DRAINAGE AND VENTING
4.3.8 All compartments in the structure, (a) Particular attention shall be given to the (a) In pressurised compartments, automatic
including those in control surfaces, cockpits and location and size of internal drain-holes to drains, that open when pressure is released, are
cabins, shall be completely sealed or adequately minimise the possibility of fluids being trapped in preferred.
drained and vented, both on the ground and in the structure and being prevented from running
flight. The design of each drainage system shall be to a drain. Care shall be taken to avoid (b) Honeycomb structure is dealt with in
such that it will still be effective with any one drain undrained pockets especially where liquids Clause 4.3.58
or drain-hole blocked. Pockets in the structure could freeze and so jam mechanisms.
which cannot be drained shall be filled with inert,
non-absorbent, caulking or filling material. (b) The position of drain-holes shall be
shown on component drawings and a complete
key shall be given in the Aeroplane Servicing
Manual.
ACCESS FOR EXAMINATION
4.3.9 The aim shall be to provide, access The Contractor shall demonstrate compliance Although visual aids (e.g. endoprobes) may be
to every part of the structure to facilitate visual with the requirement to the satisfaction of the used to meet this requirement, it is desirable to be
examination for corrosion or deterioration at a Project Team. able to examine the majority of the structure
reasonable man-hour cost. without visual aids. Ideally, it should be possible
to gain access simply by removing access panels.
DEHUMIDIFICATION OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE AND SYSTEMS
4.3.10 The Aircraft Specification will identify: (a) Dehumidification of aircraft whilst on the
ground, to reduce metal corrosion and improve
(a) Whether dehumidification is the reliability of electrical and avionics systems,
required on individual aircraft, or whether may be a requirement for aircraft.
31
SECTION 4

area dehumidification is to be used. If
dehumidification is required on individual (b) Trials have shown that there are
aircraft it must be provided for in the significant benefits to be achieved by providing a
aircraft design. supply of dry air, from a commercial dehumidifier,
to the aircraft structure and systems whilst the
(b) For on-aircraft dehumidification, aircraft is on the ground. These benefits are; a
to what extent standard Service equipment reduction in metal corrosion in the structure and
is to be used. engine components, and an increase in reliability
of the electrical and avionic systems.
(c) Whether specific air flow and air
change rates are required. (c) Dry air may be introduced to the aircraft
structure; through the Environmental Control
System, through the engine intakes and/or
specifically designed intakes, or by using blanks
and trunking if this is called up in the Aircraft
Specification.
(d) Dehumidification may be applied to

individual aircraft in the open air or by
dehumidifying the hangar or Aircraft Hardened
Shelter during long term storage. Either method
requires the structure and systems to allow for the
free passage of air.
(e) Dehumidification is not to be assumed as

a means of preventing corrosion to meet the
structural life requirement or to meet the reliability
requirement of the Aircraft Specification.
CHOICE OF MATERIALS IN RELATION TO THE AVOIDANCE OF CORROSION
4.3.11 Materials for each given use are Materials with lower susceptibilities to corrosion, Joints between dissimilar electrically conductive
chosen in the first place for their appropriate corrosion fatigue, stress corrosion or hydrogen metals or other electrically conductive materials
mechanical and other physical properties but their embrittlement should be chosen where possible, are often unavoidable, but the advice in Leaflet 10
corrosion within the environment of the given use and unnecessarily strong but susceptible shall be considered in relation to the service
32
SECTION 4

shall also be considered. materials shall be avoided. environment of each use. In the later clauses of
this Section, methods are laid down for converting
C and D contacts (Leaflet 10 Para 2.3) into B
contacts by the application of electroplated
coatings to the more noble metal (e.g. the
cadmium or tin plating of copper base materials in
contact with aluminium alloys, Clause 4.3.64) but
it must be realised that in the more corrosive
environments the interposed protective metal
coating will have only a limited life.
4.3.12 If corrosion can be caused by the BS 7195.
decomposition products from a material, such
material shall not be used unless precautions are
taken to ensure that decomposition does not occur
during the normal operation of the aeroplane.
DESIGNATION OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PROTECTION OF PARTS AND ASSEMBLIES
4.3.13 The treatments appropriate to a (a) This may be by direct reference to the The requirements for the protection of parts and
detail item shall be indicated on the drawing of the appropriate material or specification number or assemblies used in the construction of aeroplanes
item and any to be applied during and after may be by coded reference to such information, are given in the subsequent requirements of this
assembly, on the appropriate assembly drawing. which has been set down as a comprehensive clause.
schedule included in the master drawings.
(b) Treatment requirements shall be

sufficiently specific that they permit only those
processing options that are acceptable, (e.g.,
'anodise to Def Stan 03-24, Type 2, chromic
acid').
TREATMENT OF METAL PARTS, GENERAL
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
4.3.14 All metal parts shall be given an In the case of fasteners see Clause 4.3.18
appropriate protective treatment as set out in
subsequent Clauses unless otherwise excepted
(Clauses 4.3.25 to 4.3.32)
33
SECTION 4

CLEANING
4.3.15 All metal parts shall be cleaned in
accordance with Def Stan 03-2.
SURFACE TREATMENT
4.3.16 All metal parts shall be given a Components shall not be treated in the
surface treatment or plating treatment as specified assembled condition unless danger of corrosion
in the appropriate clauses 4.3.33 to 4.3.75 below. by trapped treatment chemicals can be
completely avoided and there is no danger of
removal or degradation of sealants, jointing
compounds etc.
PAINTING
4.3.17 Where called for in the clauses Painting shall be in accordance with the Note: In the clause, the meanings of the
(Clauses 4.3.33 to 4.3.75 below), metal parts shall aeroplane specification. terms 'paint', 'primer', 'etch primer', 'finish' (in
be painted. relation to painting), 'finishing coat' etc., are as
defined in BS 2015( 'Glossary of paint and related
terms')
4.3.18 Fasteners shall not be painted prior See Clause 4.3.24
to use, but shall where required, be painted after
assembly.
STANDARD PAINT SCHEMES FOR ALL AEROPLANES
GENERAL
4.3.19 Etch primer is regarded as pre- (Excluding areas made of doped fabric)
treatment, not as a full part of the paint scheme-
itself. It is not acceptable where high resistance to
aggressive fluids (e.g. phosphate-ester hydraulic
fluids, castor oil and synthetic lubricants) is
required.
EXTERIOR SURFACES
4.3.20 All surfaces of an aeroplane that are Note: External surfaces include wheel-wells,
exposed to the external environment either undercarriages, wing-folds, air brakes, wing flaps,
permanently, as part of the exterior construction, or fairings or other areas which may be occasionally
transitorily to a significant extent, and are made of exposed to the external environment or into which
34
SECTION 4

metals required to be painted in accordance with water may be driven or collect.
the requirements of this section, or that are to be
painted for the sake of appearance or to meet
operational requirements, shall be given a full paint
scheme of at least primer and finish to give, when
dry, a minimum film thickness of 50µm.
INTERIOR SURFACES (HEAVY DUTY)
4.3.21 Interior surfaces subject to heavy
condensation, aggressive hydraulic fluids, or other
potentially corrosive fluids noted Clauses 4.3.4 to
4.3.7, shall be coated with a full scheme of at least
primer and finish, or two full coats of primer,
resistant to these fluids. In all cases interior
finishing schemes for heavy duty protection shall
have, when dry, a minimum film thickness of 40µm.
INTERIOR SURFACES (NORMAL)
4.3.22 Interior surfaces, not subject to Interior surfaces of integral fuel tanks. This is
heavy condensation or severe contamination with dealt with in detail in Clauses 4.3.77 to 4.3.79
aggressive fluids or special requirements for
colour, shall be coated with epoxy primer to BS
2X33 unless otherwise specified, to give a
minimum film thickness when dry of 20µm.
OTHER PAINT SCHEMES
4.3.23 Steel parts forming part of
mechanisms, may be painted with stoving enamel
(DTD 56(Obsolescent), BS X 31(Withdrawn)).
Other paint schemes and other organic coating
schemes, e.g. plastic coatings and anti-fretting
coatings, may be used for the purposes for which
they are approved.
PAINTING IN RELATION TO ASSEMBLY
4.3.24 Components shall be given at least (a) Components which have only been Excluding the specific cases covered by Clauses
a coat of primer and preferably painted to the primed before assembly, and which require a 4.3.25 to 4.3.32
35
SECTION 4

requirements of Clauses 4.3.19 to 4.3.23 before finishing coat after assembly, must be primed
assembly. again overall. For wet assembly see Clauses 4.3.104 to 4.3.116
and for touch-up after assembly see Clauses
(b) After assembly, where required, all 4.3.117 to 4.3.121
fasteners shall be painted according to Clauses
4.3.19 to 4.3.23, (See also Clauses 4.3.53 to
4.3.54) and all damaged areas shall be painted
according to Clauses 4.3.118 to 4.3.121
EXCEPTIONS AND SPECIAL CASES
4.3.25 Bushes. Bushes shall be wet- (a) Where bushes are inserted into
assembled (Clauses 4.3.104 to 4.3.116) even aluminium or magnesium alloys, especially
though the greater part of the jointing compound is those exposed to the atmosphere, (e.g. in
exuded from the fit. Bushes with flanges shall be undercarriage assemblies), particular care shall
similarly wet-assembled so that a fillet is formed be taken in the application of protective surface
around the flange (Clause 4.3.105) treatments and in the prevention of ingress of
water to the mating surfaces. Where a plating
treatment is required to prevent galvanic
corrosion, e.g. the cadmium or tin plating of
copper-alloy bushes (Clause 4.3.64), the
maximum thickness of plate shall be applied
consistent with satisfactory assembly.
(b) As a supplement to sealing within the

joint, the application of sealing or caulking
compounds along the lap shall be considered.
4.3.26 Metallic shims. Both sides of the (a) When shims are used during assembly,
shim shall be coated with sufficient wet assembly special attention shall be paid to wet assembly.
material so that a fillet is formed covering the edge
of the shim. (b) As a supplement to sealing within the
joint, the application of sealing or caulking
compounds along the edges of the lap shall be
considered.
4.3.27 Lubricated parts. Surfaces that run See also Clauses 4.3.42 and 4.3.57
36
SECTION 4

in a maintained environment of oil or grease
generally require no protective treatment
Magnesium alloy parts shall, however, be
protected to the requirements of BSI BS M 93.
4.3.28 Tube and pipes - Tubes and pipes
carrying operating fluids need not be painted
internally. If they are painted, the paint scheme
chosen shall be resistant to the fluid and shall be
suitable for continuous immersion in the fluid.
4.3.29 Contact with fabric dope. To prevent This requirement does not apply to surfaces to
softening of the finishing coat by dope solvents, all which fabric is attached by an adhesive.
surfaces liable to come into contact with fabric
during doping operations shall be treated so as to
be compatible with dope.
4.3.30 Rubbing surfaces - These may In making a choice the Contractor shall take into See also Clauses 4.3.40 and 4.3.57
require coatings or treatments to prevent galling or account their adequacy in protecting against
wear. corrosion in the environment in which the parts
will operate, and their effects upon fatigue life.
4.3.31 Electrical bonding - To achieve
satisfactory electrical bonding to the aeroplane
structure, it is sometimes necessary to re-move, or
to omit locally, any surface protection. At such
bonding points precautions shall be taken to
prevent the ingress of any corrodent or operating
fluid by suitable use of jointing compounds,
sealants and caulking materials, followed where
possible by painting.
4.3.32 Holes machined after painting.
Except in the case of magnesium alloys, holes and
countersinks machined in parts which have been
painted need not be given any protective treatment
prior to wet assembly (Clauses 4.3.105 to 4.3.116)
with fasteners (Clauses 4.3.106 to 4.3.107), or
37
SECTION 4

insertion of bushes (Clause 4.3.25). After assembly
the parts shall be further protected according to
Clauses 4.3.24 or 4.3.25
TREATMENT OF NON-CORROSION-RESISTING STEELS
4.3.33 These requirements apply to all parts, including
fasteners, made of steel containing less than 9%
chromium.
4.3.34 Cleaning - All steels shall be
cleaned (Def Stan 03-2) and, unless otherwise
excepted, given one of the treatments in Clause
4.3.35
4.3.35 Standard treatment for all parts for (a) Prior to painting the cadmium shall be
use below 235°C Cadmium plating (Def Stan 03- either passivated (DEF-130) or etch primed (BS
19) followed by painting. 2X 32 and proprietary alternatives covered by
approved specification for paint schemes) if etch
primer is acceptable, (see Clause 4.3.19).
Fasteners shall be passivated (DEF-130) after
cadmium plating, and painted only after
assembly (Clauses 4.3.18 and 4.3.24)
(b) Alternatives to cadmium plating in

special cases:
(1) Aluminium coatings - Coating

with aluminium by an approved process
followed by painting, and for large parts and
parts with wide tolerances, spraying with
aluminium (BS EN ISO 2063) and then
painting. Unpainted aluminium coatings
may be suitable for use at elevated
temperatures (BS 2569-2)
38
SECTION 4

(2) Zinc coatings - Parts subject in
service to temperatures between 235°C
and 350°C may be zinc plated (Def Stan
03-20), chromate passivated (DEF-130)
and painted with a suitable heat-resisting
paint scheme. Except on Naval aeroplanes,
other aeroplanes designed to operate in a
marine environment, and on fasteners, zinc
plating may be used in place of cadmium
plating on normal interior surfaces (as
defined in Clause 4.3.22) of parts subject to
service at any temperature below 350°C.
(3) Phosphate coatings - Phosphate

treatment to Class I or II of Def Stan 03-11
followed either by painting or other suitable
approved coating schemes, e.g. plastic
coatings and anti-fret coatings (clause
4.3.23), may be used when cadmium
plating is not technically feasible or
desirable.
(4) Grade B parts only - These may

be zinc coated by electroplating (Def Stan
03-20) or any other suitable process, nickel
or nickel/chromium plated (Def Stan 03-
10)(Cancelled), tin plated (BS 1872), tin-
lead alloy plated or made from tinned steel
(BS EN 10203). Tin coated parts shall not,
however, be used in contact with cadmium
plated parts where the temperature in
service may exceed 120°C. The protective
metal coating shall be followed by etch
39
SECTION 4

priming and painting. Alternatively Grade B
parts may be phosphate treated (Def Stan
03-11), followed by painting or other
suitable approved coating schemes.
Vacuum cadmium coatings - Cadmium

coating by vacuum evaporation may be
employed (SAE AMS C 8837, CXEN EN
2535) instead of cadmium plating to Def
Stan 03-19.
HIGH STRENGTH STEELS
4.3.36 Parts made of steel of maximum
specified tensile strength exceeding 1450 MPa
shall be subject to the special requirements of Def
Stan 03-4.
STRUCTURAL TUBING
4.3.37 It shall be assumed that the inside of Outer surfaces should be sprayed with
tubular structures will breathe and that water will aluminium or plated with cadmium if possible but
condense and cause rusting from the inside unless phosphate treatment plus a full paint scheme is
substantial protection is given. Prior to welding or acceptable.
other assembly procedures, any manufacturing or
heat-treatment scale shall be removed, (e.g. by
pickling). Phosphate treatment plus slushing with
an inhibitive primer is desirable, but if aqueous
treatments are impossible, (e.g. in a complicated
welded structure), then insides shall be thoroughly
slushed with a supplementary protective, e.g. PX-
28 (Def Stan 80-143 Obsolescent), suitably
thinned. Access holes shall be provided if needed
and, whenever possible, shall be securely sealed
after the organic protective has been introduced.
Where secure sealing is not possible drainage
holes shall be provided.
40
SECTION 4

4.3.38 Springs - The advice in Defence Where protection is required, cadmium plating
Guide DG-10 shall be followed. and paint is the preferred protective.
4.3.39 Gun parts - Steel gun parts
classified as airframe components (e.g. deflector
chutes, ammunition belt feeds and guides) shall be
treated by Sherardising (BS 4921), hard chromium
plating (Def Stan 03-14) or electroless nickel
plating (BS EN ISO 4527)
4.3.40 Parts subject to wear. Where increased wear resistance is required,
hard chromium plating (Def Stan 03-14) is in
many cases an acceptable process. Electroless
nickel (BS EN ISO 4527) or nickel plating (SAE
AMS 2423, SAE AMS QQ-N-290 Class 2) may
be used in some cases. A number of other
approved hard surfacing treatments are
available for special application (BS EN ISO
2063)( DTD 943 and DTD 900)(Obsolescent). In
making a choice, the Contractor shall take into
account the adequacy of the treatment in
protecting against corrosion in the environment
in which the parts will operate, and its effect
upon fatigue life.
4.3.41 Wire Ropes - Zinc coated wire ropes
which have been treated with a lubricant during
manufacture shall be used, and shall be installed
as supplied.
4.3.42 Lubricated parts. Surfaces that run in a maintained environment Note: Black oxide treatments should be
of oil or grease need not be protected against avoided wherever possible, and shall not be used
corrosion. Phosphate (Def Stan 03-11, Class 1) on steels of maximum specified strength
or black oxide (DTD 900)(Obsolescent) exceeding 1450 MPa. This restriction does not
treatment may be given if desired. apply to surface hardened parts or to parts made
from 1% C 1 % Cr bearing steel.
41
SECTION 4

4.3.43 Safety Harness Components.
When Safety Harness Components are made For design of Safety Harness Components see
from non-corrosion resisting steels and particles Clause 4.21
of paint produced in use by abrasion/wear could
cause detriment to the operation/function of a
mechanism, then cadmium plating and
passivation without further painting is the
preferred protection.
TREATMENT OF CORROSION RESISTING STEELS
4.3.44 These requirements apply to all parts, including
fasteners, made of steel containing not less than
9% chromium.
4.3.45 Designs embodying corrosion Where sealing is not practicable, (e.g. on In certain environments, especially maritime,
resisting steels shall avoid crevices wherever moving parts), specialist advice shall be sought corrosion resisting steels can suffer severe pitting
practicable. Where crevices are unavoidable these on the selection of a corrosion resisting steel corrosion and advice shall be taken on the choice
shall be sealed wherever possible with an with the optimum combination of required of alloy and suitable protective schemes (Leaflet
approved sealant (Clauses 4.3.105 to 4.3.109) properties and resistance to crevice corrosion) 13)
4.3.46 All parts made from corrosion In particular, the surfaces of forgings, castings,
resisting steels shall be cleaned by appropriate welds, "black" bars, heat treated parts etc, shall
methods in accordance with Def Stan 03-2 to have sufficient surface material removed to
ensure freedom from surface contamination. ensure freedom from contamination caused by
manufacturing operations, where these surfaces
are to be present on the finished parts.
4.3.47 Corrosion resisting steel wire ropes
shall be installed as supplied.
4.3.48 Parts for use above 235°C shall not
be coated with cadmium.
PARTS IN CONTACT WITH ALUMINIUM ALLOY
4.3.49 These parts shall be treated by one See also Clause 4.3.11 Guidance.
of the following procedures:
(a) Cadmium plated (Def Stan 03-19),

optionally followed by painting, and then wet
42
SECTION 4

assembled (Clauses 4.3.105 to 4.3.116)
(b) Zinc plated (Def Stan 03-20),

optionally followed by painting, and then wet
(c) Zinc sprayed (BS EN ISO 2063)

optionally followed by painting and then wet
(d) Coated with aluminium by any

approved method (DTD 900)(Obsolescent)
optionally followed by painting and then wet
(e) Painted, and then wet assembled

(Clauses 4.3.105 to 4.3.116) using,
optionally, a sacrificial metal shim.
(f) Painted and assembled with a non-

metallic separator.
(g) Painted and assembled using an

elastomeric sealant.
PARTS IN CONTACT WITH MAGNESIUM ALLOY
4.3.50 Surfaces that will be assembled to See also Clause 4.3.11 Guidance.
contact magnesium alloy shall be treated by one of
the following procedures and painted where this is
feasible prior to wet assembly (Clauses 4.3.105 to
4.3.116):
(a) Cadmium plated (Def Stan 03-19)

and chromate passivated to the requirements
43
SECTION 4

of DEF- 130,
(b) Zinc plated (Def Stan 03-20) and

chromate passivated to the requirements of
DEF-130,
(c) Zinc sprayed (BS EN ISO 2063) and

DEF-130,
(d) Shimmed with zinc which has been

DEF-130, chromate conversion coated 5000
and 6000 aluminium series washers to Def
Stan 03-18, anodised aluminium washers, or
with insulating material, e.g., Nylon. The shim
shall extend from the area of contact to an
extent sufficient to break any electrolytic
path.
TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM AND ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
4.3.51 All parts shall be cleaned (DEF Selection of Treatment. The considerations
STAN 03-2) and, with the exception of those listed affecting the choice of the treatment from those
in Clauses 4.3.53 – 4.3.60, shall be given one of listed shall include the following:
the following treatments followed by painting:
(a) The suitability of a casting for
(a) Anodised (Def Stan 03-24 or 03-25), anodising, and to some extent the type of
process used, will depend on the alloy (BS
(b) Chromate filmed (Def Stan 03-18), 5599)
(c) Etch primed (BS 2X 32) when (b) Sprayed metal coatings are not
treatments (a) or (b) are not technically suitable for close tolerance parts or for thin
feasible or desirable and when etch primer is sheet.
44
SECTION 4

acceptable (Clause 4.3.19),
(c) Some alloys containing a high
(d) Sprayed with aluminium, aluminium- proportion of alloying elements do not give
zinc alloy, or zinc (Def Stan 03-3), followed good coatings by anodising or chromate
by etch primer if etch primer is acceptable filming. The treatment shall be chosen that
(Clause 4.3.19) or, in the case of aluminium gives a film of good appearance and
or aluminium-zinc alloy, by chromate filming properties.
(Def Stan 03-18)
(d) Where anodising is required as
an aid to inspection for cracks, laps etc, or
of gain flow, the chromic acid process (Def
Stan 03-24) shall be used.
(e) Selection of the treatment to be

used will be affected if parts are to be
adhesive bonded.
(f) While sulphuric acid anodising

processes (BS 5599) may reduce fatigue
strength, the chromic acid process (Def
Stan 03-24) has comparatively little effect
on fatigue properties.
(g) Where fatigue is a major design

consideration holes should not be
anodised.
4.3.52 Parts that cannot be painted: These Thin anodic films with relatively poor resistance to
parts shall be anodised (Def Stan 03-24 and 03- corrosion can result when averaged aluminium-
25) zinc alloys (e.g. BS EN 2127), are anodised by
the standard chromic acid process (Def Stan 03-
24)
4.3.53 Aluminium alloy fasteners other than
45
SECTION 4

rivets - Except where used in electrical circuits,
these shall be anodised (BS 5599) before wet
assembly. All fasteners shall be painted with a
complete scheme after assembly.
4.3.54 Solid rivets - Solid rivets used as
supplied need not be given any surface protective
treatment prior to wet assembly (Clauses 4.3.105
to 4.3.116). In the case of rivets placed in the
freshly solution treated condition care shall be
taken to remove completely all salt residues from
the heat-treatment process. After assembly,
exposed areas of all rivets shall be painted with the
paint scheme as specified in Clause 4.3.24
4.3.55 Structural and other tubing - Tubing For the interior of tubes carrying operating fluids,
shall be treated externally as in Clause 4.3.51. see Clause 4.3.28
Structural tubing shall be treated internally as in
Clause 4.3.51
4.3.56 Welded parts - When welded parts
are to be anodised, the chromic acid process shall
be used (Def Stan 03-24)
4.3.57 Part subject to wear. Where the standard anodising processes (Def
Stan 03-24 and 03-25) give insufficient
resistance to wear, parts may be hard anodised
(BS 5599), chromium plated (Def Stan 03-14) or
coated with hard facing material (DTD
900)(Obsolescent). Anodic films may be
impregnated with approved solid film lubricants
(DTD 900)(Obsolescent). In selecting a process,
the Contractor shall consider the effect which
the coating may have upon fatigue life and
corrosion resistance of the aluminium alloy.
4.3.58 Honeycomb core - Core materials Alternatively, the core material may be given an
made of aluminium alloys shall, at the foil stage of etching treatment (DTD 900)(Obsolescent) but
46
SECTION 4

manufacture, be given a chromate filming only if an inert organic coating is to be applied
treatment (Def Stan 03-18), or be chromic acid subsequently.
anodised (Def Stan 03-24) if this is practicable. At
the expanded honeycomb stage of manufacture,
an inert organic coating shall be applied wherever
practicable to ensure good corrosion resistance of
the honeycomb core material and good durability
of adhesive bonds.
4.3.59 Items adhesively bonded to The treatment of skins, etc. bonded to the core
honeycomb core. shall be selected so that a good bond is
obtained and so that external surfaces are
suitable for subsequent protection (Clause
4.3.60)
4.3.60 Completed honeycomb structure.
The external surfaces of the completed
honeycomb structure shall be protected by the
appropriate paint scheme (Clauses 4.3.19 to
4.3.23)
INFLUENCE OF PROCESSING TEMPERATURE ON ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
4.3.61 Temperatures used in processing
(e.g. curing of organic coatings or adhesives) parts
made from aluminium alloy shall be such that there
is no deleterious effect upon the alloy properties.
TREATMENT OF MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
4.3.62 All parts shall be given the complete Other protective schemes such as plastic
treatment specified in BS M 500 coatings (e.g. Nylon) and anodic treatments
(e.g. the HAE or DOW 17 processes) may be
used subject to compliance with the
requirements of MAP RA 5000 series.
TREATMENT OF COPPER AND COPPER BASE ALLOYS
4.3.63 All parts shall be cleaned (Def Stan Parts may be painted if desired, in which case
03-2). Except as required by Clause 4.3.64, no the copper base material should be given a mild
47
SECTION 4

further treatment is needed. abrasive blasting, or be etched (Def Stan 03-2)
or etch primed (Clause 4.3.19)
PARTS IN CONTACT WITH OTHER METALS
4.3.64 Aluminium alloys - The copper base
material shall be cadmium plated (Def Stan 03-19)
or tin plated (BS 1872) and optionally painted prior
to wet assembly (Clauses 4.3.105 to 4.3.107)
4.3.65 Magnesium alloys - The copper
base material shall be cadmium plated (Def Stan
03-19), chromate passivated to the requirements of
DEF- 130, and optionally painted prior to wet
assembly (Clauses 4.3.105 to 4.3.107)
4.3.66 Non-corrosion resisting steels - A
cadmium coating shall be interposed between the
two metals by plating (Def Stan 03-19), optionally
followed by painting, at least the steel surface and
preferably also that of the copper base part prior to
wet assembly (Clauses 4.3.105 to 4.3.107)
PARTS SUBJECT TO CONDENSATION
4.3.67 Surfaces from which condensation Suitable coatings are: cadmium plate (Def Stan
can drip on to other metals shall be coated to 03-19) preferably painted, tin plate (BS 1872), or
prevent dissolution of traces of copper. paint (Clause 4.3.63)
4.3.68
TREATMENT OF TITANIUM AND TITANIUM BASE ALLOYS
4.3.69 These requirements apply to all parts including
fasteners.
GENERAL REQUIREMENT
4.3.70 All parts shall be cleaned (Def Stan Parts may be painted if desired, in which case
03-2). Except as required by Clauses 4.3.71 to the metal shall be pre-treated by one of the
4.3.73, no further treatment is needed. following processes:
(a) mild wet abrasive cleaning (Def
48
SECTION 4

Stan 03-2, Methods D2 and D3)
(b) etch primer (Clause 4.3.19)
(c) pickling (Def Stan 03-2, Method

S)
(d) anodising (SAE AMS 2488)

PARTS IN CONTACT WITH OTHER METALS
4.3.71 Magnesium alloys - Contact with Surfaces that will be assembled to contact
magnesium alloy shall be avoided wherever magnesium alloy shall be treated by one of the
possible. following procedures and then painted where it
is feasible prior to wet assembly (Clauses
4.3.105 to 4.3.116):
(a) zinc plated (Def Stan 03-20) and

chromate passivated to the requirements
of DEF-130,
(b) zinc sprayed (BS EN ISO 2063)

and chromate passivated to the
requirements of DEF-130,
(c) coated with aluminium or an

aluminium rich coating by an approved
method and conversion coated to the
requirements of Def Stan 03-18,
(d) shimmed with zinc which has

been chromate passivated to the
requirements of DEF-130, chromate
conversion coated 5000 and 6000
aluminium series washers to Def Stan 03-
49
SECTION 4

18, anodised aluminium washers, or with
insulating material, e.g., Nylon. The shim
shall extend from the area of contact to an
extent sufficient to break any electrolytic
path,
(e) anodised (SAE AMS 2488) and

coated with a resin containing
molybdenum disulphide.
4.3.72 Aluminium alloy. Surfaces that will be assembled to contact
aluminium alloy should first be painted but
where painting is omitted, special attention shall
be paid to wet assembly (Clauses 4.3.105 to
4.3.107). Alternatively, the titanium base
material may be plated with zinc (Def Stan 03-
20), metallised with zinc (BS 2569 Parts 1 and 2
(Part 1 superseded by BS EN ISO 2063)) or
coated with aluminium or an aluminium-rich
coating by an approved method. Titanium based
materials may be anodised (SAE AMS 2488)
and where required coated with a resin
containing molybdenum disulphide.
4.3.73 Non-corrosion-resisting steel - No See Leaflet 8.
treatment of the titanium is required. The steel may
be coated with aluminium or an aluminium-rich
coating or coated with cadmium before wet
assembly. It shall be noted that cadmium can
penetrate and embrittle titanium alloys under
certain circumstances.
PARTS IN CONTACT WITH NON-METALLIC MATERIALS
4.3.74 Fluorinated organic polymers - The See Leaflet 9.
possibility of corrosion or stress corrosion of
titanium alloys by contact with fluorinated sealants
50
SECTION 4

shall be considered in the choice of materials.
4.3.75 Phosphate ester hydraulic fluids -
Titanium alloys shall not be used in situations
where contamination with phosphate ester
hydraulic fluid can occur at temperatures (e.g.,
over 120°C) at which the fluid can cause corrosion
of the alloy.
TREATMENT OF METAL TANKS (INCLUDING INTEGRAL TANKS)
4.3.76 The exterior surfaces of tanks shall
be protected by a treatment appropriate to the
metal from which they are made. Interior surfaces
shall be treated as described below.
TANKS FOR AVIATION FUEL (INCLUDING INTEGRAL TANKS)
4.3.77 Aluminium alloy tanks. The inside The cartridge shall be installed in a position
surfaces shall be anodised in chromic acid (DEF where free water present in the tank will come
STAN 03-24) or chromate filmed (DEF STAN 03- into contact with it when the aeroplane is in the
18) and shall then be painted with a chromated standing position. There shall be no risk of the
epoxy primer (BS 2X33) or with an approved (DTD cartridge or its contents getting into other parts
900) (obsolescent) alternative scheme resistant to of the system.
fuel degradation and to micro-biological attack. In
addition to the surface treatment an inhibitor
cartridge or bag containing calcium chromate to
Specification DTD 495 (Obsolescent) or strontium
chromate in an approved cartridge, bag or tablet
form shall be provided in tanks not having sumps,
e.g. shallow wing tanks or integral tanks.
4.3.78 Titanium alloy tanks - The inside
surfaces need no protective treatment.
4.3.79 Use of copper-base materials. Consideration shall be given to the possibility of
adverse effects due to attack by aviation fuel on
copper-base materials with consequent
degradation of fuel.
51
SECTION 4

TANKS FOR WATER-METHANOL AND FOR DE-ICING FLUIDS
4.3.80 Tanks made from corrosion resisting
steel or titanium need no protection inside. Tanks
made of aluminium base material shall be
anodised (BS 5599) and the presence of other
metallic components may necessitate further
internal protection with a suitable paint scheme.
TANKS FOR DRINKING WATER
4.3.81 Tanks made of corrosion resisting
steel and titanium need no protective treatment
inside. Those made of aluminium alloy shall be
anodised (BS 5599) and painted with clear varnish
to DTD 5562(Obsolescent), the material used
being suitable for contact with drinking water.
TANKS FOR HIGH TEST PEROXIDE (HTP)
4.3.82 The internal surfaces of HTP tanks
shall be treated as described in DEF-60 and 61 as
appropriate.
TANKS FOR AVPIN
4.3.83 Tanks for Avpin shall be made of
corrosion-resisting steel containing not less than
5% nickel. They shall be treated only as in Clause
4.3.46; paint shall not be applied internally.
EXFOLIATION CORROSION OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
4.3.84 The aim shall be that all aluminium (a) Necessary precautions shall be taken in Leaflet 6 gives advice on means of complying
alloy parts of the aeroplane are so designed that the choice of alloy, heat treatment, degree of with this Clause. Advice on testing procedures to
when the aeroplane is maintained according to the working, grain structure, manufacturing establish the susceptibility of aluminium alloy
servicing schedule there shall be no unacceptable methods, protective treatments, etc, to minimize components is given in Leaflet 6.
loss of airworthiness as a result of exfoliation the chance of exfoliation corrosion occurring.
corrosion.
(b) Wrought aluminium alloys categorised C
in Table 1 of Leaflet 6, because of their high
susceptibility to exfoliation corrosion, shall not
52
SECTION 4

be used without the prior approval of the Project
Team Leader. In the case of aluminium alloys
not included in the Table application shall be
made to the Project Team Leader for
Categorisation.
(c) Aluminium alloys categorised C in Table

1 of Leaflet 6, which have occasionally suffered
exfoliation corrosion in service, shall be used
only after consultation with materials specialists.
STRESS CORROSION CRACKING
4.3.85 The aim shall be that all parts of the
aeroplane are so designed, protected, assembled,
drained and vented that when it is maintained in
accordance with the Servicing Schedule there will
be no unacceptable loss of airworthiness as a
result of spontaneous, progressive or delayed
cracking induced by stress corrosion and/or
associated hydrogen embrittlement.
4.3.86 The Designer shall take the (a) Because of their high susceptibility to Leaflet 7 gives advice on acceptable means of
necessary precautions by controlling such aspects stress corrosion cracking, those materials compliance with this clause.
as the strength of material, heat treatment, grain (aluminium alloys and steels) categorized D in
direction, stress concentrators, manufacturing Table 1, 2 or 3 of Leaflet 7 shall not be used
methods, surface condition, residual and assembly without the approval of the Project Team
stress, and protective treatment to minimise the Leader. When it is proposed to use an
chance of failure due to such cracking. aluminium alloy or steel which is not included in
the tables, application shall be made to the
Project Team Leader for categorization. (The
materials considered in Leaflet 7 are based on
the A|D|S current rationalized list)
(b) Materials categorized C in Tables 1, 2
53
SECTION 4

and 2 of Leaflet 7 have occasionally been
subject to stress corrosion failure in service and
shall therefore only be used after consultation
with materials specialists, preferably within the
contractors organisation or alternatively within
MOD. Parts made from these materials shall be
designed and manufactured observing all of the
precautions listed in this requirement.
TREATMENT OF WOOD
4.3.87 See also Clause 4.1.17
EXTERNAL PLYWOOD SURFACES
4.3.88 The surfaces shall be covered with a
suitable fabric (BS-F series) applied with an
approved adhesive (DTD 900)(Obsolescent). They
shall then be painted with the standard paint
scheme appropriate to the adjacent structure.
INTERNAL SURFACES
4.3.89 After any adhesive bonding is
complete, surfaces shall be either painted with the
standard interior paint scheme, or varnished (BS
5X 17 not for new design)
FLOORS
4.3.90 Wooden parts in floors shall be
treated with wood preservative chosen by
reference to BS 1282. Types OS or WB 1, 2 or 3
are preferred to Type TO. Type WB4 shall not be
used. Surfaces shall then be either varnished (BS
5X 17 not for new design) or painted with the
standard interior paint scheme.
ASSEMBLY OF WOOD TO METAL
4.3.91 Except where adhesive bonding is Note: The impregnants used to preserve and
used, all joints between wood and metal shall be to improve the flame resistance of wood may
wet assembled (as described in Clauses 4.3.104 to seriously increase the corrosion of metals with
54
SECTION 4

4.3.116) after the metal surfaces have been which the wood is in contact.
painted.
4.3.92 Fasteners used in contact with
timber should preferably be made of brass or
corrosion-resisting steel. If made of non-corrosion-
resisting steel, they shall be coated with cadmium
(Def Stan 03-19) or zinc (Def Stan 03-20)
4.3.93 Magnesium base alloys shall not be
used in direct contact with wood, but shall be
separated by a shim of zinc, aluminium or a
suitable non-metallic material.
TREATMENT OF FABRIC COVERING OPEN STRUCTURES
4.3.94 The external fabric covering open
structures shall be tautened and protected with
dope to BS 2X26). Any paint scheme used over
the doped area shall not significantly affect the
tautening characteristics of the dope.
NATURAL FIBRES
4.3.95 Natural fibres, whether in the form of Parachute materials shall be treated in Note: Information is given in Leaflet 11 on the
fabrics, tapes, webbing, cordage or threads, shall accordance with Specification DTD deleterious effects of light and heat on fibre
be protected against rot. 928(Obsolescent). Other materials shall be properties.
treated in accordance with BS 2087 by one of
the following processes:
(a) Pentachlorophenyl laurate

process (aqueous emulsion type) - this is
generally applicable and is colourless and
odourless.
(b) Chrome copper process (with

stitch finish) - this is applicable to cellulose
threads but should not be used where
there is contact with rubber or aluminium
55
SECTION 4

or magnesium alloys. It is light green in
colour and odourless.
(c) Mineral khaki process followed by

(a) (normal process with stitch finish) - this
is applicable to cellulose fabrics, tapes and
webbing. It is khaki in colour and
odourless.
4.3.96 Polymer coated fabrics. Where appropriate to the end use the coating
shall contain additives which provide the
material with resistance to degradation to the
satisfaction of the Project Team Leader.
SYNTHETIC FIBRE MATERIALS
4.3.97 When synthetic fibre materials are Synthetic fibre materials are resistant to rotting (Information is given in Leaflet 11 on avoidance of
intended for applications in which they may receive but dressings added in course of manufacture degradation due to light, heat and abrasion)
much exposure to light, fibre of the 'bright' type should be removed.
shall be used, i.e. fibre which is substantially free
from delustering pigment.
PLASTIC MOULDED MATERIALS
4.3.98 No additional finish is normally
required.
TREATMENT OF SYNTHETIC RESIN COMPOSITES
4.3.99 Internal surfaces may be left untreated, except Note: The fire retardant properties of thin gauge
where painting is required to attain a desired laminates may be compromised by the application
colour. of some paint schemes.
4.3.100 External surfaces shall normally be Note: Some methods of surface abrasion and
painted with an appropriate approved scheme chemical paint removers may cause severe
preceded by an appropriate pretreatment. damage to some types of composite materials,
particularly those containing carbon fibres. For
this reason expert guidance should be sought on
suitable surface treatments and paint schemes.
4.3.101 Where surfaces of composites containing Note: Carbon fibre behaves as a noble metal in
carbon fibres are in contact with metals, special its galvanic corrosion effects on metals, that is, its
56
SECTION 4

attention shall be given to design (Clauses effect will be similar to that of gold etc. in column
4.3.11 and 4.3.12) and to assembly (Clauses 1 of Table 1 of Leaflet 10. In particular, it will give
4.3.104 to 4.3.116), to prevent galvanic D class contacts when in contact with aluminium
corrosion. In particular, direct contact of carbon base and magnesium base alloys.
fibre composite with magnesium alloy,
aluminium alloy, non-corrosion resisting steel,
cadmium and zinc surfaces shall be avoided
either by using adhesive bonding techniques to
electrically insulate the composite and metallic
components or by painting the carbon fibre
composite component before it is wet
assembled (Clauses 4.3.104 to 4.3.116) to the
metallic component which should be protected
to the normal preassembly requirements
(Clauses 4.3.33 to 4.3.43, 4.3.51 to 4.3.62)
TREATMENT OF RADOMES
4.3.102 The general considerations of
Clauses 4.3.99 to 4.3.101 apply but due attention
shall be paid to the possibility of certain materials,
e.g. pigments, affecting radar transparency (DTD
926(Obsolescent), and BS 2572 (Partially by BS
EN 60893-2)
BATTERY STOWAGES
4.3.103 Surfaces that may be affected by If mechanical damage to the paint coating is
battery electrolyte, including by spray, shall be expected, consideration should be given to
given the appropriate surface treatment and then providing suitable supplementary non-metallic
painted to BS 2X33 or BS 2X33 & 2X34. protection.
PRECAUTIONS AND TREATMENTS DURING ASSEMBLY
FIELD OF APPLICATION
4.3.104 These requirements apply to all static joints and
interfaces; that is, all contacting surfaces whether
between similar or dissimilar materials (one or
both of which is a metal) that are not intended to
57
SECTION 4

move relative to one another in service. The
requirements apply also to static joints that will be
parted from time to time, e.g. inspection covers.
WET ASSEMBLY
4.3.105 Except as detailed in Clauses
4.3.110 to 4.3.114 all static joints shall be wet
assembled with an approved sealant or an
approved jointing compound (Clauses 4.3.108 to
4.3.109)
4.3.106 Sealants - These shall be applied to
the mating surfaces so as to completely fill any
crevice and produce at the edge of the joint a
specific fillet which shall not, be subsequently
removed Where fasteners form part of the
assembly, the sealant shall be present down the
shank and under the head and tail.
4.3.107 Jointing compounds - These shall
be applied to the mating surfaces so as to
completely fill any crevice but excess material at
the edge of the joint should be largely removed by
wiping prior to painting. Where fasteners form part
of the assembly, compounds shall be applied to
the hole and/or the shank and thread so that in the
assembled joint the compound completely fills any
space under the head and tail of the fastener.
MATERIALS APPROVED FOR WET ASSEMBLY
4.3.108 Sealants curing to produce an Note: Possible dangers to titanium alloys
elastomer which adheres to one, or preferably from fluorinated sealants when at elevated
both, surfaces (DTD 900)(Obsolescent). This type temperatures are described in Leaflet 9, and it is
of crevice filler should be used for fuel tanks, cabin recommended that the Aeroplane Servicing
skins and pressure capsules. Manual calls for titanium parts in contact with
Viton sealants at temperatures of 200°C and
above to be subject to spot inspection for incipient
58
SECTION 4

cracking after every 1000 hours at temperature.
4.3.109 Jointing compounds:
(a) Pigmented jointing compound non-

hardening type (DTD 5604, DTD
900)(Obsolescent)
(b) Pigmented varnish jointing

compound, (MIL-C-11796, QPL 11796-31)
(c) Alternatives to (b) above (DTD

900)(Obsolescent)
4.3.110 Spot and seam welded joints - All
spot and seam welds shall be made through a
coating of approved (DTD 900) weld-through
primer, sealant, or adhesive. The coating shall be
applied to one or both of the surfaces, after
suitable cleaning in such a way as to fill the crevice
of the welded joint completely.
4.3.111 Joints made with an adhesive.
Jointing compound shall be omitted from
adhesively bonded areas.
4.3.112 Screwed unions in liquid and
gaseous systems. Jointing compound other than
those specifically designed for the purpose shall be
omitted from unions in oxygen systems and may
be omitted from unions in other systems.
4.3.113 Lubricated joints - Lubricated joints,
including those with grooves or holes for oiling,
shall be assembled with the lubricant to be used in
service, or with an inhibited oil or grease
compatible with the service lubricant.
59
SECTION 4

4.3.114 Joints where anti-fretting treatments
are required. Anti-fretting treatments DTD
900)(Obsolescent) may be used in place of wet
assembly materials.
NON-METALLIC SHIMMING AND PACKING MATERIALS
4.3.115 Such materials shall be non-
corrosive, effectively non-absorbent, and
electrically insulating (BS 60684-2),
3964(Withdrawn), 6746(Withdrawn)).Wet assembly
while not normally required, may be used to
eliminate potential crevices.
METAL SHIMS
4.3.116 Sacrificial metal shims used in joints
between dissimilar metals shall be wet assembled
(Clauses 4.3.105 to 4.3.107)
TREATMENT AFTER ASSEMBLY - TOUCHING UP
4.3.117 Requirements for painting before
and after assembly have been given in Clauses
4.3.14-22. Before final painting, all areas shall be
inspected for the integrity of any protective
treatment previously applied. Areas where the
protective treatment is not intact, due, for example,
to damage or to deliberate removal for electrical
bonding, shall be treated as described below.
TOUCH UP OF SURFACE TREATMENTS
4.3.118 Surface treatments shall be repaired
by the process originally applied except that, where
there is a possibility that any solution used may be
trapped and cause subsequent corrosion, any
other process appropriate to the part and not giving
rise to this danger may be used.
4.3.119 Non-corrosion-resisting steels.
60
SECTION 4

Brush plating of cadmium to meet the requirements
of Def Stan 03-19 is particularly suitable. Baking
treatments (Def Stan 03-19 and Def Stan 03-4)
may be omitted on steels of less than 1800 MPa
max UTS by agreement with the Design
Organisation.
4.3.120 Aluminium and its alloys - Parts that
have been anodised (BS 5599) may be touched up
by a chromate filming treatment (Def Stan 03-18)
applied by brushing, or by etch priming (BS 2X 32)
provided that etch primer is acceptable (Clause
4.3.19)
4.3.121 Magnesium alloys - Chromate films
shall be touched up as described in SAE AMS M
3171. Surface sealing (DTD 5562)(Obsolescent)
may be touched up with room temperature curing
chromated epoxy primer (BS 2X33). Stoved paint
schemes may be touched up with room
temperature cured paints (Def Stan 03-7
Obsolescent)
SPARE PARTS
4.3.122 Note: This section applies to spare parts and
should be considered for parts placed in long term
in-work storage.
4.3.123 Spare parts should preferably be
supplied fully protected according to the
appropriate sections of this section. Where this is
not possible, they shall be treated in accordance
with the following Clauses.
4.3.124 Parts supplied in the primed
condition should preferably be protected from
contact with oils, greases and other materials
61
SECTION 4

which would interfere with subsequent treatment.
Otherwise, any such contamination shall be
thoroughly removed prior to over-coating (Def Stan
03-7 Obsolescent)
4.3.125 Temporary protection shall be by
appropriate approved compounds (See AP119A-
0200-1 Corrosion Manual). For long term and
tropical storage, the requirements of Def Stan 81-
41 Parts 1 to 6 shall be observed. The
requirements do not apply if maintained desiccated
packs are used.
NON-CORROSION-RESISTING STEEL PARTS
4.3.126 Plated parts shall be coated with See Clauses 4.3.33 to 4.3.43
temporary protective except where the storage is
known to be in warm indoor conditions.
4.3.127 Parts metallised with aluminium
should not be treated with temporary protective.
4.3.128 Parts phosphated as a pre-
treatment before painting shall always be supplied
with at least a coat of the primer of the specified
paint scheme, and shall not be coated directly with
temporary protective.
4.3.129 Lubricated parts, including those
phosphated before lubrication, shall be supplied in
the lubricated condition or coated with temporary
protective. It shall be stated whether the temporary
protective must be removed immediately prior to
service, or whether it is compatible with the service
lubricant.
ALUMINIUM AND ALUMINIUM ALLOY PARTS
4.3.130 Parts that have been anodised or See Clauses 4.3.51 to 4.3.61
chromate filmed before painting shall be supplied
with at least a coat of the primer of the specified
62
SECTION 4

paint scheme. Temporary protectives may be used
on parts that are not to be painted.
4.3.131 Parts which are not required by
Clauses 4.3.51 to 4.3.61 to be anodised or
chromate filmed shall be either etch primed
(Clause 4.3.19) or coated with temporary
protective.
4.3.132 Parts metallised with aluminium or
aluminium-zinc alloy should normally be supplied
with at least one coat of the primer of the specified
paint scheme. If supplied bare, they shall not be
coated with temporary protective. Parts metallised
with zinc shall be etch primed (Clause 4.3.19) and
preferably then coated with the primer appropriate
to the specified paint scheme.
MAGNESIUM ALLOY PARTS
4.3.133 Parts shall be supplied in the fully See Clause 4.3.62
protected condition, with the possible exception of
the final finishing paint coat.
CRATING AND STORAGE
4.3.134 Packing and crating for storage and
shipment shall be carried out with due regard to
the hazards of transport, the climate and
environment to be withstood and to the dangers of
accelerated corrosion caused by stagnant
conditions inside packs or inside components.
Guidance should be sought from Def Stan 81-41
Parts 1 to 6 and BS 7195)
63
SECTION 4
4.4 ACCESSIBILITY, MAINTENANCE AND SERVICING
4.4.1 This information is similar in content to CS 25.611 The requirements of this clause aim at the simplification of inspection, servicing, replacement of
components and repair by Service personnel in order to reduce the time, effort and cost spent in maintaining the aeroplane in an airworthy condition,
thereby increasing its operational effectiveness.

4.4.2 The aeroplane and its equipment Routine servicing, adjustments, lubrication,
shall be designed to reduce to a minimum the need repairs and replacements of component parts
for servicing or inspection other than the need to shall be possible with ease, using, as far as
replenish consumable stores. (Clauses 4.4.3 to possible, standard tools and equipment and with
4.4.7) the minimum of man-hours and without need for
access equipment. (Clauses 4.4.3 to 4.4.7)
DESIGNING FOR MAINTENANCE
4.4.3 During the early design stages of an aeroplane In addition consideration shall also be given to the
special attention shall be given to ensure: following requirements (the list is not exhaustive):
(a) that the engine and its equipment (a) Reduction of complexity by:
can be replaced easily and quickly.
(1) providing adequate accessibility,
(b) that inspection, maintenance and workspace and work clearance.
repair of parts of an aeroplane structure
and installations can easily be (2) providing for interchangeability of
accomplished. similar materials, components and parts.
(c) easy removal and replacement of (3) use of standard parts (Clauses
damaged sections of aeroplane structure 4.1.10 to 4.1.12 and Part 1, Section 1,
and systems. Clause 1.1.3).
(4) logically sequenced maintenance

tasks.
(b) Reducing the frequency of

servicing and maintenance activities by
64
SECTION 4

using:
(1) fail safe or damage tolerance

design features in essential services.
(2) components that require little or no

preventive maintenance.
(3) tolerances that allow for use and

wear in service.
(4) adequate corrosion prevention and

control features (Clauses 4.1 and 4.3)
(c) Reducing Maintenance Downtime

by designing for:
(1) rapid and positive detection of a

malfunction.
(2) ease of fault rectification.
(3) rapid and positive adjustment and

calibration.
(4) rapid testing or checking of

rectification.
(5) easy repair or replacement of

components and parts that are
vulnerable to normal operating hazards
and battle damage avoiding time
consuming and tedious processes
65
SECTION 4

(Clause 4.4.38)
(d) Reduction of maintenance support

costs by limiting:
(1) number and variety of tools and

support equipment.
(2) the need for special tools and

support equipment.
(3) the need for Depth maintenance

(Leaflet 14).
(4) the need for extensive or complex

maintenance data.
(e) Reducing the possibility of

maintenance error by eliminating:
(1) the possibility of incorrect

assembly, installation or connection (Part
1, Section 1, Clauses 1.1.9 to 1.1.11)
(2) dirty, awkward and tedious job

elements.
(3) ambiguity in maintenance labelling,

coding and technical data.
ACCESSIBILITY
4.4.4 (a) Where practical access shall be provided
to permit inspection (including inspection of
principle structural elements and control
66
SECTION 4

systems), replacement of parts, adjustment and
lubrication as necessary for continued
airworthiness. Where it is not practical to provide
direct visual access non-destructive inspection
aids may be used to inspect structural elements
if it can be shown that the inspection is effective.
(b) Where practical access shall be provided

through hinged cowls or panels. Engine cowls
shall be hinged to the airframe.
STOWAGE
4.4.5 Stowages, easily accessible to
servicing crews, shall be provided for Travelling
Servicing Notes and forms, Form F700, cross
servicing guide, pitot head covers, static vent
plugs, safety and warning pennants, turn round
tools, undercarriage locks and special to type
servicing couplings.
CONDITION INSPECTION EQUIPMENT
4.4.6 The lives of many aeroplane Consideration shall be given to the incorporation See Section 6.
components are influenced by the duty cycles that of such monitors in the aeroplane design and,
those components experience. Although statistical where possible they should be easily read in situ
analyses are used to evaluate safe lives, a more and from the ground.
accurate assessment of the life expended can be
made through the use of monitoring equipment,
(e.g., elapsed time indicators, magnetic chip
detectors, vibration analyses, etc)
FAULT DIAGNOSIS
4.4.7 To assist in fault diagnosis, Where ground test equipment is required for
aeroplane system designs shall include where maintenance of complex systems, an automatic
appropriate, facilities for built in test equipment test facility shall be considered.
(BITE) and the use of accessible self diagnostic
maintenance panels to indicate, to an agreed level,
67
SECTION 4

the location of system faults.
TRANSPORT, HANDLING AND STORAGE
4.4.8 The information from Clauses 4.4.8 to 4.4.24
covers the requirements for transport, handling
and storage with the general aim that the design
shall permit the use of standard equipment
wherever possible. Where standard equipment or
tools cannot be employed, the special items shall
be included with the design of the aeroplane.
TRANSPORT OF COMPONENTS
4.4.9 So that, as far as possible, (a) It shall be possible to sub-divide the
aeroplane components may be packed and aeroplane into components as indicated in Table
transported by normal transport facilities, the 2 and the individual components including
compliance shall be met on the following basis: packing cases, shall not exceed the size and
weight limitations given in Table 3. Case wall
(a) for aeroplanes up to 34,020 kg all- thickness shall be taken to be:
up weight, the requirements shall be met in
full, and, (1) 100 mm for sides and ends, and,
(b) for aeroplanes over 34,020 kg all-up (2) 150 mm for top and bottom.
weight, the requirements shall be considered
individually in the light of the role and Where it is not possible to design the airframe
construction of the aeroplane. with suitable breakdown or transport joints the
maximum facilities shall be provided for on-site
"fly-in" repairs.
(b) All components shall be designed to be

conveniently stored and handled without
elaborate supporting crates; jury struts should
be used where necessary to render components
self-supporting.
(c) Components should have no projecting
68
SECTION 4

portions liable to be damaged and brackets in
this category should be readily removable for
packing and transport.
(d) Component parts of wings and tail units

shall be packed vertically or flat in their cases
and diagonal packing to comply with the limiting
dimensions will only be accepted in exceptional
circumstances. It should be possible to store
wing components with the chord vertical.
(e) As far as possible components shall

incorporate facilities for handling and securing
them in storage and transport containers so that
the containers do not have to provide
complicated parts to give the necessary support.
GROUND HANDLING
4.4.10 (a) The aeroplane shall be designed with a Typical items of G.S.E. which the Contractor may
view to the fullest possible use being made of be required to supply are as follows:
standard R.A.F. or Naval equipment, tools and
ground support equipment (GSE) as (a) aeroplane gantry for engine
appropriate, for servicing, as, for example: changing,
(1) moving the aeroplane on the (b) ladders for reaching the engine(s),
ground, tanks or other parts,
(2) filling tanks (Part 1, Section 5, (c) jacks to lift and support the
Clause 5.2), aeroplane,
(3) routine overhauls of the engine(s) (d) wing and tail trestles,
and airframe,
(e) tail towing and steering arms,
(4) removing and handling an engine
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SECTION 4

change unit, (f) tackle for handling auxiliary
airborne power plants, if fitted, and,
(5) removing and handling an
auxiliary airborne power plant, if fitted, (g) slings (Clauses 4.4.17 to 4.4.20)
(6) jacking-up the aeroplane, and,
(7) re-arming.
(b) Particulars of standard equipment are

obtainable, on written application, from the
(c) When Special to Type (STT) GSE is

required, consideration shall be given to:
(1) ease of use in any operational

environment.
(2) reliability.
(3) operation, handling and

maintenance by personnel wearing NBC
protective clothing.
JACKING
4.4.11 It shall be possible to raise the It shall be possible to meet the requirements of
aeroplane on three primary jacking points for the Clauses 4.4.11 and 4.4.12 using jacks chosen
following purposes: from the standard range and approved by the
Project Team Leader, from whom advice on the
(a) as a routine measure for the testing, current range of standard jacks can be obtained.
removal and replacement of all retractable
mechanisms and their associated equipment,
and for those servicing operations which
70
SECTION 4

include rigging checks and adjustments, and,
(b) as part of the recovery operations

following an incident.
4.4.12 It shall be possible to jack up the
aeroplane at or near the axles for the purpose of
changing an individual wheel having a deflated
tyre.
4.4.13 The aeroplane in any operational The effect of movable masses (e.g. fuel,
configuration and carrying any authorised personnel, equipment and tools) shall also be
combination of stores shall be stable when considered.
supported upon jacks at all masses between the
empty mass and the maximum take-off mass.
4.4.14 The minimum clear space to be See ASCC Air Standard ADV PUB 25/23.
provided under each aeroplane primary jacking
point, to accommodate a tripod jack, shall conform
to Fig. 1
4.4.15 Jacking pads shall comply with the (a) The pad may be permanently fixed to the See ASCC Air Standard 17/1. (Cancelled)
requirements of BS C 12 and shall be fitted so that jacking point or may be a detachable fitting.
when the aeroplane is in the normal jacked-up
position, the axial centre line of the pad is within 3° (b) If detachable pads are used at primary
of the vertical. jacking points, they shall be chosen from the
standard pads listed in Defence Standard 17-3.
The sockets in the aeroplane shall be designed
so that the pads can be inserted and removed
without difficulty. When not in use, detachable
jacking pads will not normally be required to be
stowed in the aeroplane.
4.4.16 The jacking points shall be marked
in accordance with the requirements of Defence
Standard 05-18.
SLINGING
RAF AEROPLANES
71
SECTION 4

4.4.17 Aeroplanes with a maximum design Provision shall also be made for slinging the
take-off weight not exceeding 20,412 kg shall have aeroplane less wings.
provision for the attachment of lifting slings to
enable the aeroplane to be lifted clear of the
ground on one hoist.
NAVAL AEROPLANES
4.4.18 Provision shall be made for slinging (a) Aeroplanes with a maximum design take-
the complete aeroplane on one hoist with all off weight exceeding 9,072 kg shall have
folding components both folded and spread, and provision for slinging by both one and two
with jury struts in position. It shall be possible to hoists.
sling the complete aeroplane less wings and also
complete aeroplane when in the embalmed state. (b) The height of the slinging ring shall be
the minimum possible and shall not exceed
4.6m above the ground when in the slinging
attitude.
COMPONENTS
4.4.19 Slinging facilities shall be provided (a) When required, a detachable hoist for
on components too heavy for manhandling. fitting to the aeroplane shall be provided to
permit the installation and changing of heavy
components, engines or propellers.
(b) On Naval aeroplanes, when the height of

the tailplane exceeds 3.0m above ground level,
provision shall be made for the attachment of a
lifting frame to the underside of the tailplane in
addition to an overhead sling.
MARKING OF SLINGING POINTS
4.4.20 All slinging points shall be marked in
accordance with the requirements of Def Stan 05-
18.
GROUND TOWING
4.4.21 Provision shall be made on all (a) Manoeuvring by these means shall be See also Part 1, Section 3, Clause 3.11
aeroplanes for towing and pushing by a standard possible in all turns corresponding to the range
72
SECTION 4

towing vehicle with a towing arm attached to the of castoring angles specified in Clauses 4.11.23
auxiliary undercarriage unit or neighbouring strong to 4.11.33, even when undercarriage ground
points. locking devices and/or flying control locks are
engaged (also Clauses 4.11.65 and 4.11.66 and
Part 1, Section 3, Clause 3.12)
(b) Provision shall be made for RAF

aeroplanes to be towed both backwards and
forwards by means of a bridle attached to the
main undercarriage units with the apex at the
towing vehicle.
TOWING POINTS
4.4.22 All towing points shall be readily (a) On Naval aeroplanes, auxiliary
accessible to ground personnel and shall be undercarriage towing points shall be located at
marked in accordance with the requirements of Def the axle.
Stan 05-18.
(b) The dimensions of towing points on See also ASCC Air Standard 25/9 and STANAG
aeroplanes shall conform to STANAG 3278. 3278.
(c) Where towing lugs are provided at the

main undercarriage, they shall, where possible,
be in a horizontal plane when the aeroplane is at
rest on the ground and shall be located as close
to the centre of the main wheel as practicable.
LOAD LIMITATIONS
4.4.23 All towing arms, with the exception (a) The operating load shall be tested and
of those for use on aircraft carriers, shall embody a shall not be less than 0.15W where W is the
load limiting device to prevent the load transmitted maximum design take-off weight.
to the aeroplane from causing structural damage.
(b) Provision shall be made to ensure that
the driver of the towing vehicle can readily
ascertain the maximum permissible towing arm
angle.
73
SECTION 4

GROUND RUNNING OF TURBO-JET ENGINES-USE OF NOISE ATTENUATORS
4.4.24 The use of noise attenuating In order to comply with the requirement, all
equipment during the ground running of the turbo-jet aeroplanes shall be provided with
engine(s) shall be taken into account in the design means of restraint to limit adequately the
of all turbojet aeroplanes. dynamic movement of the jet tail pipe under all
conditions of engine running, from zero thrust to
full thrust (including reheat, if provided)
ROUTINE SERVICING
4.4.25 This information from Clauses 4.4.25 to 4.4.32
contains requirements for routine servicing.
(a) In the general design,

consideration shall be given to the
possibility of reducing repair work arising
from the normal operating hazards of the
aeroplane type, (e.g. birdstrike, heavy or
wheels up landings, tail scrapes). Those
portions of the structure likely to suffer such
damage should be quickly and easily
replaceable.
(b) Sound proofing, heat shielding and

furnishings shall be arranged for easy
access to hidden components requiring
maintenance.
(c) For Naval aeroplanes a means by

which the alignment of the fuselage can be
checked should be provided. Any fittings
necessary for this purpose may be
removable.
GENERAL
4.4.26 (a) The design shall cater for adequate (a) Routine servicing as conducted by Service
74
SECTION 4

servicing with the least expenditure of man- units consists of inspection and operations
hours. The following servicing operations: necessary to keep the aeroplane in a serviceable
and operable condition and facilities to assist
(1) Flight Servicing. such work shall be provided.
(2) Replenishment and draining of (b) It should be remembered that an operation

consumable supplies. easily performed in a well-lighted and heated
workshop may prove difficult in the open and
(3) Re-arming. under adverse climatic conditions with limited
equipment, and wearing NBC protective clothing.
(4) Removal, replacement and Similarly, operation from hardened aircraft
functional testing of all avionic equipments. shelters (HAS) or under deployed conditions in
the field may impose other restrictions.
Shall be possible, wearing the appropriate
clothing, under the maximum and minimum See also STANAG 3294.
ground temperature conditions given in Part 1,
Section 7, Clause 7.2 and in all winds of up to
20 m/s (39 kts). No tools shall be necessary for
carrying out the operations (1) and (2) above
and where possible, without great increase in
weight or complication, this requirement shall
also apply to operations (3) and (4) above.
(b) On Naval aeroplanes it shall be possible

to carry out the operations set down under (a)
when the aeroplane is secured, wings folded, to
the deck of an aircraft carrier rolling 150 either
side of the vertical.
TURN ROUND
4.4.27 Servicing shall be possible without (a) The turn round time, (i.e. the time taken
damage to the aeroplanes finish. to replenish all consumable stores and to make
a visual Between-Flight Servicing), shall be as
short as possible. The Contractor shall
75
SECTION 4

demonstrate that the time does not exceed that
given in the Staff Requirement.
(b) The demonstration shall be made using

standard Service equipment with personnel
wearing clothing appropriate to the cold weather
conditions laid down in Clause 4.4.26 and
wearing NBC suits as appropriate, but making
the test under sheltered temperate conditions.
The Contractor shall at an early stage agree
with the appropriate Service authority (Central
Servicing Development Establishment for RAF
aeroplanes and Naval Air Technical Evaluation
Centre for Naval aeroplanes) the number of
personnel, the equipment and clothing used in
the demonstration.
AUTOMATIC BREAKAWAY CONNECTION
4.4.28 On RAF interceptor, strike and ground attack
aeroplanes, and on Naval fighter and strike
aeroplanes, all connections needing to be made
between the aeroplane and the ground or
ground equipment during standby and engine
starting must be so designed that the aeroplane
can disconnect them automatically and without
damage by taxying from its standby position.
INSPECTION
4.4.29 Parts which require frequent
inspection or replacement shall be easily
accessible and fully visible to a tradesman working
on them. If direct access is not available then
suitable inspection panels shall be provided. Such
panels in pressure cabin, shall be self sealing and
shall not require the application of sealing
76
SECTION 4

compound to make an airtight joint.
4.4.30 On Naval aeroplanes, it shall be
possible to carry out all Flight Inspections without
the use of ladders and all joints and moving parts
of all folding mechanisms shall be readily
accessible for inspection and/or servicing.
LUBRICATION
4.4.31 Where sealed or self lubricating (a) To permit the use of standard lubricating See also STANAG 3766.
bearings are not used, lubrication of all parts of the guns, all lubricating nipples shall be designed
controls shall be provided for. and installed in accordance with the appropriate
requirements of BS Specification SP 115 to
1172 or SBAC Standard AS 44401 to 444033.
Straight nipples to BS Specification SP 115 or
SBAC Standard AS 44401 should be used
whenever possible.
(b) The aeroplane shall be designed to use

the lubricants listed in Def Stan 01-5 wherever
possible and as few different kinds as possible
shall be used.
GASEOUS SYSTEMS
4.4.32 Provision shall be made for charging
the gaseous systems in situ.
REPAIRS
contains information on repair requirements.
GENERAL
4.4.34 Consideration shall be given in the design of the
airframe to ease of repair in service. Particular
care shall be taken to avoid conditions where
defects or damage of a minor nature cannot be
repaired by Service units but require major
77
SECTION 4

replacements or the use of special equipment.
All repairs shall be designed with a view to their
being done by Service personnel and, as far as
possible, without need to dismantle the
surrounding structure. Thus, types of
construction using special techniques are not
acceptable if in Service, repair of minor damage
is thereby precluded.
STRENGTH
4.4.35 Repairs shall comply with all The design of the repairs shall, in general, be
relevant design requirements for the aeroplane as such that the reserve factor of the repaired
a whole. member is not lower than 1.2 or that of the
undamaged member, whichever is the less. It is,
however, undesirable to repair one member in
such a manner that its strength is relatively
much below that of the surrounding structure. If
the application of a particular repair would
considerably reduce the reserve factor of the
member, care shall be taken to ensure that a
combination of two or more repairs could not
reduce the reserve factor below the safe limit.
Alternatively, a warning shall be included
drawing attention to, and prohibiting the
application of, the dangerous combination. If
compliance with these requirements is difficult to
attain, the matter shall be referred to the PTL.
MATERIAL
4.4.36 Standard materials and methods of
repair shall be employed wherever possible.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
4.4.37 Repair operations should be of a Factors that shall be considered for the design Composite structural repair is in a developing
flush or patch configuration and spreaders and of composite repairs are: stage, but because of the need to use specialist
compatible fasteners shall be used where equipment, environmental conditions, material
78
SECTION 4

applicable on aeroplane panels and cowlings. All (a) Environmental conditions to handling difficulties and the need for careful lay
repairs shall comply with the relevant design ensure temperature, humidity and up, most repairs are likely to be undertaken at
requirements for the whole aeroplane. cleanliness are compatible with the repair. Depth Maintenance.
(b) the dressing of composite

materials will produce highly conductive
fibres, therefore, electrical equipment may
need to be screened. The fibres also act
as an irritant.
(c) the need for an NDT inspection

before and after the repair to ensure
integrity of the surrounding structure and
the repair.
(d) the provision of a scrim cloth and

of an adhesive film as an insulator
because galvanic action will occur
between composite materials and non
ferrous metals.
(e) provision for accessibility,

replacement of parts, and inspection in
composite material enclosed areas.
(f) greases, oils, chemicals and fuels

can have a detrimental affect on
composite material resins.
(g) the provision of an anti fretting

strip to the underside of panels and,
cowlings prior to fitment ('Limpet suction
cups' may be used for removal if restriction
79
SECTION 4

is felt)
(h) the need to maintain lightning

strike and EMC protection where
applicable.
REPLACEMENT OF COMPONENTS
4.4.38 The basic requirements for ease of replacement
are:
(a) Accessibility of joints, connectors

and fittings.
(b) Interchangeability of components.
(c) Minimum use of special tools and

equipment.
DISMANTLING AND ERECTION
4.4.39 (a) Components liable to damage, such as The construction of component parts of the
landing gear, wing tips, flaps, air brakes, aeroplane shall be such as to permit them to be
elevators, ailerons, pitot head, aerials, etc, shall rapidly dismantled and erected by Service units.
be easily replaced. Any equipment for this purpose other than
standard Service items shall be supplied for use
(b) Where it is necessary to break the with the aeroplane.
fuselage to remove an engine, fuel tanks, or
other components, consideration shall be given
to providing:
(1) a quick release mechanism or a

minimum number of bolts, and,
(2) quick release couplings for all

pipelines and controls and plug and socket
joints for electric cables at, or accessible to,
80
SECTION 4

the brake joint in the fuselage.
ENGINE INSTALLATION
4.4.40 The engine installation shall be in
accordance with the requirements of Part 1,
section 5, Clause 5.1
PIPELINES
4.4.41 Attention shall be given to the provision of easy
means of replacement of pipelines. The
grouping together of pipelines for ease of
access shall not significantly increase the
vulnerability of the aeroplane to battle damage.
INSTRUMENTS
4.4.42 The instrument panel design and location shall
make it easy to facilitate removal and installation
of the instruments.
CONTROL CABLES OR RODS
4.4.43 Cables must be so arranged that (a) Turnbuckles, other adjustment points,
they are easy to identify, adjust and to replace. fairleads and other points in a system which
might cause difficulty when replacing a cable
should be placed in positions where they are
readily visible and accessible, an inspection
panel being fitted if necessary.
(b) Where a cable passes round a pulley,

joints may be inserted in the run of the cable to
facilitate replacement of that portion which
travels round the pulley.
4.4.44 Any shear connection in a flying This secondary device should be automatic in
control or engine control run, failure of which would operation and should not depend upon
lead to a loss of either control or motive power maintenance personnel remembering to carry
shall be either: out a separate action such as the bending of
locking tabs or the fitting of locking wire.
(a) an acceptable permanently locked Secondary means of retention which depend
81
SECTION 4

connection, or upon friction or spring are usually acceptable.
(b) be provided with a secondary

means of retention such that once the item is
placed in position, the secondary retaining
device becomes automatically effective in
preventing it from dropping out of position
even though the usual retaining device may
have been omitted.
4.4.45 Standard control rod eye ends shall
be used in accordance with Clauses 4.1.10 to
4.1.12
ELECTRICAL AND AVIONIC INSTALLATION
4.4.46 Electrical cables should be marked Consideration shall be given to the provision of
at frequent intervals with a separate code identity redundancy and separate routeing to reduce
for each cable so that they are easy to identify and essential system vulnerability to battle damage.
replace.
4.4.47 Avionic and electrical component Where appropriate, avionic and electrical
replacement units likely to be carried by one man systems shall be designed with line replaceable
shall not exceed 27 Kg (60 lb), and ideally should units permitting rectification of a system defect
not exceed 18 Kg (40 lb). All units exceeding 27 Kg by fitting a replacement unit; the unserviceable
(60 lb) shall be fitted with suitable slinging points. unit then being repaired off the aeroplane.
INTERCHANGEABILITY
provides interchangeability requirements for
production aeroplanes and their accessories. On
prototype aeroplanes, interchangeability is not a
requirement, but the provision of complete
interchangeability shall receive full consideration
in the design of such aeroplanes. See also MAP
RA 5201.
BASIC REQUIREMENT
4.4.49 All items (components, assemblies (a) Wherever practicable complete The procedures for granting exemption from full
82
SECTION 4

or sub-assemblies) of airframes, accessories and assemblies shall not be 'handed'. interchangeability are contained in MAP RA 5201.
spares shall be designed and manufactured to
ensure that they are capable of being replaced (b) The Aeroplane Specification will state
without degrading their functional capability so that where on a particular project a fully
any may be replaced with a stock item of the same interchangeable item is required to be capable
standard unless subsequent authorised of being changed within a specified timescale.
modification action has affected or nullified the item
that is in question.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
4.4.50 The physical and functional Specific definitions are included in Part 0.
characteristics shall be as defined in MAA
Regulatory Publication RA 5201.
LIMITS
4.4.51 Limits shall be clearly stated on the
drawings for all dimensions affecting assembly or
functioning of the parts.
JIGS, TEMPLATES AND GAUGES
4.4.52 In the construction of all parts, the
Contractor shall provide and use such jigs,
templates and gauges as are necessary to meet
the interchangeability requirements, and shall
maintain them so that the approved initial standard
is not deviated from during their period of use.
DIMENSIONING OF DRAWINGS
4.4.53 In dimensioning the drawings of It is preferable to choose the datum point or line
parts, the individual dimensions shall be given from on the actual part to assist inspection, since an
a chosen datum point or line and rectangular external datum necessitates a special set up.
coordinate dimensions shall be employed.
DATA SHEETS
4.4.54 With each new type of aeroplane, (a) These sheets shall show the minimum
interchangeability data sheets shall be prepared clearance for final covering, and also tolerances
and included in the Master Record Index (MRI). upon dimensions and attachment points of all
83
SECTION 4

components which will be held as spare parts.
(b) The minimum allowable clearances

which will ensure that no part of a moveable
component will foul any adjacent component
shall also be shown.
(c) If shims and bushes are employed at

rigid attachments, details shall be given on the
data sheets.
4.4.55 Where components are further sub-
divided, as is the case in large aeroplanes, the
above conditions shall also apply at the sub-
divisions.
ATTACHMENT OF MAIN COMPONENTS
4.4.56 On main components, when rigid attachments
necessitating fitted joints are essential,
removable parts (e.g. shims and bushes) shall
be provided to ensure that no alteration to the
main component is necessary to obtain the fit
required.
HINGES
DATUM
4.4.57 In an arrangement of hinges, one This datum hinge may be an end hinge if
hinge shall be indicated on the drawings as a centres are up to 2.3m, but if centres are larger
datum from the centre line of which all other hinges than this a hinge as nearly central as possible
are dimensioned. shall be used.
MINIMUM CLEARANCES
4.4.58 Sufficient clearance shall be (a) The datum hinge shall have as small a
provided between male and female hinges (other clearance as possible for location purposes and
than the datum hinge to allow for the assembling of where freedom of end movement is permissible,
each pair in all positions possible, taking adverse the minimum clearance of the requirement need
limits into consideration. not be provided on this hinge if the limits on the
84
SECTION 4

locating dimension are sufficient to cover the full
end movement possible under the limits
governing the remaining hinges.
(b) There must be no danger of fouling other

parts of the structure, or of exceeding the
minimum clearances allowed between two
covered components which are hinged together.
PIANO HINGES
4.4.59 Piano hinges shall not be separated The drawings shall indicate to which part the line
but shall be attached to one component only, shall be attached and also convenient bolt holes
leaving one half to be attached to the mating part which shall be used as datum points for
on assembly. assembly.
COWLINGS AND PANELS
4.4.60 Any suitable method which has received the
prior concurrence of the MOD Quality Assurance
Authority may be employed to obtain
interchangeability of cowlings, panels, etc. but
consideration shall be given during the early
stages of design to ensure that the pick-up point
on the aeroplane and the pick-up point on the
removable part are adequately jigged.
AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
4.4.61 Care should be taken to minimise variations in
contour of any component when change in the
aerodynamic characteristics of that component
will affect the performance of the aeroplane.
CRITICAL POSITIONING
4.4.62 When the position of one The jigging and interchangeability
component relative to another is critical (e.g., arrangements, and the riveting technique, shall
aileron and shroud) the shape and the positional be designed to minimise both the risk of
dimensions of the adjacent surfaces shall be departures from the dimensions and the warping
closely specified and tolerances indicated. or distortion of such components in
85
SECTION 4

manufacture.
AILERONS
4.4.63 The measures taken to obtain
compliance with Clauses 4.4.61 and 4.4.62 should
be such as to avoid the necessity for adjustable
hinges on ailerons and on all ailerons it shall be
impossible to vary the position of the hinge along
the aileron chord.
86
SECTION 4
4.5 MATERIAL STRENGTH PROPERTIES AND VALUES
4.5.1 This clause is similar in content to CS 25.613

DESIGN DATA FOR METALLIC MATERIALS
4.5.2 Clause 3.1 states that 'B' allowable values shall
be derived for all Grade A structural details. To
calculate these values it is necessary to refer to 'B
'allowable data for structural materials. This
clause provides information on acceptable data
for metallic materials.
Note: The definitions of A, B and S values are to

be found in ESDU Metallic Materials Data
Handbook 00932.
4.5.3 Data in ESDU Metallic Materials Data (a) Acceptable properties for use in the
Handbook 00932 are given for materials to the design of metallic details are as follows:
specification issue or date given. It is the Chief
Designer's responsibility to ensure that the data (1) As stated in the ESDU Metallic
used are relevant to the specification issue or Materials Data Handbook 00932 obtainable
date defined on or through the drawing. from the Engineering Sciences Data Unit, 251
to 259 Regent Street, LONDON WlR 7AD, or
(2) As obtained or derived from test

data when not included in ESDU Metallic
Materials Data Handbook 00932, or
(3) As obtained by using approved

(see Clause 4.1) processes and control
specifications to maintain a mechanical
property which is more advantageous than
that included in ESDU Metallic Materials Data
Handbook 00932.
87
SECTION 4
(b) Data obtained as in (a)(2) and (3) above

shall be derived by the same methods as are
used to establish the data in ESDU Metallic
Materials Data Handbook 00932 and specified
therein.
(c) When using data given in ESDU Metallic

Materials Data Handbook 00932 under (a)(1)
above the following requirements apply:
(1) For the design and airworthiness

acceptance of all parts the data given on
white paper shall be used. Data on grey
paper shall not be used.
(2) Where no 'B' values are available

and only 'S' values are given on white paper
then 'S' values are acceptable.
(3) Data given on grey paper may be

used for preliminary project work only.
4.5.4 Adequate allowance shall be made, The use of 'B' values shall be associated with a
where applicable, for the effects of all procedure to monitor the appropriate
manufacturing processes and environmental specification mechanical properties to ensure
conditions on material strength and for all and demonstrate that the values are being
tolerances, ranges, variations, or limitations stated maintained.
or referenced in ESDU Metallic Materials Data
Handbook 00932.
PLASTICS MATERIALS
4.5.5 (a) For the purpose of this Clause the term
'Plastics' has been taken to comply with the
definition in Part 0.
88
SECTION 4
(b) These materials are normally used in

extrusions, injection, compression/transfer and
blow mouldings and thermoformed shapes but
exclude those structurally significant materials,
often termed "composites" such as carbon fibre
reinforced plastic and glass reinforced plastic
which can, in certain circumstances, be moulded
using similar techniques.
(c) Requirements for general aircraft glazing

and transparencies are in Clause 4.18 and are
not considered in this Clause.
SELECTION OF PLASTICS MATERIALS
4.5.6 When selecting Plastics materials (a) The mechanical properties of the Further amplification is given in Leaflet 22.
the properties and characteristics listed in component to be manufactured.
Compliance shall be considered.
(b) The component design, the properties of
the material and the method of manufacture.
Direct substitution of a plastics material for metal
without a redesign of the component is
frequently unsatisfactory.
(c) The probability of fire and its effects.
(d) The temperature range over which the

component is intended to operate:
(1) Possible reduction in mechanical

properties as temperature is increased
within the normally acceptable working
range.
89
SECTION 4

(2) The embrittling effect of low
temperatures on many thermo-plastics.
(3) The effect of temperature on the

life of the component.
(e) Degradation resulting from the

temperature used in processing the material; it
is important that process conditions are
maintained to reduce this effect to a minimum.
(f) Dimensional stability which is dependent

on a number of factors including thermal
expansion, creep, manufacturing process and
moisture.
(g) Changes in properties resulting from the

absorption of water or water vapour other than
the dimensional effect in (f) above; most
mechanical and electrical properties will
deteriorate with increasing moisture content.
(h) Interaction of plastics with other organic

materials with which they may come into contact
and their possible corrosive effects on metals.
(i) The effect of exposure to direct sunlight

or other sources of ultra violet radiation.
(j) Environmental stress cracking of plastics

materials by liquids particularly organic fluids.
GRADE A APPLICATIONS
4.5.7 All plastic materials to be used in
90
SECTION 4

Grade A applications (for details see Clause 4.1)
shall be procured to specifications defined as
acceptable in Clause 4.1
RUBBERS
contains rubber requirements.
SELECTION OF RUBBERS
4.5.9 Rubbers shall be selected with due Environmental factors include, but are not Consideration should also be given to the
regard to the static and dynamic requirements of limited to, temperature range, the presence of following cases:
the application and the environment in which the liquids and gases, whether by design or by
component is required to function. contamination from adjacent systems, and other (a) The corrosive effect, particularly at
materials which the rubber may come into elevated temperatures, of some rubbers
contact. including their components on metals e.g.,
those rubbers based upon polymers
containing halogens, such as
polychloroprene etc.
(b) Attack by ozone - Most natural

atmospheres contain sufficient ozone to
affect susceptible rubbers and where a
rubber is used in a strained condition in
these atmospheres it shall be based on an
ozone resistant polymer. Account shall also
be taken of the increased ozone
concentration arising from the operation of
certain types of electrical equipment and the
presence of ultra-violet radiation.
(c) Incompatibility arising from contact

between different rubbers, e.g., that
between some silicone and polyurethane
rubbers. The risk of interaction with other
non-metallic materials e.g., rubber seals
91
SECTION 4

causing stress cracking in acrylic or
polycarbonate components or migration of
plasticiser from flexible PVC into a rubber
component causing softening and swelling.
(d) Subsequent treatment of a

component or assembly of which the rubber
forms a part e.g., that necessary prior to
adhesive bonding, plating or painting.
WARNING: Particular care should be exercised

when silicone polymers are involved as they can
act as "release agents" consequently preventing
effective adhesive bonding or painting.
Contamination from products embodying these
materials can occur by both contact and in some
cases proximity alone.
(e) Effects caused by the use of

surface coatings and protective’s including
paints and dewatering fluids etc.
(f) The probability of fire and its

effects. All rubbers will burn under certain
conditions. Some, once ignited, will
continue to burn in the presence of
sufficient air. Others will only burn if heat is
supplied from another source. In many
cases the smoke and fumes arising from the
burning rubbers are asphyxiating and/or
toxic to an extent which varies with the
nature of the rubber and the temperature of
the fire and the degree of combustion. In
92
SECTION 4

general, partial combustion arising from lack
of air is more likely to produce toxic
emissions.
GRADE A APPLICATIONS
4.5.10 All rubber materials for use in Grade Whenever practicable test requirements for the
A applications (for details see Clause 4.1) shall components, sufficient to establish the suitability
comply with specifications defined as acceptable in of the manufacturing process, shall be
Clause 4.1, and all components shall be stipulated.
manufactured in accordance with Def Stan 93
series in addition to any drawing and any other
special requirements which may be necessary.
PACKAGING AND STORAGE
4.5.11 Rubber components shall be
packaged in accordance with BS 3F 69 and stored
in accordance with BS 4F 68.
93
SECTION 4
4.6 PROCESSES AND WORKING OF MATERIALS
4.6.1 This information is similar in content to CS 25.605 and 25.607 This clause covers jointing processes in general but excludes any application using
fasteners.

JOINTING PROCESSES
4.6.2 All joints made by a metallic jointing (a) In assessing, the suitability of a method (a) Leaflet 15 gives advice and
process shall be graded as being either Grade A or for making consistently sound and durable recommendations on the design, inspection and
Grade B in accordance with the definitions given joints, account shall be taken of the following strength of joints made by fusion and friction
below: points: welding, and by diffusion bonding.
Grade A - A joint, the failure or leakage of which (1) the material to be joined and the (b) Leaflet 16 gives advice on processes and
would result in any of those consequences of position and ease of accessibility of the control of adhesive bonding of structural joints.
failure which define a Grade A part. All such joints joint, Recommended design practice for adhesive
are to be subject to basic inspection techniques, bonding of structural joints is given in Leaflet 17.
augmented with ultrasonic, radiographic and dye (2) the structural importance of the
penetrant or magnetic examination as appropriate, joint, (c) Leaflet 19 gives advice and
unless otherwise agreed with the Project Team recommendations on the use of brazing and
Leader. Drawings for Grade A parts shall define (3) the extent to which the uniformity soldering.
the additional inspection required. and quality of the joint can be guaranteed
by control of the method of fabrication,
Grade B - All other joints. These to be subject to
basic inspection techniques and such other tests (4) the extent to which the
as may be required. soundness of a joint after fabrication may
be judged by inspection methods,
(5) the accuracy with which the

static, impact and, where necessary, fatigue
properties of the joint may be predicted
from evidence available on similar joints,
(6) the possibility of reduction in

strength of the joint with time due to
94
SECTION 4

corrosion, deterioration of the jointing
medium or similar causes,
(7) the need to maintain RF

screening properties and prevent electrical
discontinuities across the joints.
(b) If the designer is not satisfied that the

method is suitable at his own works (and/or
subcontractors where applicable) in respect of
all the factors given in (a) he shall refer the
application to the Project Team Leader and,
where necessary, tests as agreed shall be made
to satisfy the Project Team Leader of the
soundness of the method as applied to the joint
under consideration, and to enable design
strengths to be fixed.
(c) The strengths used for design purposes

shall be based upon the results of tests on
representative specimens. Where adequate and
relevant strength data are available from past
experience, these may be used.
STRENGTH AFTER PROCESSING
DETAIL DRAWINGS
4.6.3 Where the process adopted for The drawings and documents containing this This guidance draws attention to the possible
manufacture may affect the strength of a part, information shall be available to, and to the loss of strength which may result from coating
sufficient information shall be given on the detail satisfaction of the Project Team Leader or his metal parts with polyvinyl chloride, polythene,
drawings or in documents related to the drawing to representatives. nylon or other plastics materials.
ensure that the part is fabricated by the process or
sequence of processes necessary to provide the The coatings are applied by spraying or, more
required strength. frequently, by dipping in a fluidised bed of the
powdered material, after heating the part
95
SECTION 4

concerned to a temperature above the melting
point of the coating material. This temperature
will depend not only on the coating material but
also on the thickness of the coating required and
on the heat capacity of the part. In practice, the
temperatures may range from about 100°C up to
400°C.
The temperatures involved in the application of

the coating may cause a loss in mechanical
properties in some metals. High strength
aluminium alloys, are at greatest risk, as they are
commonly given a final heat treatment in the
range 130°C to 190°C. High strength steels can
also be affected, depending on the tempering
temperature which can be as low as 200°C.
Titanium alloys however are normally unaffected
by temperatures below 400°C.
Hence it is essential for the designer to ensure

that the temperature employed in any coating
process should not be such as to cause an
unacceptable deterioration in the properties of the
material. He should also ensure, that the
maximum temperature to which each part may be
subjected is stated on the drawing or order.
4.6.4 Where minimum strength properties
for welded joints are required, these shall be
quoted in the drawings.
DE-MAGNETISING
4.6.5 See Part 1, Section 6, Clause 6.4.16 and Section
6 Leaflet 10.
FLAW DETECTION
96
SECTION 4

4.6.6 The need for a flaw detection test on each part
should be considered and the drawings
endorsed accordingly. The technique to be
employed in conducting such tests shall be
agreed, where necessary, between the designer
and the manufacturer.
FORGINGS
4.6.7 On the drawings of Grade A parts
the direction of grain required shall be indicated
clearly in a manner which will ensure that it is
brought to the notice of the person responsible for
deciding the forging technique to be adopted.
4.6.8 At least one specimen from each The load demonstrated must be in accordance Note: In no instance is it visualised that a forging
source of supply of every Grade A forging shall be with Part 1, Section 3, Table 1. A note to this should be assessed as critically highly stressed
strength tested in the critical design case. effect shall be included in the drawings of the all over, and it does not follow that all forgings will
forging. This test may, however, be waived contain surface areas meriting this special
either: treatment.
(a) when the forgings show similarity

in design to forgings already approved by
test from the same source of supply. (It is
important that the initial billet size and
ultimate ruling sections are similar to those
previously tested and that the strength of
the forging can be estimated reliably from
existing test results), or
(b) when the calculated strength of

the forging is not less than 1.5 times the
fully factored load in the critical design
case.
In order that critical highly stressed unmachined
97
SECTION 4

areas shall be given the extra degree of
inspection which they need to guarantee the
integrity of the forging, the drawing shall be
marked, normally by cross-hatching, to indicate
any areas, not to be machined, which will be
critically highly stressed and shall describe the
finish to be given to such areas prior to
inspection by the forger. Unless otherwise
arranged between the forger and the aeroplane
designer, inspection shall be carried out after
solution treatment or full heat treatment and
subsequent chronic acid anodising.
4.6.9 Each Grade A steel forging shall The location(s) and dimensions of these test
incorporate, whenever practicable, one or more pieces shall be decided in consultations with the
projections which, after heat treatment of the supplier of the forging.
forging, can be used as test piece(s) to detect
whether the forging has been overheated.
ADHESIVE BONDING
4.6.10 Structural tests shall be undertaken (a) Selection of an adhesive and surface Information on approved procedures for adherent
for all Grade A components unless it can be preparation of components shall take account of surface preparation, application and bonding of
demonstrated by reference to existing test data for all relevant factors including the effects of adhesives, process control and production
some sufficiently similar approved and satisfactory natural environments, in particular warm wet facilities is contained in Leaflet 16.
structural application that the proposed new conditions, and aerospace fluids so as to
application will be satisfactory. maintain an adequate joint strength of the
component throughout its specified life.
(b) Selection of adhesive and material to be

bonded shall take account of the effect of pre-
treatment and bonding temperature cycle on the
strength, fatigue and corrosion resistance of the
structural material used.
(c) All designs shall take account of the
98
SECTION 4

complex stress distribution occurring within a
loaded adhesively bonded joint and that the
strength of a joint cannot generally be computed
directly from the strengths obtained from
standard single lap shear specimens.
(d) Attention shall be given to the use of

corrosion protection coatings on metal
honeycomb core (Clause 4.3)
SEALANTS AND SEALING
4.6.11 The sealing process shall conform (a) The type of sealant shall be selected It should be noted that some sealants soften in
to a specification and for Grade A applications this with due regard to the static and dynamic the presence of liquids and/or their vapours and it
shall be agreed in writing by the Project Team requirements and environment of the sealed is important that due allowance is made for this in
Leader. All sealing materials referred to therein joint. In addition the possible need for the design especially where the sealant plays an
shall comply with specifications defined in Clause subsequent inspection involving both sealant integral part in the behaviour of the joints in
4.1 as acceptable for Grade A applications. removal and re-sealing shall be considered. fatigue. Overcoating with a suitable barrier
Environmental factors include, but are not coat/sealant may lessen this effect. See Leaflet
limited to, temperature range, the presence of 20.
liquids and gases, whether by design or by
contamination from adjacent systems and other
materials with which the sealant may come into
contact.
(b) In designs where a preformed gasket is

not appropriate it may be possible to utilise a
low adhesion sealant to form an in place gasket.
(c) All designs shall be such as to take into

account the possible requirements for interfayed
joints, i.e. those where further operations may
require the use of fasteners through the sealed
joint either within the work life of the sealant or
after it has cured. Where the fatigue behaviour
99
SECTION 4

of a joint is critical, the joint shall be fully
assembled and fastened within the work life of
the sealant being used.
4.6.12 The design shall ensure that the
appropriate pre-treatment including cleaning and
degreasing and, where necessary, the use of
primers, is carried out on the surfaces which will
form the sealed joints.
4.6.13 Where leak resistance is a prime In many cases the sealant acts not only as a
requirement a sufficient number of fasteners to means of containment of a fluid but also prevents
ensure adequate sealing, over and above that moisture ingress into the joint thus resisting
required to provide the necessary strength shall be corrosion and in some instances is used only to
used. inhibit corrosion. In any case the requirements for
corrosion prevention and control described in
Clause 4.3 prevail.
4.6.14 Due consideration shall be given to As far as possible these shall be designed to be
the position of concentrated load attachments and outside the boundaries of the tank or other
their resulting local strain. vessel. Where this is not possible the design
shall make provision to enable access, in
service, to permit inspection of the joint and
rectification if necessary.
100
SECTION 4
4.7 CASTINGS
4.7.1 This information is similar to CS 25.621 Castings may be used subject to the compliance with the requirements of this Clause, except for crew's seat
primary structure. The Clause applies to Grade A castings only. There are no special requirements for Grade B castings.

RADIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION, MECHANICAL TESTS AND CRACK DETECTION
4.7.2 All Grade A castings from each (a) A radiological technique shall be
source of supply shall be subjected to the prepared by an accredited radiologist. This is to
radiological examination approved for the part until be approved by the Designer to the satisfaction
the suitability of the foundry methods, patterns and of the MOD Quality Assurance Authority and
alloy have been proved. shall be referenced on the casting drawing.
(b) When the production technique has been

established to the satisfaction of the Design and
the Project Team Leader the Designer may
authorise a reduction in the radiological
examination. Any change in the source of
supply, production technique, material or design
will necessitate a reversion to 100 %
radiography.
(c) In addition, if required by the Designer or

Project Team Leader occasional cut-up test
shall be made to check the uniformity of the
castings and/or the radiological technique.
(d) If radiological examination should

present great difficulty then a cut-up procedure
may be adopted, subject to the Project Team
Leader's agreement.
4.7.3 All Grade A castings shall be Examination shall be after completion of all heat
examined by penetrant flaw detection or magnetic treatment and machining operations.
particle flaw detection to a technique approved by
101
SECTION 4

the Designer, and to the satisfaction of the Project
Team Leader.
STATIC STRENGTH APPROVAL
GENERAL
4.7.4 Castings shall normally be approved Castings may be approved by calculation alone
by test. in accordance with Part 1, Section 3, Clause
3.1.11, or by comparison with a casting of
similar design and the same conditions of
manufacture which has already been tested in
the relevant design loading mode and complies
with the ultimate strength requirements.
APPROVAL BY TEST
4.7.5 It shall be shown by test on one or (a) The number of castings tested is at the Coefficients of variation have been established in
more castings under design loading that the discretion of the designer who will arrange for the past for a number of specifications and will be
average ultimate strength of the castings tested is random selection from the first 20 castings found in ESDU Metallic Materials Data Handbook
not less than the ultimate strengths for the passed by the founder's inspector. If, owing to 00932. For materials not listed in 00932, the
conditions of test, times the factor given in Table 1 limited production in the early stage, 20 castings coefficient of variation shall be established in
of Section 3. are not available, a test or tests may be made accordance with the methods described in ESDU
on a casting or castings from a smaller number; Metallic Materials Data Handbook 00932, Volume
a test or tests from the next 20 passed shall 1 Section 1 Appendix A.
then be made as soon as possible.
(b) Only finished castings shall be used in

acceptance tests. Where finishing includes any
process of surface restoration or repair which
may vary from one casting to another, the
castings used for the tests shall represent the
weakest type of casting which will subsequently
be allowed in production.
(c) When the critical locations and failure

modes may be influenced by temperature, the
tests should be conducted at the design
102
SECTION 4

temperatures. Alternatively, room temperature
testing may be acceptable provided that the
loading has been suitably factored to allow for
the degradation of material properties. The
factors to be used may be determined from the
specimens chosen to represent the behaviour of
the critical locations and tested separately at the
two temperature conditions.
APPROVAL BY CALCULATION
4.7.6 Calculations shall be in accordance The following allowable values of material See Leaflet 21 Para. 2.3
with the provisions of Part 1, Section 3, Clause 3.1, strength may be used subject to the
using material values allowed in Compliance. requirements of Clause 4.5:
(a) Allowable A values obtained from

ESDU Metallic Materials Data Handbook
00932 on white paper.
(b) Allowable A values obtained in

accordance with the methods described in
ESDU Metallic Materials Data Handbook
00932 Volume 1 Section 1 Appendix A.
Values obtained in this way shall be
associated only with the one specification
and the founder supplying the data until
data from other founders has been
obtained and included.
(c) Values given in specifications for

the acceptance of cut-up tests.
(d) Values obtained from separately

cast test bars called for in the material
specifications using the appropriate
103
SECTION 4

reduction factors.
FATIGUE STRENGTH APPROVAL
4.7.7 Fatigue strength approval by test
and calculation shall be in accordance with Part 1,
section 3, clause 3.2
PRODUCTION
MONITORING
4.7.8 Castings shall be monitored by the
founder in accordance with the requirements of the
material specification and additionally if required by
the Designer and stated on the drawing.
RE-APPROVAL
4.7.9 If the founder, the material
specification, the casting process, the casting
technique, or the casting design is changed in any
significant way then the casting shall be re-
approved, proved and such repeat tests as may be
required by the Designer shall be performed.
104
SECTION 4
4.8 AERO-ELASTICITY, FLUTTER AND VIBRATION
4.8.1 The requirements of this clause are concerned with:
(a) structural distortion and the effect of such distortion on the loads on the aeroplane and on the stability and control of the
aeroplane.
(b) the prevention of flutter and other aeroelastic instabilities.
(c) Confirm and explore the flutter characteristics of the aeroplane within the specified flight envelope.
(d) Obtain measurements of the vibratory motions occurring at various regions of the aeroplane in order to confirm that equipment has
been designed and tested to adequate severities.

EFFECT OF STRUCTURAL DISTORTION ON THE LOADS ON THE AEROPLANE
4.8.2 In all design calculations associated
with the requirements of Clause 4.9 and Part 1,
Section 3, allowance shall be made for the
flexibility of the aeroplane structure.
EFFECT OF STRUCTURAL DISTORTION ON THE STABILITY AND CONTROL OF THE AEROPLANE
4.8.3 In all design calculations associated
with the requirements of Clause 4.10, Part 1,
Section 2 Clauses 2.1, 2.21, 2.22, 2.24 and 2.25 ,
Part 1, Section 6, Clause 6.5 and Part 1, Section 7,
Clauses 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3 allowance shall be made
for the flexibility of the aeroplane structure.
FLUTTER
4.8.4 The aeroplane shall be free from
flutter or any other dynamic aeroelastic instability
at any point within the flight envelope of Part 1,
Section 3, Clause 3.3 at any altitude up to the
maximum operating altitude.
STATE OF THE AEROPLANE
105
SECTION 4

MASS DISTRIBUTION AND STRUCTURE
4.8.5 The requirements of Clauses 4.8.2
to 4.8.4 shall be met with the aeroplane in any
authorised mass distribution, and with due
allowance for any change of stiffness that the
structure may experience during its operational life
(for example, from structural buckling, from thermal
effects or from the effect of moisture absorption on
composite materials).
SYSTEMS
4.8.6 The requirements of Clauses 4.8.2
to 4.8.4 shall be met with the aeroplane systems,
including stability augmentation systems, in any
authorised state.
EFFECT OF FAILURES
STRUCTURE
4.8.7 If any part of the structure is
designed to be 'damage tolerant', then the
requirements of Clauses 4.8.2 to 4.8.4 shall be met
with any damage up to the maximum permitted.
SYSTEMS
4.8.8 If the failure or malfunctioning of any See Leaflet 97.
part of any system is not extremely improbable and
does not lead to structural failure or loss of control
of the aeroplane for reasons other than flutter, then
the requirements of Clause 4.8.4 shall be met with
that part failed or malfunctioning.
DEMONSTRATION OF COMPLIANCE
4.8.9 A programme of calculations and The form of a flutter clearance programme is
tests to demonstrate that the flutter requirement of discussed in Leaflet 23. The interpretation of the
Clause 4.8.4 has been met shall be agreed with results from calculations and tests shall be
the Project Team Leader. agreed with the Project Team Leader.
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SECTION 4

FLUTTER AND VIBRATION
4.8.10 The purpose of the flight flutter tests is to
demonstrate the aeroplane is free from flutter
over the specified flight envelope. Flight flutter
tests should check the dynamic behaviour of the
aeroplane in flight conditions in which the flutter
stability margins (defined in Leaflet 23) are
smallest and are particularly important if the flutter
calculations are based on uncertain data. It
should not be assumed that the test results will
confirm the expected behaviour and the test
programme should be designed to ensure that
any unexpected characteristics will be revealed in
time to avoid jeopardising the safety of the
aeroplane.
The purpose of the flight vibration survey is to

obtain vibration response measurements at the
various aeroplane locations during a specific
series of aeroplane missions. These
measurements will form the basis for assessing
the suitability of equipment design and test
severities. For equipment, particularly sensitive to
vibration, the resultant vibration database may be
used to improve the design.
FLIGHT FLUTTER TESTING
4.8.11 The flutter flight tests shall be Measurements of the vibrational responses to
undertaken before flight at high speed is an applied excitation force shall be made, at
undertaken on any aeroplane of the type. gradually increased airspeeds, in order to obtain
a measure of the damping and its variation with
airspeed. These measurements shall be made
over the appropriate range of flight conditions
(see Leaflets 23 and 31) and significant
107
SECTION 4

combinations of stores, weapons and internal
loads.
FLIGHT VIBRATION SURVEY
4.8.12 Flight vibration survey These survey measurements should encompass The flight vibration survey is usually undertaken
measurements shall be made over the operational both standard flight conditions and the mission after the flight flutter tests. Advice and guidance
flight envelope. profiles defined in the Aeroplane specification. on the conduct of the flight vibration survey is
The flight vibration survey shall be undertaken given in Leaflet 32.
utilising sufficient measurement locations to
allow overall aeroplane vibration severities to be
established. This will require typically 50
measurement locations, although for high
performance aeroplanes this number may be
significantly exceeded.
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SECTION 4
4.9 BIRDSTRIKE DAMAGE
4.9.1 This clause specifies the minimum requirements for the resistance of airframes of aeroplanes to damage caused by birdstrikes, and relate to the
European theatre of operation. Requirements for engines and weapons are not included. This information is similar in content to CS 25.631

GENERAL
4.9.2 Mode and extent of testing required
to demonstrate compliance with the requirements
shall be established by agreement between the
Project Team Leader and the Contractor.
FLYING QUALITIES
4.9.3 The effect of a single birdstrike (a) Consideration shall be given during the See Part 1, Section 2, Clause 2.1.17 to 2.1.19
under the conditions defined in Clauses 4.9.4 to design stage to the provision of adequate
4.9.5 shall not degrade the flying qualities of the access to internal structure and other features to
aeroplane below Level 2 in all flight categories. minimise the cost of repairing birdstrikes in the
area defined in Clause 4.9.5
(b) Acceptable repairability shall be

demonstrated during the development of the
aeroplane type. Repair by replacement of
assemblies or sub-assemblies may be
acceptable, subject to the agreement of the
THE THREAT
4.9.4 The maximum threat, for the (a) V M is the normal sustained speed required
purpose of these requirements, is a single strike by by the basic missions in the Aeroplane
a bird of 1.0 kg mass on the structural areas Specification for segments operated at up to 762
defined in Clause 4.9.5; birdstrike resistance is m (2,500 ft) above sea level (ASL) but shall not
defined in this Clause in terms of the relative speed exceed 480 knots (true air speed (TAS)).
of bird and aeroplane at impact.
(b) It should be assumed that the forces
acting on the structure are a function of mass,
109
SECTION 4

2
(velocity) , bird density and impact footprint.
4.9.5 In the detailed requirements that The frontal aspects of the following areas shall
follow, it shall be assumed that the birdstrike is on be considered at risk from bird strikes:
the frontal aspect. The frontal aspect is to be taken
as indicating the portions of structure exposed to (a) Windscreen, canopy and other
birdstrike when: forward facing transparencies including
fuselage mounted transparencies
(a) the aeroplane is in straight and level associated with navigation or weapon
flight, and also: system sensors and serving a structural
function.
(b) the aeroplane is at the maximum
angle of yaw and pitch relevant to the flight (b) Front fuselage structure,
conditions defined in Clause 4.9.4 including radomes, and forward facing
structure forming the boundaries of the
crew enclosure unless shielded by other
components covered by the requirements
of this clause.
(c) Engine air intakes (lips and

sidewalls).
(d) Leading edges of flying surfaces

(including canards).
(e) Aerodynamic devices mounted

on the flying surface leading edges.
DETAILED REQUIREMENTS
TRANSPARENCIES AND THEIR SUPPORTING STRUCTURE
4.9.6 Transparencies shall exhibit: This clause applies to windscreens, canopies,
quarter-lights and all other transparencies with a
(a) Optical qualities after impact which significant frontal aspect when the aeroplane is in
permit continued flight without degrading the a normal flying attitude.
flying qualities of the aeroplane below Level
110
SECTION 4

2.
(b) No cracking, delamination or other

defects which would degrade strength below
limit load after impact at speeds up to 1.0 V M
(c) Adequate stiffness or clearance so

that impact at speeds up to 1.0 V M does not
cause the deflecting transparency to come
into contact with either the occupants or
cockpit equipment.
(d) Additionally, windscreens shall

exhibit no penetration or shattering on impact
at speeds up to 1.1 V M , apart from a fracture
of a non load carrying laminate (e.g., a thin
facing glass) providing that the resulting
standard of vision is satisfactory.
4.9.7 Frames, arches and other structure
supporting transparencies shall be so designed
that:
(a) Impact, either directly on the

structural part or on the transparency, at
speeds up to 1.0V M shall not generate debris
which could be swept into air intakes.
(b) There is no permanent deformation

of the supporting structure at speeds up to
1.0V M unless the resulting damage does not
affect airworthiness and complies with the
Compliance of Clause 4.9.3
111
SECTION 4

(c) Transitory deformations on impact
at speeds up to 1.0V M do not cause the
deflecting supporting structure to come into
contact with either the occupants or cockpit
equipment.
(d) Liquidized remains of impacted

birds shall not penetrate into the cockpit.
FRONT FUSELAGE
4.9.8 Following birdstrike, the structure of The front fuselage structure is to be taken as
the front fuselage shall exhibit: including, where appropriate, the boundaries of
the cockpit and front mounted radomes.
(a) No damage, on impact at speeds up
to 0.7V M , beyond limits that would be
acceptable for indefinite future service
without repair.
(b) No penetration at speeds up to 1.0

VM
ENGINE AIR INTAKES
4.9.9 Engine air intakes shall provide
resistance to birdstrike as follows:
(a) No damage to the duct walls or

intake lip at speeds up to 0.7 V M which is
beyond that acceptable for indefinite
continued operation.
(b) No damage sufficient to prevent

operation of ramps, doors or similar air-flow
modifying devices at speeds up to 1.0 V M
(c) No deformation of the intake
112
SECTION 4

structure likely to cause significant
deterioration in engine performance at
speeds to 1.0 V M
(d) No penetration of intake walls, or

separation into the intake airflow of portions
of intake structure that exceed engine
ingestion limits up to 1.0 V M
FRONTAL ASPECTS OF FLYING SURFACES
4.9.10 Structure forming the frontal aspects
of flying surfaces shall, on impact at speeds up to
1.0 V M , not suffer damage likely to degrade flying
qualities below Level 2.
AERODYNAMIC DEVICES ON LEADING EDGES OF FLYING SURFACES
4.9.11 The effects of birdstrike upon the
performance of any forward facing aerodynamic
device and its operating system, shall be
considered during the design stage for both fixed
or movable devices. Impact with movable devices
may occur when they are closed, extended or in
travel. The required resistance to birdstrike varies
with the effect of malfunction or deformation upon
flying qualities in any of the three flight phase
categories specified in Part 1, Section 2, Clause
2.1.18 Thus:
(a) If the effect of malfunction is to

reduce the flying quality to Level 2, then the
devices and any operating system shall
withstand impact up to the following speeds:
(1) Closed - 0.9 V M
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SECTION 4

(2) Open - limiting speed for operation,
or - V M whichever is the lesser.
(b) If the effect of malfunction is to

reduce the flying quality to Level 3, then the
devices and any operating system shall
withstand impact up to the following speeds:
(1) Closed - 1.0 V M
(2) Open - limiting speed for operation,

or - V M whichever is the lesser.
SYSTEMS
4.9.12 On impact at speeds up to 1.0 V M
there shall be:
(a) No interference with flight

instruments or flying control operating
systems, or other sensors, likely to hazard
the safety of the aeroplane from either
primary or secondary impact or structural
deformation.
(b) No damage to fuel systems.
(c) No damage likely to cause fire.
(d) No damage likely to affect the safe

operation of the landing gear.
(e) No damage to the crew or

passenger escape system.
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SECTION 4
4.10 CONTROL SYSTEMS
4.10.1 The requirements of this Clause are concerned with those aspects of the manual or automatic flight control system which are directly related to
flying qualities. They are in addition to those requirements already stated in Part 1, Section 2, Clauses 2.21, 2.22 and 2.24 The requirements relating to
flight under full automatic control (pilot not in the loop other than during pilot intervention), are to be found in Part 1, Section 6, Clause 6.5 This information
is similar in content to CS 25.671 – 25.703

GENERAL
4.10.2 The mechanical characteristics of As used here, the term primary flight control
the flight control system shall be compatible with system refers to the main flying controls (i.e.
the non-mechanical portions of the system and pitch, roll and yaw inceptors), the corresponding
with the dynamic characteristics of the airframe. motivators and the intervening linkages and
devices, including augmentation systems. See
Part 1, Section 2 Leaflet 6. The elements of the
flight control system not included under the
heading of the primary flight control system are
referred to as the secondary flight control system.
See Leaflet 33.
References
1. Chalk, C.R. Background

Information and User Guide for MIL-F-
8785B (ASG)(Inactive).
2. "Military Specification - Flying

Qualities of Piloted Airplanes". Technical
Report AFFDL-TR-69-72, August 1969.
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM
CONTROL HARMONY AND INCEPTOR FORCE CO-ORDINATION
4.10.3 Intentional inputs to one axis of the See Leaflet 34.
inceptors shall not cause inadvertent inputs to the
other, incompatible with the required level of flying
115
SECTION 4

qualities.
4.10.4 The inceptor forces required to
perform manoeuvres shall have magnitudes which
are related to the pilot's ability to produce such
forces in combination.
INCEPTOR CENTRING
4.10.5 Inceptors shall have positive Although absolute centring is not required, the
centring in flight at any normal trim setting. combined effects of centring, breakout force,
force gradient and stability shall not produce
behaviour incompatible with the required levels
in respect of tracking ability, departures from
trim conditions with inceptors free, or difficulties
of control.
BREAKOUT FORCES
4.10.6 Breakout forces shall not cause
piloting difficulties incompatible with the required
levels.
INCEPTOR BACKLASH
4.10.7 The backlash in each inceptor, that
is, any motion of the inceptor which does not
produce a corresponding response of the
aeroplane in flight, shall not cause piloting
difficulties incompatible with the required levels.
CONTROL MARGIN
4.10.8 Control authority, rate and hinge This requirement applies to the prevention of See also Part 1, Section 2, Leaflet 5.
moment capability of the flight control system loss of control and to recovery from any situation
including stability augmentation system shall be for all manoeuvring, including pertinent effects of
sufficient to assure safety throughout the combined factors such as regions of control-surface-fixed
range of all attainable angles of attack (both instability, inertial coupling, fuel slosh, the
positive and negative) and sideslip. influence of symmetric and asymmetric stores,
stall/post-stall/spin characteristics, atmospheric
disturbances and Aeroplane Failure State
(manoeuvring flight appropriate to the Failure
116
SECTION 4

State to be included). Consideration shall be
taken of the degrees of effectiveness and
certainty of operation of limiters, CG control
malfunction or mismanagement, and transients
from failures in the propulsion, flight control and
other relevant systems.
ADJUSTABLE INCEPTORS
4.10.9 When an inceptor is adjustable for
the physical dimensions or comfort of the pilot, the
inceptor forces defined in Part 1, Section 2 Leaflet
6, Para. 2.1.4, shall refer to the mean adjustment.
A force referred to any other adjustment shall not
differ by more than 10% from the force referred to
the mean adjustment.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROL SYSTEM
4.10.10 The variation in response to All control system oscillations shall be well
inceptor deflections and forces for all amplitudes of damped, unless they are of such an amplitude,
input, including values of inceptor force within the frequency and phasing that they do not cause
breakout force specified by Clause 4.10.6 and piloting difficulties incompatible with the required
small inceptor deflections which may be required in levels. Oscillations of the inceptors or of the air-
tracking, shall not cause piloting difficulties frame during abrupt manoeuvres and during
incompatible with the required levels. flight in atmospheric disturbances (Part 1,
Section 2 Leaflet 5), shall be considered.
AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS
4.10.11 Operation of stability augmentation When control and stability augmentation devices Requirements relating to transients resulting from
and flying control augmentation systems and are engaged, movement of the stabilizing transfer to alternative control modes are given in
devices shall not introduce any undesirable flight or motivator shall not be reflected at the inceptor Clause 4.10.13, and those relating to failures in
ground handling characteristics. except by agreement with the Project Team Clause 4.10.23
Leader.
4.10.12 Degradation in the performance of
augmentation systems caused by atmospheric
disturbances or structural vibrations shall not
cause piloting difficulties incompatible with the
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SECTION 4

required level.
TRANSFER TO ALTERNATIVE CONTROL MODES
4.10.13 For Aeroplane Normal States only:
(a) the transient motions,
(b) the trim change, and
(c) the tendency to pilot-induced

oscillations,
following the intentional engagement or

disengagement of any portion of the flight control
system shall not cause piloting difficulties
incompatible with the required levels.
SECONDARY FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TRIM SYSTEM
4.10.14 Trim Operation - In straight flight, Rate of Trim Operation. Trim devices shall See Leaflet 35.
throughout the Operational Flight Envelope, the operate rapidly enough to enable the pilot to
trimming devices shall be capable of reducing the maintain low inceptor forces under changing
inceptor forces so that they do not cause piloting conditions nominally encountered in service, yet
difficulties incompatible with the required levels. not so rapidly as to cause over-sensitivity,
The same requirement shall apply over the Service overshoot or other difficulties in precise trimming
Flight Envelope for Aeroplane Normal States. The under any conditions.
range of operation of trimming devices shall be
limited by positive means to that necessary to
satisfy these requirements.
4.10.15 Trim for Asymmetric Thrust - In See also Part 1, Section 2, Clauses 2.22.37 to
straight flight with up to two engines inoperative 2.22.39 and 2.22.44 to 2.22.48
following asymmetric loss of thrust from the most
critical factors, the trim system shall be capable of
reducing the inceptor forces so that they do not
118
SECTION 4

required levels.
4.10.16 Stalling of Trim System - The trim The pitch trim system shall be capable of
system shall not stall within the Operational Flight operating during the dives and recoveries
Envelope and in no circumstance shall operation of related to Part 1, Section 2, Clause 2.21.26, at
the system result in an unsafe condition. any attainable permissible normal acceleration,
at any possible position of the trimming device.
4.10.17 Trim Setting - All trimming devices
shall maintain a given setting indefinitely, unless
changed by the pilot, or by a special automatic
interconnect such as to the flaps, or by the
operation of an augmentation device. If an
automatic interconnect or augmentation device is
used in conjunction with a trim device, provision
shall be made to ensure the accurate return of the
device to its initial trim position on removal of each
interconnect or augmentation command and return
to the original flight condition.
SPEED AND FLIGHT PATH CONTROL DEVICES
4.10.18 The effectiveness and response This requirement may be met by the use of
times of the longitudinal control shall be sufficient devices such as power lever, thrust reverser,
to provide adequate control of flight path and auxiliary drag devices and flaps.
airspeed at any flight condition within the
Operational Flight Envelope.
TRANSIENTS AND TRIM CHANGES
4.10.19 The transients and steady-state trim This requirement applies to all in-flight
changes for nominal operation of secondary flight configuration changes and combinations of
control devices (such as power levers, thrust changes made under service conditions,
reverser, flaps, slats, air brakes, deceleration including the effects of asymmetric operations.
devices, dive recovery devices, wing sweep, and In no case shall there be any buffeting or
landing gear) shall be such that it shall be possible oscillation which causes piloting difficulties
for the pilot to maintain the desired flight path incompatible with the required levels.
without experiencing piloting difficulties
incompatible with the required levels.
119
SECTION 4

AUXILIARY DIVE RECOVERY DEVICE
4.10.20 The operation of any auxiliary
device intended solely to supplement the pitch
control for dive recovery shall always produce a
positive increment of normal acceleration, but the
total normal acceleration factor produced by the
device alone shall not exceed 0.8n L , inceptors
free.
DIRECT FORCE CONTROL
4.10.21 The use of devices for direct force
control shall not produce changes in attitude which
required levels.
FAILURES
DANGEROUS CONDITIONS AND CONTROL LIMITATIONS
4.10.22 Any failure or combination of Consideration shall be given to the See Leaflet 36.
failures of the flight control system, after which consequence of failures in trim systems, and in
Level 3 or better flying qualities remain, shall not particular to the danger of trim runaway. See
lead to a dangerous measure of motivator Leaflet 35, Para. 3.2 If, due to failure, a trim
deflections or to system instability, nor shall such control can stop at such a setting that the
failures limit the amount of control available to the requirements of Clause 4.10, Part 1, Section 2
pilot to an extent giving rise to piloting difficulties Clauses 2.1, 2.21, 2.22, 2.24 and 2.25 , Part 1,
incompatible with the required levels. Section 6, Clause 6.5 and Part 1, Section 7,
Clauses 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3 cannot be satisfied,
then a stand-by system shall be provided.
FAILURE INDUCED TRANSIENT MOTIONS
4.10.23 Failure induced transient motions Pilot-induced oscillations that may arise during
and trim changes resulting either immediately after adaptation by the pilot to the changed
any failure of the augmentation devices or upon aeroplane/system characteristics shall not be of
subsequent transfer to alternative control modes a severity incompatible with the required levels.
shall not cause piloting difficulties incompatible
with the required levels.
TRANSFER TO ALTERNATIVE FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS OR MODES NECESSITATED BY FAILURE
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SECTION 4

4.10.24 Transfer of control from any flight Where the change-over to a standby system See Leaflet 36.
control mode or system to an alternative mode or results in a significant change in flying qualities,
system shall not demand conscious remedial means shall be provided to enable the pilot to
action by the pilot unless it can be shown that a change, for training purposes, to the alternative
dangerous measure of motivator deflection could systems.
not be applied within the time necessary for an
average pilot to detect and react to the failure and
effect change-over of control.
FLIGHT IN ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES
4.10.25 In the atmospheric disturbances The turbulence intensities being defined in Part 1,
stated in the Aeroplane Specification, the Section 2 Leaflet 5, Table 2.
effectiveness of the flight control system shall be
sufficient to maintain control of the aeroplane
throughout the Service Flight Envelope. If
atmospheric disturbances are not stated in the
Aeroplane Specification the requirements shall be
met at Level 1 in moderate turbulence, with
relaxation to Level 2 in Severe turbulence.
TESTS
4.10.26 The object of the tests of this Clause is to confirm
that the aeroplane is safe in the event of
malfunctioning of the powered flight control
system. The tests detailed in this Clause are
additional to the tests of Part 1, Section 2,
Clauses 2.2 to 2.20
RELEVANT DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
In addition to those above:

Part 1, Section 3, Clauses 3.9
Part 1, Section 4, Clause 4.10
121
SECTION 4

APPLICABILITY
The tests described in this Clause are applicable

to all new powered control systems, and all
systems where modifications have been made
likely to affect the results of the tests unless
otherwise stated. The tests must be conducted on
systems which are fully representative of the final
Service standard, and where the system
interfaces with others, they must also be fully
representative of the Service standard.
EQUIPMENT
4.10.27 INSTRUMENTATION - The TEST EQUIPMENT Means shall be provided
standard of instrumentation shall be such that the whereby system malfunction can be simulated,
functional characteristics of the powered flying and subsequently the system can be recovered
controls can be monitored. back to normal operation.
TEST DETAILS
4.10.28 Those details listed under (a) The evidence from preliminary ground rig
compliance shall be considered prior to test. tests,
(b) The standard of the powered flying

controls and its suitability for the tests proposed.
4.10.29 The tests should normally include (a) Normal control to emergency control,
those listed under compliance.
(b) Recovery and landing in emergency
control,
(c) Simulated failures.

4.10.30 Full details of the tests required will Pending the issue of the complete Clause,
be issued later. further details may be obtained from the Project
Team Leader.
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SECTION 4
4.11 DESIGN OF UNDERCARRIAGES
4.11.1 The requirements of this clause are applicable to the design of undercarriage units for military combat aeroplanes and trainers. Their application to
other types shall be discussed with the Project Team Leader. It is generally assumed in framing the requirements that each unit has one wheel but the
requirements apply equally to units having two or more wheels per unit except as stated in Clauses 4.11.12 to 4.11.13 This information is similar in content
to CS 25.721 – 25.729
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN Clauses 4.11 to 4.14
Abbreviation
Symbol/ Meaning
ATyre contact area - Angle between axis of nose-wheel and axis of aeroplane.
a Auxiliary - Angle of Attack.
ad Datum incidence in static attitude.
B Angle between nose-wheel and direction of tow-force.
b Centre to centre lateral spacing of extreme wheels in any multi-wheel undercarriage unit.
C Coverages.
CBR California bearing ratio (%). Strength of ground from which it is required to operate.
CBR1 California bearing ratio (%). Strength required to support one coverage of any undercarriage unit.
D Diameter of arresting gear hook cable support. Dragforce. Skip distance of undercarriage unit.
D'D" Components of skip distance.
D(V) The sum of wheel drag plus aerodynamic drag as a function of speed.
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SECTION 4
d Diameter of arresting gear hook cable. Take-off distance to lift-off.
do Tyre diameter.
df Wheel flange diameter.
F Bump factor applicable to the vertical reaction.
f Moment arm of braking force about aeroplane CG during towing.
G Acceleration due to gravity.
H Height of CG above ground. Height of bump or depth of hollow.
h Height of CG above main wheel hub. Height of repaired crater. Height of tyre section. Height of step.
hx Vertical ordinate at a distance x from the origin.
L Wing lift. Length of crater repair mat. Length of bump or hollow. Pilot effort on brake pedal.
1m Horizontal distance of CG from main unit(s).
1n Horizontal distance of CG from nose unit.
MOS Minimum Operating Strip.
m Main.
M Aeroplane mass.
ML Design landing mass.
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SECTION 4
ML Average landing mass.
MT Design take-off mass.
MT Average take-off mass.
T
M Any value of mass between MT and ML
L
N Newtons.
n Nose. Number of tyres per undercarriage unit.
ny Lateral acceleration co-efficient.
nz Normal acceleration co-efficient.
P Nosewheel towing force. Passes. Brake Torque (Leaflet 56).
Pi Tyre inflation pressure.
Pc Tyre contact pressure.
Q Nosewheel towing reaction.
R Undercarriage design peak vertical reaction-any undercarriage unit.
Ra Auxiliary unit design peak vertical reaction.
Rm Main unit design peak vertical reaction.
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SECTION 4
Rn Nose unit design peak vertical reaction.
SWL Single wheel load.
ESSSWL Equivalent soft surface single wheel load.
S Side force.
S1 S2 S3 Spacing of repair mats or unfilled scabs.
Sa Stroke of auxiliary unit shock absorber plus tyre.
Sm Stroke of main unit shock absorber plus tyre.
Sn Stroke of nose unit shock absorber plus tyre.
T Tail load associated with rotation on take-off. Width of traffic path over which centre line of any wheel is assumed to range.
T(V) Net thrust as a function of speed.
t Track of main undercarriage.
V Vertical force.
v Volume.
VA Alternating vertical force.
VB Normal brakes-on speed.
VCRIT Critical speed in aborted take-off.
VLO Lift-off speed.
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SECTION 4
VL1 Static vertical force on one main unit, at mass M L, when supported on two main units.
VL2 Static vertical force on one main unit at mass M L, when supported on two main units and one nose unit.
VMAX Maximum value of vertical force on one unit during the landing phase.
VS Stalling speed.
VSU Vertical force when spin-up force is a maximum.
VL Landing speed.
VT Take-Off speed.
VT1 Static vertical force on main unit, at mass MT when supported on two main units.
VT2 Static vertical force on main unit, at mass MT when supported on two main units and one nose unit.
Vv Design vertical velocity.
Vx Forward velocity. Closing speed.
Vy Lateral velocity. Cross wind. Drift.
Vz Vertical velocity.
V1V2 Wind velocities at heights h1h2 above ground level.
W Weight of unsprung parts.
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SECTION 4
w Width of tyre section.
X Length of unfilled scab.
Y Depth of unfilled scab.
Z Sag.
Zn Nominal sag.
Zp Peak sag.
 Runway roughness factor.
 Tyre radial deflection (%)
 Overall efficiency of shock absorber/tyre combination.
 Angle of tow load to aeroplane axis. Slope of unfilled scab.
x Pitch attitude.
y Roll attitude.
z Yaw attitude.
 Co-efficient of friction.
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SECTION 4

4.11.2 The undercarriage system shall be If the undercarriage forms part of the air braking See Clause 4.11.7 for the definition of the
designed to operate in the environment defined system, it shall also conform to the appropriate undercarriage environment.
and to: requirements of Part 1, Section 3, Clause 3.6
and of Part 1, Section 2, Clauses 2.1, 2.21,
(a) Absorb the energy of landing in the 2.22, 2.24 and 2.25 , Part 1, Section 6, Clause
specified landing conditions. See Clauses 6.5 and Part 1, Section 7, Clauses 7.1, 7.2 and
4.11.34 to 4.11.50 7.3 when operating as an airbrake.
(b) Provide a suitable suspension for

the airframe, having regard to crew and
passenger comfort, structural integrity, and
efficient functioning of equipment, during
ground manoeuvring. See Clause 4.13
(c) Provide some contribution to

directional control and stability during ground
manoeuvres at all speeds up to at least
those at which other methods of control
become effective. See Clauses 4.11.23 to
4.11.33
(d) Provide for ground handling using

the ground equipment specified. See Part 1,
Section 3, Clause 3.11
(e) Provide for the forces imposed by

launching systems in the specified operating
conditions.
(f) Be compatible with the arresting

cables of specified arresting gears. See
129
SECTION 4

Clauses 4.13.7 to 4.13.8
OPERATION FROM SURFACES OTHER THAN SMOOTH HARD RUNWAYS
4.11.3 The Aeroplane Specification will state a See Clause 4.13 for requirements and Leaflet 49
requirement when design for operation from for class of runway.
rough or soft ground or operation from damaged
or repaired runways is required. For operations
from rough ground the class of runway will be
stated.
VSTOL OPERATIONS
4.11.4 The effects of VSTOL operational, Where VSTOL capability is required, appropriate
training practice and unflared landings shall be operational requirements will be stated in the
included in the fatigue analysis of all parts affected. Aeroplane Specification.
NOSE-WHEEL STEERING AND CASTORING
4.11.5 The Aeroplane Specification will state whether See Clause 4.14 for Nose Wheel Steering and
nose-wheel steering is required and the angle see Clauses 4.11.23 to 4.11.33 for castoring.
through which castoring is required.
GROUND BRAKING
4.11.6 The contribution made by the wheel brakes in The total retarding system has four important
each of the cases in Guidance shall be agreed functions to perform:
with the Project Team Leader.
(a) To stop the aeroplane during the
normal landing run.
(b) To stop the aeroplane following a

rejected take-off.
(c) To help to stop the aeroplane

following an overweight landing.
(d) To facilitate and augment smooth

manoeuvring and directional control.
And a further function of less importance to
provide a proportion of static drag force for
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SECTION 4

engine testing.
Detailed requirements for wheel brakes are stated

in Clause 4.12. Aeroplane stressing cases arising
from braking are stated in Clauses 4.11.23 to
4.11.33
OPERATING ENVIRONMENT
4.11.7 The Aeroplane Designer and the Designers of See Leaflet 37.
the undercarriage unit, the wheels, brakes and
tyres, shall jointly define the Operating
Environment for the undercarriage, wheels,
brakes, and tyres, and agree this with the
Project Team Leader for insertion in the
Aeroplane Specification.
BATTLE DAMAGE
4.11.8 Reduction in vulnerability to battle
damage shall be in accordance with the aims and
requirements of Part 13, Section 3, Clause 3.9
AEROPLANE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
4.11.9 The arrangement of the (a) All undercarriage stressing cases shall See also Leaflet 53 Para. 2.2
undercarriage units shall be such as to ensure that be considered for relevance to the strength of
the aeroplane will not tip over in all normal the whole aeroplane.
operating conditions including run up of each
engine separately. (b) The results of fatigue strength
calculations and life estimates shall be
discussed with the Project Team Leader.
(c) Undercarriage loads shall be included,

where relevant, in fatigue spectra for all other
components of the aeroplane which are
affected.
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SECTION 4

(d) The material used for construction of the
undercarriage units shall be approved as
required by Clause 4.1 and shall also be agreed
with the Project Team Leader.
(e) Consideration shall be given to the need

to protect critical parts of the aeroplane,
particularly the engine, against slush, mud and
debris thrown up by the undercarriage units.
(f) Consideration shall be given to problems See also Leaflet 53 Para. 3.4
arising from the effect of change of temperature
on oleo charging pressure.
WHEELS AND TYRES
4.11.10 The size and number of wheels and (a) For these conditions, the tyre pressure For calculation of the ACN reference should be
tyres on main and auxiliary undercarriage units shall not exceed either: made to:
shall be such that the aeroplane can operate at the
maximum design take-off mass, MT, from both (1) the pressure appropriate to the The Director of Civil Engineering Services
rigid and flexible airfield surfaces having the load equivalent single wheel load for the Airfields Branch
classification numbers (LCN) stated in the aeroplane as calculated by the method Property Services Agency
Aeroplane Specification. given in Leaflet 40, or Apollo House
36 Wellesley Road
(2) the maximum tyre pressure, if Croydon, Surrey CR9 3RR
stated in the Aeroplane Specification.
(b) The PCN (Pavement Classification Note: A definition of the ACN/PCN Systems with
Number) of Civil Airfields from which it is values of ACN for current service aircraft is given
required to operate (if any) will be stated in the in RAF Flight Information Handbook (pages 3-19
Aeroplane Specification. In this case the to 3-22) published by 1 AIDU (RAF) Northolt,
conditions of the requirement shall apply to the Ruislip, HA4 6NG.
aeroplane at its ACN (Aircraft Classification
Number).
4.11.11 The requirement at Clause 4.11.10
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SECTION 4

shall be met with a static deflection not exceeding
that approved by the tyre manufacturer as being
likely to give a reasonable service life for the tyre.
TWIN WHEEL AND MULTI-WHEEL UNITS
4.11.12 Where any unit of the undercarriage If differential wheel loading arising from See also Leaflet 43 Para. 7.
has more than one wheel and tyre, all consideration of the Requirements (b) and (c)
requirements shall be met in each of the following taken together or separately is more than 60:40
cases: the problem shall be discussed with the Project
Team Leader.
(a) all tyres correctly inflated,
(b) the most adverse combination of

wheel loading which could be caused by
variation of up to ± 10% of the correct tyre
pressure, and/or
(c) the most adverse combination of

wheel loading which could arise from fitting
combinations of largest and smallest
possible tyres arising from wear and growth.
4.11.13 Tandem bogie undercarriage units Allowance shall also be made for the effects of
shall be designed so that, in any practicable bank angle at touchdown.
landing pitch attitude, wheels on axles forward of
the oleo torsional axis cannot touch the ground
before those to the rear of that axis.
SHIMMY
4.11.14 Shimmy or related dynamic (a) All relevant positions of steerable and
instabilities of any of the undercarriage units shall castoring wheels shall be considered.
not occur at any speeds up to 1.15 times maximum
take-off speed at any aeroplane CG and loading (b) Some sub-critical torsional oscillations in
conditions and under any required runway surface the shimmy mode may be acceptable provided
conditions. that:
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SECTION 4

(1) they can be shown to be not
dangerous,
(2) the are considered in fatigue

analysis,
(3) they do not affect the See Leaflet 38 for an acceptable approach to this
performance of the crew. analysis.
(c) Compliance with this requirement shall

be shown either by analysis or tests or both.
Analysis is required if tests are limited to
maximum takeoff speed or if testing under
Clause 4.11.22(g) of this section is not required.
Any doubts about the acceptability of residual
oscillations shall be discussed with the Project
Team Leader.
DETAIL STRESSING REQUIREMENTS APPLICABLE TO ALL CASES
4.11.15 Changes in the forces acting on a
landing gear unit arising from kinematic changes in
geometry of the unit shall be taken into account
unless they can be shown to be negligible.
4.11.16 The undercarriage and airframe may be
assumed to be rigid unless the forces acting on
them are significantly affected by elastic
deformation in which case the effects should be
estimated conservatively.
4.11.17 The value of µ for hard dry surfaces The values selected for the µ/slip ratio curve for
shall be considered at all critical values up to 0.8 spin-up shall be discussed with the Project
Team Leader.
4.11.18 All side forces shall be applied at
ground level with full allowance for pneumatic trail
where appropriate.
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SECTION 4

4.11.19 Vertical forces act on the tyre at the
contact point but shall be applied to the leg at the
hub.
4.11.20 Drag forces induced by wheel spin- See Leaflet 43 and Clause 4.13 for steps, bumps
up and spring back shall be applied at the wheel hollows and roughness.
hub. Drag forces induced by braking shall be
applied at the ground. Drag forces applied by
steps, bumps, hollows and roughness shall be
applied at the hub.
4.11.21 The value of F is to be determined In Leaflet 43 and in Leaflet 48 reference is made
in each case by the tyre characteristics in relation to the bump factor F.
to the size of the step, bump or hollow for the class
of runway specified.
TESTS
4.11.22 The following tests shall be considered and a Clauses 4.11.34 to 4.11.50 states test
programme shall be agreed with the Project requirements relating to landing on smooth hard
Team Leader: surfaces. Clauses 4.11.51 to 4.11.75 states
requirements for retraction and lowering tests.
(a) Static strength tests.
(b) Fatigue tests (Leaflet 41)
(c) Stiffness tests.
(d) Environmental tests.
(e) Functioning tests.
(f) Endurance tests.
(g) Shimmy tests (Leaflet 39)
(h) Drop tests in addition to those
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SECTION 4

required by Clauses 4.11.34 to 4.11.50
(i) Shock absorber damping tests

including recoil.
(j) Wheel and tyre tests (Leaflets 58

and 59)
(k) Brake and anti-skid systems tests

(Clause 4.12 and Leaflet 57 and Clause
4.12.26 Guidance)
(l) Fragmentation tests (Part 1,

Section 6 Leaflet 33)
(m) Tests on rough surfaces (Clause

4.13)
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL OF THE AEROPLANE ON THE GROUND
4.11.23 The requirements shall be considered for those Clauses 4.11.23 to 4.11.33 state general
failure states (e.g. landing with wings swept) directional control requirements and associated
which may be applicable and the results strength requirements which apply while the
discussed with the Project Team Leader. relevant undercarriage units are in contact with
the ground.
The requirements relate to operation in wet or dry

conditions on smooth hard runways and will need
to be supplemented by the additional
requirements of Clause 4.13 when operation from
rough or soft ground or from damaged and
repaired runways is required. However step and
bump requirements related to smooth hard
runways are included.
136
SECTION 4

The requirements shall be met whether nose-
wheel steering is provided or not. Where nose-
wheel steering is provided the requirements of
Clause 4.14 are also applicable.
GENERAL DIRECTIONAL CONTROL REQUIREMENTS
4.11.24 It shall be possible to perform the See Leaflet 42 for definitions of levels and also
following manoeuvres in still air and in the average Leaflet 46 Para. 3.8.4
crosswind (8 kts) at all relevant speeds up to 1.15
times maximum take-off speed at the level of
handling quality specified and at 1 level lower in
maximum design crosswind conditions (35 kts), or
with one tyre of a twin wheel nose unit burst:
(a) Straight take-off at level 1.
(b) Take-off with one engine failed at

level 2.
(c) Rejected take-off with heavy braking

and/or reverse thrust and/or brake parachute
and/or arresting hook in operation, if
provided, at level 2.
(d) Straight landing with reverse thrust

and/or brake parachute and/or arresting hook
in operation, if provided, at level 2.
(e) Straight taxying over a step, bump

or hollow as defined for a Class A runway in
Clause 4.13 with and without braking at level
1.
(f) Transition from straight taxying to
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SECTION 4

constant radius cornering and back again
with any necessary combination of braking
and engine power, at level 1, within the
distance specified or agreed with the Project
Team Leader.
(g) Taxying at constant speed and

constant radius and round specified corners,
with and without braking at level 1.
(h) 180° turn at level 1 within a space

specified or agreed with the Project Team
Leader.
4.11.25 In addition, for aeroplanes in
Classes II, III and IV it shall be possible to perform
the manoeuvres (e), (f), (g) and (h) of Clause
4.11.24 in winds up to 45 kts from any direction.
4.11.26 The aeroplane shall be directionally
stable and steerable when performing the
manoeuvres of Clause 4.11.24 in all practical
combinations of mass, CG position, braking
devices, and those means of directional control
which may be required to effect the manoeuvres of
Clauses 4.11.24 and 4.11.25
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR STEERING AND CASTORING UNITS
4.11.27 Castoring (with steering The requirements of Clauses 4.11.27 to 4.11.32
disconnected on aeroplanes where it is provided) apply to all undercarriage units which have
shall be possible, through angles required by the directional freedom whether steerable or not.
specification, in all practical combinations of mass
and CG position which may arise on the ground.
4.11.28 The undercarriage units shall not
cause unacceptable vibration or aeroplane
instability in any specified manoeuvres.
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SECTION 4

4.11.29 The units shall not shimmy in any See also Clause 4.11.14
specified manoeuvres.
4.11.30 Provision shall be made for the units
to centralise from angles of not less than ± 15°
after take-off and to align themselves automatically
before touch down.
4.11.31 The units shall be centralised before
or during the retraction sequence to avoid the risk
of fouling any part of the aeroplane.
4.11.32 The units shall be retained in their
proper positions when they have been stowed.
STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS
4.11.33 The aeroplane shall have a proof Consideration shall be given to the impulse load Additional requirements for steering system
factor not less than 1.0 and an ultimate factor not caused by traversing an arresting gear hook strength are given in Clause 4.14
less than 1.5 under the stressing cases set out in cable at all speeds up to maximum take-off
Leaflet 43. speed. See Leaflet 43 Para. 6.
LANDING
4.11.34 Where an aeroplane is required to If a particular procedure involves design cases The information from Clauses 4.11.34 to 4.11.50
land according to more than one procedure not covered by the requirements these will be states strength requirements for landing on
(vertical, short, or conventional; manual or stated in the Aeroplane Specification. smooth hard runways.
automatic) the requirements shall be applied
separately to each.
4.11.35 All requirements shall be met in all (a) Where more than one operational
combinations of mass and CG position up to the loading or geometric configuration of the
design landing mass (ML), at the design vertical aeroplane is specified the requirements shall be
velocity (Vv). All requirements should also be met met in each configuration. Where a particular
loading or geometric configuration arises from a
at 0.8Vv and at:
failure state in which landing is required the
Aeroplane Specification will state the mass and
(a) design take-off mass (MT) and CG. vertical velocity at which the requirements shall
be met.
(b) maximum emergency design
landing mass and CG. (b) The effects of all forms of braking and of
139
SECTION 4

arresting shall be considered where relevant.
(c) design landing mass (ML) and CG
combined with all combinations of each of
the arbitrary extreme values (See Table 5) of
miss-servicing of:
(1) tyre pressure.
(2) oleo gas pressure.
(3) oleo oil volume.

MULTI-WHEEL UNITS
4.11.36 In all possible combinations of one
tyre deflated and the rest correctly inflated the
requirements shall be met at a vertical velocity of
descent of 60% of the corresponding all-tyres-
inflated cases.
4.11.37 In all possible combinations of any
two tyres out of four deflated and the rest correctly
inflated the requirements shall be met at a vertical
velocity of descent of 50% of the corresponding all-
tyres-inflated cases.
STRESSING CASES
PRIMARY STRESSING CASES
4.11.38 The cases given in Table 4 are
applicable to all aeroplanes unless varied by the
Aeroplane Specification or by subsequent
agreement with the Project Team Leader.
4.11.39 Three pitch attitudes shall be (a) The worst combination of mass and CG
considered in each of the following two cases: position shall be considered in each case.
Aerodynamic ground effects shall be
(a) For aeroplanes that normally flare considered.
140
SECTION 4

these shall be:
(b) The aeroplane attitude may be assumed
(1) the normal flared attitude, to remain unchanged during the compression
stroke of the main units. Change of attitude shall
(2) the normal flared attitude plus 7° or be included where relevant in auxiliary and nose
the attitude corresponding to the unit calculations.
maximum incidence at which a controlled
landing is possible whichever is the less, (c) In all cases the forces applied to the
main units shall be balanced by inertia forces
(3) and the normal flared attitude minus and moments applied at the CG. The only air
7° or the normal approach attitude load which need be considered is the
whichever is the less. aerodynamic lift assumed equal to the weight of
the aeroplane.
(b) For aeroplanes that normally land
without flaring these shall be:
(1) the normal approach attitude,
(2) the normal approach attitude plus 7°

or the attitude corresponding to the
maximum incidence at which a controlled
landing is possible whichever is the less,
(3) and the nominal approach attitude

minus 7°.
4.11.40 The cases given in Table 4 shall be
considered in accordance with the above
requirements where:
(a) The design reaction for the main

units (Rm) shall be the highest reaction
arising in the above cases.
141
SECTION 4

(b) The design reaction (Rn) for nose
units shall be the greater of:
(1) the maximum reaction arising in the

above cases,
(2) the maximum reaction arising in a

dynamic analysis of aeroplane behaviour
starting from conditions at/or before initial
touchdown and including the most
adverse CG position and the most
adverse pilot/elevator and braking input
agreed with the Project Team Leader.
(c) For laterally disposed auxiliary units

the design reaction (R a ) shall be maximum
reaction obtained from a dynamic analysis of
aircraft behaviour starting from conditions at
initial touchdown at those attitudes defined in
Clause 4.11.39
(d) The values of side force and drag

force co-efficients are as given in Table 4.
(e) The values of shock absorber

closure are as given in Table 4 or as
determined by simple prediction if preferred.
SECONDARY STRESSING CASES
4.11.41 Where stated in the aeroplane specification or These cases may be defined according to one of
subsequently agreed with the Project Team the following procedures:
Leader secondary stressing cases for main,
nose, or auxiliary units may be substituted for or (a) Arbitrary definition - in which a
added to the primary stressing cases. particular parameter is assigned an extreme
142
SECTION 4

value (or a small selection of parameters
The form of definition to be used, the probability are assigned extreme values) and the
required, and the parameters to be considered remainder are held at mean or other chosen
will be stated in the Aeroplane Specification or values. Suggested extreme values are
shall be agreed with the Project Team Leader. given in Table 5.
The recommended values given in Table 5 shall
be used as appropriate, unless it can be shown (b) Statistical definition - in which
to the satisfaction of the Project Team Leader specified selected parameters are varied
that more appropriate data is available. and the remainder are assigned mean
values. Analysis will then provide a number
of design cases having a specified
probability of occurrence. Recommended
mean values and standard deviations are
given in Table 5.
(c) Dynamic definition - in which the

undercarriage unit design parameters are
derived by consideration of the response of
the aeroplane to conditions defined at some
earlier point in the landing.
ENERGY ABSORPTION AND DISSIPATION
4.11.42 Those units of the landing gear Where statistical or arbitrary definition is used See also Leaflet 46 Para. 2.1.2
which can act together within the attitude envelope the attitude of the aeroplane may be assumed to
shall be capable of reducing to zero the vertical be unchanged during the absorption stroke of
velocity of descent in all the cases specified in the main units but changes shall be included
Clauses 4.11.34 to 4.11.50 These are the main where relevant in auxiliary and nose unit
units. calculations and in all dynamic calculations.
4.11.43 Neither the tyre nor the shock Either the tyre or the shock absorber but not See also Clause 4.13.1
absorber may bottom: both may be allowed to bottom at vertical
velocities between Vv and 1.2Vv provided that
(a) at vertical velocities up to the design the ultimate reaction is not exceeded and the
vertical velocity, or energy absorption requirements are met.
143
SECTION 4

(b) below the design reaction.
4.11.44 The design of all units shall be such
that the energy absorbed by the shock absorber is
dissipated as far as possible during the initial
compression stroke. For main units the energy
dissipated shall be not less than 67% of the total
vertical energy of descent in the fully airborne
condition at design Vv
4.11.45 The recoil of all moving parts shall Ten times the compression damping is See Leaflet 48 Para. 9.
be so damped that the applied forces do not recommended.
produce unacceptable stresses or excessive
bounce.
UNDERCARRIAGE STIFFNESS
4.11.46 Where the ratio of design allowable
proof stress to design allowable ultimate stress for
the material proposed for the primary structure of
the undercarriage unit is less than 0.75, it shall be
demonstrated by calculation and test that in all
cases functioning is not impaired by deformation at
all velocities up to Vv and that there is no
permanent set at all velocities up to Vv
AEROPLANE STATIC STRENGTH
4.11.47 The whole aeroplane shall have a
proof factor not less than 1.0 and an ultimate factor
not less than 1.5 under the stressing cases of
Clauses 4.11.38 to 4.11.41 and at the design
vertical velocity Vv
4.11.48 The whole aeroplane shall have an
ultimate factor not less than 1.0 under the stressing
cases of Clauses 4.11.38 to 4.11.41, and at the
ultimate vertical velocity 1.2Vv
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SECTION 4

DROP TESTS
4.11.49 Drop tests shall be performed at (a) Consideration shall be given to tests on See also Leaflet 46 Para. 9.
vertical velocities increasing progressively to the a complete aeroplane, but if preferred tests may
design vertical velocity under a mass equal to the be done on one unit.
appropriate proportion of the aeroplane mass
supported by the unit or under a mass calculated (b) The need for a matrix of pitch and roll
to provide energy equivalent to that for which the angles shall be considered and drop test cases
unit is designed whichever is appropriate. selected shall include those considered critical,
those necessary to permit the determination of
the forces which comprise a fatigue spectrum,
those required to confirm the energy absorption
characteristics of the shock absorber and tyre,
and those required to confirm the estimated
design reactions.
(c) In all drop tests arrangements shall be

made to include spin-up on a surface giving as
closely as is practical the required value of the
co-efficient of friction.
(d) Instrumentation shall be provided to

enable the relevant parameters to be calculated
from the measurements made during the energy
absorption stroke and during rebound to show
that the requirements of this clause have been
met.
4.11.50 In all drop tests up to the design
vertical velocity Vv the unit shall suffer no
permanent damage or distortion and measured
reactions shall not exceed design reactions.
RETRACTION AND LOWERING
states operational, design, strength and test
145
SECTION 4

requirement for Undercarriage Retraction and
Lowering, for Locking, and for Undercarriage
Doors.
4.11.52 The retraction and lowering system
shall be designed to ensure that all wheels are
correctly aligned at touchdown irrespective of their
alignment on retraction after take-off.
4.11.53 Retraction shall be completed, using See Leaflet 54.
normal take-off techniques, before the aeroplane
reaches the design limiting speed, in the most
adverse combinations of attitude, acceleration,
atmospheric conditions, and engine power
applicable to take-off.
4.11.54 At any speed between maximum
speed undercarriage down and minimum approach
speed, lowering time shall be not more than 10
seconds under the most adverse flight conditions.
4.11.55 The applicable handling qualities
requirements of Part 1, Section 2, Clauses 2.1,
2.21, 2.22, 2.24 and 2.25, Part 1, Section 6,
Clause 6.5 and Part 1, Section 7, Clauses 7.1, 7.2
and 7.3 shall be met with the undercarriage down
and shall be degraded not more than one level
during retraction and lowering under the conditions
of Clauses 4.11.53 to 4.11.54
4.11.56 If, having selected U/C DOWN (or
UP), the selection is altered to U/C UP (or DOWN),
then the later selection shall override the former
and the undercarriage shall obey the revised
command, complete the revised operation, and be
serviceable for further use.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
146
SECTION 4

4.11.57 The lowering and retraction Particular attention shall be given to the See Clause 4.11.7 for design environment.
mechanism shall function satisfactorily in the prevention of any corrosion which might follow
agreed environment and particularly when the operation from such surfaces.
aeroplane operates from runways or landing
grounds which are snow-covered, chemically
treated or sandy.
4.11.58 During retraction and lowering of the If movement of the undercarriage is arrested
undercarriage, the operating mechanism shall be under these conditions it shall recommence as
able to withstand all accelerations within the soon as the acceleration returns within the
specified flight envelope up to the design limiting range specified and the operation shall be
speed (Clause 4.11.53) completed without further attention by the pilot.
4.11.59 The application of the maximum
braking torque which can be applied during
retraction, having regard to any means of torque
limitation provided, together with the most adverse
combination of normal acceleration, aerodynamic
load and position of the landing gear, shall not
cause serious vibration nor permanent deformation
of the landing gear nor impair its correct
functioning.
4.11.60 A standby method of lowering the However if the final actuator is a component of
undercarriage in emergency shall be provided and established reliability, this need not necessarily
no single failure in the normal system shall prevent be duplicated if the Project Team Leader
the undercarriage being lowered under the agrees.
conditions of Clause 4.11.54 When the appropriate
actions for lowering the undercarriage by the
standby system have been correctly performed,
the operation of lowering shall proceed until it is
completed irrespective of any actions (correct or
otherwise) which might have been made with the
normal selector control.
4.11.61 It shall be impossible to retract the Notwithstanding these requirements, an override
undercarriage by means of the normal selector emergency device shall be provided to retract
147
SECTION 4

control: the undercarriage if such retraction is employed
as a means of shortening the ground run of the
(a) whilst it is taking the weight of the aeroplane in an emergency.
aeroplane, and/or
(b) at speeds less than the take-off

speed at MT.
4.11.62 No single failure having a probability
greater than once in 107 flying hours shall cause
the inadvertent retraction or the inadvertent
lowering of the undercarriage in flight.
4.11.63 An on-ground selection of
undercarriage-up where such a selection would be
dormant because it is inhibited by lack of power or
a safety interlock, shall not be activated upon
removal of the inhibition.
4.11.64 Reduction of vulnerability to battle
damage shall be in accordance with the aims and
LOCKING
4.11.65 Unless the operating mechanism is Hydraulic system pressure may be used to hold
irreversible, the main and auxiliary undercarriage the units in the retracted position provided the
units shall be held in both the safe landing and units are also prevented from moving from the
retracted positions under all appropriate flight retracted position by mechanical means which
conditions, by positive locks maintained in must not be released by failure of hydraulic
engagement by mechanical means. pressure.
4.11.66 All main and nose units shall be
provided with a locking device to prevent
unintentional retraction when the aeroplane is
being serviced or repaired and to provide safe
alternative locking sufficient for ground handling, if
the primary locking system at Clause 4.11.65 is
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SECTION 4

defective. If take-off is made with the locking
device left in place, neither attempted retraction of
the undercarriage nor landing shall result in
damage to the structure. The locking device when
engaged shall not prevent the aeroplane being
manoeuvred on the ground within the range of
castoring angles specified.
UNDERCARRIAGE DOORS
4.11.67 Under all possible flight conditions Any gaping which may occur elsewhere shall not
the undercarriage doors shall be positively locked cause unacceptable stresses, buffet, or
with no possibility of gaping at their leading edges. vibration.
4.11.68 When the undercarriage doors
and/or door locks are also used as a means of
retaining the undercarriage in the retracted
position, the doors and door locks shall be
designed to support any loads imposed including
those arising from failure of the undercarriage
jacks and loss of fluid pressure.
4.11.69 Where any undercarriage door
covers a servicing point, a door safety lock shall be
provided to prevent inadvertent closure.
STRENGTH
4.11.70 OPERATING LOAD FACTORS
The undercarriage and doors and their operating

mechanisms shall have proof and ultimate factors
not less than 1.5 and 2.0 respectively under the
most adverse combination of acceleration,
aerodynamic force and position of the
undercarriage and doors which can occur under
the conditions specified above.
TESTS
GENERAL
149
SECTION 4

4.11.71 Every new design of retractable unit (a) The tests of Clauses 4.11.74 to 4.11.75
shall, prior to taxying trials, undergo the tests given shall be made on the aeroplane and those of
in the following paragraphs. Clauses 4.11.72 to 4.11.73 either on the
aeroplane or on a representative structure at the
firm's discretion. The power supply should be
identical in all tests with that used in the
appropriate condition in service.
(b) The design of a retractable unit may

provide automatic wheel braking during
retraction or may depend upon pilot action to
brake the wheels before 'undercarriage up'
selection; in the former case the effects of
residual wheel rotation during the retraction
sequence shall be checked during testing, arid
in the latter case the effect of the pilot omitting to
apply the brakes before retraction shall be
considered. Therefore the proportion of the tests
in Clauses 4.11.72 to 4.11.75 in which the
wheels must be 'spun-up' before retraction is
selected shall be agreed with the Project Team
Leader.
DEVELOPMENT TESTS
4.11.72 It shall be established either by tests
or other means acceptable to the Project Team
Leader that the undercarriage doors remain tightly
shut under the following conditions:
(a) when the surrounding structure is

deflected to an extent comparable with the
most adverse deflections occurring at any
time during flight and the door is loaded to
represent the most adverse suction loads
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SECTION 4

occurring at the same time, and
(b) when the undercarriage ceases to

be retained by hydraulic system pressure
when flying under conditions represented by
the positive boundary of the basic flight
envelope (see Clause 4.11.54)
4.11.73 With those linkages, valve actuating In the test of the requirement, a check shall be Note: Deflection of the aeroplane structure
rods, etc that will be adjusted in Service, adjusted made that the undercarriage is hard against its under the conditions of Clauses 4.11.52 to
to the most adverse limit, the undercarriage shall stops at the limiting positions. The locking 4.11.56 must be simulated during these tests
be loaded to represent the most adverse loading devices shall be examined under each test unless it can be demonstrated, to the satisfaction
covered by the conditions of Clauses 4.11.52 to condition to ascertain that the locks when acting of the Project Team Leader, that these effects are
4.11.56, over as great a travel as possible and the alone will retain the undercarriage. The effect of not significant.
following tests made: significant structural deflections due to
acceleration shall be considered when
(a) with the undercarriage initially evaluating the effectiveness of the locks.
locked in the safe position, it shall be
retracted and locked in the fully retracted
position 25 times. On 5 of these tests,
excessive acceleration shall be simulated by
the sudden application of an appropriate
external load to check that, if the movement
is stopped, retraction and locking proceeds
as soon as the extra load is removed and,
(b) with the undercarriage initially

locked in the fully retracted position, it shall
be lowered and locked in the safe landing
position 25 times using the normal
undercarriage lowering system and at least 5
times using the emergency standby system.
In addition, it shall be lowered at least 5
times under the most favourable conditions
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to ensure that movement of the alighting gear
is not so rapid as to damage the alighting
gear or structure or to cause it to bounce
away from the locks.
INSTALLATION CLEARANCE TESTS
4.11.74 With the aeroplane jacked off the ground using
the correct Service equipment in the correct
positions, functioning of both normal and
emergency systems shall be checked as
follows:
(a) with the undercarriage initially

locked in the safe landing position,
'undercarriage up' shall be selected and
the time from selection of the control
position to locking of the undercarriage in
that position shall be measured. This test
shall be done 25 times using the normal
operating system. If, on a retractable unit
provided with automatic wheel braking
during retraction, a device is fitted which
limits the wheel brake torque during
retraction, the wheels shall be 'spun-up'
during 5 additional retraction tests to
check that:
(1) the brake torque available during

retraction will ensure that residual
wheel rotation does not cause serious
vibrations, and
(2) the brake system pressure is not

thereby reduced when the wheels are
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SECTION 4

returned to the lowered position.
(b) with the undercarriage initially locked in

the fully retracted position, ‘undercarriage down'
shall be selected and the time from selection of
the control position to locking of the
undercarriage in that position shall be
measured. This test shall be done 25 times
using the normal operating system and an
additional 5 times using the emergency system
(or each system if there is more than one).
4.11.75 Tests shall be made to verify
compliance with the castoring requirements of
Clauses 4.11.23 to 4.11.33
4.11.76 The tests must be conducted on The information from Clauses 4.11.76 to 4.11.81
alighting gears which are fully representative of the describes the tests that are required on the
final Service standard. In particular tyre and oleo alighting gear to ensure satisfactory operation in
pressures must be representative. Service. The tests are designed to cover all
factors which can affect the functioning and
operating characteristics of the alighting gear
while on the ground and in flight, and are required
to provide information which can be used as a
basis for limitations, within which the alighting
gear may be safely used by the Service.
The object of the tests of this Clause is to confirm

compliance with the design requirements of
Clauses 4.11, 4.12, 4.13 and 4.14
The tests described here are applicable to all new

alighting gears and all installations where
modifications have been made likely to affect the
results of tests unless otherwise stated.
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EQUIPMENT
4.11.77 INSTRUMENTATION The standard
of instrumentation shall be such that the
performance and the operating characteristics of
the alighting gear can be monitored and where
possible, compared with the results obtained from
simulation modelling and ground tests.
LOADING
4.11.78 Full details of tile aeroplane loading Pending the issue of generalised test
and centre of gravity required for the tests of this requirements, the requirements for the particular
Clause will be issued later. aeroplane under test may be obtained from the
TEST DETAILS
4.11.79 The items listed under compliance (a) The evidence from preliminary
should be considered prior to test. component and rig tests,
(b) The range of tyre and oleo pressures to

be tested,
(c) The operational role of the aeroplane, in

particular the requirement to test on surfaces
other than smooth, hard runways,
(d) The standard of the alighting gear and its

suitability for the tests proposed.
4.11.80 The tests to be carried out should (a) Shimmy tests (see Leaflet 39)
normally include those listed under compliance.
(b) Brake and tyre tests,
(c) Taxy tests,
(d) Reverse taxying tests,
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(e) Retraction and lowering tests using
normal and emergency standby systems (see
Clauses 4.11.51 – 4.11.75)
(f) Steering and manoeuvring tests (see

Clauses 4.11.23 to 4.11.33)
4.11.81 Full details of the tests required will Pending the issue of the complete Clause,
be issued later. further details may be obtained from the Project
Team Leader.
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SECTION 4
4.12 WHEELS, TYRES AND BRAKES
4.12.1 The requirements of this clause are applicable to all wheels, tyres, brakes, and braking systems. It is divided into four main sections:
(a) Brakes and Braking Systems (See also Leaflet 56 for "Design of Wheel Brake Systems" and Leaflet 57 for "Laboratory Testing of Wheel
Brake Systems")
(b) Anti Skid Systems (Clause 4.12.26 Guidance for "Anti Skid Braking Systems")
(c) Wheel and Brake Assemblies, Tyres, and Tubes (Leaflet 58 for "Laboratory Testing of Wheels" and Leaflet 59 for "Tyres and Tubes")
(d) Aeroplane Performance and Compatibility Tests.
This information is similar in content to CS 25.731 – 25.735

DIVISION OF RESPONSIBILITIES
4.12.2 Note: Some of the requirements of this clause,
and advice in the leaflets, are addressed to the
System Designer or the Tyre Designer. This is
done for clarity and is not intended to alter the
overall responsibility of the Aeroplane Designer,
for the whole aeroplane, to whom the
requirements of this Def Stan are normally
addressed. The "Aeroplane Specification" is the
document agreed between the Aeroplane
Designer and the Project Team Leader. The
"System Specification" or the "Detail
Specification" is a document agreed between the
Aeroplane Designer and the System Designer or
Tyre Designer.
LIFE
4.12.3 Tyres and tubes shall have the It is recognised that not all components of these
maximum shelf life practical. A limited shelf life for systems need to have a life equal to that of the
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these and other components made of rubber will aeroplane; therefore, estimated lives of all
be accepted only if deterioration cannot be components, including shelf, wear and fatigue
prevented by correct storage conditions. lives, shall be agreed with the Project Team
Leader.
TESTS
4.12.4 (a) The Aeroplane Designer and the (a) Prior to tests on the aeroplane (see
Systems Designer shall mutually agree the Clauses 4.12.48 to 4.12.50) brake dynamometer
extent of these tests and who shall perform tests and/or rig tests shall be conducted if
them. required either by the Aeroplane Specification or
by the Aeroplane Designer.
(b) The parts to be tested and the schedule
of tests shall be agreed between the Aeroplane (b) All parts used for such qualification tests
Designer and the braking systems designers shall be measured and weighed. All relevant
and submitted to the Project Team Leader. hydraulic, pneumatic, or electrical characteristics
shall be determined. These shall be within the
(c) The Test Conditions and Objectives of requirements specified by the Aeroplane
Table 6 are applicable to all tests to the extent Designer.
DETAIL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
4.12.5 All parts having the same part (a) Detail design and construction of all
number shall be directly and completely parts used in the systems listed above shall
interchangeable with each other with respect to conform to the requirements specified by the
installation and performance. Aeroplane Designer. They shall be suitably
sealed to ensure satisfactory operation in the
environment described in Clause 4.11.7
(b) The production mass limits of all

components of these systems shall be agreed
with the Aeroplane Designer.
(c) Where a tyre is retreadable, the

development and testing of a retreading
process, within the criteria defined at Clause
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SECTION 4

4.12.4, can be carried out by any Repair Station
that is recognized by the Project Authority as
being competent to conduct such an exercise
and who may have CAA or FAA approval to
retread tyres for civilian aircraft. Such a Repair
Station will then be the Design Organisation for
that tyre repair process.
INTERFACE REQUIREMENTS
4.12.6 Each system shall be designed to The following features shall be taken into
meet the interface requirements as defined for the account:
aeroplane. All critical dimensional limitations shall
be agreed with the Aeroplane Designer. (a) Brake torque characteristics,
(b) The brake metering system and

its components,
(c) Hydraulic flow requirements,
(d) Aeroplane and undercarriage

dynamic characteristics, including shock
absorber, brake, and tyre dynamics,
(e) Total aeroplane stopping

performance requirements,
(f) Relevant characteristics of the

tyres,
(g) The aeroplane electrical and

electronic systems,
(h) The operating environment of

components,
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SECTION 4
(i) Worst case taxying loads,
(j) The effects of short flights with

rapid turnround.
RELIABILITY, FAULT AND FAILURE ANALYSIS
4.12.7 Quantitative reliability requirements
shall be established for the system and its
components consistent with the aeroplane system
requirements.
4.12.8 A Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (a) Failures whose effects cannot be
shall be performed and submitted to the Aeroplane adequately represented in the analysis shall be
Designer and the Project Team Leader. simulated by appropriate tests.
(b) It shall be verified that operational check-

out procedures can be developed to detect all
significant failures.
MAINTAINABILITY
4.12.9 Quantitative maintainability (a) The requirements shall apply to Factors to be considered shall include time,
requirements shall be established for the system maintenance in the planned maintenance and frequency, complexity, and their costs.
and its components consistent with the aeroplane support environment.
system requirements.
(b) The assumptions and results shall be
submitted to the Aeroplane Designer and to the
Project Team Leader for agreement and
acceptance.
BRAKES AND BRAKING SYSTEMS
OPERATION
4.12.10 The braking effect shall increase or There shall be no appreciable delay between
decrease progressively as the force applied to the operation of the cockpit control and operation of
normal brake control is increased or decreased. the brakes.
4.12.11 Power operated systems shall have See Clause 4.12.19 for the required capacity of
a reserve power supply capable of operating the both normal and reserve power supplies.
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brake for a single stopping of the aeroplane in the
event of failure of the normal power supply.
4.12.12 On shipborne aeroplanes, a standby The standby system need not provide differential
braking system shall be provided, capable of braking and anti-skid protection, but if anti-skid
operating the brakes for a single stopping of the is not provided then progressive braking under
aeroplane within the confines of the flight deck in the pilot's control is required.
the event of any single failure within the normal
system (including the power supply but excluding
the brake unit)
4.12.13 All brakes shall become free after
the control applying them has been taken off.
4.12.14 Variations in torque of a cyclical or
alternating nature, with or without the anti-skid
system being operated, that are likely to cause
structural damage, shall not occur.
PARKING
4.12.15 A parking brake shall be provided. (a) The parking brake control system shall See also Table 22 Item 2 for control positions.
The parking brake shall be capable, at any be in accordance with current Defence
practical aeroplane mass, of holding the aeroplane Standards.
against a force of 0.1G.MT fore or aft with or
without idling thrust on all engines. (b) The parking brake system may be
incorporated in either the normal or the reserve
brake system.
4.12.16 The parking brake shall be capable
of meeting the requirements of Clause 4.12.15 for
at least 24 hours when all engines are stopped,
when flying control locks have been applied, and
no power is supplied from an outside source.
CAPACITY OF POWER SUPPLY
4.12.17 The capacity of the normal power The requirements of Clauses 4.12.17 and
supply with main or auxiliary power units working 4.12.18 shall be met both when the brakes are
as in the normal landing run, and the capacity of new and when they have reached the limit of
the reserve power supply with no main or auxiliary their allowable wear and adjustment.
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SECTION 4

power units working, shall be the greater of either: Compliance with this requirement shall not be
affected by the operation of, or faults in, any
(a) capacity for full pressure at the other service.
brakes to be maintained when the anti skid
system applies and releases the brakes
continuously throughout the landing run, or
(b) capacity for at least 10 full

applications of the brakes when the anti-skid
system is not in action or is not fitted.
4.12.18 The capacity of the main and
reserve supply shall each be such that full braking
force is available for a rejected take-off at
maximum design take-off mass, less fuel used in
taxying, at the time of take-off regardless of the
use made of the brakes during taxying and run up.
KINETIC ENERGY ABSORPTION
4.12.19 Where wheel brakes are the only (a) When means other than wheel brakes
means of stopping the aeroplane they shall be are used to assist in stopping the aeroplane in a
capable of absorbing, in the appropriate distance normal manner, e.g., reversing propellers, thrust
at sea level and at such other temperatures and reversal, or brake parachutes, the details with
altitudes as the Aeroplane Specification requires, particular regard to reliability and to any
the kinetic energy of the aeroplane in the landing proposed adjustments to the requirements, shall
cases 1, 2 and 3, of Table 6 after allowance has be agreed with the Project Team Leader.
been made for any operating conditions within the
Aeroplane Specification which affect braking (b) Compliance with Case 1 of Table 6 of
performance, e.g. aerodynamic drag, engine this section shall be demonstrated on the
thrust, taxying and previous repeated brake prototype brake assembly by adequate
operations. laboratory tests on the general lines of those
given in Leaflet 57.
(c) Compliance with Case 2 or Case 3 of

Table 6 whichever is the more severe shall be
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SECTION 4

demonstrated by one laboratory test stop on a
brake assembly worn to an extent representing
the end of its useful life.
PRESSURE INDICATION
4.12.20 Means shall be provided to indicate
brake system pressure as agreed with the Project
Team Leader.
4.12.21 Hydraulic pressure gauges or Provision shall be made for fitting a pressure
indicators shall be so installed or protected that gauge at the brake, for ground testing.
failure of the gauge or indicator causes minimal
loss of hydraulic fluid from the system and does
not endanger the crew.
DEPRESSURISING AND REPRESSURISING
4.12.22 Provision shall be made externally Provision shall be made for simple
for dissipation of brake pressure for servicing. repressurisation of the brake system reservoirs
without running the aeroplane engines so that
ground manoeuvring can be done at any time.
STRENGTH OF CONTROL CIRCUIT
4.12.23 The brake control circuit shall have
proof and ultimate factors not less than 1.125 and
1.5 respectively under the appropriate loads of
Leaflet 56 Para. 10.1 as determined by the
Aeroplane Designer.
ANTI SKID SYSTEMS
4.12.24 Unless otherwise stated in the
Aeroplane Specification an anti skid system
approved by the Project Team Leader shall be
provided for all braked wheels.
4.12.25 The anti skid system in conjunction (a) The system shall provide a means of
with the aeroplane wheel brake system shall controlling brake pressure such that wheel
provide, within the limits of the aeroplane braking rotation is maintained within the required
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environment, a means of safely stopping the performance levels under all conditions other
aeroplane within the required runway length, width, than tyre aquaplaning. This requirement shall
and surface condition. The system shall not be apply to all landing surfaces on which the
adversely affected by the use of other decelerating aeroplane is required to operate.
aids such as reverse thrust or brake parachute.
(b) The system shall prevent tyre flat-
spotting and shall never permit a completely
locked brake within the control speed range of a
normally operating system.
PERFORMANCE
4.12.26 The system shall not induce any (a) A hydraulic analysis shall be performed SYSTEM FEATURES
dynamic instability, or unacceptable vibration, of to show that the components of the brake The following are features which may be required
any part of the aeroplane. system and the anti-skid valve are capable of by the Aeroplane Designer, in addition to the
achieving the required brake application and basic anti skid functions, depending upon the
response. aeroplane configuration and landing distance
requirements; touchdown protection, failure
(b) Consideration shall be given to cross detection, cockpit warning light, emergency
coupling of the anti-skid units to maintain operation and system integrity testing.
directional control of the aeroplane. This shall be
demonstrated on the aeroplane throughout the HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS
forecast ground operation spectrum. When performing the hydraulic analysis,
consideration should be given to the possibility of
(c) The system shall be tuned to meet the the anti-skid system being adversely affected by
required performance on a wet surface, a dry inadequate fluid flow through the pilot metering
surface, and combinations of wet and dry valve and fluctuations in return line pressure.
surfaces taking into consideration both braking Minimum ambient and fluid operating
and cornering forces, through the control speed temperatures which will be encountered should
range. However, since the total braking function also be considered.
involves more than the anti-skid system, total
system performance shall be the responsibility DYNAMOMETER TESTING
of the Aeroplane Designer. It is recognised that dynamometer testing may not
provide an accurate simulation but it may be
employed at the option of the Aeroplane Designer
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SECTION 4

or as required by the System Specification to
determine system/aeroplane compatibility and
system performance. Use of aeroplane hardware
(hydraulic simulation, tyre, wheel, brake,
structure, etc) will improve aeroplane simulation.
Testing on the aeroplane will however always be
necessary.
For advice on methods of testing aeroplanes to

determine anti skid braking system performance
in relation to runway friction, consult the Project
Team Leader.
ENVIRONMENT
4.12.27 The system shall perform When compiling the test schedule of See Clause 4.11.7
satisfactorily in the environmental conditions environmental test relating to these
specified by the Aeroplane Designer. requirements, endurance tests (involving
electrical and hydraulic cycling of the brake
control system) and hydraulic tests (involving
pressure drop, internal and external leakage and
proof and burst pressures) shall also be
considered.
TESTS
4.12.28 (a) If required by the Aeroplane Designer, all
component tests shall be performed on an anti-
skid system installed in a representation of an
aeroplane brake-control system. The degree of
aeroplane simulation required shall be specified
by the Aeroplane Designer.
(b) During all tests, performance and

endurance parameters shall be monitored. A list
of these parameters shall be included in the test
schedule which shall be agreed with the
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SECTION 4

Aeroplane Designer.
STRENGTH
4.12.29 The structural strength of all units of When designing an anti-skid system
the anti skid system shall be such that, when consideration shall be given to minimizing the
installed, operation will not be impaired and no part fatigue effects on the whole aeroplane.
of the device or its mounting shall fail under the
maximum imposed mechanical operating loads,
accelerations, or wrench torque loads required for
making connections.
PERFORMANCE AND COMPATIBILITY ANALYSIS
4.12.30 Simulation studies of system (a) The initial analysis shall be prepared
performance under all conditions required by the prior to flight test of the first unit. A final analysis
System Specification or by the Aeroplane Designer shall be prepared at the conclusion of the flight
shall be prepared as described in Clauses 4.12.31 and ground test evaluation of the system on the
to 4.12.32 Any other method shall be approved by aeroplane and shall be based on all test
the Project Team Leader. information then available.
(b) An analysis shall also be made of system

performance under the most extreme
environmental conditions of Clause 4.12.27
including changes in hydraulic pressure and
electric supply voltage. Performance at the
extremes shall be within the limits defined by the
Aeroplane Specification, or the Aeroplane
Designer.
SIMULATION STUDIES
4.12.31 Tyre, wheel, brake, undercarriage, Wherever possible actual system components
airframe dynamic characteristics, and aeroplane (particularly skid control electronic circuitry) shall
aerodynamic characteristics, shall be included in a be used.
computer analysis in which the various component
and system characteristics are simulated as
accurately as possible using available laboratory
test data.
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SECTION 4

4.12.32 The characteristic variation of The range of available tyre-to-surface friction co-
friction co-efficient with tyre or wheel slip shall be efficients to be analysed shall be from 0.10 to
considered and the numerical values of this the maximum available for a dry surface, or the
function shall be established based on the maximum which can be used by the brake's
properties of the tyre, and on experimental data. torque capability, whichever is least. The
computer programme shall include provision for
varying the available maximum coefficient of
friction during a single braking stop, in order to
simulate the effect of ice patches, puddles, and
paint stripes, on the runway.
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC REQUIREMENTS
4.12.33 Special attention shall be given to:
(a) moisture proofing of assemblies,

including connectors.
(b) providing system component and

tolerance compatibility throughout the
extremes of the temperature, environment,
and maintenance requirements.
(c) tolerance to the electro-magnetic

interferences environment.
4.12.34 When designed for electrical
operation, the system shall conform to all
applicable requirements of Part 1, Section 6,
Clause 6.6. The specified performance shall be
achieved when the power source is within the
operating range agreed with the aeroplane
designer. During power interruption the system
shall revert to brake pressure as metered by the
pilot.
4.12.35 Relays, wiring and connectors used
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SECTION 4

in the system shall conform to the latest applicable
requirements of Defence Standards and other
general standards and specifications, listed in the
HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC COMPONENTS
4.12.36 Hydraulic and pneumatic
components shall conform to the latest applicable
requirements of Defence Standards and other
general standards, and specifications, listed in the
WHEEL AND BRAKE ASSEMBLIES, TYRES, AND TUBES
4.12.37 An analysis of estimated wheel (a) When compiling the fatigue spectrum, See Clauses 4.11.12 to 4.11.13
loads which affect static and fatigue strength shall account shall be taken of the tyre pressure
be supplied by the Aeroplane Designer to the cycles induced by temperature effects and of the
Wheel and Brake Designers. The wheel shall be direct effect of the temperature cycle on the
designed to withstand the stresses resulting from wheel.
these loads and to have the specified life when
operating to this spectrum of loads. (b) For multi-wheel undercarriage units
account shall be taken of unequal wheel load
distribution and flat tyres.
WHEEL DESIGN
4.12.38 The design of the wheel shall be of Mating tubeless wheel parts and valves shall be See Leaflet 58 for Laboratory Testing of Wheels.
the demountable flange or divided hub type to sealed to prevent leakage.
facilitate tyre change. All demountable flanges
shall be secured to the wheel so as to prevent loss
of the flange if a flat tyre occurs when the wheel is
rolling.
4.12.39 The wheel shall be designed for The maximum tyre bead seat temperature under
satisfactory operation at all ambient temperatures all aeroplane operating conditions other than the
specified by the Aeroplane Designer. rejected take-off shall be specified and agreed
with the Aeroplane Designer.
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4.12.40 The wheel rim contour and form
shall conform to European Tyre and Rim Technical
Organisation (ETRTO) Standards.
4.12.41 The wheel shall be designed to The minimum clearance between the surface of
ensure clearance with all non-rotating brake parts a tyre and the aeroplane structure shall not be
under all operating conditions. less than those specified in BS 4M 45-1 (Aircraft
Tyres and Rims)
4.12.42 All wheels, tyres and tubes shall be
designed and tested to withstand at least 4 times
the Wheel Design Pressure before bursting.
4.12.43 A pressure relief device shall be The type of device shall be agreed with the A recommended bursting pressure is twice the
fitted to all aeroplane wheels to prevent tyre over- Project Team Leader, but a pressure release normal tyre inflation pressure.
inflation by the ground crew. Pressure relief plug, incorporating a fusion welded bursting disc
devices of different pressure ratings shall be is preferred. The device shall be designed and
designed so that they are not physically located on the wheel so that the ground crew
interchangeable. inflating the tyre will not be injured by fracture
particles when the disc bursts. The minimum
pressure at which the bursting disc will operate
shall be selected by the Aeroplane Designer,
and shall include an allowance for the
acceptable transient tyre pressure increases to
be expected in service, for example, due to
environmental conditions and those caused by
brake heating and landing load effects.
4.12.44 A minimum of 3 fusible plugs shall
be fitted in braked wheels to relieve tyre pressure if
the temperature of the tyre bead seat, or of any
critical pressurised areas of the wheel, reaches a
predetermined level during abnormal taxi or
braking conditions. The fusible plugs shall not
operate and shall not leak under normal service
conditions.
4.12.45 Wheels shall be balanced within Split wheels shall be balanced separately so
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limits specified by the Wheel Designer and agreed that pairing of halves in alternative positions, or
with the Aeroplane Designer. pairing of different halves, will not cause these
limits to be exceeded.
TYRES AND TUBES
4.12.46 The tyre manufacturer shall perform The Aeroplane Specification or the Project Tubes, if fitted, are regarded as part of the tyre for
tests to a schedule agreed with the Aeroplane Team Leader will state requirements if any for all design and test requirements.
Designer involving performance, environment, the provision of retreadable tyres.
fatigue, and endurance.
4.12.47 Tyre inflation valves shall comply See ASCC Air Standard 25/8 and STANAG 3209.
with the requirements of BS 3C 7 and shall have a
high performance core.
AEROPLANE PERFORMANCE AND COMPATIBILITY TESTS
GENERAL
4.12.48 Performance and compatibility tests (a) The method of measuring performance
shall be done on an aeroplane. efficiency and the level of system performance
efficiency required shall be agreed by the
Aeroplane Designer and the Project Team
Leader.
(b) The tests, which may be done according

to either the Basic Tests of Clause 4.12.49 or
the Alternative Test Methods of Clause 4.12.50,
of this Clause, shall show that the requirements
of Table 6 have been met.
BASIC TESTS
4.12.49 Install instrumentation on the aeroplane to As an optional extra, determine the free roll or
measure the following as a minimum; unbraked deceleration characteristics of the
independent wheel speeds, brake actuation aeroplane.
pressure, brake actuation initiation signal to the
control valves, and pressure at the brakes.
Perform low and high speed runway trials on wet
surfaces, dry surfaces and on combinations of
wet and dry surfaces, to determine:
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(a) The wheels never fully "lock up",
(b) The aeroplane brake control

system performance is as specified,
(c) The aeroplane has acceptable

handling characteristics.
ALTERNATIVE TEST METHOD
4.12.50 For a more sophisticated evaluation, in addition
to the above, install brake-torque or strut-drag
instrumentation and suitably located
accelerometers and also provide a means of
measuring true aeroplane velocity either on the
aeroplane or on the ground.
In addition to the Basic Tests at Clause 4.12.49,

determine drag and/or brake torque efficiency.
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4.13 OPERATION FROM ROUGH GROUND/GROUND CLEARANCE
4.13.1 The requirements of Clauses 4.11.23 to 4.11.50 and 4.14 are based on the assumption that the surfaces from which the aeroplanes are designed to
operate are smooth and hard. This clause states variations from those requirements necessary to ensure satisfactory operation from runways which do not
have these characteristics. The results of all theoretical analyses and assessments required by this clause shall be discussed with the Project Team
Leader. However, demonstration of satisfactory operation from such surfaces shall be by test. The requirements are stated in four forms:
(a) Steps, bumps and hollows to be traversed when taxying.
(b) Roughness requirements of increasing severity dependent on the class of surface from which operations are to be conducted.
(c) Softness requirements, which are generally associated with roughness, which affect the performance of the aeroplane when riding over the
defined roughness.
(d) Requirements arising from the need to operate from runways which have been damaged and repaired.
The arbitrary stressing cases of Leaflet 43 may be used for design purposes in conjunction with the requirements of this section but may not be used for
demonstration of compliance. An assessment shall be made of the differences in the fatigue loading spectrum from that assumed for normal operation.
When applying the requirements of this section either the tyre or the shock absorber, but not both together, may be allowed to bottom provided that the
ultimate reaction is not exceeded. See also Clause 4.11.43
See Leaflet 48 "Operation from surfaces other than smooth hard runways" for general background to the problems of operating from semi-prepared
surfaces and from damaged and repaired runways.

STEPS, BUMPS AND HOLLOWS
4.13.2 The relevant requirements of (a) The step is defined as a simple 90° See Table 7.
Clauses 4.11.23 to 4.11.33 and 4.14 shall be met rectangular step. See Fig. 2.
when any single undercarriage unit encounters the
step, up or down, and the bump, or hollow (b) The bump is shown in Fig. 3 and is
appropriate to the class of runway surface required defined as 2hx = Hs (1-cos 2 x/L). Where L is
by the Aeroplane Specification. normally assumed to be any value between
0.25m and 1.25m.
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SECTION 4
(c) The hollow is the bump of (b) inverted.

ROUGH GROUND OPERATION
4.13.3 The designer shall agree a definition (a) Using the agreed model the designer See Leaflet 49 "Specification of continuous
of the aeroplane configurations to be used, a shall perform a dynamic analysis of the ground unevenness" for details of surface profiles
mathematical model of the aeroplane, and a behaviour of the whole aeroplane in the pitching applicable to the classes of prepared and semi-
mathematical model of the ground to be traversed, and rolling planes to determine if, at any speed prepared surface which may be specified for a
appropriate to the class of runway specified, with up to 1.15 times the maximum take-off speed, particular project.
the Project Team Leader. the behaviour of the aeroplane will cause burst
tyres, or stresses in any of the units greater than
the design ultimate stresses.
(b) An assessment shall be made of the

resultant motion of the aeroplane and the effects
of this motion, on the aeroplane, the crew and
the equipment. Particular attention shall be paid
to effects on crew performance, avionics, and
external stores.
(c) An assessment shall be made of the

resultant motion of the aeroplane and the effects
of this motion, on the aeroplane, the crew and
the equipment. Particular attention shall be paid
to effects on crew performance, avionics, and
external stores.
(d) An assessment shall be made of the

effects of roughness on vertical, drag, and side
loads during landing.
SOFT GROUND OPERATION
4.13.4 The designer shall agree a definition (a) An assessment shall be made of the See Leaflet 50 "Estimates of ground flotation" for
of the aeroplane configurations to be used, a effects of softness on take-off and landing a method of calculating the number of passes and
mathematical model of the aeroplane, and a distances. sorties which may be possible from a particular
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SECTION 4

mathematical model of the ground to be traversed, semi-prepared surface.
according to the degree of softness (CBR)
specified. (b) An assessment shall be made of the See Leaflet 51 "Estimation of aeroplane rolling
effects of softness on vertical, drag, and side wheel drag" for a method of estimating aeroplane
loads during take-off and landing. performance.
OPERATION FROM DAMAGED AND REPAIRED RUNWAYS
4.13.5 The designer shall agree a definition The cases to be considered are stated in Tables Table 8 gives the mass, speed, and special limits
of the aeroplane configurations to be used, and a 8, 9, 10. Each case shall be applied to each applicable to the obstacles to be encountered.
mathematical model of the aeroplane, with the undercarriage unit separately and considered
Project Team Leader. for: Table 9 gives definitions of the bumps and
hollows.
(a) Its effect on the dynamics of the
whole aeroplane and, Table 10 gives details of the repaired craters and
associated load limits to be observed. Values of L
(b) The effects of the consequent to be considered are 6.5m, 12.5m and 22.5m.
vibration on crew, equipment and
structure. Figs. 2, 3 and 6 illustrate the obstacles.
Figs. 4 and 5 give dimensions of the bumps and

hollows to be considered.
See Leaflet 52 The damaged and repaired

runway" for background information on repair of
damaged runways and the selection of a
Minimum Operating Strip (MOS)
See Leaflet 53 "Design Principles" for a summary

of design features which have been found to
improve the ability of the aeroplane to operate
from damaged and repaired runways.
TESTS
4.13.6 A programme of tests, which may include both
small scale and full scale model tests, shall be
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SECTION 4

GROUND CLEARANCE
4.13.7 With the exceptions of arresting
hooks and tail bumpers if fitted, there shall be
positive ground clearance of all parts of the
aeroplane, including all control surfaces in the
most adverse position with all external stores, on a
smooth hard surface in all practicable take-off and
landing attitudes, with the maximum undercarriage
closure and tyre compression including any
combination of burst tyres and total collapse of the
shock-absorber.
TRAMPLING OF AERODROME ARRESTING GEAR HOOK CABLES
4.13.8 The design aim is to avoid impact At an early stage in the design, the ground Arresting gear hook cables are now installed at
between the cable and any part of the aeroplane clearance of all parts of the aeroplane with and many aerodromes throughout the world and
except the tyres. Where impact cannot be avoided without external stores shall be assessed aeroplanes of all types have to trample these
the design shall be such that the damage to the against the recommendations of Leaflet 60. cables during taxying, take-off and landing.
hook cable and to the aeroplane will not affect their Where there is any doubt whether adequate
safety or operational efficiency. clearance can be provided, trampling tests at
various speeds (using dummy stores where
necessary) shall be done at an early stage in
the development test programme.
If tests show that any part of the aeroplane may
be struck the action to be taken shall be
discussed and agreed with the Project Team
Leader in accordance with the
recommendations of Leaflet 60.
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SECTION 4
4.14 NOSE WHEEL STEERING
4.14.1 This information is similar to CS 25.745 It states requirements additional to those at Clauses 4.11.23 to 4.11.33 applicable to nose-wheel units when
nose-wheel steering is provided. If an emergency system is provided these requirements apply equally to it.

4.14.2 The nose-wheel steering system Compliance with the requirements of this section
shall have a steering rate, and ratio or ratios, of shall be demonstrated where relevant by a
steered wheel angle to control movement, which Failure Effects and Hazard Analysis. See Leaflet
(in conjunction with other directional control 45 Para. 5. Where electric or electronic control
systems) will provide smooth hang and minimise is used circuit reliability shall be included in the
pilot-induced oscillations to meet the directional Failure Effects and Hazard Analysis.
control requirements of Clauses 4.11.23 to 4.11.33
4.14.3 The nose-wheel steering system
shall be compatible with all aeroplane systems
which affect it or operate in conjunction with it.
4.14.4 The nose-wheel steering system
shall not induce unacceptable vibration, aeroplane
instability, or shimmy with the system engaged or
disengaged.
4.14.5 All components of the nose-wheel See Clause 4.11.7
steering system shall function satisfactorily in the
environmental conditions specified for the
aeroplane.
4.14.6 Failure of any part of the steering Failure involving runaway of the nose-wheel
system shall not: steering system shall be considered and such
provision made as is necessary to ensure safety
(a) cause interference with the required on take-off. The need for an emergency system
motion of the rudder pedals or with any part shall also be considered in the case of failure
of the flying controls; where runaway is not involved.
(b) cause unacceptable oscillation or

vibration;
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SECTION 4

(c) cause turning of the wheels about
the steering axis when the nose wheel unit is
retracting or retracted.
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
4.14.7 If pilot control of steering system See also Clauses 4.11.51 to 4.11.75
engagement is provided this shall not prevent
correct alignment of the nose-wheel before
touchdown.
4.14.8 Engagement of the steering system
at any time when this is possible shall not hazard
the aeroplane whether it is on the ground or in the
air.
4.14.9 When it is engaged the steering
system shall position the nose-wheel at the angle
demanded by the cockpit controls and restore it to
that position after an external disturbance.
4.14.10 The steering system shall provide
steering control and adequate shimmy damping for
all ground speeds up to the maximum speed at
which the nose-wheel can remain in contact with
the ground.
4.14.11 The fatigue lives of all components
shall be shown by analysis or by test, using a
spectrum of loads agreed with the Project Team
Leader, to be at least equal to the required life.
STEERING REQUIREMENTS
4.14.12 The powered steering angles A free castoring range beyond the powered
provided shall enable the aeroplane to make a steering angles shall be provided as required by
180° turn within the area defined in the Aeroplane the Aeroplane Specification or as subsequently
Specification. agreed with the Project Team Leader.
4.14.13 If a single engine failure during take-
off causes loss of hydraulic pressure to the
steering system, directional control of the
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SECTION 4

aeroplane at Level 2 (see Leaflet 42 Para. 1.2)
shall be capable of being maintained either by an
emergency steering system or by other means
such as differential braking or use of rudder
control.
STEERING TORQUE
4.14.14 The steering system shall be Consideration shall also be given to the effect of
designed to provide sufficient output torque to shock loads arising, when the nose unit strikes
meet the general directional control requirements the appropriate step, bump or hollow (see
of Clauses 4.11.23 to 4.11.33 Clause 4.13) at the most adverse position, on
those parts of the unit which will be over
stressed before the torque lifting device can
operate.
4.14.15 Hydraulic or electric system safety
devices shall be designed to operate at 1.33 times
the torque defined in Clause 4.14.14
4.14.16 The aeroplane as a whole and, in The requirement shall be met in the most
particular, the mechanical parts of the steering adverse combination of mass and CG position.
system shall have proof and ultimate factors of not
less than 1.125 and 1.5 when meeting Clauses
4.14.14 and 4.14.15 on a dry surface with a static
co-efficient of friction of 0.8 with a load factor at the
CG of 1.0
4.14.17 The strength and stiffness of all
components of the system when installed shall
ensure operation of the system without failure
under all design conditions.
TEST
TAXI TRIALS
4.14.18 Compliance with design requirements of this
clause and of Clauses 4.11.23 to 4.11.33 shall
be demonstrated during taxying trials at an early
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SECTION 4

stage in development.
RIG TESTS AND BENCH TESTS
4.14.19 A programme of tests to
demonstrate compliance with performance
requirements, endurance requirements, and
requirements for functioning under extremes of
temperature and other environmental conditions
(See Clause 4.11.7) shall be agreed with the
STRENGTH TESTS
4.14.20 A programme of static and fatigue Tests to establish endurance under adverse
tests on components of the system shall be agreed environmental conditions (See Clause 4.11.7)
with the Project Team Leader. may be integrated with these tests where
appropriate.
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SECTION 4
4.15 CREW STATIONS - GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
4.15.1 This information along with Clause 4.16, is similar in content to CS 25.771 The requirements apply, unless otherwise specified, to all types of
aeroplane.

4.15.2 The dimensions to be used in the Each new station, while in the mock-up stage, See Leaflet 63.
design of aeroplanes and cockpit installations shall shall be examined by the Project Team Leader
accommodate the 3rd to the 99th percentile range and compared with the criteria contained in this
of aircrew. section. Trials to determine the suitability of the
crew stations layout shall be held with personnel
harnessed in the seats and wearing the clothing
and equipment detailed in the Aircrew
Equipment Assembly Schedule (AEA),
appropriate to the particular aeroplane.
NOMENCLATURE
4.15.3 The Nomenclature to be used for (a) The construction of nomenclature shall See STANAG 3647.
labels and legends on controls, panels and be based on common usage, syllable
displays in aircrew stations shall be in accordance construction and phonetics.
with Leaflet 61 and/or the rules under Compliance.
(b) Where possible, the entire wording shall
be used.
(c) Where the entire wording cannot be

used, contraction which retains the phonetic
sound structure of the original word shall be
used.
(d) Where space for a contraction is not

available approved abbreviations shall be used.
(e) Acronyms and symbols, other than those

in common usage shall be avoided.
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SECTION 4
(f) Words of four letters or less shall not be

abbreviated unless common usage has
rendered the word and its abbreviations
completely synonymous in recognition and
intelligibility.
LAYOUT
4.15.4 The layout of the crew stations shall The accommodation shall be such that fatigue is
be such that all members of the crew, when minimised, particularly on aeroplanes with a
wearing the clothing and equipment detailed in the long endurance. Whenever possible, crew
Aircrew Equipment Assembly Schedule stations should be placed reasonably close
appropriate to the particular aeroplane, are together to assist mutual co-operation and
capable of: morale.
(a) carrying out their normal duties

without discomfort, hindrance or delay under
all normal flight conditions,
(b) carrying out the operational tasks

specified in the event of any single failure
leading to the emergency operation of the
aircrew equipment, with the exception that
the ability to make an approach landing with
pressure equipment inflated is not needed,
and
(c) carrying out without hindrance or

delay:
(1) when their equipment is not inflated,

all emergency procedures, and
(2) when their equipment is inflated,
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SECTION 4

those emergency procedures which may
be necessary above 12,190 m (40,000 ft)
FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT
4.15.5 Where free, easy and safe Padding or guards shall be provided on any
movement between crew stations is necessary on prominent structure or equipment which may
multi-seat aeroplanes. Foot and/or hand holes or cause injury or hamper the movement of the
equivalent aids shall be provided. crew whilst at their stations or moving about the
aeroplane.
NOISE
4.15.6 The noise level at crew stations See Clauses 4.15.76 to 4.15.81
shall be as low as possible, and in any case shall
not exceed the level at which intercommunication
will be satisfactory.
INTERCOMMUNICATION
4.15.7 The content of this requirement has
been moved to Part 13 Section 1.2 Communication
Systems, Clause 1.2.4.01 and 1.2.5.01
DESIGN OF SEATS AND HARNESSES
been moved to Part 13 Section 1.6 Survivability
and Recovery, Clause 1.6.09.01
RESTRAINT AND PARACHUTE HARNESS FOR AIRCREW
4.15.11 A harness shall be fitted at each See Clause 4.21 for the design requirements for
crew station to restrain the crew member during restraint and parachute harness for aircrew.
flight manoeuvres, during the crash landing and
ditching conditions of Clause 4.22, and entry into
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SECTION 4

the safety barrier.
4.15.12 For crew members whose duties See Clause 4.22 for strength requirements.
require them to stand near an open door in flight, a
body harness providing vertical head-up
suspension from the parachute and adequate
restraint for both pelvis and thorax, when seated,
shall be provided.
ARMOUR PROTECTION
4.15.13 Where the armour is an integral part
of the aeroplane structure, the structure including
the armour shall meet all relevant design
requirements.
4.15.14 Where the armour is an integral part
of the seat, it shall be capable of sustaining the
loads applied to the seat, and the seat, including
the armour, shall meet all relevant design
requirements.
4.15.15 Where the armour is attached to the
aeroplane structure, it shall be treated as an item
under Clause 4.22.21
4.15.16 Where the armour is attached to the
seat or mounted on the pilot or crewman, the
weight of the armour shall be included in the
weight of the seat when designing to meet the
requirements of Clause 4.22
COCKPIT STRUCTURE
4.15.17 The construction and layout of the In meeting the requirements, consideration shall
cockpit structure and equipment shall be such as be given to the following:
to prevent serious injury, as far as is reasonably
practical, to the crew whilst harnessed in their (a) The crew dimensions for 'small'
seats or damage to survival equipment, during and 'large' airmen given in Leaflet 63.
flight manoeuvres and under the crash landing
conditions of Clause 4.22 (b) The seat and harness deflection
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SECTION 4

under 90% of the ultimate loads derived
from the crash cases.
(c) Possible structural deformation at

this load.
4.15.18 Within the envelope defined in
Clause 4.15.17 Compliance, there shall be no
structure or equipment which might reasonably be
foreseen as being a potential cause of injury to a
crew member or damage his survival equipment in
the event of a crash or heavy landing.
CONTROLS
IDENTIFICATION OF CONTROLS
4.15.19 All controls and their functions,
where not immediately obvious, shall be clearly
identified in unambiguous terms (see Clause
4.15.3) on or adjacent to each control. The method
of marking shall be in accordance with Part 1,
section 7, clause 7.4
ACTUATION
4.15.20 Controls and switches at all crew (a) Actuation downward, aft or anti- See ASCC Air Standard 61/116/1H and STANAG
stations shall be so positioned that actuation clockwise shall decrease performance. 3217.
upward, forward or clockwise will increase
performance of the aeroplane or the associated (b) The direction of actuation is related to
component. the operator when at his operational station, and
not to the aeroplane.
(c) Where due to roof angle, ambiguity of up

or down movement may result, operation of
switches to the "ON" position shall be by a
continuation of the upward movement of the
operator's hand.
4.15.21 Three-position toggle switches shall
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SECTION 4

be "OFF" when the dolly is at the central position,
unless operationally or technically undesirable.
EMERGENCY CONTROLS
4.15.22 An emergency control is one which
must be used instantly to avoid or correct a
dangerous or disastrous situation, and as such it
shall be easily accessible, shall not be complicated
to operate and shall be easy to recognise.
4.15.23 It is important that the number of Unless otherwise agreed by the Project Team
emergency controls shall be kept to the minimum. Leader, only those controls listed below shall be
classified as emergency controls and be marked
as such:
(a) Emergency seat controls.
(b) Emergency canopy or hatch

jettison control.
(c) Emergency external stores

jettison.
(d) Internally-carried armament

stores jettison.
(e) Landing gear down lock override

switch.
(f) Emergency fuel switches.
(g) Engine emergency shutdown and

fire extinguishing agent discharge
switches.
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SECTION 4

(h) Propeller feathering controls.
(i) Emergency override trim switch.
(j) Emergency automatic flight

control system disconnect switch.
(k) Emergency wheel brake control.
(l) First Pilot's cabin pressurisation

switch.
(m) Emergency arrester hook control.
(n) Abandon aircraft switch.
(o) Emergency/jettison door control.
(p) Liferaft release control.
(q) Weapon sight emergency

retraction.
(r) Emergency oxygen.
(s) Feel relief.
(t) Emergency electrical supply.

4.15.24 Controls for the operation of
standby services (e.g., undercarriage standby
lowering) shall not be classified as emergency
controls.
4.15.25 Emergency controls shall be See ASCC Air Standard 10/23E.
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SECTION 4

marked in accordance with the requirements of
PREVENTION OF INADVERTENT OPERATION
4.15.26 Locking wire or pins shall not be
used to prevent inadvertent operation of controls or
switches for any normal, standby or emergency
services which may be required at any time during
flight.
4.15.27 All emergency and standby controls For the emergency controls and switches
and switches which are liable to accidental defined in Clause 4.15.23, the guards shall be
operation shall be protected by guards. so designed that operation of the controls by a
single movement of a gloved hand is possible;
such guards should where practicable, be of the
"blinker" type. For standby controls and
switches, a gate device is an acceptable form of
guard.
CONTROL WHEELS, KNOBS AND SWITCHES
4.15.28 The design and installation of all
hand operated controls and switches shall be such
that there is no difficulty in obtaining an effective
grip or in operating the control with cold hands.
4.15.29 Control knobs shall be of distinctive
shape to assist both visual identification and
tactual identification with the gloved hand and,
where applicable, shall be in accordance with Def
Stan 00-970.
4.15.30 Control wheels and knobs should be They shall be as large as possible with their
made of material of poor conductivity (e.g., plastic) function and the periphery shall be corrugated in
where they will be touched or gripped. preference to being milled or knurled.
4.15.31 All hand operated controls and Press switches shall not be used unless they
switches shall be so positioned that they may be are essential to the operation of the service
readily operated with gloved hands. controlled, e.g., gun firing, bomb release, etc.
TELL-TALE DEVICES FOR EMERGENCY AND STANDBY SYSTEMS
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SECTION 4

4.15.32 A "tell-tale" device to indicate that Copper wire may be used as a tell-tale in
an emergency or standby system has been accordance with FAP101A-0001-1, Chapter 2,
operated shall only be fitted where the system is but only where no other method is possible
irreversible from the cockpit control or where the because there is a chance that incorrect quality
fact that the system has been operated is not of wire (for example steel locking wire) might be
immediately obvious. used as a replacement. To prevent pieces of
broken wire becoming a loose article hazard the
method of attaching the tell-tale shall follow the
principles contained in FAP101A-0001-1,
Chapter 2.
WARNING CAUTIONARY AND ADVISORY SIGNALS
GENERAL
4.15.33 All Crew Stations - Three distinct Both audio and visual means may be used, as See ASCC Air Standard 61/116/05M) and
categories of signal shall be used to inform crew specified by the Project Team Leader for STANAG 3370.
members of the conditions which exist relating to transmitting these signals. See Part 0 for definitions of Warning, Cautionary
the operation of the aeroplane and/or its and Advisory Signals.
equipment.
4.15.34 Pilot's Station - The pilot shall be
provided with a warning system in accordance with
the requirements of Clauses 4.19.57 to 4.19.58
VISUAL SIGNALS
4.15.35 Warning and cautionary lights shall The axis of the cone of vision for the pilot is
be installed within the pilot’s 30° cone of vision (i.e. measured from the design eye position (as
15° around the visual axis) defined in Part 0), directly forward to the top of
the flight instrument panel (or coaming). When
space is limited or the required number of
warning or cautionary lights is excessive,
warning or cautionary lights may be grouped
outside the pilots 30° cone of vision. In these
cases a master warning - or master caution light
shall be installed in the pilot's 30° cone of vision.
For other stations the axis of the cone of vision
is measured from the design eye position to the
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SECTION 4

centre of the instrument or control panel. The
apex of the cone in every case is at the design
eye position of the crew member concerned.
4.15.36 When a master warning or caution The grouping of indicators on a warning panel
signal is used, the master caution must be capable should follow ergonomic principles.
of being cancelled, but without cancelling the
appropriate signal(s) on the central warning panel.
AUDITORY SIGNALS
4.15.37 When auditory signals are used as (a) Auditory signals can be of a verbal or See Leaflet 62.
warning signals they must operate in conjunction non-verbal form), the preference being
with a visual signalling device. There shall be dependent on the type of warning required.
provision for overriding and recalling the signals.
The signals, when activated, shall be presented (b) The number of non-verbal signals should
until either: be minimised.
(a) the causative condition is corrected, (c) Auditory signals should be clearly
or audible under all flight conditions, including
where necessary, when helmets or ear
(b) a signal of higher priority is present, defenders are not worn (see Clause 4.15.38 (a))
or
(c) the signal is silenced by the override

switch (under this condition the system is still
armed for all other functions)
4.15.38 Auditory signals used for warning The discrete position at which the chopped
purposes shall conform with the following signal commences on either side of the "correct"
requirements: signal shall be readily adjustable.
(a) Standard Warning system (see

Clause 4.19.59) - The warning signal shall be
a lyre bird-like sound in accordance with the
requirements of Specification EL 1960.
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SECTION 4

(b) Auditory Angle of Attack/Airspeed
Signal - The Auditory signal to be used for
presenting angle of attack/airspeed
information referenced to a selected angle of
attack/airspeed shall be as contained in
Table 11.
ABANDON AIRCRAFT COMMAND SIGNAL
4.15.39 In multi-seat aeroplanes, a signal The Project Team Leader will decide on the
assembly, operable from the first pilot's station need for warning signs:
(see Table 23, Item 1), shall be installed to provide
each other crew member with a visual signal (a) when the crew escape sequence
commanding him to abandon the aeroplane. The is fully automatic, and
signal at each crew station shall be an illuminated
red warning sign, labelled ABANDON AIRCRAFT. (b) at the co-pilot's station when his
Each warning sign shall be installed in a prominent seat is side-by-side with the first pilot.
position and shall have no dimming facilities.
4.15.40 If a crew member has to move from
one station to another in the course of his duties, a
warning sign shall be provided at each of his
stations.
OXYGEN SYSTEM WARNINGS AND INDICATORS
4.15.41 Warning of oxygen failure shall be
provided on the Standard Warning System as
required by Clause 4.19.59
4.15.42 There shall be a positive indication, This may be the "blinker" on panel mounted
visible to each crewmember in single and two seat demand oxygen regulators or an independently
aeroplanes and to selected crew members in multi- mounted "blinker" when other forms of demand
seat aeroplanes, of oxygen flow to the mask. oxygen regulators are used.
4.15.43 A pressure gauge to indicate the
pressure at the regulator inlet shall be provided,
visible to a selected crew member.
4.15.44 It shall be possible for selected crew
members to determine the combined contents of
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SECTION 4

the gaseous oxygen storage cylinder or the
contents of each liquid oxygen converter at any
time during the flight.
TEST FACILITY
4.15.45 A test facility shall be provided for
testing the light sources in all visual signals; where
appropriate this facility will also test sub-system
circuit integrity, and auditory signals.
INDICATORS
4.15.46 See ASCC Air Standard 61/116/05M).
These requirements apply only to indicators which

denote a condition, (e.g., magnetic indicators and
lamps) and not a varying quantity.
IDENTIFICATION OF INDICATORS
4.15.47 The design of the legends used for The legends used shall be a minimum of 3.17 A list of legends for this purpose is given in
indicators shall be in accordance with the numeral mm in height. Leaflet 61.
and letter form requirements of STANAG 3436.
When not energized, the legends on visual signals
shall not be readable. The functions of each
indicator shall be clearly identified in unambiguous
terms adjacent to, or on, each indicator.
ILLUMINATED INDICATORS
4.15.48 All illuminated indicators, unless If automatic dimming is considered, a
otherwise specified shall have dimming, photosensitive device should be incorporated.
mechanical or electrical under the control of the
appropriate crew member so that at night they do
not impair his vision.
4.15.49 Indicators should be so positioned Notes:
or shielded that reflections from external light
sources (including sunlight) do not give the (1) Provision shall be made to ensure
impression that they are energized. When the illumination of warning and cautionary
energized, display contrast shall be sufficient to legend light signals in the case of any single
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SECTION 4

ensure readability under all conditions except for light source failure.
operation at low light levels, when dimming, partial
masking, or extinguishing (after warning has been (2) The indicators should not be
noted) may be permitted. Warning signals shall not dimmed to an extent that their attention
be totally extinguished (but see master caution getting properties are degraded. However,
signal - Clause 4.15.36) signals capable of dimming to extinction
may be required for special roles (e.g.,
(a) Warning Lights - The legend shall passive night vision goggles)
be opaque on a red background.
(3) Care should be taken to ensure
(b) Caution Lights - The legend may be that brightness balance is maintained
opaque on a yellow/amber background or between different signals.
translucent yellow/amber on an opaque
background.
(c) Advisory Lights - Advisory lights

may be either of the incorporated legend type
or non-legend type. When a non-legend light
is used, a readily readable label under day
and night conditions shall be provided
adjacent to the light. Legend advisory lights
installed in flight compartments shall employ
translucent legends on an opaque
background.
COLOUR CODING OF ILLUMINATED INDICATORS
4.15.50 The colour of visual signals shall be Notes:
in accordance with Publication CIE No. 2.2 (TC-
1.6) 1975. Chromaticity co-ordinates shall be within (1) White, Blue and Green colours
the limits as defined in Tables 12 and 13 at 60% should be capable of adequate dimming in
and 100% of rated voltage for dimmable lights, situations where there is a requirement for
otherwise the rated voltage shall be applied to the full night adaption to aircrew.
terminals.
(2) Non-legend lights of this type shall
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SECTION 4

(a) Warning Signal – Red. not be installed in flight compartments.
(b) Cautionary Signal - Yellow or Recommended boundaries for light signals are
Amber. given in Figs. 7 – 11.
(c) Advisory Signals - Green, White or

Blue, these colours have the following
meaning:
(1) Green - That a unit or component is

in tolerance, or a condition is satisfactory,
or that it is appropriate to proceed with a
sequence of events already set in motion.
(2) White or Blue - To indicate a status

or position or action, without implying safe
or unsafe condition, for the location of
components, action or test in progress
(warming up etc). The condition shall be
identified with a displayed legend or label.
4.15.51 Release of Nuclear Weapons - If As a general principle, as few lights as possible
indicator lamps are required on the control panel shall be used.
for the purpose of controlling the release of nuclear
weapons, the lamps shall be coloured as follows:
(a) green to denote safe,
(b) amber to denote ready for release.

(All control unit lights which are on
immediately prior to live release will be
coloured amber. For safe release or safe
jettison, all release circuit lights will be amber
but certain weapon arming lights may be
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SECTION 4

green), and
(c) red to denote conditions not

covered by amber or green, e.g., unsafe,
dangerous, transition or emergency.
DIMMER SCREENS
4.15.52 If a dimmer screen is required over
an individual warning light, the iris type shall be
used.
MAGNETIC INDICATORS
4.15.53 When used in a cautionary In the black and white diagonal stripe
category, magnetic indicators shall show a change presentation, there shall be at least two white
from black to black and white diagonal stripes to stripes of not less than 0.76 mm width.
indicate the non-availability or failure of a service.
GENERAL LIGHTING
4.15.54 All interior portions of the aeroplane Sun blinds shall be provided in all multi-seat
to which the crew have normal access during flight aeroplanes, unless otherwise specified by the
shall be adequately lighted by windows by day and Project Team Leader.
by electric light by night.
INSTRUMENT AND PANEL LIGHTING
GENERAL
4.15.55 The instrument and panel lighting
shall be arranged to avoid reflections from the
windscreens, other transparent panels or objects in
the crew stations.
INSTRUMENT LIGHTING
4.15.56 Unless specified otherwise by the Wherever possible, split circuitry shall be used
Project Team Leader, all instruments shall be for the instrument lighting power supplies to
illuminated by integral lighting, tungsten-white in safeguard against loss of lighting through a
colour. single failure.
PANEL LIGHTING
4.15.57 With the exception of the main Unless specified otherwise by the Project Team See ASCC Air Standard 61/113/2H and STANAG
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SECTION 4

instrument panel and specified panels at other Leader tungsten white lighting shall be used. 3224.
crew stations, all console panels and ,as far as
practicable, other equipment requiring illumination
shall be lit by the plastic plate system (see
Specification EL 1818) or electro-luminescent units
(see Specification EL 2033). With the plastic plate
system the loss of any one light source shall not
result in the marks or letters on any instrument or
legend becoming invisible at full light intensity.
FLOODLIGHTING
EMERGENCY LIGHTING
ISOLATED INSTRUMENTS
4.15.61 When it is not practicable for Tungsten-white lighting shall be used.
isolated instruments to be illuminated by integral
lighting, they shall be illuminated by pillar lamps.
WANDER LAMP
4.15.62 A wander lamp consisting of a In the case of side-by-side seating, one lamp
tungsten-white floodlight, fitted with an alternative only need be fitted, provided that it is mounted
red filter, shall normally be fitted at each pilot's between the pilots and is readily accessible to
station. both. The lamp shall derive its power from the
main electrical supply, and shall retract into a
fixed stowage when not required for use.
LIGHTING CONTROLS
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4.15.63 With the exception of the Individual dimmer switches shall be provided
emergency floodlighting and anti-dazzle lights within easy reach of each crew member to
(Clause 4.15.64), it shall be possible to control the control the lighting at his station. Where more
intensity of illumination of all instruments and than one dimmer switch is required at a crew
panels from full intensity to zero. station, the dimmer switches shall be grouped
together.
ANTI-DAZZLE LIGHTS
4.15.64 A high intensity white light shall be (a) Where there are two pilot's stations, the See ASCC Air Standard 61/113/2H and STANAG
provided at the pilot's station on bomber, maritime requirements shall apply to both sets of 3224.
reconnaissance, all-weather fighter and naval instruments.
strike aeroplanes to give an illumination of:
(b) If more than one light has to be fitted to
(a) not less than 100 lumens/sq. Ft. on meet the requirements, the lights shall be wired
the artificial horizon, so that failure of one light does not cause failure
of other lights in the circuit.
(b) not less than 50 lumens/sq. ft. On
the ASI and heading indicator, and (c) The light(s) shall be controlled by a
switch at the pilot’s station (See Table 26, Item
(c) about 5 lumens/sq. ft. over the rest 1). With the switch in the "DIM" position, the
of the instrument panel. illumination shall be about 1 per cent of the
value given in the requirement.
(d) In cases where a separate switch is

required for another crew member, an on/off
switch shall be used and so wired in circuit that
it cannot operate the lights with the pilot's switch
at "OFF". The crew member’s switch shall be
protected against inadvertent operation.
(e) As the alignment of the light(s) is critical,

the attachments to the aeroplane shall be as
rigid as possible to prevent accidental
movement.
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SECTION 4

BLACKOUT CURTAINS
4.15.65 Blackout curtains at windows and Where it is necessary to separate the pilot's
screening of the lights shall be provided in multi- station from the rest of the crew compartment for
seat aeroplanes, to ensure that at night no light night flying etc., a curtain shall be used.
shall be visible beyond a distance of 100 metres.
FIRST-AID KITS
4.15.66 Stowages shall be provided on all (a) Each stowage shall be designed to
aeroplanes for first-aid kits to the scale specified ensure that the kit is carried securely and
for the particular type of aeroplane. without chafing, and shall be such that the kit
may be inspected without removal from the
stowage.
(b) All kits shall have a quick release type of

attachment.
(c) When intended for use during flight, the

kit shall be easily accessible to the crew and its
location shall be marked with a red "Greek"
cross on a white background.
(d) At least one kit shall be located as far to

the rear as possible and shall be accessible
from outside the aeroplane in the event of a
crash landing, and its location shall be marked
in accordance with the requirements of the
DAP119A-0601-Series.
PERSONAL SURVIVAL PACKS
AIRCREW OVERNIGHT KIT STOWAGES
4.15.68 A dedicated stowage space for The stowage may be an area of internally or
aircrew overnight kit shall be provided for each externally accessed airframe compartment, or
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SECTION 4

flight crew member. externally fitted baggage pod.
HAND FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
AXES AND HEAT RESISTING GLOVES
SANITATION
4.15.72 Reserved
4.15.73 In all aeroplanes, where the
endurance is greater than two-and-a-half hours,
urine containers and funnels shall be installed at
each crew station in easily accessible positions.
CUP HOLDERS
4.15.74 On aeroplanes with an endurance of The cup holders shall be so designed/positioned
four hours or more, cup holders shall be provided that accidental spillage will not contaminate the
at each crew station. aeroplane services.
SIGNAL PISTOLS
REQUIREMENTS FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE TO NOISE AND VIBRATION IN COCKPITS AND CABINS
contains requirements aimed at ensuring that the
noise and vibration levels in all occupied areas of
the aeroplane are kept within acceptable limits.
These requirements are in the form of design
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SECTION 4

aims and not specific requirements because
particular levels are not always achievable.
However, measurements in present day
aeroplanes have shown the quoted aims to be
achievable. The general aims of the requirements
are:
(a) For aircrew protected by an

aircrew helmet, the noise at the ear needs
to be controlled to a level where intelligibility
is achieved with a speech level that does
not constitute a hearing damage risk.
(b) For aircrew not protected by an

aircrew helmet, and passengers, the noise
levels at the ear need to be controlled to
prevent long term hearing damage and
significant temporary threshold shift.
The vibration environment in an aeroplane may

impair the working efficiency of the crew members
both indirectly, due to discomfort and
dissatisfaction with the aeroplane, and by direct
interference with certain visual and manipulative
tasks. Prolonged exposure to high magnitudes of
vibration may also be detrimental to the long term
health of the crew members.
REQUIREMENTS
4.15.77 The aeroplane designer shall be Every effort shall be made to ensure that internal
able to demonstrate to the procurement agency, noise and vibration are kept to a minimum,
that noise and vibration control at crew and consistent with other requirements.
passenger locations, has been given proper
consideration.
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SECTION 4

ACOUSTIC PROTECTED CREW
4.15.78 For all crew protected by an aircrew In order to provide adequate protection against Advice on factors governing the acoustic levels
helmet, or other appropriate protection equipment, permanent hearing losses the design aim shall experienced by aircrew, protected by an aircrew
the noise levels shall be such that the aircrew are be for the noise level, from all sources, at the helmet, is given in Leaflet 65. To assist the
able to communicate satisfactorily by radio and ear, measured over a whole mission profile, not aeroplane designer some sources of cockpit
intercom and to operate any sonic or other avionic to exceed an 8 hour Leq (equivalent continuous noise and their mechanism are described in
equipment which employs audio signals. noise level) of 85 dB(A). In order to achieve Leaflet 67.
adequate intelligibility of communication the
Articulation Index, calculated in accordance with
ANSI S3.5 1969(1973), shall be greater than 0.5
throughout the mission.
ACOUSTIC UNPROTECTED CREW AND PASSENGERS
4.15.79 Unprotected crew and passengers (a) In order to provide adequate protection To assist the aeroplane designer some sources of
shall have the ability to carry our unaided, limited, against permanent hearing losses of any cockpit noise and their mechanism are described
communication. unprotected crew or passengers, the design aim in Leaflet 67.
shall be for the noise level, from all sources, at
the ear, measured over a whole mission profile,
not to exceed an 8 hour Leq (equivalent
continuous noise level) of 85 dB(A). When the
levels are achieved then the Temporary
Threshold Shift should be satisfactory.
(b) The Speech Interference Levels (SIL),

calculated in accordance with ANSI S.3.14-
1977, shall not exceed 80 dB. If this criterion is
met, 95% sentence intelligibility is probable, for
non aided voice communication over a distance
of 0.6m (2 feet) with a shouted voice.
VIBRATION
4.15.80 Manipulative and visual The design aim shall be for the vibration levels, Advice on factors affecting the manual and visual
performance shall not be unacceptably degraded at crew and passenger locations, not to produce performance of crew, in the aeroplane vibration
by the vibration environment, nor shall it constitute unnecessary levels of discomfort, environment, is given in Leaflet 68.
a long term health risk. commensurate with the circumstances of the Recommended guidelines and procedures, are
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SECTION 4

mission and nature of the task being performed. presented in Leaflet 69, for evaluating the
vibration environment with regard to discomfort,
visual and manipulative performance and long
term health risk.
TESTS
4.15.81 In service noise and vibration levels Guidelines for the measurement and assessment
shall be assessed utilising measurements made at of vibration and noise levels are presented in
all flight conditions in which high noise and Leaflets 66 (for noise) and 69 (for vibration). The
vibration levels occur. measurement of vibration and noise will normally
be made as part of the flight vibration survey
detailed in Clause 4.8 and Leaflet 32.
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SECTION 4
4.16 PILOT’S STATION - LAYOUT
4.16.1 This information is similar to CS 25.771 The requirement are, unless, specified otherwise, applicable to all types of aeroplane, and their purpose is
to achieve standardisation in the layout of pilots' stations.

4.16.2 Each new station, while in the mock-up stage, See ASCC Air Standard 61/105/21(Cancelled)
shall be examined by the Project Team Leader and STANAG 3639.
and compared with the criteria contained in this
Clause. Trials to determine the suitability of the
pilot's station layout shall be held with personnel
harnessed in the seat(s) and wearing the
clothing and equipment detailed in the Aircrew
Equipment Assembly Schedule (AEA)
appropriate to the particular aeroplane. Such
personnel shall reflect the anthropometric limits
for the particular aeroplane (see Leaflet, 63)
FIRST PILOT'S STATION
4.16.3 For the purpose of these requirements, the left-
hand seat of a side-by-side pilot's station layout
shall be considered as the one normally occupied
by the first pilot.
EXTERNAL VIEW
4.16.4 The external view from the pilot's station shall be
as stated in Clause 4.17 and Part 13, Section 1,
Clauses 1.1.2.01 to 1.1.2.04
REACH
4.16.5 All controls shall be within the The following factors shall be considered when STICK REFERENCE POINT
normal reach and sight of the pilot when harnessed deciding whether a control should be reached
in his seat and wearing the clothing and equipment with or without harness locked: The stick reference point is the location at which
detailed in the Aircrew Equipment Assembly the operator's second (middle) finger will be in
Schedule appropriate to the particular aeroplane. (a) the rapidity with which the control contact with the forward face of the stick grip with
No controls, which are in regular use in flight, shall needs to be operated, e.g., all emergency controls and trims neutral.
be positioned aft of the pilot's shoulder line. controls shall be within reach with harness
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SECTION 4

locked,
(b) the period during flight when

operation of the control is required, e.g.,
controls which need to be operated in the
circuit or in an operational role shall be
within reach with harness locked, and
(c) the frequency of operation of the

control during a flight, i.e., the more
frequently a control need be operated the
more necessary it is that it shall be
operated with harness locked.
CONTROL CLEARANCE
4.16.6 Clearance between controls shall
permit unrestricted operation throughout their
entire operating ranges by the largest specified
gloved hand.
STICK/WHEEL CONTROL
4.16.7 The location and actuation of the A minimum clearance of 3.8 cm shall be
Stick/Wheel control shall be based on the smallest maintained between the stick/wheel control and
specified percentile aircrew member's effective arm structure or other controls and aircrew members
reach with the aircrew member fully restrained with (full range body size) when the stick/wheel
the eye at the aircraft design eye position level. control is at any extreme position.
YAW CONTROLS
4.16.8 Sufficient clearance shall be The most forward adjustment position of the yaw
provided to prevent interference between the control shall be based on the largest specified
largest specified flight boot and aeroplane structure percentile aircrew member's leg length with the
throughout the full range of travel and adjustment seat in the full down and full aft position. The
of the yaw control. most aft adjustment position of the yaw control
shall be based on the smallest specified
percentile aircrew member's leg length with the
seat in the full up and full forward position.
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SECTION 4

PROPULSION CONTROL(S)
4.16.9 The location of the forward most
position of the propulsion control(s) shall be based
on the smallest specified percentile aircrew
member's effective arm reach with the aircrew
member fully restrained with the eye at the aircraft
design eye position level.
SEATING
POSITIONING OF SEAT
4.16.10 The plane of symmetry of the pilot's The pilot seat shall position the pilot so as to
seat shall be parallel to the plane of symmetry of permit comfortable and efficient operation of the
the aeroplane. Aeroplane.
4.16.11 Survival of the crew following a Crew seat design shall include energy
crash landing or ditching shall be a primary absorption devices to attenuate the crash loads
objective in crew seat design. of Clause 4.22
SEAT ADJUSTMENT
4.16.12 Sufficient seat adjustment shall be
provided to allow the pilot to place his eyes at the
level of the aircraft design eye position. A method
of confirming this position shall be provided.
NON-EJECTION SEATS
4.16.13 A positive lock shall be provided to Except on short range aeroplanes, (e.g.
prevent fore-and-aft movement of the seat, when elementary trainers) the following shall be
locked in any flying position, under the loads provided on non-ejection seats:
occurring during flight and or the crash landing
conditions of Clause 4.22. A method of indicating (a) movable arm rests, and
that the seat is positively locked shall be provided.
(b) adjustable seat back (from the
vertical to 15o backwards)
EJECTION SEATS
4.16.14 The ejection seat path shall be The design of the cockpit area should be such Note: The number of disconnections of other
designed in accordance with the requirements of that equipment can be serviced in situ, and services which have to be made before removing
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SECTION 4

Clause 4.23 replaced, without the necessity to remove the the seat pan should be kept to a minimum, and
ejection seats. Where this is not possible, and care should be taken to ensure that the
where it would be otherwise necessary to reconnections can be easily and correctly made
remove the whole ejection seat, the ejection within the close confines of the cockpit.
seat shall have a seat pan assembly which can
be easily and quickly removed and replaced with
the minimum disturbance to other services. By
agreement with the Project Team Leader, a
removable seat pan assembly need not be
provided if it is impracticable, or where it would
not provide a significant servicing advantage.
SIDE-BY-SIDE SEATS
4.16.15 In aeroplanes fitted with side-by- (a) The clearance between the two seats will
side pilot's seats, particular attention shall be paid depend on factors such as:
to the ease of movement into and out of the first
pilot's seat where such an interchange is possible (1) whether there is a central console
during flight. or not, and if so, whether controls on it
have to be reached by one or by both
pilots,
(2) the layout and requirements

regarding the reach to the instrument
panel, and
(3) access to the seats, unless this is

from above with the canopy removed.
(b) Irrespective of these factors, there shall

be a minimum clearance of 152 mm between
any part of the two seats.
HEAD CLEARANCE
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SECTION 4

4.16.16 A minimum Spherical envelope of These clearances shall be based on the most See Figure 12 for Head Clearance requirements.
254 mm shall be provided from the aircraft design critical size aircrew member specified wearing
eye position to ensure a minimum of 51 mm head appropriate personal protective equipment.
clearance from the canopy. In aeroplanes where
ejection through the canopy is possible, head
clearance shall be sufficient to enable canopy
breakers to penetrate the canopy and provide a
clear path for the seat and crew member; where
canopy break up is effected by explosive means
(e.g., detonating cord) head clearance shall be
sufficient to prevent injury to the pilot. When
overhead actuation of ejection seat is provided,
sufficient space between head gear and canopy to
ensure access to and actuation of the control shall
be provided.
CLEARANCE BELOW RUDDER PEDALS
4.16.17 The clearance between the bottom
of the rudder pedals and the floor shall be such as
to ensure adequate rudder control without the
danger of inadvertent operation of the toe brakes
or of trapping the pilot's heels.
HEAD-UP SIGHT/DISPLAY
SIGHTING EYE POSITION
4.16.18 Any head-up sight or display shall The design of any head-up sight installation
be positioned so that the pilot can see a fully shall be agreed with the Project Team Leader in
deflected graticule from the aircraft design eye the initial stages.
position.
EXTERNAL VIEW EITHER SIDE OF HEAD-UP SIGHT/DISPLAY
4.16.19 Either side of the head-up sight or
display, the downward view provided for the pilot
shall be in accordance with the requirements of
Clause 4.17
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SECTION 4

CONSOLES
4.16.20 The height of the side and/or centre
console shall be based on the smallest specified
percentile aircrew member's effective arm reach
with the seat in the full up position.
INSTRUMENT FLYING PRACTICE EQUIPMENT
4.16.21 All trainers shall have provision for
instrument flying practice equipment.
STOWAGES
been moved to Part 13 Section 1.1 Navigation,
Clause 1.1.16.1
4.16.23 On all trainers, suitable stowages,
accessible in flight, shall be provided for the
instrument flying practice equipment.
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SECTION 4
4.17 VIEW AND CLEAR VISION
4.17.1 This information is similar to CS 25.773 It states the basic operational requirements for the view to be provided for the pilot and other crewmembers
and for the maintenance of clear vision.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR AIRCREW STATIONS
4.17.2 External vision appropriate to (a) The optical quality, curvature and visual Considerable orientation and spatial balance is
aeroplane type and operational role, shall be angles of incidence of the aeroplane derived from the frame of reference through which
provided at all crew stations. transparencies shall produce the least possible crew members view the outside world. At one
optical distortion and deviation and shall extreme a round porthole provides so little field of
minimize reflections. view that nausea and sickness are a natural
association, whilst at the other extreme a perfectly
(b) Transparencies shall be compatible with square aperture does not provide the maximum
the use of Passive Night Goggles at useful field of view. It is considered that the
wavelengths ranging from 400 nm to 950 nm. optimum windscreen shape is rectangular with the
cut-off parallel to the lateral axis of the aeroplane.
This shape is especially effective in providing a
balanced proportion of lateral and pitch indication
with acceptable structural design characteristics.
It is recommended that the apparent shape of

transparencies should provide a rectangular
frame of reference whose baseline is parallel to
the lateral axis of the aeroplane.
See Clause 4.18 for minimum light transmission

requirements.
4.17.3 Viewing areas defined as essential
shall be kept clear of obstructions to vision, such
as misting, rain, icing and insects (see Clause
4.17.23 and Part 13, Section 1, Clauses 1.1.2.01 to
1.1.2.04)
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR PILOTS' STATIONS
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SECTION 4

4.17.4 The windscreen directly in front of (a) In tandem aeroplanes, the front seat See ASCC Air Standard 61/113/05G.
the pilots shall be as free of structure as possible. headrest and other cockpit structure shall be
No windscreen structure in this area shall obstruct designed to permit vision appropriate to the rear
binocular vision. crew members task.
(b) In side-by-side aeroplanes, the cockpit

area inboard of the pilot and cockpit shall not
incorporate obstructions which interfere with the
external vision appropriate to each crew
member's task.
4.17.5 For approach, including hovering
and landing conditions, downward and forward
vision shall be provided for the pilots to assure
effective vision when using all landing aids.
4.17.6 In aeroplanes utilizing in-flight
refuelling, sufficient vision must be provided for the
pilot to see the tanker, refuelling signal lights,
boom and probe (or drogue) when approaching
and when in position for refuelling.
4.17.7 Controls, consoles, instrument
panels, head-up display ancillary equipment and
other structures shall be located so as not to
critically restrict the vision of the pilot(s), neither
directly nor as a consequence of reflections from
the surfaces of the transparencies.
VISION REQUIREMENTS FOR PILOTS
4.17.8 The reference plane from which the (a) It is recommended that requirements and See ASCC Air Standard 61/113/05G.
vision angles are specified shall be the pilot's minimum angles of unimpaired external vision
horizontal vision plane. The zero reference in available to the pilot(s) when measured from the Note: It should be noted that a pilot does not
azimuth shall be that plane of pilot's vision parallel aircraft design eye position as defined in Clause view from the aircraft design eye position when
to the horizontal in cruising flight. 4.16, conform generally to those described in wearing Passive Night Goggles (PNG); typically,
the vision requirements below. his head is forward from the aircraft design eye
position, and the PNG may extend the viewing
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SECTION 4

(b) Increases in the pilot's field of view point further forward.
required for various aeroplane types and/or
mission modes and to satisfy specific visual
requirements may extend the minimum angular
values shown below.
FIGHTER/ATTACK AEROPLANES
4.17.9 Note: The vision plots on Figs. 13 to 16
(a) Single Forward Pilot Position (Fig. 13): generally present the vertical vision angles
between the azimuth location specified herein.
(1) At 0 degrees azimuth, 11 degrees
down and 10 degrees up (where canopy
arches are used)
(2) At 20 degrees azimuth, left and

right, 20 degrees down.



(6) The area above the canopy rail from

the canopy arch aft, past the pilot's headrest
shall be transparent.
(b) Tandem pilot aeroplane - aft pilot (Fig. 14):
(1) At 0 degrees azimuth a minimum of

5 degrees vision down shall be provided from
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SECTION 4

the aft crew station aircraft design eye
position as defined in Clause 4.16 with the
forward crew seat in the neutral (central) seat
adjustment.
(2) The extent of aft pilot external vision

for azimuth locations shall be as specified for
the forward pilot. Various lateral eye
positions in a plane through the aft pilot's
aircraft design eye positions may be
employed to meet these requirements.
(c) Side-by-side pilot aeroplane - pilot and co-

pilot (Fig. 15):
Azimuth locations below shall be left for the pilot

and right for the co-pilot.
(1) At 0 degrees azimuth, 13 degrees

down.
(2) From 0 degrees through 70 degrees

azimuth vision shall increase from 13
degrees to 40 degrees down.
(3) At all points between 70 degrees

and 110 degrees azimuth provide 40
degrees down.
BOMBER/TRANSPORT AEROPLANES
4.17.10 Side-by-side pilot (Fig. 16) Note: The vision plots on Figs. 13 to 16
generally present the vertical vision angles
The azimuth below are left for the pilot and right for between the azimuth location specified herein.
the co-pilot:
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SECTION 4
(a) At 0 degrees through 30 degrees

azimuth provide 17 degrees down and 20
degrees up.
(b) The vertical angles of clear vision in

the area between 30 degrees and 70
degrees azimuth shall increase linearly 17
degrees down to 35 degrees down and from
20 degrees up to 40 degrees up.
(c) At all points between 70 degrees

and 110 degrees azimuth provide 35
degrees down and 40 degrees up.
ASW/PATROL AND MARITIME AEROPLANES
4.17.11 The angles specified for Bomber/Transport Note: The vision plots on Figs. 13 to 16
aeroplanes are also recommended for generally present the vertical vision angles
ASW/Patrol and Maritime Aeroplanes. between the azimuth location specified herein.
BASIC OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR VIEW FOR OTHER CREW MEMBERS
VISUAL BOMB AIMING SUPPLY DROPPING STATION
4.17.12 A good view forward shall be
provided for search. Downward view shall extend
to at least 15° behind the vertical.
OTHER CREW STATIONS
4.17.13 With the exception of route transport (a) The downward view shall extend to at
and fighter aeroplanes, a good lateral forward and least 15° behind the vertical. This requirement
downward field of view shall be provided in all may be met by the use of a suitably designed
aeroplanes not incorporating a visual bomb aiming optical system (e.g. a periscope) should the
supply dropping station. aeroplane design so dictate.
(b) It is desirable for the navigator and or

navigator-radar operator to be able to view the
ground. If a visual bomb aiming supply dropping
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SECTION 4

station exists (see Clause 4.17.12), this
requirement may be met by the provision of a
window adjacent to the normal crew station.
4.17.14 In aeroplanes which, by virtue of
their role, require extensive visual lookout facilities
(e.g. maritime reconnaissance) a good optical view
throughout the field of search called for in the
Aeroplane Specification shall be provided.
4.17.15 In multi-seat aeroplanes with (a) In all bomber attack reconnaissance
provision for a single pilot only, an adequate view aeroplanes, facilities shall be provided to enable
shall be provided for a crew member to assist the a crew member to observe the formation of
pilot in the interest of safety in flight. condensation trails.
(b) In specific conversion/trainer aeroplanes

the extent and quality of external vision should
be the same as that for the aeroplanes they
represent. Every attempt should be made to
increase the fields of view to improve flight
proficiency and ensure adequate safety of flight.
(c) In specialist trainer type aeroplanes the

extent of external vision for side-by-side
configuration shall comply with Clause 4.17.9(c).
For a tandem configuration the requirements of
Clause 4.17.9(b) should represent a minimum
for the aft pilot. Every attempt should be made to
increase the view over the forward pilot's seat to
improve safety of flight.
DIRECT VISION OPENINGS
4.17.16 When fitted direct vision openings It shall be possible to open the panels at circuit
shall be rainproof and draughtproof when open and speed and against ice accretion.
leakproof when closed.
4.17.17 The view through direct vision These angles shall be obtained with the seat
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SECTION 4

openings shall provide: harness locked and ideally should be obtained
with the pilot's head stationary. If the pilot has to
(a) 20° view right, move from the normal position to obtain this
view, the movement shall not impair his control
(b) 20° left, and, of the aeroplane nor restrict his view of the flight
instruments.
(c) 15° real view forward and
downward.
WEAPON SIGHTING REQUIREMENTS
4.17.18 In addition to the foregoing (a) On aeroplanes with fixed forward
requirements the Contractor shall ensure that armament there shall be no visual obstruction
adequate view is provided for the sighting of throughout a cone having:
weapons carried on the aeroplane.
(1) its major axis parallel to the mean
weapon axis, and passing through the
centre of the gun sight optics,
(2) its apex at the eye datum, and
(3) a semi-angle not less than 8° and

preferably greater than 10°
(b) On fighter aeroplanes, the forward facing

panels shall provide protection against the
effects of weapons. debris and bird strikes, as
required by the aeroplane specification.
BASIC OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CLEAR VISION
GENERAL
Clause 1.1.2.01
RAIN REMOVAL FROM WINDSCREENS
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SECTION 4

Clause 1.1.2.02
Clause 1.1.2.03
PROTECTION OF WINDSCREENS FROM ICE
been moved to Part 13 Section 1.5 Ice Protection.
PROTECTION OF WINDSCREENS FROM INSECTS, DIRT, ETC.
4.17.23 The pilot's view shall not be Consideration shall be given to the provision of
obscured by insect debris, dust, dirt or salt from a windscreen washing system.
sea spray.
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SECTION 4
4.18 OPTICALLY TRANSPARENT COMPONENTS
4.18.1 This information is similar to CS 25.775 It states the requirements of the design, installation and testing of optical transparencies.

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
GENERAL
Clause 1.1.2.05
4.18.3 To cater for ditching and crash
landing all transparencies and their supporting
structure shall meet the requirements of Clause
4.22 as far as they are relevant.
4.18.4 Complete dimensional tolerances (a) These shall be stated on the relevant
shall be specified for the finished transparency. drawings specifying where necessary the
appropriate temperature and humidity
conditions. Particular attention shall be paid to
transparencies which are vulnerable to thinning
due to the manufacturing process and to basic
material tolerances which may accentuate
thinning or cause lack of fit.
(b) Where a specific angle of vision and/or

areas with critical optical requirements are
demanded, the relevant details and pilot's eye
position shall be specified on the component
drawings.
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
4.18.5 Materials used for transparencies (a) The use of any other material or The heat treatment and annealing sequences
shall normally be chosen from those approved by departures from approved specifications shall be applied to all as cast acrylic components shall
the PTL in consultation with the Design subject to the agreement of the Project Team normally be in accordance with the relevant parts
Organisation. Leader (see also Clauses 4.1.13 to 4.1.15) of Specification DTD 925(Obsolescent). Details of
the actual processes used shall be subject to the
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SECTION 4

(b) Where the breakage of any panel could approval of the PTL in consultation with the
injure any occupant of the aeroplane or create Design Organisation. In the case of materials
any hazard due to fragmented particles, a other than as cast acrylic the relevant heat
laminated type of construction should be used. treatment and processes shall also be subject to
the approval of the PTL in consultation with the
(c) A process control document shall be Design Organisation.
prepared for the fabrication of each complete
transparency.
DESIGN FEATURES
4.18.6 In the design of transparencies and their Notes:
mountings consideration shall be given to the 1 Statements shall be included on the
following points: relevant drawings to call up compliance with items
(i) and (j).
(a) The choice of interlayer with
respect to operating temperatures and the 2 Due consideration shall be given in items
effects of altitude. (i) and (j) to:
(b) The chemical compatibility of (a) material tolerances,

sealants, interlayers and organic materials
when laminated to each other. (b) manufacturing tolerances,
(c) Sealing of the assembly against (c) deflections of the structure in flight.
possible attack by harmful substances
such as water, sulphur dioxide, ozone etc.
(d) The effect of ultra-violet

exposure.
(e) The ability of the transparency to

resist crazing and/or abrasion.
(f) The use of heat shields for the

protection of load-carrying transparencies.
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SECTION 4
(g) The effect of attaching systems to

break the canopy for crew escape
purposes, e.g. miniature detonating cord
(MDC)
(h) All dimensional changes in the

transparency and all deflections of the
structure in normal and extreme operating
conditions to ensure that they can be
accommodated without giving rise to
stresses in excess of those allowed for in
the design.
(i) The full range of temperature in

Part 1, Section 7, Clause 7.1 together with
all the points detailed in Clause 4.18.2
(j) The provision of expansion gaps

to accommodate dimensional changes
which will not be rendered inoperative by
sealing compounds or other fillers.
(k) The avoidance of steps at

transparency edges or mountings that
would be unacceptable from bird impact,
rain, hail or aerodynamic considerations.
(l) Ease of replacement in service.

REDUCTION OF CANOPY GLINT
4.18.7 (a) When the aeroplane specification states Several potentially successful techniques for the
that Reduction of Canopy Glint is considered to reduction of canopy glint are known. These
be necessary, the Designer shall discuss and include anti-reflective coatings; non-reflective
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SECTION 4

agree with the Project Team Leader, at an early canopy materials; etching the canopy outer
stage in the design, the means by which the surface; shading the canopy and the use of plane
reduction of canopy glint in the visible and infra- canopy surfaces such that directional glint is not
red bands is to be achieved. sustained in a mobile operational situation.
(b) The Designer shall assess the residual Any coating which is applied should be resistant
canopy glint inherent in his proposals and report to abrasion by windscreen wiper action, normal
to the Project Team Leader. cleaning and erosion experienced during flight. It
should also be resistant to aircraft fluids (e.g. fuel,
(c) The Designer shall discuss and agree a hydraulic fluids etc.)
suitable test programme with the Project Team
Leader. From the above it is apparent that reduction in
canopy glint is a matter that should be considered
in the early design stages, rather than by means
of modification action when the aeroplane is in
service.
It is essential to achieve a balance between

improvements in vulnerability and penalties
incurred to obtain those improvements. For this
purpose, statements on the aeroplane penalties
associated with varying degrees of canopy glint
reduction are required for the formation of a
proper judgement. The statement should include
recommendations for the in-service cleaning of
the canopy.
LABORATORY TESTS
GENERAL
4.18.8 Each new type of transparency used (a) Additional tests - When the Aeroplane Details of the test schedule are given in Leaflet
in Grade A applications shall be tested to Specification calls for a particular transparency 72.
demonstrate its strength and to indicate its to meet special requirements such as:
probable reliability under the conditions of Part 13, (a) In special circumstances, the
Section 1.1, Clause 1.1.2.5 (1) resistance to bird strike, severity of the test requirements and the
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SECTION 4

number of test specimens may be relaxed,
(2) resistance to hailstones, subject to the prior agreement and approval
of the extent of such easement by the
(3) through canopy ejection, Project Team Leader. Examples of such
applications are:
(4) special canopy break up systems
(e.g. MDC), (1) individual research aeroplanes,
(5) canopy ejection, (2) simple acrylic unformed panels,

and
(6) fail safe, or
(3) lightly stressed panels.
(7) residual vision through a
damaged panel, (b) If an aeroplane includes a number
of similar transparencies of identical
additional tests to demonstrate proof of thickness and edge restraint, the thermal
compliance shall be agreed with the Project stresses in which do not exceed 10% of the
Team Leader. total stress, testing may be confined to
specimens of that item calculated to be
(b) During testing, in all cases where the subject to the highest stress.
simulated conditions are not more severe than
those for which the frame or mounting has been (c) For organic materials a critical
designed, the actual frame or mounting shall be temperature exists above which the
used. If the testing involves the application of structural properties are changing
conditions of greater severity, a special structure significantly. The critical temperature for
may be used. In either case the support or each different material shall be determined
special structure shall be such that edge in agreement with the PTL. Tests above and
conditions, stiffness and heat transfer are below this temperature shall be considered
closely represented and that the stress where applicable (see Note 2 below and
distribution in the transparency at the relevant Clause 4.18.9)
factor is as close as possible to that obtained in
the unfactored flight or ground condition. NOMENCLATURE OF TESTS
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SECTION 4

(c) For cyclic testing each specimen shall be Test No. 1 Contraction and Expansion Test.
mounted in a local structure fully representative
of the aeroplane upon which appropriate Test No. 2 Fully Factored Strength Test.
aeroplane systems which might affect the
component (e.g. demisting air jets) are Stage 2A
represented. Where they may be significant the Stage 2B
effects of flight inertia loads and externally
produced airframe deflections shall also be Test No. 3 Cyclic Reliability Test.
represented. The required number of cycles and
the overall form of the programme shall be Notes:
representative of a minimum of one year's
service in the role most likely to produce the 1 Stage 2A and Stage 2B tests will be done
severest conditions for the transparent panels. in the sequence defined in Paras 2.2 and
2.3 of Leaflet 72.
(d) When selecting the critical case(s) for
testing the following points shall be considered: 2 (LT) Denotes the critical design case
occurring below the critical temperature.
(1) the magnitude of the loads,
thermal and otherwise, (HT) Denotes the critical design case occurring
above the critical temperature.
(2) the sequence in which the loads
are imposed,
(3) the duration of the loads,
(4) the relation of the

load/time/temperature patterns to the
physical characteristics of the material
concerned,
(5) temperature effects upon mixed

material laminates.
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SECTION 4

(e) The following cases shall be considered
when formulating the test programme and
covered as far as practicable from both strength
and deflection aspects:
(1) that which gives the most severe

total stress,
(2) that which gives the most severe

steady stresses other that thermal
stresses,
(3) that giving the most severe

transient stresses other than thermal
stresses, and
(4) that giving the most severe total

thermal stress.
(f) Where the total thermal stresses are

estimated not to exceed 10% of the total stress,
the transient element of such thermal stresses
may be represented by an increase in the
pressure-induced stresses. These tests shall be
conducted at the actual steady state
temperature level.
(g) Where total thermal stresses are

between 10% and 45% of total stress, transient
thermal stresses shall be applied in a
representative manner (see Guidance (c))
(h) Where the thermal stresses exceed 45%
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SECTION 4

of the total stress, the design approval test
procedure shall be agreed with the Project
Team Leader.
(i) The test procedure shall be in

accordance with:
(1) (d) and (e) for test cases,
(2) Clause 4.18.9 for sequence,

applicability and minimum number of
specimens for test,
(3) Leaflet 72 for test schedules.
(j) Except where otherwise specified in the

schedules, all loads and temperature affects
applied in the tests shall be those obtained from
compliance with Part 13, Section 1, Clause
1.1.2.05, they shall be applied at rates
representative of those anticipated in service,
and, where this may be significant, shall be
applied in the sequence anticipated in service.
APPLICABILITY AND SEQUENCE OF TESTS
4.18.9 Where more than one critical design case Sequencing is shown in more detail as Table 14.
occurs Clause 4.18.8(e), further specimens may
be required for Test No. 2 (fully factored test)
under each critical condition.
Note: Where it can be shown that there is no

significant change of the material or component
during testing of the first critical case, then that
same specimen may be used for testing
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SECTION 4

additional critical cases at the discretion of the
FACTORS
4.18.10 (a) The factors to be applied in Test No. 2
shall be those stated in Tables 15 and 16.
(b) The total factors of Table 17 include

normal proof and ultimate factors.
(c) The variability factors of Tables 15 and

16 are applicable to the minimum of the test
results not the mean.
RETESTING
4.18.11 After clearance of a design under the test
procedure outlined above, any change in any of
the following:
(a) its design,
(b) the design of any local effective

structure,
(c) the manufacturer, or
(d) the method of manufacture
shall be discussed with the Project Team Leader

and may necessitate re-testing of the design.
PRESSURISATION AND FLIGHT TESTING BEFORE COMPLETION OF LABORATORY TESTS
4.18.12 Any testing of the aeroplane involving the
application of air pressure to the transparency
shall be subject to the limitations of Part 1,
Section 3 Leaflet 13, Para. 5.1
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SECTION 4

4.18.13 Any flight testing done before completion of
tests No. 1 and 2 shall be subject to flight
limitations determined in accordance with the
principles stated in Part 1, Section 2 Leaflet 9,
Para. 3.2
FLIGHT TESTS
4.18.14 At the earliest practicable stage in (a) All likely positions of openable canopies
the flight trials, the magnitude and distribution of and panels shall be considered, including the
the air pressure loads and both the steady and case of pressure cabin aeroplanes flying (due to
transient temperatures on both the inner and outer malfunction or enemy action) without internal
surfaces of the transparencies shall be measured pressure.
at all speeds up to the design diving speed of the
aeroplane. (b) The measured loads and temperatures
shall be compared with the estimated values
used in the design and laboratory tests and the
design reviewed accordingly.
REDUCTION OF VULNERABILITY TO BATTLE DAMAGE
4.18.15 Means shall be provided, as appropriate, to
reduce the effects of Specified and Defined
Threats (Part 13, Section 3, Clause 3.9) on
optical transparencies and canopies.
states the requirements for satisfactory vision
through optical transparencies used in the course
of normal operations. Additional special
requirements may be necessary for
transparencies associated with particular
functions, for example camera windows for survey
or reconnaissance.
DESIGN CATEGORIES
4.18.17 The function of any transparency The categories of vision areas are as follows:
shall be clearly defined and area or areas thereof
shall be identified according to the required quality Category I Areas of forward facing
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SECTION 4

of vision. windscreens of the highest optical quality suitable,
for example, for weapon aiming.
Category II Areas of panels used for critical

reconnaissance and search purposes i.e. for use
with binoculars.
Category III Main vision areas of forward facing

panels other than those in Categories I and II;
defined areas of side panels or quarterlights.
Category IV Side panels or other non-forward

facing transparencies for all aeroplanes other
than reconnaissance and search, selected areas
of canopies.
Category V Cabin windows, defined areas of

canopies.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
4.18.18 Transparencies shall be designed to The following points shall be considered in
allow adequate vision for the user under all design and demonstrated during type approval
possible combinations of steady and transient tests:
conditions that can occur within the specified flight
envelope of the aeroplane or on the ground. (a) The optical qualities of
categorised vision areas shall satisfy the
requirements of Table 18. Any degradation
of optical qualities from those associated
with the appropriate category shall be
referred to the Project Team Leader.
(b) The optical qualities of a

transparency shall be demonstrated as
installed in correct relationship to the
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SECTION 4

pilot's or user's normal eye position. In the
case of transparencies having replaceable
components, for example certain air
interspace transparencies, the optical
qualities are to be demonstrated for the
complete assembly.
(c) The requirements of Clause 4.17

shall be met with regard to frame of vision
and maintenance of clear vision.
(d) The optical qualities of a

transparency shall be designed to meet
the requirements with de-icing or de-
misting equipment (when fitted) operating.
Due attention should be paid to the
possible deterioration of optical quality as
a result of in-flight loading.
(e) Attention shall be paid to the

optical transmission and spectral
distribution of adjacent panels in order to
minimise marked contrast in the properties
of such panels. Likewise abrupt
differences in deviation between adjacent
panels shall be avoided.
(f) Where certain areas of a

transparency are allocated special
requirements, for example, those
associated with weapon aiming, head-up
display systems, or reconnaissance
needs, careful attention shall be paid to
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SECTION 4

the avoidance of disturbing effects at the
junction of such areas with the remainder
of the transparency.
(g) Ultra-violet transmission in the

region of 290-300nm shall not be greater
than 5%.
(h) Less stringent requirements are

permitted in less critical areas of
transparency, e.g. round the edges where
such items as busbars for electrical de-
icing elements may be fitted. In such
cases intrusion into the frame of vision
referred to in (c) shall be considered.
Small areas within the vision area proper
as are needed for temperature sensors or
micro-detonating cord may suffer
deterioration of optical properties; the
position and extent of such areas shall be
defined and agreed with the Project Team
Leader.
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
4.18.19 Materials used shall be as laid down Particular attention shall be paid to the
in Clauses 4.18.2 to 4.18.15 and shall satisfy the following:
approved materials and process specifications or
have the written agreement of the PTL for any (a) Every effort shall be made to
departure therefrom. avoid the presence of inhomogeneities
disturbing to vision and, as far as possible,
transparencies shall be colourless.
(b) The stability of properties of

materials used shall be such that marked
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SECTION 4

discolouration of panels does not occur
during the intended life of the
transparency.
(c) The choice or materials shall be

such as to limit deterioration in use, for
example obstruction due to abrasion by
windscreen wipers.
LABORATORY TESTS
4.18.20 Each new type of transparency The methods of test shall be as recommended
used in a Grade A application (as defined in in the associated Leaflet 74 or as agreed in
Clause 4.1) shall be tested to demonstrate its writing with MOD Quality Assurance Authority.
suitability to the task of the operator using the The values for each of the qualities shall satisfy
transparency. the minimum requirements given in Table 18 or
as agreed with the Project Team Leader.
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SECTION 4
4.19 COCKPIT CONTROLS
4.19.1 This information is similar to CS 25.777 The requirements of this clause are aimed at achieving standardization in the type, method of operation and
positioning of the controls and instruments necessary for the operation of certain services.

GENERAL
4.19.2 Those controls and instruments Each new pilot's station shall be examined by
which are appropriate to the role of the aeroplane the Project Team Leader at the mock-up stage
shall be fitted at the pilot's station in accordance so that any changes or additions required may
with the requirements. be agreed. The examination shall be made with
personnel wearing the clothing and equipment
detailed in the Aircrew Equipment Assembly
(AEA) Schedule appropriate to the particular
aeroplane, and harnessed in the seat(s); such
personnel shall approximate in size to the
extreme limits specified for Service pilots (see
Leaflet 63)
FLYING CONTROLS AND INDICATORS
SYMMETRY OF CONTROLS
4.19.3 The primary flying controls at the See also Table 19.
pilot's station shall be symmetrical about the plane
of symmetry of the pilot's seat as regards the
location and movement of those parts to which the
pilot's forces are normally applied.
CONTROL COLUMN
4.19.4 In aeroplanes with only one pilot's See ASCC Air Standards 61/116/04K and
station, or where the pilots sit in tandem, the 61/116/02G.
control column grip shall be of the stick type and
mounted at an angle of 19 degrees to the left of the
fore and aft axis of the aeroplane. The grip shall
carry those of the controls listed in Table 20 which
are appropriate to the role of the aeroplane.
4.19.5 In aeroplanes where the pilots are
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SECTION 4

seated side-by-side, a stick-type or spectacle-type
control column grip may be used. The design of
the stick-type grip shall be in accordance with the
requirements of Clause 4.19.4 Any shape adopted
for a spectacle-type grip shall provide maximum
thigh clearance and incorporate those of the
controls listed in Table 21 which are appropriate to
the role of the aeroplane.
RUDDER PEDALS
4.19.6 The rudder pedals shall control the In the latter case, the rudder pedals shall be See also Clause 4.19.27
movement of the rudder(s) and, on small arranged to work in conjunction with a control
aeroplanes, the direction of the nose wheel when button on the control column grip (see Table 20
manoeuvring the aeroplane on the ground. Item (f) and Table 22, Item 1)
4.19.7 Adjustment - Reserved
4.19.8 Both pedals shall be adjustable
simultaneously in the horizontal plane. Each pilot
shall be provided with his own independent control.
4.19.9 Range of Movement - The travel of
the pedals shall be ± 4 inches (101.6 mm)
measured about their central position, for any
setting of the control pedal adjustment.
4.19.10 Dimensions of Pedals - To
accommodate the largest flying boot with
overshoe.
4.19.11 Toe Straps - Toe straps are not
normally required, but, if fitted, shall comply with
SIS46.
4.19.12 Footrests - Except on aeroplanes
with ejection seats and short range aeroplanes,
(e.g. elementary trainers), comfortable footrests
shall be provided for use when the feet are not on
the rudder pedals.
LANDING FLAP CONTROL
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SECTION 4

4.19.13 The landing flap control shall be so See also Table 19, Item 6.
arranged that the pilot can select and obtain any
desired flap position by a single movement of the
control lever, the flaps following the lever
movement at a speed just slow enough to avoid
any handling difficulty due to change in drag or
trim. The extent to which the lever is moved shall
control the extent of opening of the flap and vice
versa.
4.19.14 A "gate" shall be incorporated so Note: The term "maximum lift position" should be
that the pilot may, by a single quick operation of interpreted as that flap position which would be
the lever and without watching any indicator, move required immediately after a baulked landing.
the flaps to the "maximum lift position" from any
other position.
TRIM INDICATORS
4.19.15 Indicators shall be provided to show See also Table 19, Item 8.
clearly and without ambiguity the effect of
movement of each trimming control upon the
aeroplane's attitude.
UNDERCARRIAGE POSITION INDICATORS
4.19.16 An indicator shall be fitted to give In addition, on aeroplanes having installations in See also Table 19, Item 9.
visual indication for each retractable undercarriage which the door closes after lowering the
unit as follows: undercarriage, the red lamp shall remain alight
until the door is in the correct landing position.
(a) a green lamp to be alight only when
the unit is in the safe landing position and the When specified by the Project Team Leader, an
locks are properly engaged, and under-carriage position indicator shall be fitted in
the airspeed indicator to guard against landing
(b) a red lamp to be alight at all times with the undercarriage retracted. The
other than when:- undercarriage position indicator shall be in the
form of a warning flag adjacent to the circuit
(1) the unit is in the safe landing speed point on the instrument scale, and shall
position and the locks are properly oscillate whenever the circuit speed or below is
231
SECTION 4

engaged, and reached with the undercarriage not locked
down. The flag shall work independently of the
(2) the unit and its door(s) are in the throttle position. A cut-out device shall prevent
safe flying position and the locks are operation of the flag at altitudes above 10,000 ft.
properly engaged.
AUTOMATIC FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM (AFCS) CONTROLS
4.19.17 AFCS Failure Monitoring and See BS 185 Section 5(Obsolescent): 1969 Item
Indication - Aeroplanes with AFCS shall be 5328; Table 19, Item 3 and STANAG 3221.
provided with signals in accordance with Clauses
4.19.57 to 4.19.61 as follows:
(a) Means by which the pilot can

check serviceability prior to take-off.
(b) Automatic indication of in-flight

malfunctions.
4.19.18 Disengaged Signal - Systems with
safety monitoring features that automatically
disengage one or more axes of control shall
provide a positive indication of disengagement.
4.19.19 Manual Override - The AFCS shall
be capable of being overridden by the pilot.
4.19.20 Trim Meter Indication - AFCS trim
indications shall indicate the direction of the
attitude change which the aeroplane would
experience at the disengagement of the AFCS.
4.19.21 System Interlocks - System
interlocks shall be provided to prevent engagement
or selection of incompatible functions or modes of
operation.
4.19.22 Disengage Button (Emergency See Table 19 Item 3d.
Disconnect) - There shall be an AFCS electrical
disengage button on the control stick or wheel.
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SECTION 4

4.19.23 Lighting - Controls and panels used See also Leaflet 64 and JAC Paper No. 1131.
in AFCS shall be lit in accordance with the
applicable requirements outlined in Clauses
4.15.55 to 4.15.57, 4.15.61 to 4.15.64 and Part 13,
Section 1.6, Clauses 1.6.11.1 to 1.6.11.3
4.19.24 Markings - Controls and panels
used in AFCS shall be marked in accordance with
STANAG 3436 and 3643.
4.19.25 Control Colour Schemes -
Emergency control colour schemes shall be in
accordance with Part 1, Section 7, Clauses 7.4.3 to
7.4.7 and AFCS panels and control colour
schemes shall be in accordance with Part 1,
section 7, Clauses 7.4.15 to 7.4.18
THRUST VECTOR CONTROLS FOR VSTOL AEROPLANES
4.19.26 For thrust vector controls for VSTOL aeroplanes,
see Clauses 4.19.34 to 4.19.37
GROUND MANOEUVRING CONTROLS
WHEEL BRAKES CONTROL
4.19.27 Control of the wheel brakes system The brake pedals shall be so installed on the See also Table 22 Item 4.
under normal conditions shall be effected by toe rudder pedals that it shall be possible to use the
pedals integral with the rudder pedals to provide brake pedals without moving the feet from the
differential operation in the natural sense. rudder pedals irrespective of the position of the
rudder pedals.
ENVIRONMENT AND ESCAPE CONTROLS AND INSTRUMENTS
CANOPY
4.19.28 Open/Close Control - The canopy See also Table 23.
open/close control shall be positioned in
accordance with the requirements of Table 23,
Item 4, but there shall be no possibility of the pilot's
arm being caught in the slipstream while opening
or closing the canopy when the aeroplane is
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SECTION 4

travelling at high speeds.
ENGINE CONTROLS
NUMBERING OF ENGINES AND THEIR ASSOCIATED CONTROLS AND DISPLAYS
4.19.29 Engines shall be numbered in (a) Every engine which has any individual See also Table 24, ASCC Air Standard 10/39C
accordance with BS 2M 41, and their associated pilot-operated control (e.g. starter control, HP (Cancelled)
controls and displays shall follow the same cock or throttle control) shall have an individual
convention. number even though two or more engines may It is desirable that all engine controls and
be coupled together under a single control indicators should follow as closely is possible the
during some stage of flight. Where two or more nomenclature of the engines and the pilot's thrust
engines in a group are always controlled by a controls. It is recognised, however, that unified or
single set of pilot-operated controls, these collective controls or indicators may be provided
engines and their controls shall have a single for example during VSTOL flight, and these may
number and each engine of such a group shall be related to some or all of the individual engines
be identified by a capital letter suffix (see Fig. or groups of engines.
2(b) of BS 2M 41)
In the numbering of engines, auxiliary power units
(b) Engines whose relative position can vary (APUs) which are, for instance, required for
during flight shall be numbered in accordance starting the engines, are not to be included in the
with their geometric position during normal count.
cruise flight. No two engines in an airframe shall
bear the same number. In twin engine
aeroplanes, with one engine on each side of the
plane of symmetry, the engines may be
designated left and right as alternatives to I and
2.
PRIMARY POWER CONTROLS
4.19.30 The primary power controls shall be See also Table 24. With the advent of side
arranged in decreasing heights from left to right as mounted control sticks, the left hand console will
follows: throttle, propeller, mixture. become the prime area for major operational
system control panels, therefore, some flexibility,
in the requirements for the location of less
important controls/switches may be necessary.
See ASCC Air Standard 61/116/07C.
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SECTION 4

4.19.31 In aeroplanes with only one pilot's
station or where the pilots sit in tandem, the
primary controls shall be on the left of the pilot and
within easy reach with shoulder harness in place
and locked.
4.19.32 In aeroplanes where the pilots are
seated side by side, the primary power controls
shall be located on a centre console accessible to
both pilots with shoulder harness in place and
locked. In aeroplanes having single grip control of
flight services i.e. stick control, and side by side
seating which requires duplicated primary power
controls, one set of controls shall be accessible to
the left hand of each pilot when his shoulder
harness is in place and locked.
PROPELLER CONDITION LEVER/HIGH PRESSURE COCK (Turbo-prop aeroplanes)
4.19.33 Each fixed shaft and free shaft See Table 24 Item 20.
engine shall be actuated by a lever known as the
Propeller Condition Lever/High Pressure Cock Notes:
which will operate from aft to forward in the
sequence stated below. The functions (when 1. The high pressure cock will usually
employed) shall be: have the first three functions only.
(a) Fixed Shaft Engines: 2. Function (5) may be combined with

function (4) or precede function (4)
(1) Feather,
(2) Fuel Cut-Off,
(3) Automatic Brake Release,
(4) Engine Run or Fuel-On,
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SECTION 4

(5) In-Air Start.
(b) Free Shaft Engines:
(1) Feather,
(2) Fuel Cut-Off,
(3) Fuel On,
(4) Minimum RPM (gas producer

section),
(5) Automatic Propeller Brake Release,
(6) Maximum RPM (gas producer

section).
THRUST VECTOR CONTROLS FOR VSTOL AEROPLANES18
4.19.34 Thrust vector controls - VSTOL For example:
aeroplanes shall utilise the thrust vector controls at
Table 24 Item No. 21 regardless of the concept (a) Fixed horizontal engine with
used to achieve VSTOL flight. vectored thrust-jet nozzle angle selector.
(b) Tilt wing.
(c) Tilt engine.
(d) Tilt wing and engine.
(e) Fixed vertical thrust engine.

4.19.35 Engine power controls - Standard
throttle controls shall be installed and located in
accordance with Clauses 4.19.30 to 4.19.32 and
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SECTION 4

Table 24 Item 16.
4.19.36 Nozzle Selector angle - When a
nozzle selector stop is used in conjunction with a
nozzle angle selector control, the selector stop
control shall move against a calibrated scale. A
rearward movement of the selector stop shall
permit a more rearward motion of the nozzle angle
selector control.
4.19.37 Thrust angle indicator - When a
thrust angle indicator is required, it shall be
installed where it can be easily interpreted by the
pilot during all phases of flight.
FUEL SYSTEM CONTROLS
GROUPING
4.19.38 All fuel system management See also Table 25.
controls, flow meter indicators, fuel gauges, fuel
jettison and in-flight refuelling controls shall be, as
far as possible, positioned on one panel and
superimposed upon a fuel system diagram to give
the pilot an indication of the state of the system.
Suitable indicators shall be located adjacent to
each selector or switch to show the position of the
appropriate fuel cock (open/shut) in relation to the
system diagram.
FUEL COCK CONTROLS
4.19.39 Handwheels shall not be used to
control the operation of fuel cocks. Where an
"On/Off' fuel cock under the pilot's control is
provided for jettisonable fuel tanks, the cock shall
not be combined with the jettison or any other
control. Any fuel cock control, other than the high
pressure, cross-feed and transfer cocks, shall
register in two positions i.e. forward or up for fuel
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SECTION 4

on, and rearward or down for fuel off.
DROP TANKS RELEASE CONTROL
4.19.40 The release switch shall control the See also Table 25, Item 3, Clauses 4.15.22 to
release of all drop tanks in flight, including wing tip, 4.15.25 and Table 28, Item 5.
underwing, overwing or ventral tanks. The
electrical circuit for this switch shall also be
connected with any “ALL EXTERNAL STORES
JETTISON” switch) so that the drop tanks will be
released also, in addition to the other external
stores, by operation of this latter switch.
IN-FLIGHT REFUELLING COCKPIT CONTROLS AND DISPLAYS
4.19.41 The content of this Clause has been
moved to Part 13, Section 3, Clause 3.5.7
ELECTRICAL CONTROLS
4.19.42 See Table 26.
RADIO CONTROLS
4.19.43 On radio frequency cards, pre-set See also Table 27 and STANAG 3258.
channels shall be displayed in ascending order of
frequency.
ARMAMENT CONTROLS
ARMAMENT SELECTORS
4.19.44 In general, armament selectors shall
be grouped functionally. In single-seat aeroplanes,
those armament selectors which are of a
preparatory nature shall be positioned on the right
hand console. Those selectors which are used
during an attack shall be positioned adjacent to the
sight head or, where this is not possible, on the left
hand console.
MASTER ARMAMENT SWITCH
4.19.45 When the armament selectors are See also Table 28.
at any other crew station, a guarded master
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SECTION 4

armament switch shall be provided under the
control of the pilot.
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
LAYOUT
4.19.46 The layout of flight instruments shall
This arrangement applies to conventional See also Table 29, ASCC Air Standard
conform to the pattern shown in Fig. 17 below. instruments and to flight data in electronic 61/116/15H.
displays. Deviations from this pattern may be
permitted, after agreement with the Project
Team Leader, where it is necessary to include
special displays e.g. radar and television
scopes, large integrated displays etc., on the
pilot's instrument panel.
POWER FAILURE INDICATION IN FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
4.19.47 All electrically driven flight The indication should be such that the
instruments shall have an indication of power instrument cannot be used in the event of power
failure incorporated. failure.
ENGINE DISPLAYS
LOCATION OF DEDICATED DISPLAYS
4.19.48 Single or Tandem - Displays shall See ASCC Air Standard 61/116/15H.
be located immediately to the right of the basic
flight instrument group or to the left for carrier-
borne aeroplanes.
4.19.49 Side-by-side - Displays shall be
located between the first and second pilot's flight
instruments so that they are legible to both crew
members.
LOCATION OF STANDBY DISPLAYS
4.19.50 The layout of a multifunction In aeroplanes using standby engine displays in
standby display shall mimic the layout of the conjunction with a time-shared engine
primary display where possible. multifunction display, the standby display may
be located in any area of the forward panel that
is visible and legible to both crew members but
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SECTION 4

preferably on the lower portion of the panel.
ARRANGEMENT OF DISPLAYS
4.19.51 Vertical Grouping - The engine (a) The fuel flow meter may be placed on a
display parameters shall be arranged so that the fuel panel subject to the Project Team Leader's
primary or most important display for a particular agreement.
engine and aeroplane (thrust, torque, RPM, etc) be
located at the top of the display group if a vertical (b) Other groupings may be used when
grouping is provided. The next most important required for operational reasons or to
display parameter shall be positioned under the accommodate new technically advanced
primary display progressing down the panel with instrumentation subject to the Project Team
the least important at the bottom. Leader's agreement.
(c) Any additional instruments demanded by

a particular engine installation shall be
discussed with the Project Team Leader before
being included in the main instrument grouping.
(d) Notwithstanding Clauses 4.19.51 to

4.19.55, contractors may propose alternative
arrangements of engine displays to enhance
data transfer from display to crew. The Project
Team Leader may permit deviations from the
requirements when the alternative arrangements
proposed materially enhance operational
capability and/or flight safety.
4.19.52 Horizontal Grouping - If the engine
displays are grouped in a horizontal format such as
when vertical scale tape displays are used, the
primary display shall be on the end of the group
nearest the first pilot progressing to the least
important at the further end.
4.19.53 Arrangement in Relation to Engines
- The displays shall be arranged and numbered in
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SECTION 4

relation to the aeroplanes engines (see Clauses
4.19.29 to 4.19.37) The display to the left of the
group shall correspond to the left side engines and
the displays on the right, to the right side engines.
4.19.54 Multifunction Displays - When
engine parameters are shown on multifunction
displays the guidelines outlined in Clauses 4.19.51
to 4.19.53 shall apply. Multifunction displays shall
also include a prime power display, e.g., Power
Turbine RPM display adjacent to the attitude
display.
4.19.55 Scale Alignment and Marking -
Where possible engine parameter display scales
shall be aligned so that pointers on round dial
displays are all at the 12 o'clock position or, the 9
o'clock position when normal conditions exist (not
mixed). When vertical scale format displays are
used the pointers or the tape readouts shall
approximate a straight horizontal line across the
display group when normal conditions exist. In all
cases instrument scales shall be marked in
accordance with STANAG 3436.
POWER/TORQUE INDICATION
4.19.56 On all aeroplanes fitted with turbo- This indication shall be readily visible to the
prop engines a continuous indication of the power pilot.
or torque of each engine shall be provided. Unless
otherwise specified, on all aeroplanes fitted with
two or more piston engines, a continuous
indication shall be provided of the rpm, or for
aeroplanes fitted with variable pitch propellers, rpm
and manifold pressure, of each of the engines.
WARNING, CAUTIONARY AND ADVISORY SYSTEMS
GENERAL
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SECTION 4

4.19.57 The pilot shall be provided with (a) This system, unless otherwise agreed by See also Clauses 4.15.33 to 4.15.45
warning of malfunctions or failures and with routine the Project Team Leader, shall comprise:
indications by means of a three category warning
system. (1) a Standard Warning System (see
Clause 4.19.59) for emergencies which
are likely to prove catastrophic unless the
pilot takes immediate remedial action,
(2) an amber, resettable Master

Caution Light situated on a central panel
together with, and operating in parallel
with, selected indicators, to denote
secondary types of malfunction or failure
(see (b) below), and
(3) a centrally grouped panel of

indicators for all cautionary and advisory
signals, other than:
(i) undercarriage position indicator,
(ii) arrester hook lights,
(iii) radio altimeter limit lights,
(iv) marker beacon lights,
(v) armament installation lights, and
(vi) camera installation lights.
(b) It shall be agreed at the Mock-up

Conference which indicators shall be grouped
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SECTION 4

on the central panel of (a)(2) above. As a guide,
the secondary class of warning should be
applied to those malfunctions or failures which
do not involve the risk of immediate catastrophe,
but which if ignored indefinitely, will lead to loss
of, or damage to, the aeroplane.
(c) In order to avoid complicated electrical

circuits when only a small number of systems in
an aeroplane require inclusion in the caution
category, individual amber lights, centrally
grouped, may be provided, with the agreement
of the Project Team Leader instead of the full
system described in (a)(2) above. Less
important signals may, in this case, be denoted
by magnetic indicators.
(d) The installation of warning, cautionary

and advisory systems at other than the first
pilot's station shall be agreed with the Project
Team Leader at an early stage of design.
4.19.58 All magnetic indicators shall
conform to Clause 4.15.53
STANDARD WARNING SYSTEM
4.19.59 A standard warning system in (a) No other warnings shall be incorporated
accordance with the following requirements shall in the system without prior agreement by the
be fitted to give warning of each of the following Project Team Leader.
emergencies, when applicable:
(b) The system shall consist of red flashing
(a) fire (in conjunction with the lights in attention lights, a master audio warning signal
Clause 4.19.60), and a central panel which indicates the
particular emergency. The system shall be
(b) cabin pressurisation failure, designed in accordance with Specification EL
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SECTION 4

1960 (see however (c) below)
(c) oxygen failure,
(c) The flashing attention lights shall be
(d) generator channel failure, placed just below the bottom edge of the
windscreen, one on either side about 9 in.
(e) main hydraulic power failure (228.6 mm) from the centre of the pilot's line of
(applicable when powered flying controls are sight when he is looking straight ahead. Two
hydraulically operated and use an lights only shall be used in aeroplanes with only
emergency source of power with limited one pilot's station, or where the pilots sit in
duration), tandem; three lights shall be used where the
pilots are seated side-by-side.
(f) loss of oil pressure (propeller driven
aeroplanes only), and
(g) any folding component not locked in

the flight condition (naval aeroplanes only)
FIRE INDICATOR LIGHTS
4.19.60 A red light for each fire zone shall (a) The light shall be incorporated in the fire See Clause 4.26 for information on fire zones.
be provided at the pilot's station so that in the extinguisher button, which shall be located so
event of fire it will give continuous illumination until that there is the least possibility of confusing it
the fire is extinguished, when the light will switch with any other light.
off automatically.
(b) A marking shall be incorporated in the
light to indicate the fire zone to which it is
connected.
(c) These markings shall be about 0.2 in (5

mm) high and appear translucent (as opposed
to transparent) white on a red background.
4.19.61 The fire extinguisher button shall be See ASCC Air Standard 10/23E.
given emergency markings in accordance with Part
1, Section 7, Clause 7.4
SECOND PILOT'S STATION
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SECTION 4

4.19.62 (a) On aeroplanes with a second pilot's Guidance on the extent of the duplication under
station, one of the following may be required: (b)(1) will be found in Table 19, and Tables 22 to
29, where the requirements are stated for specific
(1) permanent dual controls, or controls and instruments.
(2) a dual-control conversion set

(Clauses 4.19.63 to 4.19.64)
(b) During the design stages of dual seat

aeroplanes, consideration shall be given to the
following points:
(1) for side-by-side pilots' stations,

the controls and instruments provided for
the first pilot shall in general be duplicated
at the second pilot's station, except for
those controls which can be used and
these instruments which can be seen by
each pilot while harnessed in his seat,
(2) for tandem pilots' stations, the

same layout of controls and switches shall
be provided at each station as far as
possible, and
(3) for dual seat training versions of

operational aeroplanes, the cock-pit layout
for the pilot under training shall conform as
closely as possible to that of the
operational type.
DUAL-CONTROL CONVERSION SET
4.19.63 Where a dual-controlled conversion In addition to a control column and rudder
set is required it is essential that, when installed, pedals, the following shall be included in the
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SECTION 4

the aeroplane may be controlled with equal facility conversion set:
from either station.
(a) throttle and propeller
controls, if the first pilot's controls
cannot be operated by the second
pilot,
(b) airspeed indicator,

altimeter and turn indicator - if the
first pilot's instruments cannot be
read by the second pilot,
(c) instrument lighting,
(d) intercommunication, if
necessary, and
(e) a harness.
4.19.64 The fixed fittings, for the dual-
control conversion set shall not interfere in any way
with the normal operational function of the
aeroplane and the time taken to install or remove
the set shall not exceed ten man - hours.
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SECTION 4
4.20 DOORS
4.20.1 This information is similar in content to CS 25. 783 This clause states the operational design and strength requirements for doors, hoods and
hatches which provide the normal entrances to an aeroplane.

4.20.2 The doors, hoods and hatches shall (a) The Aeroplane Specification will state
be large enough to provide satisfactory entrance to whether there is a requirement for the ability to
and exit from the aeroplane for large aircrew (as enter and leave the aeroplane without the use of
defined in Leaflet 63) wearing the clothing and ground support equipment.
equipment detailed in the Aircrew Equipment
Assembly Schedule appropriate to the particular (b) The suitability of the entrance and the
aeroplane. means provided to reach the entrance shall be
demonstrated, to the satisfaction of the Project
Team Leader, at the mock-up stage. This shall
be demonstrated using aircrew approximating to
both the large and small limits of size specified
in Leaflet 63 and wearing the appropriate
clothing and equipment.
(c) Measures shall be taken to ensure

against protrusions and sharp edges likely to
damage aircrew survival (equipment (e.g.
immersion suits)
4.20.3 Positive means shall be provided to
retain the doors, hoods or hatches in an open
position.
4.20.4 Means shall be provided to drain
overboard any water which might run off doors,
hoods or hatches secured in the open position.
4.20.5 It shall be possible to operate the The design shall be such as to minimise the
doors, hoods or hatches (including securing in and possibility of jamming of doors, hoods, hatches,
releasing from the open position) without undue external handgrips or steps due to any
247
SECTION 4

difficulty from inside and outside the aeroplane, foreseeable cause. Particular attention shall be
and in all winds of up to 20 m/s (39 kts), from any paid to the effect of ice or snow in cold weather
direction. or when operating on or near to snow covered
ground and to the effect of rapid change in
ambient temperature (e.g. when landing after
cold soak at altitude). Protection shall also be
provided against the abrasive effects of sand
when operating in a sandy environment.
4.20.6 Provision shall be made to lock all
entrance doors and hatches from the outside to
prevent the entry of unauthorised persons and the
means of locking shall be designed in such a way
that deliberate action with a key is necessary to
engage the lock. The doors shall be openable from
the inside when locked.
ENTRANCE DOORS AND HATCHES
4.20.7 Means shall be provided for locking
entrance doors or hatches in the closed positions,
such that there is no possibility of them opening
during flight, either inadvertently or as a result of a
single mechanical or electrical failure. If a crew
member cannot see an entrance or check that it is
correctly secured, a 'doors locked/unlocked'
indicator shall be fitted in the cockpit. Means shall
be provided to ensure that cabin pressurisation
cannot be initiated unless the doors or hatches are
properly closed, latched and locked.
4.20.8 On all doors and hatches the
latching mechanism shall be designed to ensure
that the pins, hooks and other such locking means
shall remain in adequate engagement with the
surrounding airframe structure under all loading
conditions, including pressurisation.
248
SECTION 4

4.20.9 Entrance doors and hatches which
serve as emergency exits (see Part 13, Section
1.6, Clause 1.6.15.7) shall comply with the
appropriate requirements of Clause 4.23 and Part
13, Section 1.6
COCKPIT HOODS
4.20.10 Means shall be provided for locking
hoods in the closed position; such that there is no
possibility of them opening during flight, either
inadvertently or as a result of a single mechanical
OR electrical failure. Mechanical or electrical
indications that all hoods are correctly locked shall
be provided in the cockpit.
4.20.11 Openable hoods that are power
operated shall be provided with manual reversion.
Manually operated hoods shall be adequately
damped and suitably counter-balanced to meet the
requirements of Clause 4.20.5
4.20.12 Provision shall be made for partially
or fully opening hoods to increase ventilation
during taxying if, under extreme conditions,
insufficient cabin cooling is available.
4.20.13 On aeroplanes fitted with sliding
hoods, but not fitted with ejection seats, it shall be
possible to open the hood in flight, and to secure it
in an open position suitable for abandoning the
aeroplane at all speeds up to maximum cruising
speed and over the full range of permissible
attitudes.
4.20.14 Hoods shall comply with the
requirements of Clause 4.23 and Part 13, Section
1.6 for emergency escape.
HANDGRIPS AND STEPS
249
SECTION 4

4.20.15 External handgrips and steps may Minimum dimensions of hand and foot holes are
be provided to assist the aircrew. If these are given in SIS 6001.
designed to retract into or fold flush with the
surface of the airframe, it shall be possible to
operate them without the use of tools, and without
the risk of grazing or jamming hand or foot, even
when cold weather clothing is worn. There shall be
no risk of damage to aircrew clothing or equipment.
Air flow disturbance resulting from such holes shall
not adversely affect the air conditioning or handling
of the aeroplane.
SEALS
4.20.16 Any inflatable door, hood or hatch Methods relying on adhesive alone or on bent-
seals provided to retain cabin pressurisation shall over flanges are not acceptable.
be held in place by mechanical means and shall be
capable of easy and rapid replacement without risk
of damage to the new seal or the aeroplane
structure.
STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS
GROUND LOADS
4.20.17 Doors, hoods and hatches and
associated structure shall have proof and ultimate
factors of not less than 1.125 and 1.5 respectively
on the loads applied under the following conditions:
(a) The aeroplane stationary with the

doors, hoods and hatches secured in the
fully open position in winds of up to 20 m/s
(39 kts) from any direction.
(b) With the hoods open in the taxying

position in head winds of up to 28 m/s (55
kts) but only where the need for improved
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SECTION 4

ventilation requires provision to be made for
taxying with hoods open.
(c) With doors, hoods and hatches

secured in the fully closed positions for the
landing and take-off cases.
FLIGHT LOADS
4.20.18 Doors, hoods and hatches shall
have proof and ultimate factors of not less than
1.125 and 1.5 respectively on the loads arising
during any flight condition for which the aeroplane
is designed. In addition, if the doors, hood or hatch
is part of the pressure cabin it shall meet the
strength requirements of Part 1, Section 3, Clause
3.7
4.20.19 Measures shall be taken to Gaping which may occur elsewhere shall be
minimise gaps occurring at leading edges of doors, such as to minimise stresses, buffet or vibration.
hoods and hatches when locked and under any
flight condition likely to be encountered.
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SECTION 4
4.21 SEATS, BERTHS, SAFETY BELTS AND HARNESSES
4.21.1 This information is similar to CS 25.785 The requirements of this clause shall apply to restraint and parachute harnesses of all combat aeroplanes
including those fitted with ejection seats, extraction systems and escape capsules. See also Clause 4.22 and ASCC Air Standard 61/102/02B.

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
4.21.2 The harness shall prevent injury to (a) Minimum static strength requirements
the user caused by multi-directional forces acting are given in Clause 4.22
singly or together up to the level of human
tolerance. (b) Provision should be made if possible for
the attenuation of energy in the harness, seat or
aeroplane so that the peak accelerations applied
to the harness user is minimised.
4.21.3 The dimensions of the crew and (a) The harness shall be lightweight and
occupants used for the design of the harness, comfortable in use. Hardware should not be
harness to seat or aeroplane, shall provide for both sited on the harness so that it is placed over
'large' and 'small' airmen as defined in Leaflet 63 bony prominences of the user. It shall be easily
and full allowance shall be made for all items of adjustable for all sizes of personnel and
clothing and equipment in the applicable Aircrew designed so that all service personnel intended
Equipment Assembly Schedule (AEA) to use the harness can do so correctly and
comfortably. The use of the widest selection of
up-to-date and appropriate anthropometric data
should be made to ensure that this requirement
is met. The harness should be designed so that
it can be adjusted and worn firmly in flight so
that dynamic amplification of acceleration is
avoided.
(b) The harness shall provide sufficient

freedom for all sizes of aircrew to operate and
reach all controls and maintain adequate
external vision. An inertia reel may be used with
the harness to provide both restraint and
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SECTION 4

minimum restriction.
4.21.4 Maximum practical area shall be The harness should apply restraint to strong
provided by the harness webbing in order to parts of the body (e.g., pelvis and chest) but
distribute the loads without injury and it shall should not cause specific injuries.
prevent secondary impact of the head and torso
with cockpit structures.
4.21.5 The harness shall be easy to put on (a) It should be possible for an aircrew
and release. The harness shall be simple in form member to fit his harness without aid.
and avoid complex routing. It should be impossible
to fasten or use the harness incorrectly. Release of (b) Suitable stowages for the components of
the crew member from the seat without parachute the unfastened harness should be provided as
or survival equipment shall be provided by an aid to strapping in, especially in confined
activation of a single control to permit immediate cockpits.
ground escape.
(c) Retention of the survival equipment may
be required when ditching.
4.21.6 The problems of submarining (see See Leaflet 75 Para. 1.4
Part 0 for definition) and of dynamic overshoot (or
whiplash effect) shall be considered.
RESTRAINT HARNESS GEOMETRY
4.21.7 (a) The shoulder straps should start from a For Flight Attendants see FAA AC-25.785-1A
point on the seat back 674 mm ± 15 mm above (Cancelled)
(a) The Crew harness shall incorporate a the compressed sitting platform measured along
pair of over-the-shoulder straps, a pair of lap the back tangent line. The straps should be
straps and a negative g strap. restrained at that point so that not more than 15
mm lateral movement of each strap is allowed.
(b) Passenger restraint shall comply with Where cushions are used, the line of the
CS-25.785 compressed sitting platform is the tangent line to
the upper surface of the cushion of the sitting
platform when compressed by an occupant
wearing full AEA of the maximum body weight
specified by Leaflet 63.
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SECTION 4

(b) The lap straps should start from the side
of the seat such that the strap centre line is
placed at an angle of 45° to 55° relative to the
centre line above the compressed sitting
platform. The lap straps should be placed at this
angle so that under impact the straps remain
over the anterior superior spines of the pelvis for
transmission of acceleration force to the body. It
should be possible to vary the length of each lap
and shoulder strap with a force not exceeding
134 N by means of a simple self-locking buckle.
(c) The negative g strap should start

vertically from a point on the centre line of the
compressed sitting platform 350 mm ± 25 mm
forwards of the front surface of the seat back
and should connect to the central release point
of the harness. When the harness is connected,
the strap should be designed so that the centre
of the harness release fitting is 180 mm ± 25
mm above the top of the compressed sitting
platform and the lap straps intersect the
compressed sitting platform at 45° to 55°. If the
sitting position is not varied, a correctly designed
negative g strap should require no length
adjustment. The harness release fitting should
be permanently attached to the negative g strap.
PARACHUTE HARNESS GEOMETRY
4.21.8 Where restraint and parachute
harnesses are combined into one assembly, either
man (torso) or seat mounted, the restraint harness
requirements will cover both applications, with the
proviso that the harness geometry shall positively
254
SECTION 4

exclude inadvertent escape from the harness.
Where parachute harnesses are used separately
from restraint harnesses, the same requirements
apply. When harnesses are so combined, it is
essential that the parachute function of the harness
is not compromised.
QUICK RELEASE FITTINGS
4.21.9 The restraint and preferably the Quick release fittings which eject the lugs or
parachute harness and release fitting shall be attachments on release to prevent inadvertent
designed so that all components of the harness re-locking are preferable. Variations of the types
can be released from a single point. In order to of release action should be minimised to reduce
prevent inadvertent release, a release action confusion in an emergency. The action should
requiring two separate, differing and sequenced be either a rotary, depressing or lifting type and
actions shall be incorporated. the particular actions required should be clearly
described on the fitting. In addition, the action
should be simple, capable of being effected with
either hand in hot, cold or wet environments and
in darkness wearing equipment appropriate to
the crew task. Aircrew should be able to
determine by feel alone whether the quick
release fitting is locked or released.
INERTIA REELS
4.21.10 Multi-directional rather than uni- (a) The stroke of the reel should be
directional sensitive inertia reel shall be used and a adequate to allow all sizes of aircrew specified
control placed on the left hand side of the seat to reach all crew station controls and maintain
shall be provided so that the reel can be internal and external vision appropriate to their
mechanically locked at will. task. The force retracting the strap into the reel
should not be less than 22 N at 50 mm
extension of the strap and not less than 10 N at
full retraction.
(b) Inertia reels incorporating powered

retraction devices shall be capable of retracting
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SECTION 4

the most critical aircrew member and equipment
specified into the correct position with minimal
time delay against a minimal acceleration load
of 3 g acting in any direction.
TESTING
4.21.11 Harnesses, inertia reels and quick Where energy attenuating devices are
release fittings shall be subjected to both static and incorporated, specific examination of their
dynamic tests in accordance with Clause 4.22 performance shall be made under dynamic
conditions. These tests shall ensure that the
additional movement provided by these devices
do not introduce additional hazards for the crew
(e.g., contact with the cockpit structures)
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SECTION 4
4.22 CRASH LANDING, DITCHING AND PRECAUTIONARY ALIGHTING ON WATER
4.22.1 This clause is similar in content to CS 25.787 – 25.801 For the requirements of this Clause, aeroplanes are divided into 3 categories as follows:
Cat A Aeroplanes fitted with Ejection Seats,
Cat B Light aeroplanes not fitted with Ejection Seats,
Cat C Transport and other large aeroplanes not fitted with Ejection Seats,
and the following requirements apply to all categories except where otherwise stated. The main objectives of Design for Crash Landing, Ditching and
Precautionary Alighting on water are:
(a) to preserve the lives of, and minimise injury to, the occupants during impact,
(b) to enhance survivability after impact,
(c) to minimise damage to the aeroplane and its equipment,
(d) in Category A Aeroplanes - to ensure ejection capability at all times.

GENERAL
4.22.2 The Aeroplane Design Organisation must
The structure, seats, harnesses (see See Leaflet 75 Para. 1.3
Clause 4.21) and all relevant systems shall be exercise judgement in choosing the extent to
designed, so far as is reasonably practical, to which each system contributes to the attainment
of these objectives. Individual systems which
attain the objectives stated in Clause 4.22.1 by the
provision of energy absorbing devices and contribute to occupant protection shall not be
adequate but not excessive structure strength. considered in isolation but shall be co-ordinated
and interfaced to achieve a completely
integrated and efficient crashworthy design.
DESIGN FOR CRASH LANDING, DITCHING AND PRECAUTIONARY ALIGHTING ON WATER
EVACUATION
4.22.3 It shall be possible to evacuate Cat Provision shall be made for rapid evacuation See also Clause 4.23
257
SECTION 4

A Aircraft through the available exits in 30 seconds after either crash landing or ditching. In deciding
or within flotation time whichever is less, whatever the position, sizes and number of emergency
the attitude of the aeroplane in the water. exits, consideration shall be given to:
For Cat B and C Aircraft see Part 13, Section 1, (a) stability of the aeroplane on the
Clause 1.6.15.9 water after ditching or a precautionary
alighting on water,
(b) availability of the exits for use

after the emergency,
(c) the flotation time after ditching.

4.22.4 On Category B and C aeroplanes, See also Clause 4.23.12
means shall be provided so that each emergency
exit can be opened from both inside and outside
the aeroplane. Jettison devices shall be similarly
accessible. All exits on Category A aeroplanes
shall be capable of being opened from both the
inside and the outside. On aeroplanes not having a
pressure cabin, all emergency exits shall be
designed to be squeezed outwards by structural
deformation without jamming and should also be
jettisonable.
4.22.5 Aeroplane systems needed during
evacuation shall be designed, as far as is
reasonably practical, to function for the length of
time it is estimated evacuation will take.
4.22.6 Those parts of the structure, the Particular attention shall be given to
failure of which would prevent the use of manufacturing joints and transport joints.
emergency exits, shall meet the strength
requirements of Clauses 4.22.14 to 4.22.16
4.22.7 Seats, stretchers and their support See also Clause 4.21
structure shall be designed to minimise
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SECTION 4

interference with evacuation. Harnesses shall be
designed not to form obstructive loops when not in
use.
4.22.8 The following shall be crashworthy See also Clauses 4.23.14 to 4.23.25 and Part 13,
to the standard defined in Clauses 4.22.14 to Section 1.6, Clause 1.6.11.5
4.22.16:
(a) Emergency exits,
(b) Emergency lighting,
(c) Emergency escape identifications

and markings.
PROTECTIVE SHELL
4.22.9 The structure of the crew and Deformation shall be controlled, as far as See Leaflet 75 Para. 12 for information on
passenger compartments shall be designed, as far reasonably practical, to provide maximum buckling.
as is practicable, to prevent inward buckling and to survivability and possibility of post-crash exit.
provide a protective shell for seated occupants. The possibility of local penetration of the
structure, by external parts of the aeroplane
which might cause injury to the occupants, shall
be considered so that injury to the occupants
can be avoided.
4.22.10 The interior of the protective shell See Leaflet 75 Paras 13 to 15.
shall be designed to minimise injury to any parts of
the body of a seated and restrained occupant
which flail during a crash landing or ditching.
Particular attention shall be paid to the movement
of the head.
4.22.11 The design shall ensure that the
occupant and/or any part of the body cannot
become trapped between the structure and any
impacting surface following failure of doors,
windows, canopies or hatches.
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SECTION 4

4.22.12 The movement, during a crash See Leaflet 75 Paras 1.3 and 1.4
landing or ditching, of those parts of the aeroplane
in the vicinity of the crew or other occupants
(particularly the massive items of Clauses 4.22.51
and 4.22.52) shall not compromise the survivability
of the occupants, as far as is reasonably practical,
and the relevant parts of the structure shall be
designed to absorb energy by controlled
deformation.
4.22.13 For vertical impact not less than 42 Neither seats nor stretchers should be See also Leaflet 76 Para. 1.9
ft/sec (12.8 m/s) on a rigid hard horizontal surface suspended from the ceiling unless this
the design of the crew and troop compartment roof requirement is met.
and support structure shall prevent ceiling collapse
and maintain a survivable volume for the
occupants.
STRENGTH AND ENERGY ABSORPTION
4.22.14 All strength requirements based on See Leaflet 76 for recommendations on design for
the mass of the aeroplane shall be met at Design support of seats and stretchers and for data on
Take-off Mass MT fully airborne unless otherwise the masses of aircrew and troops.
stated.
4.22.15 When the undercarriage or other In the assessment of forces resulting from the See Leaflet 75 Para. 1.3
relevant impact point (see Part 0 for definition) is specified velocity changes the distance over
subject to any velocity change or combination of which the change occurs, and the efficiency of
velocity changes in a half ellipsoid defined by the energy absorption system, shall be
Tables 31, 40 or 42 as appropriate, from zero to considered. A factor for the efficiency of the
the values stated, within the impulse duration energy absorption system between the impact
given, the accelerations at the base of the spine of point and the part, determined, by the designer,
members of the crew and other specified preferably as the result of tests, shall be
occupants shall not exceed the levels of included. Excessive static strength shall
acceleration given in Table 30. however be avoided.
4.22.16 All parts affected by the Local increase in acceleration caused by Note: For applicability of tables see Clauses
requirements of this clause shall have an ultimate whiplash effects or dynamic overshoot (see 4.22.68 to 4.22.70
factor not less than 1.0 under the forces arising Leaflet 75 Para. 1.4) shall be considered when
260
SECTION 4

from: assessing structural integrity and occupant
survival.
(a) the static cases of Clauses 4.22.28
to 4.22.56 and Part 13 Section 1.6 Clause
1.6.11.4 (Tables 32 to 37 or Tables 39 and
41), as appropriate
(b) the dynamic cases of Clause

4.22.15
MATERIALS
4.22.17 Use of composite materials in structure intended See also Clauses 4.26.74 to 4.26.79 and 4.4.37
to meet the requirements of this clause shall be for flammability.
considered from the following points of view:
(a) Composite materials require

innovative design techniques to provide
energy absorbing properties not inherent
in the basic material and the essential
measures taken to achieve energy
absorption may detract from the weight
and production advantages of these
materials.
(b) Flammability, toxicity, smoke

effects and thermal decomposition shall be
considered in design.
4.22.18 Exterior surfaces and structure
which could be exposed to contact with the ground
in a crash shall be constructed, as far as is
reasonably practical, of materials which resist
sparking as a consequence of abrasion.
4.22.19 Materials shall be considered for Materials for seats and stretchers shall be
their resistance to burning and, in their finished selected on the basis of the best strength-to-
261
SECTION 4

condition, shall satisfy the requirements of Clause weight ratio with sufficient ductility to prevent
4.26 brittle failure. If any doubt exists about probable
peak loads of critical members the elongation
shall be at least 10%.
CONTROLS
4.22.20 All controls shall be designed as far See Leaflet 75 Para. 16.
as practical so that they present no hazard to the
crew during a crash.
DESIGN FOR DITCHING AND PRECAUTIONARY ALIGHTING ON WATER
GENERAL
4.22.21 Having designed the aeroplane (a) Consideration shall also be given to The requirements of this paragraph apply if
structure to meet the general requirements of differences in structural failure mode. See design for ditching or precautionary alighting on
Clauses 4.22.1 to 4.22.20 the designer shall Leaflet 75 Para. 1.7 water is required by the Aeroplane Specification
estimate the resulting velocity and acceleration as the consequence of a Service requirement for
ellipsoids both for ditching and/or a precautionary (b) The design sea state, wind and wave operation over water for a considerable time. In
alighting on water and embody them in the slope in which the requirements shall be met are this case the Aeroplane Specification will give a
Aeroplane Specification. See Clause 4.22.62 given in Table 38. minimum flotation time or crew evacuation time
and associated sea state. It will also state the
flotation aids required.
4.22.22 The design shall be such as to allow
controlled fuel jettison following a precautionary
alighting on water.
FLOTATION
4.22.23 Adequate buoyancy and stability (a) Flotation aids and associated equipment
shall be available to enable aeroplane to remain shall be designed and tested to show
afloat in the sea state specified. satisfactory operation following ditching in the
most adverse environmental conditions called
for in the Aeroplane Specification and in the
velocity and acceleration ellipsoids determined
as the result of the analysis of Clause 4.22.21
(b) The use of a sea anchor may be

assumed, if provided, during the deployment of
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SECTION 4

liferafts and the escape of the crew and
occupants, but shall be assumed to make no
contribution to buoyancy and stability.
4.22.24 Where flotation capability depends
on the operation of emergency flotation aids, the
requirements shall be met in any single failure
case applied to the actuation system or with any
single compartment of the flotation gear
inoperative.
ESCAPE
4.22.25 Doors and windows and their local (a) The Design Organisation shall propose
structure shall be designed to withstand local water applicable cases for insertion in the Aeroplane
pressures arising from the circumstances in which Specification.
contact with water is expected to occur.
(b) Underwater escape shall be considered
in order to provide advice on the best method to
be adopted using the equipment available. See
also Clause 4.23 and Part 13, Section 1.6
4.22.26 The aeroplane shall be designed to
enable the crew and other occupants to salvage
any special equipment required by the Aeroplane
Specification, to deploy liferafts, and to enter them
with the maximum probability of survival.
4.22.27 Where liferafts are normally
released directly overboard, an external means
shall be provided for their release, accessible to a
survivor outside the aeroplane, in addition to any
internal provision for their release.
DESIGN FOR CRASH LANDING
GENERAL
4.22.28 In addition to the general They may also be applied to Category A and
requirements of Clauses 4.22.1 to 4.22.27 the Category C aeroplanes where relevant.
particular requirements of Clauses 4.22.29 to
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SECTION 4

4.22.60 shall be met on Category B aeroplanes.
DESIGN FOR LONGITUDINAL IMPACT
4.22.29 CASE 1 - The basic airframe shall
be capable of impacting a hard rigid vertical barrier
longitudinally at 20 ft/sec (6.1 m/s) without
reducing the size of the protective shell of the pilot,
co-pilot and any designated members of the crew
to the extent that their evacuation of the aeroplane
and survival after the crash is prevented or
impeded. The engine(s), equipment, components
of systems, cargo and freight and any other items
which could cause injury or unacceptable damage,
shall remain intact and in place in the aeroplane.
4.22.30 CASE 2 - The basic airframe shall
also be capable of impacting a hard rigid vertical
barrier longitudinally at 40 ft/sec (12.2 m/s) without
reducing the length of the passenger/troop
compartment by more than 15%. Any consequent
inward buckling shall not be hazardous to
occupants nor prevent their evacuation after the
crash.
4.22.31 CASE 3 - The forward undersurface See also Leaflet 75 Para. 11.
of the aeroplane shall be designed to minimise
earth scooping regardless of the density or
consistency of the soil within reasonable limits. The
nose section shall not plough or scoop earth when
the forward 25% of the fuselage has a uniformly
applied local upward force of 10MT and a rearward
force of 4MT
DESIGN FOR VERTICAL IMPACT
4.22.32 CASE 1 - The aeroplane as a whole See also Leaflet 75 Paras 9 and 10.
shall be designed for 42 ft/sec (12.8 m/s) vertical
264
SECTION 4

velocity on a hard rigid horizontal surface at any
attitude within the envelope of Fig. 18. The height
of the crew and passenger/troop compartments
shall not be decreased by more than 15% and the
occupants shall not experience accelerations
greater than those of Table 30 which cause serious
injury or impede emergency evacuation.
4.22.33 CASE 2 - Where the undercarriage
is retractable the aeroplane as a whole shall be
designed to withstand, with the undercarriage
retracted and within the envelope of Fig. 18, a
vertical velocity of not less than 26 ft/sec (7.9 m/s)
on a hard rigid horizontal surface without reducing
the height of any occupied compartment by more
than 15% and not exceeding the accelerations of
Table 30 for any occupant.
4.22.34 CASE 3 - The undercarriage shall The undercarriage should continue to absorb
be capable of decelerating the aeroplane from a some energy even when the fuselage has
vertical velocity of 20 ft/sec (6.1 m/s) on a hard contacted the ground. Failure of the
rigid horizontal surface without allowing the undercarriage shall not increase danger to any
fuselage to touch the surface. This requirement occupants by penetration of the airframe or by
shall be met at any attitude within the envelope of rupturing a fuel tank or by damaging missiles,
Fig. 18. rockets and ammunition. Plastic deformation of
the undercarriage is acceptable but the
remainder of the aeroplane structure, should
remain airworthy.
DESIGN FOR LATERAL IMPACT
4.22.35 The aeroplane as a whole shall be
designed for a lateral velocity of 30 ft/sec (9.1 m/s)
normal to the axis. The width of the crew and
passenger/troop compartments shall not be
decreased by more than 15% and the occupants
shall not suffer accelerations greater than those
265
SECTION 4

given in Table 30.
COMBINED CASES
4.22.36 CASE 1 - The aeroplane shall be The design should, if possible, prevent earth- See Leaflet 75 Para. 11.
designed to withstand impact, as in a low-level scooping or roll-over in these conditions.
approach, fully airborne into ploughed soil, at a
flight path angle of 8o, at 100 ft/sec (30.5 m/s). The
volume of the passenger/troop compartment shall
be reduced by not more than 15%
4.22.37 CASE 2 - The aeroplane as a whole
shall be designed to sustain a combined
vertical/longitudinal impact on a hard rigid
horizontal surface at a vertical velocity of 42 ft/sec
(12.8 m/s) and a longitudinal velocity of 27 ft/sec
(8.2 m/s) within the attitude envelope of Fig. 18.
The volume of the passenger/troop compartment
shall not be reduced by more than 15%
ROLL-OVER
4.22.38 CASE 1 - The fuselage roof is
assumed to be buried in soil to a depth of 2 inches
(5.1 cm) over the forward 25% of the total length of
the aeroplane. A load of 4 times the Design Take-
off Mass MT shall be applied as in Clause 4.22.41
4.22.39 CASE 2 - The aeroplane is loaded
on its side in the same conditions as CASE 1
above, with the wing broken at the root.
4.22.40 CASE 3 - Where the aeroplane
configuration is such that Case 1 cannot be applied
then the aeroplane shall be assumed to be on the
ground inverted in the most critical attitude for
safety of the occupants. The following forces shall
be applied individually:
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SECTION 4

(a) 4MT perpendicular to the ground, or
(b) 4MT along the longitudinal axis

parallel to the ground, or
(c) 2MT along the lateral axis parallel to

the ground.
4.22.41 In cases 1 and 2 above the 4MT
load shall be applied, over the area defined, at any
angle between vertical and horizontal in any
direction, i.e. from perpendicular to the fuselage
skin to parallel to it. All doors, hatches and
windows take no load.
SEAT INSTALLATION - CREW AND SPECIFIED OCCUPANTS
4.22.42 The parts listed in Guidance shall When determining the forces in the cases of this The requirements of this section apply to the
meet the relevant requirements of Clauses 4.22.14 requirement the mass and dimensions of the seats, (see Leaflet 76) restraint harness, (see
to 4.22.16 in conjunction with Table 32 or 39 as crew and occupants, and the CG position Clause 4.21) attachments and local support
appropriate. assumed, shall be in accordance with the data structure for:
given in Leaflet 76 Table 1 and Leaflet 63 for the
percentiles given in the Aeroplane Specification (a) all members of the crew,
and full allowance shall be made for any items
of equipment, including armour, carried on the (b) any occupant who might
seat or by the crew. See also Leaflet 76 and compromise the essential actions of the
Part 13, Section 3 clause 3.10 crew if his restraint failed,
(c) any occupant designated by the

Aeroplane Design Specification.
SEAT INSTALLATION - OTHER OCCUPANTS
4.22.43 When determining the forces in the cases of this See also Leaflet 76.
requirement the mass and dimensions of the
(a) Seats, harness, attachments and local occupants, and the CG position assumed, shall
support structure for troops and paratroops be in accordance with the data given in Leaflet
267
SECTION 4

(Cat C) shall meet the relevant 76 Table 2 and Leaflet 63 for the 5th and 95th
requirements of Clauses 4.22.14 to 4.22.16 percentiles, and full allowance shall be made for
in conjunction with Table 33 or 41 as any items of equipment carried on the seat or by
appropriate. the occupant.
(b) Seats, harness, attachments and local

support structure for passengers shall
comply with CS-25.785
EQUIPMENTAND COMPONENTS OF SYSTEMS
4.22.44 Wherever it can reasonably be The requirements of this section apply to all fixed
foreseen that, if the equipment or component and removable equipment and to components of
moved or broke free during a crash landing or systems. See Clauses 4.22.59 and 4.23
ditching, it would:
(a) cause injury to crew or other

occupants,
(b) cause a fire,
(c) prevent the use of an emergency

exit,
(d) prevent the use of emergency

equipment,
(e) prevent access to items which might

be needed by the crew after the crash,
then they shall be restrained (see Leaflet 75 Para.

7.1) to meet the relevant requirements of Clauses
4.22.14 to 4.22.16 in conjunction with Table 34 or
41 as appropriate.
4.22.45 Emergency equipment and items
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SECTION 4

which might be needed by the crew after the crash
or ditching shall also meet the requirements of
Clause 4.22.44
4.22.46 Stowage space for unrestrained See Part 1, Section 3, Clause 3.1
items of personal equipment shall also meet the
requirements of Clauses 4.22.44 and shall be
designed so that items stowed in it cannot become
a hazard to personnel in a survivable crash.
4.22.47 Where fixed or removable
equipment, or components of systems, are located
in such a manner that the requirements of Clauses
4.22.44 and 4.22.45 do not apply, then the
installation shall have the normal in-flight and
ground load factors, the factors shown by trade-off
studies (see Leaflet 75 Para. 6) or the ultimate
factors of Part 1, Section 3, Clause 3.1 whichever
are the greater.
4.22.48 Aircraft Data Recorders shall remain
attached to the local structure under the normal,
longitudinal and transverse accelerations stated in
Part 13 Section 1, Clause 1.3.1.1
CARGO AND FREIGHT
4.22.49 Wherever it can be reasonably For Category C aeroplanes compliance with the Barrier Safety Nets provide protection to
foreseen that, if cargo or freight moved or broke 9g longitudinal forward static inertia requirement occupants forward of the cargo by withstanding
free during a crash landing or ditching it would: could be achieved by restraining the cargo to the forces, within a defined expansion zone,
withstand the normal in-flight and ground loads resulting from a 9g forward acceleration by the
(a) cause injury to crew or other occupants, (not less than 3g in the longitudinal forward cargo.
direction), provided none of the conditions in
(b) cause a fire, Clause 4.22.49 (b) to (e) are met and provided A dynamic analysis of the restraint scheme iaw
that Barrier Safety Nets are employed. 4.22.16(b) may be considered as a method of
(c) prevent the use of an emergency exit, enhancing the level of safety offered. However,
dynamic analyses of cargo restraint schemes are
(d) prevent the use of emergency equipment, not mandatory.
269
SECTION 4
(e) prevent access to items which might be

needed by the crew after the crash,
then it shall be restrained to meet the relevant

requirements of Clauses 4.22.14 to 4.22.16(a) in
conjunction with Table 35 or 41 as appropriate.
4.22.50 Where the cargo or freight would Def Stan 00-3 provides detailed guidance
not pose a hazard in a crash landing or ditching as regarding cargo restraint.
described at Clause 4.22.49 (a) to (e) it shall be
restrained to withstand normal in-flight and ground
loads, the factors to be decided by trade-off studies
(see Leaflet 75 Para. 6)
MOUNTINGS OF MASSIVE PARTS
4.22.51 All massive parts, including but not See also Clause 4.10, Part 1, Section 6, Clause
limited to; Engine, Empennage, Fuel Tanks and 6.5 and Part 1, Section 7, Clauses 7.1, 7.2 and
Auxiliary Power Unit, shall meet normal flight cases 7.3
stated in Section 2 and any special cases stated in
other clauses.
4.22.52 Where these parts can become a See also Clause 4.22.29
hazard in a crash landing or ditching they shall also
comply with the relevant requirements of Clauses
4.22.14 to 4.22.16 in conjunction with Table 36 or
41 as appropriate.
STRETCHERS (LITTERS)
4.22.53 Static strength for crash landing and For the normal requirements for stretchers (litters)
ditching shall meet the relevant requirements of refer to Part 1, Section 3, Clause 3.1
Clauses 4.22.14 to 4.22.16 in conjunction with
Table 37 or 41 as appropriate, and a body mass of
114 kg (250 lb)
HAND GRIPS
4.22.54 Hand grips which may be used
during a crash landing, together with their
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SECTION 4

attachments, shall have an ultimate factor not less
than 1.0 under a pull of 2000 N (450 lbf) acting in
any possible direction.
HARNESS ATTACHMENT
4.22.55 Where harness is attached directly
to structure, allowance shall be made for seat
movement caused by functioning of energy-
absorbers.
EVACUATION
4.22.56 Emergency exits and those parts of
the structure, the failure or excessive displacement
of which would prevent or impede evacuation, shall
meet the relevant requirements of Clauses 4.22.14
to 4.22.16 Particular attention shall be given to
manufacturing joints and to transport joints.
DESIGN OF SYSTEMS
GENERAL
4.22.58 The aeroplane and its systems shall See also Part 1, Section 5, Clause 5.2 and Part 1,
be designed to minimise the probability of a fire Section 6, Clauses 6.6 and 6.11
developing at or soon after impact, whatever its
attitude, by ensuring that the requirements of
Clause 4.26 are met.
4.22.59 All components of systems shall
meet the requirements for equipment of Clauses
4.22.44 or 4.22.47 as appropriate.
FUEL SYSTEM
4.22.60 The fuel system shall be designed, See also Part 1, Section 5, Clauses 5.2.30 to
as far as is practical, to contain fuel during and 5.2.33
after the crash in each of the cases of Table 31.
271
SECTION 4

4.22.61 Fuel tanks shall comply with the
requirements of Clauses 4.22.50 to 4.22.52, and
where relevant of Clauses 4.22.44 to 4.22.47,
when 75% full.
VALIDATION OF DESIGN
4.22.62 Demonstration of compliance with the See Leaflet 75 Para. 2.1
requirements of Clauses 4.22.1 to 4.22.61 shall
be by static and dynamic analysis, mathematical
modelling and such tests as are practical. The
programme shall be recorded in the Aeroplane
Specification.
4.22.63 The need for a physical model and
for full scale dynamic impact tests on the
aeroplane structure in addition to static strength
tests shall be considered.
4.22.64 Where complete system testing is
not undertaken then mathematical analysis shall
show that individual crashworthy elements of the
system function together properly to achieve the
desired overall level of crashworthiness.
4.22.65 Where design for ditching or See Leaflet 75 Para. 2.2
precautionary alighting on water is required
(Clauses 4.22.21 to 4.22.27) the test programme
shall include proposals for ditching model tests to
show adequate buoyancy and stability on the
water.
4.22.66 The seat, energy absorbers and (a) The results of the tests shall show For details of dynamic tests on seats see. CS-
relevant structure, together with the restraint compliance with the relevant requirements of 25.562, FAA AC.25-562B and ETSO-C127A.
system and other items defined in Clause 4.22.42, Clauses 4.22.14 to 4.22.16
shall be sled-tested under dynamic loading
conditions equivalent to those of Table 31 Cases 8, (b) Instrumentation suitable for making the
9 and 10. The strength and stiffness of the measurements required by the above shall be
attachments used shall be representative of the provided.
272
SECTION 4

support structure.
RELIABILITY
4.22.67 The Design Organisation shall propose a Because of the emergency nature of the
programme of reliability tests for insertion in the requirements of this section, particularly those
Aeroplane Specification. applicable to seats, it is important that a high
degree of reliability of all components is achieved.
See Leaflet 75 Para. 18.
APPLICABILITY OF TABLES
TABLES 30 to 37
4.22.68 These are new tables giving the full They may be used, where appropriate, for
requirements of Reference 2 of Leaflet 0 (under Categories A and C aeroplanes as called for in
Clause 4.22). They are mandatory for new one of the sub- Clauses of 4.22.03 to 4.22.56
Category B aeroplanes. and Part 13, Section 1.6, Clause 1.6.11.04, or
otherwise at the discretion of the Design
Organisation.
TABLE 38
4.22.69 Meteorological data applicable to all
categories.
TABLES 39 to 42
4.22.70 Tables applicable to all categories
of aeroplane, as indicated, where the full standard
of crashworthiness given in Clauses 4.22.1 to
4.22.61 is not required.
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SECTION 4
4.23 EMERGENCY PROVISIONS
4.23.1 The requirements of this clause are, unless otherwise specified, applicable to all types of aeroplanes and aim to ensure that all the occupants will be
able to leave an aeroplane quickly and safely in an emergency.
The conditions covered relate to emergency escape:
(a) in flight, under:
(1) all conditions of symmetric flight within the specified flight envelope,
(2) all conditions of asymmetric flight, and
(3) all conditions likely to arise after control has been lost including a spin (unless the aeroplane is characteristically incapable of spinning),
(b) after crash landing or ditching (see Clause 4.22)
(c) from the aeroplane on the ground.
This information is similar to CS 25.803 – 25.819

GENERAL PRINCIPLES
4.23.2 Every occupant, when wearing the On aeroplanes with assisted escape, an escape
clothing and personal equipment specified in the envelope shall be agreed between the
Aircrew Equipment Assembly Schedule for the aeroplane manufacturer and the Project Team
aeroplane, shall be able to leave the aeroplane Leader. This envelope shall depend on the
safely, irrespective of its altitude, by his appropriate escape system proposed.
exit in the shortest possible time under the
following conditions:
(a) for the crew members of all

aeroplanes, the conditions of Clause
4.23.1(a), (b),
274
SECTION 4
(b) for the passengers of transport

aeroplanes, the conditions of Clause
4.23.1(b)
NUMBER OF EXITS
MARKING OF EXITS
SIZE OF EXITS
CONTROLS
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST INADVERTENT OPERATION
4.23.9 Inadvertent release or jettison of See also Part 1, Section 1, Clause 1.1.9 to 1.1.11
hoods, hatches or doors shall not be possible from
any cause including:
(a) accidental operation by crew or
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SECTION 4

passengers,
(b) vibration or buffeting,
(c) structural deformation or flexing due

to loads within the fully factored flight
envelope, including pressurisation loads,
(d) mechanical failure of locks and

linkage, and
(e) the effect of temperature variations

on the airframe, etc.
4.23.10 It shall be impossible for the locks Electrical indicators are acceptable only where
on hoods, hatches or doors to be left partially functional checks of the indicating system or
engaged. The setting of the locks when closed inspection of the locks can be made during the
shall be such that inadvertent disengagement or cockpit drill.
disturbance is impossible. There shall be clear
indication to the appropriate crew member and to
ground crew to show when all the locks are
properly engaged. After the release or jettison
mechanism has been operated, it shall be
impossible to restore the control to its normal
position until the locking mechanism has been
reset.
4.23.11 Where assisted escape systems are The number of devices should not exceed one
used, a mechanical device shall be provided to for the seat and one for each canopy system. An
prevent inadvertent operation of the system or of aeroplane cockpit stowage shall be provided.
individual components whilst the aeroplane is The state of the system and of the devices shall
parked on the ground or undergoing maintenance. be readily apparent to both aircrew and ground
crew.
EXIT FROM PRESSURE CABINS
4.23.12 On aeroplanes where the exit is part
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SECTION 4

of a pressure cabin, and where the exit is not
provided to give a clear path for ejection, it shall
not be possible to open the exit until the pressure
has fallen below a safe value for the opening of the
exit.
EMERGENCY ESCAPE/EVACUATION ILLUMINATION
ESCAPE IN FLIGHT
PROVISION OF PARACHUTES
4.23.14 Provision shall be made for the
parachute assembly specified in the Aircrew
Equipment Assembly for the aeroplane.
LOCATION OF EXITS
4.23.15 The parachute exits shall be so
arranged that the entire crew could abandon the
aeroplane within 10 seconds of the order to
abandon being given.
ASSISTED ESCAPE
4.23.16 All aeroplanes, capable of speeds in (a) The accelerations applied to the
excess of 260 knots E.A.S. in level flight shall be crewman throughout the escape sequence shall
provided with means of escape under the be such as to produce the minimum risk of
conditions of Clause 4.23.1 (a) to enable the crew, injury.
when wearing the clothing and personal equipment
specified in the Aircrew Equipment Assembly for (b) A hatch or door will not normally be
the aeroplane, to get clear of the aeroplane with acceptable on these aeroplanes without some
the least physical effort and in the least possible positive means for getting the user, when
time, and to make a safe descent by parachute. subject to acceleration, into the right position for
entering the hatch and propelling him through
the hatch.
4.23.17 Operation of his escape system by Where a command ejection facility is fitted, each
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any one crew member shall not result in injury to crew member shall still have the ability to eject
any other occupants nor prejudice their chances of individually and the command control should be
safe escape. selectable in accordance with the Aeroplane
Specification.
4.23.18 No rigid object shall be located in Fixed but frangible objects are permitted in the
the ejection path and any movable objects which ejection path provided they cause no damage to
can enter the path shall be so arranged that they personnel or their equipment during an ejection.
are moved clear when the seat is fired by Consideration shall be given to the possible
automatic means or on impact with the seat need for shielding of objects above shoulder
without damage to personnel or their equipment. height (e.g. canopy rails) to minimise injuries
which may be caused on ejecting under lateral
"g" conditions.
4.23.19 When upward ejection seats are
provided, the design of the escape system as a
whole shall be such that the following standard
escape drill will be both appropriate and sufficient:
(a) operation of the control specified in

Part 13, Section 1.6, Clause 1.6.15.6 (b)
after which the escape system shall function
automatically until full parachute deployment
is attained,
but should the seat automatic separation

device fail, separation shall be achieved
manually by:
(b) operation of the single control

specified in Part 13, Section 1.6, Clause
1.6.15.6 (c)
EXIT COVERS
4.23.20 The doors of parachute exits, hoods When the door or hatch is hinged, means shall
and hatches provided for emergency escape shall be provided to open it against all aerodynamic
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either: and inertia loads which may occur and to lock it
in an open position in a manner which does not
(a) jettison outwards, reduce the size of the exit. There shall be
adequate standing space about each parachute
(b) pull away completely from their exit in the floor.
frames, and be capable of being jettisoned
through the exit,
(c) be hinged to open inwards, or
(d) be hinged to open outward to form a

screened exit (see also Clause 4.23.16),
(e) be fragmented or cut by initiation of

miniature detonating cord (MDC) or other
means.
4.23.21 Aeroplanes on which the cockpit
covering provides the only means of escape in an
emergency shall be provided with a hood or hatch
jettisonable or frangible by one movement from the
closed, fully open, and all intermediate positions.
On aeroplanes with ejection seats, the hood or
hatch shall be so designed to impose the minimum
time delay on the escape sequence for the
purpose of clearing the seat trajectory.
JETTISONING IN FLIGHT
4.23.22 Parachute exit doors, hatches and
cockpit hoods when jettisoned or fragmented in
flight under the conditions of Clause 4.23.1 (a) to
provide means of escape for the crew shall not
cause:
(a) irrecoverable loss of control,
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SECTION 4
(b) inability to fly the aeroplane,
(c) injury to any occupant, or
(d) inability to operate any service

essential to the safe flying of the aeroplane.
4.23.23 Escape by means of an ejection The control for outside rescue should be
seat shall require no separate effort from the accessible for safe operation (this may involve
aircrew to dispose of the canopies or hatches. more then one outside rescue handle being
However, separate controls for the disposal of the provided)
canopies or hatches shall be provided for
circumstances which do not involve an ejection,
including outside rescue.
ABANDON AIRCRAFT COMMAND SIGNAL
4.23.24 See Clauses 4.15.39 to 4.15.40 and Table 23
Item 1.
FRAGMENTATION BY MINIATURE DETONATING CORD
4.23.25 In addition to the separate firing (a) Where MDC is used as the means of The life of the MDC should be the same as or
control called for in Part 13, Section 1.6, Clause fragmenting or cutting a hood it shall be longer than that of the hood, or a means shall be
1.6.15.6 (a) the MDC shall be fired when the arranged over the surface of the transparency to provided to replace the MDC on life expiry.
ejection seat is initiated either directly by the produce effective escape path clearance for the
initiating charge or by movement of the seat itself minimum length of cord and the minimum
against a separate firing unit. explosive charge.
(b) MDC systems should be tested in

accordance with the provision of Clauses
4.23.37 - 4.23.38 and Leaflet 82. In addition,
special attention shall be given to hazards from
debris.
EMERGENCY ALIGHTING
4.23.26 The design of the aeroplane shall See Clause 4.22
be such as to afford the occupant as much
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SECTION 4

protection as is reasonably practical in the event of
an emergency alighting or precautionary alighting
on land or on water.
4.23.27 All passengers' seats should face
aft. There shall be no intrusions or obstructions to
the crew members' movements during
deceleration, when correctly strapped into the seat.
JETTISONABLE OR FRANGIBLE HOODS OR HATCHES
4.23.28 No action shall be required of the
appropriate crew member other than that
necessary to operate the jettison control or
fragmenting device.
EMERGENCY STOP
4.23.29 An emergency device shall be This requirement has conventionally been met
provided to assist in stopping quickly the run of the by an manual over-ride to the Weight on Wheels
aeroplane on the ground when it is obvious to the switch to allow the undercarriage to be raised.
pilot that he is going to overshoot the airfield or
swing into buildings or parked aircraft regardless of
the damage likely to be suffered by the aeroplane
or its occupants.
EMERGENCY AND SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT STOWAGE
4.23.30 Equipment shall be located close to It shall not be put where cargo shifting or
the crew chief if applicable, stowed in easy view of fuselage distortion will impair access to it.
crew and passengers, and easily accessible in an
emergency.
4.23.31 Retention devices used to restrain If stowed in an enclosure, not more than 5
equipment shall be capable of quick release, seconds shall be needed for opening and
without the use of tools, by one person, using one removal. Aircraft attitude shall not effect this
hand. operation.
ESCAPE PATH CLEARANCE
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
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SECTION 4

TESTING
4.23.33 The escape path clearance sub-
systems in an aeroplane shall be proved capable
of functioning adequately throughout the flight
profile and range of environmental conditions
applicable to that aeroplane.
4.23.34 The escape path clearance Test results shall cover the following points:
mechanisms constitute one sub-system of the
aeroplane escape system. Testing of the clearance (a) reliability of system,
mechanisms shall be completed in conjunction with
functional testing of the total escape system. (b) effects of partial failure,
(c) effects of aeroplane speed on

system performance,
(d) effects of aeroplane attitude and

altitude on system performance,
(e) effects of aeroplane

pressurization on system performance,
(f) effects of acceleration on system

performance,
(g) range of environmental variables

acceptable for system performance,
(h) data on hazardous environments

to which crew members might be exposed.
STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS
EJECTION SEAT INSTALLATIONS
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4.23.35 When ejection seats are chosen as (a) A number of positions of the seat or For additional strength, stiffness, and energy
the method of compliance with Clause 4.23.16, the seats during ejection shall be considered. absorption requirements, see Clause 4.22
seats and all parts of their installation, and Compliance with the proof condition is
adjacent parts of the aeroplane structure which necessary to the extent that distortion shall not
might by failing: be sufficient to prevent the first or subsequent
ejections.
(a) prevent the proper completion of the
ejection, (b) The value of the unfactored ejection gun
thrust shall be assumed to be equal to the force
or in the case of multi-seat aeroplanes, produced by an average set of cartridges at the
appropriate maximum temperature specified in
(b) prejudice the escape of the crew Part 1, Section 7, Clause 7.2, with an ejected
members, or weight equal to the weight of a large man (93
kg) plus equipment and seat. The appropriate
(c) adversely affect the flying value of the thrust will be supplied by the seat
characteristics of the aeroplane, designer.
shall have a proof factor not less than 1.0 on the

combination of the most critical flight loads of
Clause 4.23.1 and the ejection gun thrust.
COMMAND EJECTION
4.23.36 The aim of a command ejection system shall be Command ejection occurs when one crew
to enhance survival of all crew members by member is ejected from an aircraft as a result of
minimizing the time required for safe escape, an action of another crew member.
reducing the risk of collision or entanglement
and ensuring escape when one or more crew
members are incapacitated.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
4.23.37 Command ejection shall provide
positive escape path clearance (See Clauses
4.23.33 to 4.23.34 and Part 13, Section 1.6,
Clause 1.6.15.7)
4.23.38 The system shall be capable of As determined by the Project Team Leader it Note: 'Opt out' means that a crew member can
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SECTION 4

initiation by all crew members. shall be possible for crew member(s) to 'opt out' decide whether or not to be command ejected by
of the system by positive individual action, another crew member.
permitting the remaining crew to escape
individually.
TESTING
4.23.39 Full sequence tests shall be
performed to demonstrate the safety of the system
and that the requirements of Clauses 4.23.36,
4.23.38 and Part 13 Section 1.6, Clause 1.6.15.7
are met.
TESTS
JETTISONABLE OR FRANGIBLE HOODS, HATCHES AND DOORS
4.23.40 Prototype installations or new The tests should be completed before the first
designs of jettisonable or frangible hoods, hatches flight.
and doors and their associated locking and
jettisoning mechanisms or fragmenting devices
shall be subjected to a comprehensive series of
functional, wind tunnel and blower tunnel tests on
the general lines given in Leaflet 79 to ensure that:
(a) the strength of the component and

its adjacent structure and the design of the
locking mechanism are adequate to prevent
inadvertent release under the most adverse
combination of the conditions of Clause
4.23.9, and
(b) the component can be jettisoned or

fragmented with certainty and safety when
the release mechanism or fragmenting
device is operated.
4.23.41 During the development flight
programme, close and critical inspection of the
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SECTION 4

hood and hatch locking mechanisms shall be made
after every flight to establish that the locking
mechanism is satisfactory (see also Leaflet 81,
Para. 9)
4.23.42 If the tests of Clause 4.23.40 show If the tests indicate a possibility that the
that the hood, hatch or door will fly clear of the component will foul any part of the aeroplane,
aeroplane after release, flight tests should be flight tests should not be made until the matter
made. has been discussed with the Project Team
Leader.
4.23.43 For aeroplanes fitted with ejection
seats, demonstration of satisfactory canopy
disposal shall be part of the test programme for the
complete escape system (see Leaflet 82)
ESCAPE FROM AEROPLANE ON THE GROUND
ESCAPE IN FLIGHT - UNASSISTED
4.23.45 For single and dual seat (a) For other types of aeroplane,
aeroplanes, safe egress under flight conditions demonstration of satisfactory escape using live
shall be demonstrated on the ground using a or dummy subjects at a blower tunnel and
blower tunnel. parachute equipped dummies in flight shall be
undertaken, if required by the Project Team
Leader (having taken into account the intended
role of the aeroplane)
(b) The programme of tests shall be agreed

by the Project Team Leader.
EJECTION SEAT INSTALLATIONS - PULL-UP TESTS
4.23.46 Tests shall be made to demonstrate (a) The tests shall consist of hauling the
that the ejection path required by Clause 4.23.18 ejection seat up the ejection rails (with canopy
has been provided. ejection rams in representative position) and
measuring the clearances. The seat shall be
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SECTION 4

loaded with a man or dummy, having 98
percentile mass and dimensions, wearing the
clothing and personal equipment specified in the
Aircraft Equipment Assembly for the aeroplane
so that the back and seat are properly
compressed.
(b) The tests shall be made at the Mock-up

stage and shall be repeated on an actual
aeroplane before test flying starts. Repeat tests
shall be carried out whenever changes are
made to the Aircrew Equipment Assembly, the
aeroplane or its equipment which are likely to
alter the clearance.
EJECTION SEAT INSTALLATIONS EJECTION TESTS
4.23.47 It shall be demonstrated that a safe (a) Unless otherwise agreed by the Project
ejection can be made without injury to the Team Leader, the test for in-flight ejection shall
occupants or damage to any personal equipment include at least one ejection through the hood,
necessary for survival. even if this is not the normal method of escape,
except where technical evidence shows that
safe penetration of the hood is impossible.
(b) The tests shall cover the full range of

aircrew, with respect to height and weight, as
defined in Leaflet 63, together with the full
Aircraft Equipment Assembly appropriate to the
aeroplane.
(c) A test schedule, based on the principles

stated in Leaflet 82 shall be discussed and
agreed with the Project Team Leader during the
initial design and planning of the aeroplane.
EJECTION SEAT INSTALLATION PROOF STRENGTH TESTS
286
SECTION 4

4.23.48 A static test shall be made with the The test cases and loads shall be discussed and
object of demonstrating compliance with the agreed with the Project Team Leader at an early
requirement of Clause 4.23.35 as applied to the stage in the design. Any tests considered
seat attachments and adjacent parts of the necessary shall represent, as accurately as
aeroplane structure. The tests shall be carried out practicable, the critical proof loading conditions,
on a specimen which adequately represents the including the ejection gun thrust, air blast and
stiffness of the complete airframe, and all parts inertia loads, derived from the requirements of
which might be distorted or damaged shall be Clause 4.23.35
included.
COMMAND FIRING TESTS
4.23.49 Command firing tests shall include
confirmation of the sequential timing of events with
design tolerances and the operation of all
actuation/signal lines including redundant lines.
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SECTION 4
4.24 VENTILATION AND HEATING
4.24.1 The requirements of this clause apply to any Conditioning System (CS) installed to condition occupied compartments and specified aeroplane
components. A conditioned environment may be achieved by use of Air Cycle Refrigeration, Vapour Cycle Refrigeration (see Note), Ram Air, Compartment
Air, Thermo Electric Refrigeration, Combustion Heater, Engine Exhaust, Engine Bleed Air, Electric or other means approved by the Project Team Leader.
This information is similar in content to CS 25.831
Note: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) shall only be used with the approval of the Project Team Leader when there are no other suitable compounds or
methods available. See The Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer.

REQUIREMENTS
4.24.2 The conditioning system shall be Consideration shall be given to the effects of, (a) Sufficient cooling capacity should be
designed to preserve the comfort and performance and possible presence of, over temperature, provided for cockpits/flight decks and
of the crew and passengers from adverse effects whether due to leakage or system malfunction. compartments and for compartments housing
of thermal stress, and to ensure efficient Where fluid systems are used, consideration heat sensitive equipment. The source of cooling
functioning of all equipment under various climatic shall also be given to fluid corrosive properties, may be air cycle, vapour cycle, thermoelectric or
and flight induced conditions likely to be freezing and boiling, expansion and contraction, any other method approved by the Project Team
encountered by the aeroplane. The aeroplane heat transfer properties, consequences of Leader.
manufacturer shall make provision for the complete leakage including loss of fluid, system capacity
range of aircrew clothing and equipment and control in respect of the environmental (b) When external ground cooling is required
prescribed for use in the aeroplane and for the control media. by the Aeroplane Specification, the hose coupling
complete range of aeroplane activities. should be located for easy access by ground
personnel.
(c) Sun shields may be provided for overhead

cabin transparencies. These should be readily
removable, should be of transparent infra-red
reflecting type and should reduce the
transmission of incident infra-red radiant energy
by at least 60 per cent.
(d) Where sufficient airflow is not available

during ground and low speed flight operations, a
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SECTION 4

fan or bleed air ejector, which is automatically
shut off when not required, should be used for
inducing air flow through the coolant circuit.
(e) Automatic temperature control is required

for all cooling circuits. Each circuit should provide
an over temperature indication to the aircrew. The
cooling capacity required should be determined
with respect to:-
(1) Heat input to the compartment.

Possible sources are, solar heat, high
aeroplane skin temperature, operating
equipments, leakage from adjacent
compartments and crew members body
heat.
(2) The nature and pattern of cooling

air distribution.
(3) Crew clothing and the crew work

rate entailed.
4.24.3 Indication of system malfunction
and/or over temperature shall be provided.
VENTILATION
4.24.4 The ventilation airflow of the Note: Fresh air in this context means air drawn
occupied compartments and equipment in from outside the aeroplane i.e. not recirculated.
compartments during normal system operation
shall not introduce contaminants but shall be
adequate to remove any contaminants that may be
present. 100 per cent of the airflow to the cockpit
shall be fresh air. A minimum of 50 per cent of the
airflow to other occupied compartments shall be
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SECTION 4

fresh air.
4.24.5 In class I, II and III aeroplanes, the
ventilation system shall provide airflow for aircrew
and passengers which shall be not less than:-
(a) 0.25 Kg/min. per person in normal

operation.
(b) 0.20 Kg/min. per person in the event

of the loss of one source of supply.
The distribution of air to compartments shall

ensure that there are no areas where the air
movement velocities are less than 3m/min.
In class IV aeroplanes, 2-3 air changes per minute

shall be considered the minimum requirement.
4.24.6 Cabin air distribution shall maintain In class I, II and III aeroplanes, the velocity of air
crew comfort and minimize occupant heat stress. at head level in crew stations shall be
Cabin airflow shall be directed in such a manner maintained below 0.5 m/sec. In class IV
that the crew's exhalation is prevented from aeroplanes, the velocity of air at head level shall
coming in contact with transparencies. If an air be maintained below 1 m/sec. These velocities
blast type defogging and defrosting system is shall be measured at the exposed skin, (on the
used, controls shall be installed to permit incoming face, when no protective clothing is worn), of
air for the cockpit to be directed to the windshield each flight crew member when seated. Where
front panel and side panels. The air velocity shall protective clothing is worn, these velocities may
not be such as to cause discomfort and the airflow be considerably exceeded.
shall not be directed into occupants' eyes.
4.24.7 The ventilating system controls shall
be convenient to the pilot or flight crew.
4.24.8 Where individual air ventilators are
provided, they shall be manually operated by
controls convenient to the occupant. Each outlet
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SECTION 4

shall have control of volume and flow direction of
air delivered and shall be water tight in the closed
position.
4.24.9 Air intakes essential to the operation
of the air supply systems shall be suitably
protected against blockage from ice, dirt, etc., and
shall be located so as not to introduce
contamination into the ventilating system.
4.24.10 Compartments susceptible to
contamination from smoke, gun gas and fuel
vapours etc., shall be sealed from adjacent
compartments.
4.24.11 If an exhaust heat exchanger is
used for heating ventilating air, means shall be
provided to preclude the harmful contamination of
the ventilating air, e.g., provision of a secondary
heat exchanger.
4.24.12 Reserved
4.24.13 The oxygen/breathing gas supplied
to the occupants breathing atmosphere shall be in
accordance with Part 13, Section 1, Clause 1.4
TEMPERATURE
4.24.14 The aeroplane manufacturer shall Achievement of this mean temperature shall
aim to maintain a mean skin temperature of 33°C take into account all relevant factors such as the
for each crew member. The cabin or compartment temperature of the aeroplane skin, the cockpit or
temperatures will be less than the mean skin cabin wall insulation, the quantity and
temperature (33°C) as shown in Fig 19. temperature of cooling air supplied, the amount
of solar radiation, the type of crew clothing and
the crew members' rate of work.
4.24.15 The pilot envelope temperatures of For ambient environments which exceed the (a) The pilot envelope temperature is defined
the crew shall be maintained within the limits of the performance limits, of the cooling system but are as the arithmetical average of temperature
curves 3 and 2 of Fig 19. within the operations limits, pilot envelope measurements taken about the envelope
temperatures shall be maintained within the occupied by the crew member and shall include
291
SECTION 4

thermal tolerances specified by the Project measurements taken at the ankle, knees, hips,
Team Leader. chest, shoulders and head.
(b) The Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT)

in the vicinity of the crew member's head and
shoulder shall not exceed 32°C during flight
operations and 35°C during ground operations.
WBGT = 0.7Twb + 0.2Tbg + 0.1Tdb
Where Twb = wet bulb temperature
Tbg = black globe temperature from a 5 cm

sphere, and
Tdb = dry bulb temperature

4.24.16 In class II and III aeroplanes the For ambient environments which exceed the
average temperature of occupied compartments performance limits of the cooling system but are
shall be maintained within the limits of curves 1 within the operations limits, the pilot envelope
and 2 of Fig 19. The WBGT in the vicinity of the temperatures of crew stations shall be
head and shoulder levels of crew stations shall not maintained within the thermal tolerances
be greater than 32°C. specified by the Project Team Leader.
4.24.17 The maximum inlet temperature will
be given in the specification or by the Project Team
Leader.
4.24.18 The design and construction of the
heating system shall be such that the temperature
of the air delivered from the heat exchanger or
combustion heater under any conditions of flight
shall not exceed 175°C measured at a point in the
ventilating air duct 500 mm downstream of the heat
exchanger or combustion heater.
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SECTION 4

4.24.19 No surface which can be touched by
the flight crew or occupants shall exceed a
temperature of +60°C or fall below -15°C when the
conditioning system has reached its stabilized
operating condition.
4.24.20 Temperature achieved under
normal and failure conditions shall not cause
material used in the construction of the aeroplane
to deteriorate or to change its physical properties
such that its operation is impaired.
POWER SUPPLIES
4.24.21 Means shall be provided to limit the When necessary power for propulsion shall be
maximum power off-take demand from the power given priority.
source(s).
CONTROLS
4.24.22 Means shall be provided to enable (a) Where applicable the pilot/flight crew
the pilot/flight crew to control the temperature and shall have separate control of the cockpit/flight
pressure within the occupied compartments. These crew compartment.
controls shall be readily accessible to crew
members. (b) Where separate control is provided for
other compartments, this shall be independent
of the facility for the flight crew to control
conditions in the flight crew compartment.
(c) The design and location of the controls

and indicators shall be subject to aeroplane
mock-up, inspection, and approval by the
4.24.23 Automatic temperature control
systems shall have either a duplicated or a back-
up control system.
4.24.24 The controls for starting the
combustion heater system in operation shall be
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SECTION 4

simple and the shut off control on the heating
system shall consist of a single control for shutting
off all the system.
4.24.25 A bleed air heating system shall
have a single control to completely shut off the flow
of bleed air to the heating system. An indication of
over temperature conditions shall be provided.
4.24.26 Electrical heating devices shall have
automatic overheat cut out in addition to
temperature control.
INDICATION
4.24.27 Indication shall be provided to alert Warning and monitoring devices shall be in
the crew to unsafe system operating conditions, accordance with Clauses 4.15.33 to 4.15.45
and to enable them to take appropriate corrective and/or the Aeroplane Specification.
action. Systems, controls and associated
monitoring and warning means shall be designed
to minimise crew errors which could create
additional hazards.
HUMIDITY
4.24.28 Humidity of cockpit/flight deck or
cabin shall be in accordance with Part 1, section 7,
clause 7.2.3 to 7.2.5 For instruments/displays and
avionic equipment the humidity limits shall be in
accordance with Part 1, Section 6, Clause 6.2.48
4.24.29 The system shall be designed to All air delivered to the compartments or
prevent discharging air with entrained moisture equipment by any means, including ram air,
onto windshields or into pressure suits, occupied shall meet these requirements, except where
compartments, electronic equipment ram air is used as an emergency backup.
compartments or forced cooled electric equipment.
NOISE CONTROL
4.24.30 Acoustical noise of the air
conditioning system when combined with
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SECTION 4

acoustical noise from all other sources shall not be
greater than the maximum acceptable levels of
Clauses 4.15.76 to 4.15.81
GROUND OPERATION
4.24.31 Conditioning shall be provided to For example, by A.P.U. or ground servicing When external sources are required, the
meet the aeroplane requirements when the main equipment. conditioning system shall be compatible with
engines are not running. existing GSE cooling units.
EQUIPMENT CONDITIONING
4.24.32 An environment suitable for the
limitations of installed equipment shall be in
accordance with Part 1, Section 6, Clauses 6.2.43
to 6.2.48, 6.6.94, and Part 13, Section 3, Clauses
3.1.3, 3.3.7 and 3.3.8
4.24.33 Equipment temperature limits shall
be observed. Where there is a danger of
atmospheric condensation freezing and so
impairing equipment operation, adequate drainage,
ventilation or heating shall be provided.
4.24.34 Where closed loop or re-circulating
fluid systems for cooling of Avionic equipment,
optical units, power supplies, weapons, etc., is
fitted, this shall be in accordance with individual
equipment specification. If a flammable fluid is
used, fire protection shall be provided in
accordance with Clause 4.26 and Part 13, Section
1.6
INSTALLATION
GENERAL
4.24.35 Installation of the aeroplane (a) Due consideration shall be given in
conditioning system shall be designed to operate in design of an installation to the effects of thermal
accordance with the Aeroplane Specification, and expansion and contraction.
to withstand conditions occurring in service.
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SECTION 4

(b) All materials and working fluids used in
the construction and operation of a heating or
cooling system shall be suitable for the working
temperatures involved.
HEAT EXCHANGERS
4.24.36 Heat exchangers shall be
constructed of corrosion-resistant materials
suitable for temperatures and pressures
encountered.
4.24.37 Heat exchangers which dissipate
heat from the bleed air or compressed ram air into
fuel or coolants other than water, shall be so
designed that a single structural failure will not
result in leakage of fuel or coolant fluid into the air
supply.
4.24.38 When fitted, each exhaust heat
exchanger shall be constructed and installed to
withstand each vibration, inertia and other loads to
which it would be subjected in operation and shall
be suitable for continued operation at high
temperatures. It shall be resistant to corrosion from
exhaust gases.
4.24.39 No heat exchanger shall be installed
in such a way as to permit an accumulation of
flammable liquids or vapours either in service or as
a result of a malfunction or leak.
SHUT OFF VALVE
4.24.40 A shut-off valve shall be installed Provision shall be incorporated to close the
which will permit the crew to shut-off the shut-off valve in the event of an overheat
conditioned air supplied by each sub-system for condition or control system failure. The
general cabin conditioning. For any degree of temperature setting and response time shall be
emergency the valve shall be closed in less than selected to protect the components from
two seconds. damage or service life degradation but to
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SECTION 4

preclude shutdowns during transients occurring
in normal operation. The designer shall
determine the best location for sensing the
overheat condition.
FLOW RATE ADJUSTMENT
4.24.41 The flow control system shall allow
for increasing or decreasing the airflow schedule
within the limits stated in the Aeroplane
Specification.
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM FLOW
4.24.42 The flow control system shall
ensure that sub-system flow will not exceed the
value specified in the Aeroplane Specification and
the minimum flow rate will always be met or
exceeded for all ground and flight conditions.
AIRFLOW CONTROL SYSTEM ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
4.24.43 The effects of humidity, freezing of
condensate in line, high and low energy starting,
local heating and vibration, and pressure and
thermal shock shall be carefully considered in
component design and shall not deleteriously
affect their operation or service life. Control
devices including orifices shall be designed to
prevent malfunctions due to freezing of moisture,
corrosion, or contamination within the devices.
MOISTURE CONTROL
4.24.44 The sub-system shall be
constructed so that all lines and ducting are
located or fitted with proper insulation, draining and
venting to preclude moisture accumulation.
WATER SEPARATOR
4.24.45 Water separators, when installed for
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SECTION 4

moisture control, shall have adequate drainage or
a by-pass valve shall be provided where an
automatic means of preventing icing of the
separator is used.
THERMAL INSULATION
4.24.46 Insulating material shall not be Consideration shall be given to the use of For fire precautions see Clause 4.26 and Part 13,
hygroscopic. thermal insulation in conjunction with heating Section 1.6
equipment and ducting in order to prevent
excessive heat loss.
FIRE PRECAUTIONS
4.24.47 Fire precautions shall be in
accordance with Clause 4.26 and Part 13, Section
1.6
NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL (NBC) REQUIREMENTS
4.24.48 Where required, satisfactory air See Part 13, Section 3, Clause 3.11
filtration of radioactive particles and chemical and
biological warfare agents shall be provided in
accordance with the Aeroplane Specification
requirements.
FAILURE EFFECT AND MODE ANALYSIS
4.24.49 A failure effect and mode analysis See Def Stan 00-56
shall be prepared for the conditioning system and
associated components.
TESTS
4.24.50 APPLICABILITY The object of the tests of this Clause is to
demonstrate that the conditioning systems fitted
The tests described in this Clause are applicable to the aeroplane are suitable for Service use and
to all new conditioning systems in aeroplanes provide for satisfactory:
and all systems where modifications have been
made likely to affect the results of tests unless (a) Cabin conditioning.
stated otherwise. The need for further testing
must also be considered where modifications (b) Equipment bay conditioning and
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SECTION 4

are made to other systems (or parts) of the equipment cooling.
aeroplane which can have an effect on the
performance of the conditioning system. (c) Cabin pressurisation.
Typically these are changes to avionic and
electrical equipment involving additional heat (d) Canopy seal inflation.
dissipation and equipment or structural changes
that affect cabin sealing. (e) Air ventilated suit supply (AVS)
(f) Anti G garment inflation.
(g) Transparency demisting.
(h) Windshield rain removal.
(j) Other specified functions - as

applicable.
RELEVANT DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Part 1, Section 3, Clause 3.7 and Part 1, Section

7, Clause 7.2
INSTRUMENTATION
4.24.51 The standard of instrumentation
shall be such that a continuous recording is
obtained of flight conditions (e.g., IAS, altitude,
aeroplane attitude) and the 'conditioned' variables -
cabin and equipment bay temperature, cabin
pressure etc.
GENERAL TEST CONDITIONS AND REQUIREMENTS
4.24.52 The conditioning system under test It is important that all operational combinations
shall be fully representative of the production of other systems/equipment of the production
standard aeroplane. Ground and flight conditions aeroplane which have a bearing on the
shall be representative of the Service role of the effectiveness of the conditioning system are
299
SECTION 4

aeroplane and the range of climatic conditions for representative over the range of testing. Where
which the clearance is required. such equipments are not available, other
hardware having an equivalent loading effect
must be substituted.
GROUND TESTS
4.24.53 Tests shall be conducted on the It shall be demonstrated that:
system to establish that temperature, pressure,
flow and distribution throughout the system (a) Controlled variables such as
network - in all modes of operation (Normal and temperature of air supplied to condition
Emergency for example) - are as required by the cabin, equipment and AVS can be set and
Aeroplane Specification and as previously are automatically maintained in
demonstrated on the system rig (where applicable) accordance with specified demand
schedules.
(b) Cabin, equipment and AVS can

be maintained within the temperature
range stated in the Aeroplane
Specification during ground operations
such as:
(1) Turnround servicing.
(2) Standby.
(3) Taxy and hold.
(c) The system operates

satisfactorily after the aeroplane has been
subject to:
(1) A hot soak at the upper end of

the ambient operating range of the
aeroplane with clear skies and,
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SECTION 4
(2) A cold soak at the lower end of

the ambient operating range.
and that the cabins and equipment can

be maintained within required
temperature.
(d) When the worst design ambient

conditions of temperature and humidity are
experienced, the system operates within
the limits stated in the Aeroplane
Specification. Moisture contamination shall
be reduced as low as possible and any
contamination which does occur shall not
affect the performance, life or reliability of
either the conditioning equipment or the
equipment being conditioned.
(e) The system shall not be damaged

by the acquisition of temperatures within
the range -40°C to +90°C (or as specified)
and that the systems are capable of
immediate operation when acquired
temperatures come within the range -30°C
to +70°C (or as specified) regardless of
the effects of thermal inertia.
(f) Cabin pressure is acceptable

when the maximum airflow is entering the
cabin via the conditioning system.
(g) The cabin leak rate is not greater
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SECTION 4

than that required for the aeroplane to
meet the requirements of the Aeroplane
Specification when the cabin is
pressurised to the normal design
differential pressure.
(h) The emergency outward pressure

relief valve operates and maintains the
cabin pressure within the limits stated in
the aeroplane structural design
specification when the normal design
differential pressure is exceeded.
(i) The inward valve can be used to

relieve reverse differential pressure in
accordance with the requirements of the
aeroplane structural design specification in
level flight and during maximum rate
descent.
(j) The canopy seal inflation system

functions within the limits stated in the
(k) The anti-G inflation system

functions within the limits stated in the
FLIGHT TESTS
4.24.54 Tests shall be conducted to The stabilised temperature level and distribution
establish that Temperature, pressure, flow and within the cockpits (cabin) and equipment bays
distribution throughout the system is as required by can be controlled in accordance with the
the Aeroplane Specification in relation to aeroplane requirements of the Aeroplane Specification,
altitude, aeroplane speed engine power settings, throughout the flight envelope and climatic
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SECTION 4

system control settings, flight profile and range:
environmental conditions.
(a) Maximum environmental
temperature conditions.
(b) Minimum environmental

temperature conditions.
(c) The performance of the

conditioning system after a single engine
failure is in accordance with the
requirements of the Aeroplane
Specification. (Not applicable to single
engine aeroplanes)
(d) The performance of the

emergency ventilation and demist system
is satisfactory when conditioning is
available (either through system failure or
loss of all engine power)
(e) The functioning and stability of

the pressurisation system throughout the
aeroplane flight envelope is satisfactory
and cabin altitude is controlled in
accordance with the specification
schedule.
(f) The cabin leak rate after a

simulated pressurisation failure at
maximum altitude is such that the
aeroplane can descend to a safe altitude
before the cabin altitude exceeds that
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SECTION 4

figure. For definition of safe altitude refer
to Part 1, Section 3, Clause 3.7.33
(g) The inward venting system

prevents the cockpit from exceeding the
maximum design negative pressure
differential during a maximum rate
descent.
(h) Demisting is such that a safe

approach and landing can be made, when
the aeroplane makes a maximum rate
descent after a prolonged cold soak at
altitude into a hot humid environment.
(j) Hot air rain dispersal (if fitted)

produces a sufficiently clear area of the
windscreen for safe operation of the
aeroplane at low flight speeds and during
take-off and landing.
(k) The air supply to the AVS

produces an AVS performance within the
requirements of the AVS specification
under all conditions of flight.
(m) The relative humidity of the air in

the cabins and equipment bays is within
the limits defined in the Aeroplane
Specification under all conditions of flight.
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SECTION 4
4.25 PRESSURISED AIR DUCTS
4.25.1 The requirements of this clause shall apply to all pressurised air ducts and pipes which are classified as Grade A parts in accordance with the
requirements of Clause 4.1 The requirements for static and fatigue strength are intended to address only those issues which are specific to the strength of
pressurised air ducts and pipes and shall be interpreted in the context of the more general requirements of Part 1, Section 3, Clauses 3.1 and 3.2 This
information is not directly comparable to any CS requirements but is included in Section 4 in light of its relationship with Clause 4.24

STATIC STRENGTH
DESIGN CONDITIONS
4.25.2 The limit pressure shall be the (a) When assessing this maximum pressure,
maximum internal pressure that is likely to arise account shall be taken of the effectiveness of
during one lifetime of usage. any control valves and/or relief valves, and the
maximum pressure permitted by the setting
tolerance of any such valves.
(b) Account must be taken of strains

superimposed on the walls of the duct or pipe
due to such effects as changes in temperature,
the constraints of joints and attachments to the
aircraft structure and inertia loadings. For the
purposes of static design these superimposed
strains may be combined and expressed as an
equivalent factor on pressure, fps, which is
applied to the Limit pressure. When this
approach is followed the Proof and Ultimate
factors must be applied to this increased
pressure (Limit x fps)
4.25.3 The proof pressure shall be at least In these latter circumstances a Proof factor of
1.125 times the Limit pressure (or, where 1.0 is acceptable.
appropriate, Limit x fps) unless it is shown that
under no circumstances can the limit pressure (or
Limit x fps) be exceeded.
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SECTION 4

4.25.4 The Ultimate pressure shall be at
least 1.33 times the Proof pressure.
TEST CONDITIONS
4.25.5 A pressure test to demonstrate the The effects of the superimposed strains must be
ultimate static strength shall be done at 1.33 times represented. This can normally be done by
the Proof pressure on a complete system or on increasing the test pressure by the factor fps.
sections which together represent the complete
system.
FATIGUE STRENGTH
DESIGN CONDITIONS
4.25.6 The fatigue pressure spectrum shall (a) When assessing these typical pressures,
be made up of those cycles of pressure that are account shall be taken of temperature effects,
most likely to occur during one lifetime of usage. any surge/shock pressures and the
effectiveness of any control valves and/or relief
valves.
(b) Account must be taken of normal levels

of superimposed strain due to influences such
as those identified in Clause 4.25.2 (b). For
design purposes these strains may be combined
and expressed as an equivalent factor on
pressure, fpf, that is applied to the pressure
spectrum.
TEST CONDITIONS
4.25.7 A cyclic pressure test shall be done The effects of the superimposed strains (Clause
on a complete system or on sections which 4.25.6 (b)) must be represented. This can
together represent the complete system. normally be done by increasing the test
pressure by the factor fpf .
PRODUCTION TESTS
4.25.8 A proving test shall be done on each The test shall be done to the Limit pressure
production air duct or pipe or on each complete increased as necessary by any factor that may
system. be necessary to represent the thermal or inertia
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SECTION 4

components of the superimposed strains.
DISCHARGE OR LEAKAGE
4.25.9 Pressurised air ducts or pipes may Pressurised air ducts and pipes shall, where
contain air at high temperature and high pressure. practical, be routed away from vulnerable
Adequate precautions shall, therefore, be taken to components such as electrical wiring, hydraulic
ensure that the discharge of air from relief valves and fuel pipes. Where this is not practical
or leakage from components cannot cause the consideration shall be given to the provision of
failure of other structure, equipment, or services. protective shielding between the air duct or pipe
and adjacent components. The need for
protection systems which would detect failures
and shut off the air supply to the failed duct,
such as pressure detectors, or heat detectors in
vulnerable areas, shall also be considered. The
consequences of failure of any system as a
result of the impingement of hot air from a duct
or pipe shall be taken into account when
deciding on the degree of protection to be
incorporated.
4.25.10 Provision shall be made to facilitate
leak checking of pressurised air duct and pipe
systems.
IN-SERVICE INSPECTION
4.25.11 Any pressurised air duct or pipe Pressurised air ducting or piping in Aircraft is
which is susceptible to leakage from such causes necessarily thin walled, and if unprotected, may
as the settling of joints, damage by impact, be susceptible to external damage which will
adverse environment or abnormalities in invalidate its safe fatigue life. Moreover, complex
manufacture and/or maintenance or is of complex shapes and welded joints are prone to
shape or welded construction, shall satisfy the unpredictable fatigue failures. See Part 1, Section
requirements for 'inspection-dependent' structure 4, Clauses 4.4.3 to 4.4.7 and 4.4.25 to 4.4.32 for
in Part 1, Section 3, Clauses 3.2.17 to 3.2.20 Accessibility, and Ease of Inspection.
307
SECTION 4
4.26 FIRE PRECAUTIONS
4.26.1 This clause contains content similar to CS 25.851 – 25.869 The requirements of this section define a standard of fire precautions which shall be met
on all aeroplanes subject to their operational role and associated combat environment. Definitions essential to the accurate interpretation of the
requirements of this section are given in Part 0.

4.26.2 The Aeroplane Designer shall
designate the fire zones and define the fire and
explosion vulnerability of the aeroplane with
respect to all fire hazards.
4.26.3 A survey shall be conducted to Non compliance with the fire precaution
determine the temperatures occurring in all requirements appropriate to aeroplanes when
relevant areas with reference to the risk of operating in combat environments shall be
spontaneous ignition of flammable fluids and the agreed with the Project Team Leader.
provision of fire and overheat warning systems.
4.26.4 In each area where flammable fluids
or vapours might be present due to leakage of a
fluid system, there shall be means to minimise the
probability of ignition of the fluids and vapours and
the resultant hazards if ignition does occur.
4.26.5 Those controls and services located
in a designated fire zone which are necessary for
the detection and suppression of fires shall be
fireproof (for electrical cables etc., see Clauses
4.26.10 and 4.26.24 Compliance (f))
4.26.6 Essential flight controls and services It shall not be difficult to operate such controls
and any pipes carrying flammable fluids shall not during or after the fire.
pass through or be located in a designated fire
zone or in adjacent areas which would be
subjected to the effects of fire in a designated fire
zone, unless they are fireproof or shielded.
4.26.7 Filling points for flammable fluids
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SECTION 4

shall be designed to prevent the entry of fluids into
any portions of the aeroplane other than tanks.
4.26.8 The cooling air supply for any Where necessary the cooling duct shall be
electrical or electronic equipment shall be fireproof.
conveyed and discharged so that it does not create
a hazard following failure of the equipment.
4.26.9 The fire extinguisher system, the
quantity of the extinguishing agent, the rate of
discharge and the discharge distribution shall be
adequate to extinguish fires and minimise the
probability of re-ignition.
4.26.10 Electrical cables and terminals, in
designated fire zones, that are used during an
emergency shall be at least fire resistant.
PRECAUTIONS IN DESIGNATED FIRE ZONES
4.26.11 Each designated fire zone shall Unless otherwise specified, compliance with the Designated fire zones are:
meet the requirements of Clauses 4.26.19 to requirements of Clauses 4.26.11 to 4.26.30 shall
4.26.30 inclusive. be shown by a full-scale fire test or by one or (a) Piston Engine Installations.
more of the following methods:
(1) Engine Power Section.
(a) Tests of similar powerplant
configurations. (2) Engine Accessory Section.
(b) Tests of components or systems. (b) Turbine Engine Installations.
(c) In Service experience of (1) Engine Compressor & Accessory

aeroplanes with similar powerplant Sections.
configurations.
(2) Engine Combustion, Turbine &
Exhaust System Sections.
(3) Engine Reheat Section.
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SECTION 4

(c) Auxiliary Power Unit Installations
(also Clause 4.26.27)
(1) Auxiliary Power Unit Compartment

and Exhaust System Section.
(d) Combustion Heater Installations.
(1) The region surrounding the heater.
(2) The ventilating air passages

surrounding the combustion chamber.
(e) Any other region which may be

specified by the Project Team Leader.
The requirements of this clause are

applicable to, the installation of conventional
piston or turbine-engine power units,
auxiliary power units (APU's) and any fuel-
burning heater or other combustion
equipment installation.
(f) In addition to compliance with the

detailed requirements of precautions
against fire, all reasonable practical
measures shall be taken to minimise the
probability of fire both in flight and on the
ground with due regard to the aeroplane's
operational role.
4.26.12 No fire in any one engine of a multi-
engine aeroplane shall result in stoppage or critical
power loss of the other engine(s)
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SECTION 4

TORCHING FLAMES
4.26.13 Precautions shall be taken where The resistance of components and structure to Part 1, Section 4, Leaflet 91 gives data applicable
necessary to protect the aeroplane from the the effects of torching flames associated with a to demonstrating compliance with torching flame
hazardous consequences of a torching flame combustion chamber or exhaust system burn- requirements. However, due to variability in
burning through the engine. through shall be in compliance with Clause specific engine operation conditions etc., the
4.26.11 Compliance. Where torching flame burner characteristics shall be amended as
testing is relevant the torching flame shall be necessary to reflect the characteristics of the
produced by a burner possessing characteristics engine type being considered.
consistent with a combustion chamber/exhaust
system burn-through in an engine of the type
under consideration under its most critical
operating conditions. Details of the torching
flame characteristics to be simulated in these
tests shall be obtained from the engine
manufacturer, and such data shall be
acceptable to the approving authority. Tests to
demonstrate compliance may not be necessary
if similarity can be shown with other components
which have been tested in accordance with Part
1, Section 4, Leaflet 91 (see guidance)
FLAMMABLE FLUID SYSTEMS
4.26.14 No parts of exhaust systems, jet Vents and drain pipes and their fittings, whose
pipes or other potential sources of ignition, failure will not result in, or add to, a fire hazard
including electrical equipment, shall be located in need not comply with the requirements of
hazardous proximity to any systems carrying Clauses 4.26.14 to 4.26.20
flammable fluids which may be subject to leakage,
unless suitable design precautions are taken.
4.26.15 Each pipe, fitting, and other
components carrying flammable fluids in any area
subject to engine fire conditions and each
component which conveys or contains flammable
fluid in a designated fire zone shall be at least fire
resistant, except that flammable fluid tanks and
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SECTION 4

supports in a designated fire zone shall be fireproof
or be enclosed by a fireproof shield unless damage
by fire to any non-fireproof part will not cause
leakage, spillage or risk of excessive
temperature/pressure build up of flammable fluid.
Components shall be shielded or located to
safeguard against the ignition of leaking flammable
fluid.
4.26.16 Components and systems, within a
designated fire zone shall be fireproof if, when
exposed to or damaged by fire, they could result in
fire spreading to other regions of the aeroplane or
cause unintentional operation of, or inability to
operate, essential services or equipment.
4.26.17 Except for integral oil sumps, no
tank or reservoir that is a part of a system
containing flammable fluids or gases shall be in a
designated fire zone unless the fluid contained, the
design of the system, the materials used in the
tank, the shut-off means, and all connections,
pipes and control provide a degree of safety equal
to that which if the tank or reservoir were outside
such a zone.
4.26.18 Absorbent materials near to
flammable fluid system components that might leak
shall be covered or treated to prevent the
absorption of hazardous quantities of fluids.
DRAINS, VENTS AND VENTILATION
4.26.19 There shall be complete drainage of The requirement of (a) and (b) need not be See also Leaflet 86 Para. 6 and Part 1, Section 5,
each designated fire zone to minimise the hazards applied in a design case where it is impossible Clauses 5.2.76 to 5.2.88
resulting from failure, malfunction or combat to prevent fuel leakage into a fire (e.g., projectile
damage of any component containing flammable penetration of fuel tank wall)
fluids. The drainage means shall be:
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SECTION 4
(a) effective under conditions expected

to prevail when drainage is needed, and
(b) arranged so that no discharged fluid

will cause an additional fire hazard.
4.26.20 Each designated fire zone shall be (a) No ventilation opening shall be where it
ventilated to prevent the accumulation of would allow the entry of flammable fluids,
flammable vapours, under all aeroplane design vapours, or flame from other compartments.
conditions.
(b) Each ventilation means shall be
arranged so that no discharge vapours will
cause an additional fire hazard.
(c) Unless the extinguishing agent capacity

and rate of discharge are based on maximum air
flow through a zone, there shall be means to
allow the crew to shut-off sources of forced
ventilation to any designated fire zone.
(d) It shall be demonstrated that the

ventilation and drainage arrangements are
adequate under all aeroplane design conditions.
FLAMMABLE FLUID SHUT-OFF
4.26.21 Provision shall be made for shutting (a) Shut-off means are not required for:
off the flow of hazardous quantities of flammable
fluids into or through each designated fire zone. (1) pipes, lines or ducts forming an
integral part of the engine, and
(2) systems in which all external

components of the system including oil
tanks are fireproof.
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SECTION 4

This requirement need not be applied in a
design case where prevention of leakage into a
fire is impossible (e.g., projectile penetration of
fuel tank wall or components carrying flammable
fluids)
(b) The closing of the shut-off valve for any

engine shall not affect the fuel available to the
remaining engine(s) or interfere with the later
emergency operation of other equipments such
as the means for propeller feathering.
(c) Each flammable fluid shut-off

valve/control shall be located so that any fire in
a designated fire zone will not affect its
operation.
(d) Each tank-to-engine shut-off

valve/control shall be located so that the
operation of the valve will not be affected by
power-plant or engine mounting structural failure
and means shall be provided to relieve
excessive pressure accumulation.
FIREWALLS
4.26.22 Each engine; APU, combustion Each firewall and shroud shall be:
heater and other fuel burning equipment intended
for operation in flight and the combustion turbine (a) Fireproof.
and exhaust system section of turbine engines
shall be isolated from the rest of the aeroplane by (b) Constructed so that no hazardous
firewalls, shrouds, or equivalent means. quantity of air, fluid, or flame can pass
from the compartment to other parts of the
aeroplane.
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SECTION 4

(c) Constructed so that each opening
is sealed with close fitting fireproof
grommets, bushes or firewall fittings, and
(d) Protected against corrosion.

4.26.23 Systems passing through firewalls
shall be fireproof to maintain the integrity of the
firewall.
FIRE DETECTION AND FIRE WARNING
4.26.24 There shall be a rapid response (a) The system shall be of the resetting type.
optical surveillance and/or continuous heat
detectors in each designated fire zone, and in the (b) The fire detection system shall provide
combustion, turbine and exhaust system section of the crew with an adequate visual and audible
turbine engine installations to ensure prompt warning of fire and these warnings shall be
detection of fire in those zones. incorporated in the standard warning system
defined in Clauses 4.19.59 to 4.19.61
(c) Each fire detector system shall be

constructed and installed so that:
(1) It will withstand the vibration,

inertia and other loads to which it may be
subjected in operation.
(2) There is a means to warn the

crew in the event that the sensor, control
unit, or associated wiring within a
designated fire zone is severed at one
point, unless the system continued to
function as a satisfactory detection system
after the severing.
(3) There is a means to warn the
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SECTION 4

crew in the event of a short circuit in the
sensor, control unit or associated wiring
within a designated fire zone unless the
system continues to function as a
satisfactory detection system after the
short circuit.
(d) No fire or overheat detector shall be

affected by contamination by any oils, fuels,
water, other fluids or fumes that might be
present.
(e) There shall be means to allow the crew

to check in flight, the function of each fire or
overheat detector electrical circuit.
(f) Wiring and other components of each fire

or overheat detector system in a designated fire
zone shall be at least fire resistant.
(g) Detector system components for any one

designated fire zone shall not pass through or
be close to other designated fire zones, unless
they are protected against false warnings and
being rendered inoperative from fires in such
zones. This requirement shall not be applicable
with respect to zones which are simultaneously
protected by the same warning and
extinguishing system.
(h) re detection system shall be constructed

so that when installed it will not exceed the
alarm activation time approved for the detectors
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SECTION 4

using the response and sensitivity criteria
quoted in the specification for the detector type.
(i) Fire detector systems shall be designed

and installed so that their efficiency is not
impaired by exposure to environmental
temperatures encountered in normal operation,
solar or other false warning stimuli which may be
present.
FIRE EXTINCTION
4.26.25 There shall be a fire extinguishing (a) Fire extinguishing systems are not
system serving each designated fire zone, except required in designated fire zones of single
for combustion, turbine and tail pipe sections of reciprocating or single turbine engine
turbine engine installations that contain pipes or aeroplanes, except where such an installation is
components carrying flammable fluids or gases for called for in the Aeroplane Specification, in
which it is shown that a fire originating in these which case Clauses 4.26.25 Compliance (b) to
sections can be controlled. 4.26.30 will apply.
(b) It shall be demonstrated by test that the

required concentration of extinguishant is
achieved simultaneously at all parts of the
compartment (see Clause 4.26.20 Compliance
(c) and Leaflet 86 Para. 4)
4.26.26 Except for auxiliary power units or The extinguishant provided for another
combustion heater installation and certain other designated zone may be used for this purpose
exceptions agreed with the Project Team Leader, it provided that selection of zones requires distinct
shall be possible to direct a second adequate action.
discharge of extinguishant to any designated fire
zone for which the first discharge of extinguishant
has been used.
4.26.27 There shall be a fire extinguishing Each of these units shall have an individual
system serving the APU, fuel burning heater, and system which may be an individual 'one-shot'
other combustion equipment. system. When the APU is not used in flight
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SECTION 4

except in an emergency, and the installation is
readily accessible to ground crew the provision
of a fire extinguishing system may be waived at
the discretion of the Project Team Leader.
4.26.28 Fire detectors shall not operate
main engine power unit extinguisher systems
automatically unless the extinguishing systems are
designed to respond to normal and combat
induced fires via a crew operated mode selection
switch.
4.26.29 Automatic operation of the fire
extinguishing system under crash conditions shall
be provided (also Clause 4.22)
4.26.30 A visual detector shall be provided
to indicate to maintenance personnel that the
extinguishant has been discharged.
PRECAUTIONS IN OTHER ZONES
4.26.31 For precautions relating to combat
induced fires see Clauses 4.26.71 to 4.26.73
FLAMMABLE FLUID FIRE PROTECTION
4.26.32 In each area where flammable fluids Compliance shall be shown by analysis or tests
or vapours might escape by leakage of a fluid and the following factors shall be considered.
system, there shall be means to minimise the
probability of ignition of the fluids and vapours, and (a) Possible sources and paths of
the resulting hazards if ignition does occur. fluid leakage, and means of detecting
leakage.
(b) Flammability characteristics of

fluids, including effects of any combustible
or absorbent materials.
(c) Possible ignition sources,

including electrical faults, overheating of
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SECTION 4

equipment, and malfunctioning of
protective devices.
(d) Means available for controlling or

extinguishing a fire, such as stopping flow
of fluids, shutting down equipment,
fireproof containment, or use of
extinguishing agents.
(e) Ability of aeroplane components

that are critical to flight safety to withstand
fire and heat.
4.26.33 If action by the flight crew is
required to prevent or counteract a fluid fire (e.g.,
equipment shutdown or actuation of a fire
extinguisher) quick acting means shall be provided
to alert the crew.
4.26.34 Each area where flammable fluids
or vapours might escape by leakage of a fluid
system shall be identified and defined.
4.26.35 Flammable fluid drains, vents and
ventilation shall comply with the requirements of
Clauses 4.26.14 to 4.26.20
4.26.36 No vent or drainage provision shall
end at any point where the discharge of fuel from
the vent outlet in flight or on the ground would
constitute a fire hazard or from which fumes could
enter personnel compartments.
AREAS ADJACENT TO DESIGNATED FIRE ZONES AND ENGINE NACELLE ATTACHING STRUCTURES
4.26.37 Each area immediately adjacent to (a) Engine nacelle attaching structures need
a firewall and each portion of any engine nacelle not contain fire detection or extinguishing
attaching structure containing flammable fluid lines means.
shall meet the requirements of Clauses 4.26.14 to
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SECTION 4

4.26.20 (b) For each area that contains a retractable
landing gear compliance need only be shown
with the landing gear retracted.
4.26.38 Engine mountings and other critical
structures located in designated fire zones or in
adjacent areas which would be subject to the
effects of fire in the fire zone shall be constructed
of fireproof material or shielded so that they are
capable of withstanding the effects of fire.
4.26.39 In addition to complying with the
requirements of Clauses 4.26.21 and 4.26.37 –
4.26.38 for designated fire zones, components and
structure used immediately adjacent to the outside
face of firewalls and in engine pod attachments
shall be of such materials and at such a distance
from the designated fire zone that they will not
suffer damage that could hazard the aeroplane if
the inner surface of the firewall is enveloped in
flames at 1100°C for 15 minutes.
4.26.40 There shall be adequate airspace
between each tank or reservoir and each firewall or
shroud isolating a designated fire zone such that
the possibility of ignition of liquids or vapours is
minimised in the event of a fire in the designated
fire zone.
OXYGEN INSTALLATION
4.26.41 Oxygen equipment and pipes shall
not be located in any designated fire zone.
4.26.42 Oxygen equipment pipes shall be
protected from heat that may be generated in, or
escape from, any designated fire zone.
4.26.43 Oxygen equipment and pipes shall Design precautions shall be taken to minimise
be installed so that escaping oxygen cannot cause hazards due to damage.
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SECTION 4

ignition of grease, fluid, or vapour accumulations
that are present in normal operation or as a result
of failure, or malfunction of any system.
4.26.44 Oxygen pressure sources and pipe
lines between the sources and shut-off means
shall be protected from unsafe temperatures.
4.26.45 Pipes carrying flammable liquids
shall be positioned at as great a distance as
practical from the oxygen installation. Precautions
shall be taken to prevent fluid impinging on the
oxygen or oxidant system.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM FIRE AND SMOKE PROTECTION
4.26.46 Electrical components in regions
immediately adjacent to firewalls and in engine pod
attachment structures shall be of such materials
and at such a distance from the firewall that they
will not suffer damage that could hazard the
aeroplane if the surface of the firewall adjacent to
the fire is heated to 1100°C for 15 minutes.
4.26.47 Electrical equipment shall be
constructed and/or installed so that in the event of
failure no hazardous quantities of toxic or noxious
(e.g., smoke) products will be distributed in the
crew or passenger compartments.
4.26.48 Electrical equipment which may
come into contact with flammable vapours shall be
designed and installed to the requirements of
Leaflet 92 to minimise the risk of the vapours
exploding under both normal and fault conditions
or as approved by the Project Team Leader.
4.26.49 Insulated electrical wire and cable
installed in any region of the aeroplane shall
comply with the flammability requirements in BS
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SECTION 4

G212 Para 2.28A Flammability Test Method 3, or
BS 3G 230, Para 6.29.1, Test 28(a) Method 1 as
appropriate.
INHABITED AREAS
4.26.53 Each disposal receptacle for towels, The ability of the disposal receptacle to contain
paper, or waste shall be fully enclosed and these fires under all probable conditions of wear,
constructed of at least fire resistant materials and misalignment, and ventilation expected in
shall contain fires likely to occur in it under normal services shall be demonstrated by test.
use. A notice containing the legible words "No
Cigarette Disposal" shall be located on or near
each disposal receptacle door.
4.26.54 Lavatories shall have "No Smoking" The notices shall comply with the requirements
or "No Smoking in Lavatory" notices located of Part 1, Section 7, Clause 7.4.13. A "No
conspicuously on each side of the entry door, and Smoking" symbol may be included in the notice.
self contained removable ashtrays located
conspicuously on or near the entry side of each
lavatory door, except that one ashtray may serve
more than one lavatory door if the ashtray can be
seen readily from the cabin side of each lavatory
door served.
4.26.55 If the aeroplane specification
required a toilet compartment fire/smoke detection
system to be installed then the following shall be
met for each toilet compartment with these
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SECTION 4

provisions:
(a) The detection system shall provide

a visual indication to the crew when the level
of smoke reaches an obscuration level giving
a 4% reduction in light transmission per foot.
(b) The effectiveness of the detection

system shall be shown in all operating
configurations and conditions.
(c) There shall be means to allow the

crew to check in flight the functioning of each
fire/smoke electrical detection circuit.
(d) The system shall be capable of

detecting fire smoke at a temperature
significantly below that at which the structural
integrity of the aeroplane is substantially
decreased.
(e) The smoke detection system shall

be of an approved type.
CARGO BAYS
4.26.56 No compartment shall contain any The classification of cargo compartments
controls, wiring, lines equipment, or accessories appropriate to the accurate interpretation of the
whose damage or failure would affect safe requirements of this paragraph is as follows:
operation, unless those items are protected so that
they cannot be damaged by the movement of Class A - Class A cargo or baggage
cargo in that compartment, and their breakage or compartment is one in which:
failure will not create a fire hazard.
(a) The presence of a fire would be
easily discovered by a crew member while
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SECTION 4

at his station; and
(b) Each part of the compartment is

easily accessible in flight.
Class B - Class B cargo or baggage

compartment is one in which:
(a) There is sufficient access in flight

to enable a crew member to effectively
reach any part of the compartment with the
contents of a hand fire extinguisher.
(b) When the access provisions are

being used no hazardous quantity of smoke,
flames or extinguishing agent will enter any
compartment occupied by the crew or
passengers, and
(c) There is a separate approved

smoke detector or fire detector system to
give warning to the pilot or flight engineer
station.
In showing compliance with Class B requirements

consideration shall be given to the effect of
representative cargo loading conditions on the
ability of the crew member to gain effective
access to all parts of the compartment with a fire
extinguisher. Where such access cannot be
shown, it is recommended that means are
provided to shut off all air supply within the
compartment to increase the effectiveness of the
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SECTION 4

extinguisher when used.
Class C - A Class C cargo or baggage

compartment is one not meeting the requirements
for either a Class A or B compartment but in
which:
There is a separate approved smoke detector or

fire detector system to give warning at the pilot or
flight engineer station;
There is an approved built-in fire extinguishing

system controllable from the pilot or flight
engineer station;
There are means to exclude hazardous quantities

of smoke, flames, or extinguishing agent, from
any compartment occupied by the crew or
passengers; and
There are means to control ventilation and

draughts within the compartment so that the
extinguishing agent used can control any fire that
may start within the compartment.
Class D - A Class D cargo or baggage

compartment is one in which:
A fire occurring in it will be completely confined

without endangering the safety of the aeroplane
or the occupants,
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SECTION 4

of smoke, flames, or other noxious gases, from
any compartment occupied by the crew or
passengers;
Ventilation and draughts are controlled within

each compartment so that any fire likely to occur
in the compartment will not progress beyond safe
limits (see Leaflet 86 Para. 7 for recommended
airflow rates and means of demonstrating
compliance).
Consideration is given to the effects of heat within

the compartment on adjacent critical parts of the
aeroplane.
Class E - A Class E cargo compartment is one on

aeroplanes used for the carriage of cargo and in
which:
There is a separate approved smoke or fire

detector system to give warning at the pilot or
flight engineer station;
There are means to shut off the ventilating airflow

to, or within, the compartment, and the controls
for these means are accessible to the flight crew
in the crew compartment;

of smoke, flames, or noxious gases, from the
flight crew compartment; and
The required crew emergency exits, are
326
SECTION 4

accessible under any cargo loading conditions.
4.26.57 There shall be means to prevent
cargo or baggage from interfering with the
functioning of the fire-protection features of the
compartment.
4.26.58 Sources of heat within the
compartment shall be shielded and insulated to
prevent ignition of the cargo. Lights shall be
switched off automatically when the cargo doors
are closed.
4.26.59 Cargo compartments shall meet one In addition, flight tests shall be conducted to
of the class definitions of Clause 4.26.56 Guidance show compliance with the provisions of Clause
above. 4.26.56 Guidance concerning:
(a) Compartment accessibility.
(b) The entry of hazardous quantities

of smoke or extinguishing agent into
compartments occupied by the crew or
passengers.
(c) The dissipation and concentration

of the extinguishing agent in Class C
compartments.
(d) Compartment leakage air flow

(see Leaflet 86 Para. 7)
During these tests it shall be shown that no

inadvertent operation of smoke or fire detectors
in any compartment would occur as a result of
fire contained in any one compartment either
during or after extinguishment, unless the
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SECTION 4

extinguishing system floods each such
compartment simultaneously.
4.26.60 If the Aeroplane Specification
requires a cargo compartment fire detection
system to be installed, then the following shall be
met for each cargo compartment with these
provisions:
(a) The detection system shall provide

a visual indication to the flight crew.
(b) The system shall be capable of

detecting a fire at a temperature significantly
below that at which the structural integrity of
the aeroplane is substantially decreased.
(c) There shall be means to allow the

crew to check in flight, the functioning of
each fire detector circuit.
(d) The effectiveness of the detection

system shall be demonstrated in all approved
operating configurations and conditions.
BOMB BAYS
4.26.61 A separate approved smoke
detector or fire detection system shall be installed
in bomb bays to give warning at the pilot or flight
engineers station.
4.26.62 If a fire suppression system in the Flight tests agreed by the Project Team Leader For dissipation of the extinguishing agent see
bomb bay is required by the Aeroplane shall be conducted to demonstrate that Leaflet 86.
Specification: hazardous quantities of smoke or extinguishing
agent are prevented from entering into
(a) An approved built-in fire compartments occupied by the crew or
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SECTION 4

extinguishing system shall be installed passengers.
controllable from the pilot or flight engineers
station.
(b) There shall be means to exclude

hazardous quantities of smoke, or
extinguishing agent, from any compartment
occupied by the crew or passengers.
(c) There shall be means to control

ventilation and draughts within the bomb bay
so that the extinguishing agent used can
control any fire that may start in the bomb
bay.
HAZARDOUS SYSTEMS
4.26.63 High speed rotating equipment shall Such equipment shall be adequately supported.
be examined for potential fire hazards such as the High speed drives shall be encased, if
ignition of flammable fluids by high casing necessary to protect flammable fluid
temperatures during normal operation or following components, fuel tanks, explosives, oxygen
a failure. Protection shall be provided if a hazard containers etc.
exists.
4.26.64 High pressure air compressors and
related equipment shall be located, whenever
possible, to minimise damage to flammable fluid
components, explosives, oxygen containers and
fuel tanks, by flying fragments in case of any
explosion.
4.26.65 Explosives shall not be installed or (a) Explosives shall comply with the fire
stowed in the proximity of heat sources if these protection requirements of the following
heat sources can cause ignition of the explosive specifications:
under any normal condition, or if a "single failure"
can cause ignition of the explosives. Explosives Installation and test of Aircraft Pyrotechnic
shall not be installed or stowed in the proximity of Equipment,
329
SECTION 4

fire zones. If explosives must be located close to General Spec for MIL-I-8672 (Cancelled).
real or potential heat sources for justifiable reasons Design and Evaluation of Cartridges for
they shall be adequately protected by permanently Cartridge Actuated Devices MIL-D-21625.
installed insulation or shrouds.
Ordnance Board Proceedings 41273 dated
November 1972.
(b) Cartridges used in Cartridge Starter

Systems shall comply with the fire protection
requirements of MIL-D-21625.
4.26.66 Fuel tanks shall not be located
immediately adjacent to gun compartments; they
shall be separated from such compartments by at
least one liquid and vapour tight bulkhead in
addition to the tank boundary structure.
4.26.67 External rockets shall be installed (a) If fuel vent exits cannot be located at a
so that the rocket exhaust will not be a hazard to safe distance from the rocket exhaust, the vent
fuel tank vent lines. line exits shall be protected by flame arrestors or
other effective means to prevent flame
propagation into the tanks.
(b) Protection shall be provided, if

necessary, for flammable fluid components, fuel
tank, explosives etc., located in compartments
exposed to the rocket exhaust wake.
4.26.68 Decoy flare dispensing systems If such drain or vent lines cannot be located at a
shall be installed so that the ignited flare will not be safe distance from the ignited flare the fluid exits
a hazard to flammable fluid drain and fuel tank vent shall be protected by flame arrestors or other
lines. effective means to prevent flame propagation
into the fluid systems.
4.26.69 Hot bleed air ducts and other hot
gas ducts and components which can be an
ignition source due to high surface temperatures or
330
SECTION 4

to leaking hot air or gas shall not be located in
compartments containing flammable fluid
components, unless suitable safeguards are
provided e.g., insulation, shields, overheat
sensors.
4.26.70 Sealing shall be provided to prevent Appropriate measures shall be taken to ensure
the passage of flammable vapours into or out of that the gas-air mixture within the gun
the gun bay other than through a purpose compartment does not fall within the explosive
designed venting system. range.
PRECAUTIONS: COMBAT INDUCED FIRES
4.26.71 Components shall be designed and If fire suppression in dry bay areas adjacent to
located to minimise the risk of ignition from battle flammable fluid tanks is specified by the Project
damage. Team Leader as a result of studies undertaken
in compliance with Clause 4.26.2, the following
requirements shall be met:
(a) Void filling materials used in

passive combat fire suppression
installations shall comply with the
requirements of Specification DTD
5624(Obsolescent). It is essential that the
void is completely filled by using either
shaped blocks, cubes or spheres of the
filling material used (also Leaflet 87 Para.
5.2)
(b) Active fire protection measures

shall be installed in dry bays which are
congested due to the fitment of systems
components, fluid lines, electrical looms,
etc., or where the dimensions, geometry or
maintenance considerations make the
embodiment of void fillers, vapour or
331
SECTION 4

powder packs impractical.
(c) The method of fire detection

incorporated in active systems installations
in which the rapid suppression of incipient
fires is essential shall be by optical
surveillance or dynamic pressure sensing.
(d) Optical surveillance fire detectors

shall conform, to the Design Specification
for Radiation Sensing Combat Fire
Detectors and Amplifiers (non-
discriminating)
(e) Automatic operation of the fire

suppression system by the detector(s) or
crash trip/switch shall be provided for all
combat fire protection active system
installations.
(f) No crew fire warning is required

for automatically activated dry bay fire
suppression systems, but an indication
shall be provided for servicing personnel
that the system has operated.
(g) Fluid drainage and the ventilation

of dry bay areas shall meet the
requirements of Clauses 4.26.19 to
4.26.20
(h) A fire suppression system shall

be provided for each group of tanks.
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SECTION 4
(i) Dry bay boundary walls shall be

at least fire resistant.
4.26.72 Fuel lines shall be routed, as far as
is practical, through fuel tanks and close to heavy
structure to minimise the fire and explosion risk
due to combat damage.
4.26.73 Where fuel tanks are located above A fuel tank and/or vent pipe inerting/in situ flame
an engine compartment a drained and ventilated arrestor system shall be incorporated in the
interspace shall be provided. aeroplane if the requirement for explosion
protection has been established from studies
undertaken in compliance with Clause 4.26.2,
specified in the Aeroplane Specification or by
the Project Team Leader. Fuel tank and/or vent
pipe inerting/in situ flame arrestor systems shall
comply with the following requirements:
(a) When in situ flame arrestors are

specified the requirements of DTD
Specification 5627(Obsolescent) shall be
met. It is essential that the void is filled
completely by using either shaped blocks,
cubes or spheres of the filling material
(Leaflet 87 Para. 5.1.1)
(b) The inflow of any inerting agent to

the tank or vent pipe, the distribution of the
agent, and the oxygen evolution from the
bulk fuel shall be so controlled that the
maximum allowable pressure will not be
exceeded.
(c) The protection shall be effective
333
SECTION 4

for the time and conditions specified in the
Aeroplane Specification or as approved by
the Project Team Leader.
(d) When combustor gas is used as

the inerting agent, a flame arrestor shall
be embodied to prevent flame from
entering the fuel tank and a check valve
shall prevent the flow of fuel or fuel vapour
into the inerting gas supply system.
(e) The temperature of the inerting

agent at the tank inlet shall not exceed
50°C.
(f) Inerting systems shall be so

designed that serviceability can be pre-
flight checked and that failure of the
system to maintain the oxygen
concentration in the ullage space at or
below the safe design limits shall be
indicated to the crew during flight.
COMPARTMENT INTERIORS - TEST CRITERIA
4.26.74 Materials (including finishes or
decorative surfaces applied to the materials) used
in each compartment occupied by the crew or
passengers shall meet the following test criteria, as
applicable.
4.26.75 Interior ceiling panels, interior wall The average burn length shall not exceed 150
panels, partitions, galley structure, large cabinet mm and the average flame time after removal of
walls, structural flooring and materials used in the the flame source shall not exceed 15 seconds.
construction of stowage compartments (other than Drippings from the test specimen shall not
underseat stowage compartments and continue to flame for more than an average of 3
334
SECTION 4

compartments for stowing small items such as seconds after falling.
magazines and maps) shall be self-extinguishing
where tested vertically in accordance with the
applicable portions of CS 25.853 Appendix F or
other equivalent methods approved by the Project
Team Leader.
4.26.76 Floor covering, textiles (including The average burn length shall not exceed 200
draperies and upholstery), seat cushions, padding, mm and the average flame time after removal of
decorative and non-decorative coated fabrics, the flame source shall not exceed 15 seconds.
leather, trays and galley furnishings, electrical Drippings from the test specimen shall not
conduit, thermal and acoustic insulation and continue to flame for more than an average of 5
insulation covering, air ducting, joint and edge seconds after falling.
covering, cargo compartment liners, insulation
blankets, cargo covers, and transparencies,
moulded and thermoformed parts, air ducting
joints, and trim strips (decorative and chafing), that
are constructed of materials not covered in Clause
4.26.77 shall be self extinguishing when tested
vertically in accordance with the applicable
portions of CS 25.853 Appendix F or other
equivalent methods approved by the Project Team
Leader.
4.26.77 Acrylic windows and signs, parts
constructed in whole or in part of elastomeric
materials, edge lighted instrument assemblies
consisting of two or more instruments in a common
housing, seat belts, shoulder harnesses, and cargo
and baggage tiedown equipment, including
containers, bins, pallets, etc. , used in passenger
or crew compartments shall not have an average
burn rate greater than 64 mm per min when tested
horizontally in accordance with the applicable
335
SECTION 4

Leader.
4.26.78 Except for electrical wire and cable
insulation, and for small parts (such as knobs,
handles, rollers, fasteners, clips, grommets, rub
strips, pulleys and small electrical parts) that would
not contribute significantly to the propagation of a
fire, materials in items not specified in Clauses
4.26.75 to 4.26.77 shall have a burn rate not
greater than 100 mm per min when tested
horizontally in accordance with the applicable
Leader.
4.26.79 In addition to meeting the
flammability requirements of Clause 4.26.76 each
seat cushion (squat and back support) except
where fitted to seats located within the flight deck
shall meet the requirements of FAR 25, Appendix
F, Part 11 (at amendment 25.59) or an equivalent
fire test criteria agreed with the Project Team
Leader (CAA Airworthiness Notice No. 59)
CARGO COMPARTMENTS: THERMAL AND ACOUSTIC INSULATION
4.26.80 Thermal and acoustic insulation Class B to Class E cargo or baggage
(including coverings) and liners used in cargo and compartments as defined in Clause 4.26.56
baggage compartments not occupied by shall have a liner and the liner must be
passengers or crew, shall be constructed of constructed of materials that at least meet the
materials that at least meet the test requirements requirements set forth in Clause 4.26.76, must
of Clause 4.26.76 be separate from (but may be attached to) the
aeroplane structure, and shall be tested at a 45°
angle in accordance with the applicable portions
of CS 25.853 Appendix F or other equivalent
methods approved by Project Team Leader.
336
SECTION 4
In the course of the 45° angle test, the flame

shall not penetrate (pass through) the material
during application of the flame or subsequent to
its removal. The average flame time after
removal of the flame source shall not exceed 15
seconds and the average glow time may not
exceed 10 seconds.
4.26.81 Insulation blankets and cargo
covers used to protect cargo in compartments not
occupied by passengers or crew must be
constructed of materials; that at least meet the
requirements of 4.26.76 and tiedown equipment
(including containers, bins and pallets) used in
each cargo and baggage compartment not
occupied by passengers or crew must be
constructed of materials that at least meet the
requirements set forth in Clause 4.26.78
MISCELLANEOUS FIRE PRECAUTIONS
4.26.82 Pipes, tanks or equipment Such protection would involve the use of a The aim of this requirement is to minimise the risk
containing flammable fluids shall not be installed design that contains the fluid in the event of of fire or explosion caused by leakage from the
in: leakage from the flammable fluid system, flammable fluid system.
however caused, and subsequently vents the The drain system should also enable detection
a. passenger, fluid into a suitable drain system. Typical and identification of the general location of any
examples of such a design are leakage. For further guidance see also EASA CS
b. crew, doubleskinned/walled, jacketed or shrouded. 25.863
Whenever lagging is used in compartments in
c. cargo or which pipes, tanks or equipment containing
flammable fluids are installed, suitable
d. baggage compartments precautions shall be taken to prevent the wetting
of the lagging by flammable fluids as a result of
nor in hazardous proximity to potential sources of normal operation, damage, failures of the
ignition unless they are adequately protected equipment or leakages from joints or unions.
337
SECTION 4

against potential sources of ignition and damage.
Any space between a container/pipe and its
protection shall be adequately vented and drained.
4.26.83 No essential service outside any
designated fire zone shall be rendered ineffective
by a fire within the fire zone.
FIRE ACCESS PANELS
4.26.86 Spring loaded fire access doors in See also Leaflet 86 Para. 8.
the main power plant and auxiliary power unit bays
shall be provided as defined in the Aeroplane
Specification. The spring system shall be
sufficiently strong to hold the door shut against air
loads and the door shall be marked "Fire Access".
EXTERNAL ACTUATION OF FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS ON MULTI-ENGINED AEROPLANES
4.26.87 A means shall be provided for This requirement shall apply to the fire
operating the aeroplane fire extinguishing systems extinguishers for all designated fire zones and to
when the aeroplane is on the ground with the the fire extinguisher system which provides
batteries disconnected or removed and the normal external protection for flammable fluid tanks, but
external power supply not connected. need not apply to bomb bay, cargo and baggage
bays and pyrotechnic installations in the
aeroplane.
338
SECTION 4
4.27 BONDING AND SCREENING
4.27.1 This clause contains content similar to that of CS 25.899 The requirements of this clause are applicable to aeroplanes, excluding the engine ignition
systems. The bonding and screening requirements applicable to engine ignition systems are given in Specification D.Eng.R.D.2015
(a) The purpose of screening is to prevent the radiation of radio-interference fields from and to electrical equipment and the associated wiring.
(b) The purpose of bonding is to reduce the risk of fire due to lightning discharges and the accumulation of electrostatic charges, and to
increase the efficiency of the radio installation.
For the purpose of the requirements of this section, the main ground system is defined as the aeroplane structure for metal aeroplanes and as the
interconnected main bonding system in other cases.

SCREENING AND INTERFERENCE SUPPRESSION
CIRCUITS
4.27.2 All circuits which are liable to induce (a) Circuits associated with electrical fuzes, In general, commutators, sliprings and moving
radio frequency disturbances into radio circuits explosive caps and other circuits sensitive to contacts, should always be treated as possible
shall be totally enclosed by a grounded metallic induced effects are dealt with in Part 1, Section sources of radio interference, and appropriate
sheathing or screen, and the screen shall be 6, Clauses 6.6.35 to 6.6.51 screening and suppression action should be
bonded to the main ground system at two points at taken.
least; these points shall be within 457.2 mm (18 (b) Circuits which cause interference but
in.) of each end. which operate for a short time only and at The continuity of screening should be maintained
infrequent intervals usually need not be by the use of approved cable glands and the use
screened. of metal enclosures for junction terminals and
equipment.
RADIO INTERFERENCE SUPPRESSORS
4.27.3 Radio interference suppressor When external suppressor units are used, they
components shall, where possible, be incorporated shall be located as near as possible to the
within the equipment. source of interference and screened cable shall
be used between the source of interference and
the suppressor.
SUPPRESSION OF IGNITION INTERFERENCE
4.27.4 Ignition interference need be
339
SECTION 4

suppressed during normal engine running only.
4.27.5 L.T. booster coils shall be fitted with
a suppressor in the supply leads from the battery,
and all the wiring from the suppressor to the coil
and the magnetos shall be fully screened.
4.27.6 H.T. booster coils shall have a spark A suppressor in the battery supply leads is not
gap inserted in the H.T. starting lead. The cable necessary.
from the magneto to this isolating spark gap shall
be screened. The cable from the isolating spark
gap to the booster coil shall be unscreened.
BONDING
4.27.7 All metallic parts of the structure and (a) Due regard should be given to the See STANAG 3659, Def Stan 59-113 and Def
skin shall be connected together to form an prevention of corrosion at all contacting surfaces Stan 59-411, also CS25.581 and CS25.899
electrically continuous system of low and as laid down in Clause 4.3
substantially constant impedance and resistance. The purpose of electrical bonding of the
Precautions shall be taken to prevent variable, (b) Bonding straps should have minimum aeroplane structure, components and equipment
intermittent or vibratory contact between metal inductance. They should be of highly conducting is:
parts. material, preferably solid but which may be
flexible, with a width/thickness ratio of at least (a) to prevent electro-static potential
5:1 and length/width ratio not normally greater differences between adjacent parts (Class S
than 5:1 bonding)
(c) All bonding straps should be kept as (b) to minimise the possibility of
short and direct as possible. The number of electric shock from the electrical supply;
straps to be installed should be kept to a and distribution system (Class H Bonding)
minimum by careful design. Straps in series are
not permitted. (c) to provide an adequate path for
electrical fault currents on those systems
(d) Recommended maximum values of the which use the airframe as a conducting path
direct current resistance of electrical bonds are (Class C Bonding)
given in STANAG 3659. Where it is found
impossible to achieve a value lower than the (d) to prevent electrical interference
appropriate recommended maximum the with the functioning of the systems (Class A
340
SECTION 4

problem should be discussed with the Project bonding, antenna installations, and Class R
Team Leader. bonding, RF potential)
(e) to provide an adequate,

homogeneous ground plane for each aerial.
(f) to facilitate the passage of lightning

currents across the surface of the
aeroplane.
4.27.8 Consideration shall be given to the
bonding of non-metallic structure or components,
in particular those made from carbon fibre
reinforced composite materials, taking into
account:
(a) the electrical properties of the

material,
(b) the ability to make satisfactory

connections.
4.27.9 All control and distribution panels of
metal construction shall be bonded to the airframe.
4.27.10 The engine shall be electrically
connected to the Main Ground System by at least.
two removable Primary Conductors as in Clauses
4.27.23 - 4.27.25, one on each side of the engine.
CLASS A BONDING (ANTENNA INSTALLATION)
4.27.11 Generally, antenna systems shall be The specific bonding requirements of antennae
bonded so that current flow from the attachment will be dictated by the type of antenna used, and
surface of the antenna to the mating surface of the decided in consultation with the Project Team
aeroplane shall have maximum possible contact Leader.
area with minimum impedance.
4.27.12 Hatches in the vicinity of, or forming
341
SECTION 4

part of, an antenna ground plane shall be
continuously bonded to the aeroplane skin.
4.27.13 Provisions shall be made for
circumferential RF continuity between outer
conductors of coaxial antenna transmission lines
and ground planes of antennae.
CLASS C BONDING (CURRENT RETURN PATH)
4.27.14 The bond between equipment and (a) The total impedance of wires, cables,
aeroplane structure shall be adequate to carry the ground return paths and their interconnections
maximum fault current. shall be such that the voltage drop between the
point of regulation and the load does not exceed
the limits stated in BS 3G l00 (Multipart). For
current return leads the bonding connection
shall be made to a terminal end of sufficient size
properly attached to the Ground Point.
(b) Magnesium alloy structure shall not be

used as a current path return.
4.27.15 Bonding shall be provided in areas To prevent ignition in the event of power faults
where hazardous conditions exist due to the within an equipment.
presence of explosive fuels and gases.
CLASS H BONDING (SHOCK HAZARD)
4.27.16 A path, which carries a voltage See AP120A-0001-1.
greater than 30 volts RMS A.C. or 50 volts D.C.
and which may be touched by personnel, shall in
no, case be exposed except during servicing.
CLASS R BONDING (RF POTENTIAL)
4.27.17 All electrical and electronic (a) Bonding straps shall be provided across Note: Metal-to-metal contact is preferred but, if a
equipment which emits electromagnetic energy vibration isolators with a minimum of two straps strap is used, it should be as short as possible.
shall be installed to provide a continuous low - per unit of equipment.
impedance path from the equipment enclosure to
the metal aeroplane structure. (b) All conducting items having any linear
dimension of 300 mm (11.811 in) or more
342
SECTION 4

installed within 300 mm (11.811 in) of
unshielded transmitting antenna lead-ins shall
have a bond to the airframe.
4.27.18 The aeroplane shall be designed Hatches, access doors, etc, shall be either: See also Clause 4.27.12
with inherent RF bonding and a uniform low
impedance conducting path produced during (a) continuously bonded to the
construction, through the skin and between all aeroplane skin, or
structural components.
(b) permanently insulated from the
aeroplane skin and the conducting path
maintained by bonding straps.
4.27.19 All metallic equipment mountings
shall be bonded to the airframe.
4.27.20 Where equipment mounting trays
carry fixed back-plug and socket assemblies, all
cable screens and connector shells shall be RF
bonded to the tray.
CLASS S BONDING (STATIC CHARGE)
4.27.21 All isolated conducting items The resistance of the connection shall be less
(except antennae) having any linear dimension than 1 ohm when dry.
greater than 100 mm (3.937 in.) which are external
to the aeroplane, carry fluids in motion or otherwise
are subject to frictional charging shall have a
mechanically secure connection to the aeroplane
structure.
4.27.22 All metal parts, pipes, tubes, or Non-metallic plumbing installations shall be Note: Flexible tubing connecting economisers to
hoses that carry fuel or other fluids shall be bonded designed so that the static charges have an oxygen masks need not be bonded.
to the Main Ground System with a mechanically energy level less than the value needed for
secure connection having a resistance of 1 ohm or ignition of an air/fuel mixture. Metallic unions in
less. The pipe tube or hose installation shall not be non-metallic pipes shall be bonded to the Main
designed to be a path of primary electrical power. Ground System.
LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION
PROTECTION - GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (CLASS L, BONDING)
343
SECTION 4

4.27.23 Throughout the design of the At an early stage in the design process a study See STANAG 3659 and Def Stan 59-113.
aeroplane, consideration shall be given to the of lightning protection shall be carried out to
possible effects of a lightning strike and the check that due attention has been given to
incorporation of protected measures to minimise lightning, hazards and to decide whether any
the effects. additional protection need be provided. In
doubtful cases the Study shall recommend a
programme of simulated lightning tests. The
Study shall pay particular attention to those
external parts of the aeroplane which may be
attachment points for lightning and to the
possible lightning current paths through the
aeroplane skin and structure.
4.27.24 Primary conductors shall be used Primary conductors (i.e., straps in the Main
for: Ground System and for lightning protection),
when made from copper, shall have a cross-
(a) connecting together the main sectional area of not less than 18 mm2, (0.008
Grounds of separable major components in2) (and a thickness between 0.2 mm and 1 mm
which may carry lightning discharges. (0.008 in and 0.039 in) where a single conductor
is likely to carry the whole discharge. Where two
(b) connecting engines to the main or more conductors are likely to share the
Ground. discharge, the cross-sectional area of each shall
not be less than 9 mm2 (0.014 in2) with the same
(c) connecting to the main Ground all thickness requirements. Aluminium Primary
metal parts presenting a surface on or conductors shall have a cross-sectional area
outside of the external aeroplane surface. giving an equivalent carrying capacity for a
lightning stroke i.e., a single pulse of current:
this means that the above figures for cross-
sectional area are to be multiplied by a factor of
1.5
4.27.25 (a) Individual bonding straps shall be as
short as possible and have a cross-sectional
area not less than 18 mm2 (0.028 in2) for tinned
stranded copper wire where a single strap is
344
SECTION 4

likely to be subjected to the full discharge, and
proportionately less where two or more straps
are likely to share the discharge. For aluminium
straps the cross-section area shall be 1.5 times
that for copper.
(b) Soldered connections shall not be used

on straps required to carry lightning currents.
The electrical and mechanical adequacy of the
attachment to terminals shall be verified by test.
PROTECTION OF THE STRUCTURE
4.27.26 Aeroplanes of conventional metallic
construction are considered to be adequately
protected structurally, provided that they comply
with the bonding requirements of Clauses 4.27.7 to
4.27.22 of this clause.
4.27.27 Where non-metallic or composite (a) Strike plates shall extend round the nose
materials are used in construction, consideration and tail of the fuselage, round the tip of each
shall be given to their protection by strike plates or wing and the extremities of the tail unit. The
other means. strike plates shall be provided on the exterior of
the structure except where existing metallic
structure serves the same purpose.
(b) Unless otherwise agreed with the Project

Team Leader, each strike plate shall consist of a
strip equivalent to at least 0.45 mm (26 swg)
(0.18 in) copper, 25 mm (0.98 in) in width, which
shall be bonded to the main metallic structure.
4.27.28 Where a non-metallic or reinforced
composite structure is used to house electronic
equipment then precautions shall be taken to
guard against possible structural damage due to
lightning strikes.
345
SECTION 4

4.27.29 Where transparent components
such as windows, windscreens, etc, contain
electrically heated films or elements, precautions
shall be taken to prevent a lightning strike or an
electro-static discharge puncturing the
transparency.
4.27.30 Precautions shall be taken to
ensure that induced voltages from lightning strikes
and electro-static discharges do not produce
dangerous permanent or transient effects on the
aeroplanes electrical systems.
PROTECTION OF CONTROL SURFACES AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
4.27.31 Control surfaces, flaps and any Where necessary, additional straps shall be Note: For lightning protection, a piano type hinge
other moving parts shall have bonding straps used between the control surface and structure may be considered as self bonded provided the
across each hinge except for installations having a to protect the control system so that the length resistance across the hinge is less than 0.01
single hinge in which case a minimum of two of the discharge path through the system is at ohms.
straps is required. least 10 times the length of the path through the
bonding strap (or straps)
PROTECTION OF PROTRUSIONS AND EXTERNAL PARTS
4.27.32 All external electrically isolated
conducting objects which protrude outside the
aeroplane surface, excluding antenna radiating
elements, shall be bonded to the aeroplane skin or
structure.
4.27.33 Antenna systems shall be so
designed or protected that a lightning discharge
will cause only local damage and will not endanger
the aeroplane or its occupants.
4.27.34 Consideration shall be given to the
possibility of damage to the aeroplane electrical
system due to voltage spikes caused by strikes to
protrusions or other external parts which have
connections into the electrical system (etc., pitot
346
SECTION 4

booms)
4.27.35 Consideration shall be given to the (a) During consideration of protrusions and To confirm the geometrical design of the
protection of large non-conducting projections such external parts, attention shall be paid to all flight protection system it may be necessary to carry
as canopies, astrodomes and radomes taking configurations, including those of variable out 'puncture/flashover' tests at a High Voltage
account of their operational function and geometry aeroplanes, the various external store laboratory to check that strikes go to the
performance. options and the landing gear in the extended protection system and do not puncture the
position. dielectric wall.
(b) Protection shall be by a conducting cage

bonded to the airframe and the geometric
design of the cage shall be such as to prevent
puncture of the non-conducting projection and to
protect enclosed personnel or equipment.
(c) The conducting cage shall be made up

of conductors of current carrying capacity and
mechanical robustness (including the means of
fixing to the dielectric wall) sufficient to carry the
full lightning discharge current and shall comply
with the requirement for Primary Conductors
(see Clause 4.27.24)
PROTECTION OF THE FUEL SYSTEM
4.27.36 The outlets of fuel venting and
jettisoning systems shall be so located and
designed as to minimise the risk of their being
struck by lightning,. They shall not, under the
atmospheric conditions for which the aeroplane is
designed, produce corona discharges of such
magnitude as will ignite any fuel/air mixtures of the
ratios likely to be present and they shall not permit
fuel and its vapours in flammable concentrations to
pass close to parts of the aeroplane capable of
producing corona discharges which could ignite
347
SECTION 4

fuel/air mixtures.
4.27.37 The fuel systems of the aeroplane
shall be so designed in relation to the Main Ground
System that the passage of lightning discharges
through the Main Ground System will not produce,
by conduction or induction, such potential
differences as could cause electrical sparking in
areas where there may be flammable vapours.
4.27.38 Metallic fuel tanks when integral Externally mounted metallic fuel tanks need not
with the wing structure shall be treated as part of be provided with special protection other than
the wing from the aspect of lightning protection. the provision of normal bonding, providing
precautions have been taken to prevent damage
to the aeroplane.
4.27.39 All metal parts of non-metallic fuel Externally mounted non-metallic fuel tanks shall
tanks on or inside the tank shall be bonded be provided with a Ground System consisting of
together and to the Main Ground System. not less than three strips equivalent to at least
Particular consideration shall be given to the 0.45 mm thick (26 swg) (0.18 in) copper (see
protection of integral fuel tanks of composite note below) of 25 mm (0.98 in) width extending
construction against lightning strike penetration. the whole length of the tank and evenly
disposed about the circumference. These strips
shall be bonded together at the ends and shall
be electrically connected to the Main Ground
System. NOTE: Copper or copper alloys shall
not be used for bonding in fuel tanks unless
suitably protected, ('tinned' or 'plated'), so that
contact with usable fuel is not possible. The
plating medium shall not be soluble in fuel nor
have any effect on fuel properties.
LIGHTNING PROTECTION TESTS
4.27.40 When the Study of lightning The electrical resistance of a complete
protection has recommended high current pulse aeroplane of metal construction, as measured
tests on parts of the aeroplane in order to verify the during these tests between any of the metal
adequacy of design, the tests shall conform to the extremities, shall not exceed the values agreed
348
SECTION 4

recommendation of Def Stan 59-113, except as with the Project Team Leader (see Clause
agreed with the Project Team Leader. 4.27.7 Compliance (c))
349
SECTION 4
Title Specification No. Title Specification No.

PROCESSES Electro deposition of cadmium Def Stan 03-19
Glossary of paint terms BS BSI EN ISO 4618 BSI BS EN 2133
Sprayed metal coatings on iron and steel BS 2569 Parts 1 and 2 SAE AMS QQ-P-416
articles (Part 1 superseded by Electro deposition of zinc Def Stan 03-20
BS BSI EN ISO 2063) SAE AMS 2402
Cleaning and preparation of metal Def Stan 03-2 Nickel plating (heavy) SAE AMS 2423 “For
surfaces BSI BS ISO 27831 Part new Design”
2 – ferrous materials SAE AMS QQ-N-290
BSI BS ISO 27831 Part Class 2
1 – non-ferrous Protection of magnesium rich alloys SAE AMS M 3171
materials against corrosion
Protection of aluminium alloys by sprayed Def Stan 03-3 Identification colouring of rivets in DTD 913(Obsolescent)
metal coatings BS EN ISO 2063 aluminium and aluminium alloys
The pretreatment and protection of steel Def Stan 03-4 Process for the external finishing of DTD 926(Obsolescent)
parts of specified maximum tensile SAE AMS 2759/9D radomes
strength exceeding 1450 N/mm2 Cadmium coating of very strong steel SAE AMS C 8837
Electroless nickel coating of metals BS EN ISO 4527 parts by vacuum evaporation. CEN EN 2535
Painting of metal and wood Def Stan 03-7 Surface coating of parts by use of BS EN ISO 2063
(Obsolescent) detonation, flame and plasma spraying “Thermal Metal
Electro-deposition of tin ASTM B545 processes Spraying”
Phosphate treatment of iron and steel Def Stan 03-11 Anodizing of titanium and titanium alloys SAE AMS 2488
Chromate conversion coatings (chromate Def Stan 03-18 Electrodeposited cobalt/chromium carbide DTD 943(Obsolescent)
filming treatments) for aluminium and MIL-DTL-5541 composite coatings
aluminium alloys
Chrome and anodizing of aluminium and DEF STAN 03-24 TABLE 1
aluminium alloys
MIL-A-8625 type I LIST OF PROTECTIVE MATERIALS AND PROCESSES CALLED UP IN
Sulphuric acid anodizing of aluminium and Def Stan 03-25 CLAUSE 4.3
aluminium alloys MIL-A-8625 type II
Hard anodizing of aluminium and BS ISO 10074 Note: Specification DTD 900 (Obsolescent) includes appendices listing
aluminium alloys MIL-A-8625 Type III proprietary materials and processes approved under its terms for
Electro deposition of chromium for Def Stan 03-14 aerospace use.
engineering purposes SAE AMS 2406
AMS2460 Class 2
354
SECTION 4
Title Specification No.

Title Specification No. ORGANIC MATERIALS
STANDARD PAINT SCHEMES Phenolic resin bonded paper laminated BS EN 60893-2
Interior and exterior protective finishing BS 2X 33 Primer, Def sheets for electrical applications
scheme (cold curing epoxide type) Stan 80-161 Finish Flexible insulating sleeving for electrical BS EN 60684
Exterior and interior finishing schemes - BS 2X 34 purposes
matt and glossy (cold curing polyurethane Flexible vulcanised fibre sheets BS 3964(Withdrawn)
type) (Scheme 1 and Scheme 2) PVC insulation and sheath of electric BS 6746(Withdrawn)
Selectively strippable acrylic finishing Def Stan 80-214 cables
schemes - matt and gloss - for use on METALS
aircraft Cold reduced tinplate and coldreduced BS EN 10202
External and interior finishing schemes - BS 2X 34 with Def Stan blackplate
matt and glossy - solar heat reflecting 00-80 GUIDES
(cold curing polyurethane type) Guide for the prevention of corrosion of BS 7195
OTHER PAINTS AND VARNISHES metals caused by vapours from organic
Varnish for aeronautical purposes BS 5X 17 materials
Doping and finishing schemes for fabric BS 2X 26 Metallic springs, protection against DG-10
covered aircraft corrosion
Low temperature stoving scheme for BS X 31 (withdrawn) Packaging of defence material Def Stan 81-14 Parts 1 to
aeronautical purposes 6
Stoving enamel DTD 56(Obsolescent)
OTHER ORGANIC PROTECTIVES
Paint, pretreatment primer (etching BS 2X 32 TABLE 1 (Cont)
primer)
Lubricant, solid film, heat cured JSD: MIL-PRF-46010 LIST OF PROTECTIVE MATERIALS AND PROCESSES CALLED UP IN
ZX34; NATO CODE S.1738 CLAUSE 4.3
Pigmented varnish jointing compound MIL-C-11796
QPL 11796-31 Note: Specification DTD 900 (Obsolescent) includes appendices listing
proprietary materials and processes approved under its terms for
Pigmented jointing compound, non- MIL-PRF-8116
aerospace use.
hardening type
Clear baking resin for surface sealing DTD 5562(Obsolescent)
magnesium
Temporary protectives Reference to Corrosion
manual AP119A-0200-ID,
Table 1
355
SECTION 4
Category All-up weight Transport method Component category

on ship (See Table 3)
1 Not exceeding 4,536 Between decks A and B
2 4,536 kg to 13,608 kg Between decks and in A, B and C
hold
3 13,608 kg to 34,020 kg 1 crate deck cargo, 1, D or E; remainder, A,
remainder between B or C
decks and in hold
4 Exceeding 34,020 kg Special arrangements 3 special loads;
remainder A, B or C
TABLE 2
SIZE CATEGORIES FOR AEROPLANES

See Clause 4.4
356
SECTION 4
Component Maximum Maximum external Transportable by

Category weight dimensions of case (metres)
(including
case)
(tonnes) Length Height Width Road Ship
A 3 9.2 2 2 3 tonne high Between
long trailer decks
B 5 4.6 2 2.5 5 tonne flat Between
platform trailer decks
C 5 9.2 3 4.6 5 tonne low Hold
loader
D 6 11.6 3 3.6 6 tonne trailer Deck
E 15 15.2 3 3.6 20 tonne trailer Deck
TABLE 3
SIZE CATEGORIES FOR PACKED COMPONENTS

See Clause 4.4
357
SECTION 4
No. Case Vertical Drag Side Shock

Force Force Force absorber
closure %
1 Combined drag and side load R 0.4R ±0.25R 30
2 Side load inboard 0.5R 0 0.4R 50
3 Side load outboard 0.5R 0 0.3R 50
4 High drag and spring back 0.8R ±0.64R 0 15
5 One wheel landing R 0.4R ±0.25R 30
6 Rebound of unsprung parts 20W 0 0 0
TABLE 4
PRIMARY STRESSING CASES - ALL UNIT

See Clause 4.11
Notes: 1 For main units R = Rm. For nose units R = Rn. For auxiliary units R = Ra.
2 All side forces between zero and the values given shall be considered.
3 Tyre closure appropriate to the vertical reaction may be assumed.
4 For a unit on the centreline of the aeroplane case 2 will apply to both port and starboard and will override case 3.
5 Cases 2, 3 and 5 do not apply to nose-wheels.
6 For other notes on this table see Leaflet 46, Para. 3.6
358
SECTION 4
Symbols Design Values

Parameters Standard Alternatives in Mean Std dev Arbitrary Data
aeronautical use extreme Source
term values
Mass m ML 0.9M L 0.04M L ML RAE
Lateral Accel. ny Gy 0.00 0.03 ±0.15 Ref 1
Normal Accel. nz Gz 1.10 0.10 0.70 Ref 1
Closing speed u Vx Vc 1.30V S 0.10V S 1.15 and Ref 1
1.45V S
Drift or crosswind v Vy 8 kt 8 or 11 kt 35 kt Ref 2
Vertical Velocity w VzVv AS or AD AS AS Ref 4
Pitch Attitude  x p AD 1½ ±7 Ref 1
Roll Attitude  y r 0 2 ±10 Ref 1
Yaw Attitude  z y 0 2½ ±13 Ref 1
Tyre pressure NA p AD 5½ ±20% Ref 3
Oleo Gas pressure NA p AD ±4% ±15% Ref 3
Oleo oil volume NA v AD ±4% ±15% Ref 3
unseparated
Oleo oil volume NA v AD ±3% ±10% RAE
separated
TABLE 5
DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR SECONDARY STRESSING CASES

See Clause 4.11
Notes:
1 AS = As specified in the Aeroplane Specification.
2 AD = As dictated by other parameters specified.
3 NA = Not applicable.
4 For other notes on this table see Leaflet 46 Para. 3.8. For explanation of the arbitrary extreme values see Clause 4.11.41 and Leaflet 46
Para 2.3.1
5 For References see end of Leaflet 46.
359
SECTION 4
Case Condition Mass Speed Brake Power Cross Wind Air Temperature Objectives
Supply (Knots) C (See Note 2)
1 Normal landing ML VB Normal As Specified As specified in the The wheels, brakes,
in the Aeroplane braking systems and
Aeroplane Specification and undercarriage units
Specification Part 1, Section 7, shall be fully serviceable
Clause 7.2 after repeated sorties as
defined in the Aero-
place Specification with
no adverse heating
effects on tyres or tubes
2 Re-land ... ... MT VB Normal or " " Any damage shall be
reserve limited to the wheels
brakes, tyres and tubes
3 Accelerate-stop MT V CRIT Normal or " "
reserve
TABLE 6
KINETIC ENERGY ABSORPTION - TEST CONDITIONS AND OBJECTIVES
Notes: 1 V B is normal brakes-on speed, but see also Leaflet 46 Para. 2.2
2 Due allowance shall also be made for the effect of solar radiation and kinetic heating, if relevant. See Part 1, Section 7, Clause 7.2
360
SECTION 4
Class of runway Height of step mm (in) Height of bump

Depth of hollow mm (in)
A 25 (0.98) 30 (1.18)
B 40 (1.57) 45 (1.77)
C 60 (2.36) 75 (2.95)
D 100 (3.93) 120 (4.72)
TABLE 7
STEPS, BUMPS AND HOLLOWS

See Clause 4.13
Note: See Leaflet 49 for definitions of runway classes.
361
SECTION 4
Case Operation Obstacles Mass Speed Special limits and conditions

2.1 Taxying 3.2, 4.4 MT Up to
50 kts
2.2 Take-off 3.1, 4.1, MT Up to Zero V V and pitch rate at first
4.2, 4.5 VT obstacle encounter
2.3 Landing 4.3, 4.4 ML VL Use the finally adopted short
field landing procedure
2.4 Roll-out 3.1, 4.1, ML V L To Maximum deceleration
4.2,4.5 zero corresponding to short field
landing procedure finally
adopted but not including
dynamic braking or use of brake
parachute
TABLE 8
OPERATION ON DAMAGED AND REPAIRED RUNWAYS

See Clause 4.13
362
SECTION 4
3.1 Single and double 1-cos bumps and hollows (see Figs 3 and 5)
3.2 Double 1-cos bumps and hollows (see Figs 3 and 4)
TABLE 9
OBSTACLES (BUMPS AND HOLLOWS

See Clause 4.13
363
SECTION 4
Case No of Height Max Load Special conditions and notes

repaired H (mm)
craters
4.1 2 70 Proof See Fig. 3b, S 1 = 0 to 
S2 = 
4.2 2 90 Ult See Fig. 3b, S 1 = 0 to 
S2 = 
4.3 1 70 Proof See Fig. 3a, S 1 = 
Derotation case. Nose unit to impact
surface at 10/sec pitch rate just
before encountering ramp of crater
cover. See also Clause 4.11.40 and
Leaflet 46 Para. 8.
4.4 1 70 Ult See Fig. 3a, S 1 = 
Dynamic braking case. Maximum
pedal force and  = 0.8. See also
Leaflets 43 Para. 2 and 46 Para. 8.
4.5 3 70 Proof See Fig. 3b, S 1 to 
+ 10% S 2 = worst value of S 1 found in
previous studies of case 4.1. This is
a check case for adequacy of
damping. Critical components which
were loaded to proof in case 4.1 may
exceed proof in this case by 10%
TABLE 10
OBSTACLES (REPAIRED CRATERS)

See Clause 4.13
364
SECTION 4
Angle of attack Air speed Tone Signal

Low Fast 1,600 Hz tone interrupted at a rate of 1 to 10 Hz
the rate increasing linearly with decreasing angle
of attack/increasing airspeed.
Safe low Safe fast 900 Hz steady tone, plus 1,600 Hz tone
interrupted at a rate of 0 to 1 Hz, the rate
increasing linearly with decreasing angle of
attack/increasing airspeed.
Correct Correct 900 Hz steady tone.
Safe high Safe low 900 Hz steady tone, plus 400 Hz tone
interrupted at a rate of 0 to 1 Hz, the rate
increasing linearly with increasing angle of
attack/decreasing airspeed.
High Slow 400 Hz tone interrupted at a rate of 1 to 10 Hz,
the rate increasing linearly with increasing angle
of attack/decreasing airspeed.
TABLE 11
See Clause 4.15
365
SECTION 4
COLOUR CO-ORDINATE POINTS COLOUR CO-ORDINATE POINTS

Q R S T K L M N
Red x 0.665 0.645 0.721 0.735 Yellow x 0.560 0.546 0.612 0.618
y 0.335 0.335 0.259 0.265 y 0.440 0.426 0.382 0.382
A B C D
White x 0.285 0.440 0.453 0.500
y 0.332 0.432 0.440 0.440
a b c d E F G H
Green x 0.305 0.321 0.228 0.028 x 0.525 0.565 0.542 0.500
y 0.689 0.493 0.351 0.385 y 0.440 0.413 0.382 0.382
I J
x 0.440 0.285
y 0.382 0.264
j k l m
Blue x 0.090 0.186 0.233 0.148
y 0.137 0.214 0.167 0.025
TABLE 12
XY CO-ORDINATES OF THE INTERSECTION POINTS OF THE BOUNDARY LINES
366
SECTION 4
Colour of Boundary Para ref. In Equation Figure Line

Signal Publication CIE
No 2.2(TC-1.6)1975
Red Purple 4.2.4.1.1 y = 0.980 - x 2 RS
Yellow 4.2.4.1.2 y = 0.335 2 RQ
Green Yellow 4.2.4.2.1 x = 0.360 - 0.080 y 3 ab
White 4.2.4.2.2 x = 0.650y 3 bc
Blue 4.2.4.2.3 y = 0.390 - 0.171x 3 cd
White (To be used if the intermediate colour is to be perceived as white)
Red 4.2.4.3.1 y = 0.790 - 0.0667x 4 EF
x = 0.255 + 0.750y 4 FG
Purple 4.2.4.3.2 y = 0.382 4 GI
Blue 4.2.4.3.3 y = 0.047 + 0.762x 4 IJ
4.2.4.3.4 x = 0.285 4 JA
Green 4.2.4.3.5 y = 0.150 + 0.640x 4 AC
y = 0.440 4 CE
Yellow (To be used if the intermediate colour is to be perceived as yellow)
Red 4.2.4.4.1 y = 0.382 2 MN
White 4.2.4.4.2 y = 0.790 - 0.667x 2 LM
Green 4.2.4.4.3 y = x - 0.120 2 KL
Blue (To be used if the fifth colour is to be perceived as blue)
Green 4.2.6.1.1 y = 0.065 + 0.805x 5 jk
White 4.2.6.1.2 x = 0.400 - y 5 kl
Violet 4.2.6.1.3 x = 0.133 + 0.600y 5 lm
TABLE 13
RECAPITULATION OF RECOMMENDED GENERAL BOUNDARIES FOR COLOURS OF LIGHT SIGNALS
367
SECTION 4
Specimen No Test Sequence

1, 2 and 5 1, 2A, 2B
3 and 4 1, 3
Glass Minimum number of specimens required - 5.
Note: In case 3 where it can be shown that the thermal stress is less than 10% and at the same time where it can be shown by calculation
that there is a strength reserve factor of at least 10 on the limit load in the critical loading case, Specimens No. 2 and 5 may be omitted.
Organic materials - For transparencies where flight temperatures do not exceed the material critical temperature, the minimum number of
specimens required for test shall be 4.
Specimen No. Test Sequence

1 1, 2A(LT) 2B(LT)
2 1, 2A(LT) (i) and (ii) : 2B(LT)
3 1, 3
4 1, 3
TABLE 14
368
SECTION 4
For transparencies where flight temperatures exceed the material critical temperature, the minimum number of specimens required for test
shall be 5.
Specimen No. Test Sequence

1 1, 2A(LT) 2B(LT)
2 1, 2A(LT) (i) and (ii) : 2B(LT)
3 1, 3
4 1, 3
5 1, 2A(HT) 2B(HT)
TABLE 14 (Cont)
Notes:
1 Specimen No. 2 shall not undergo the complete Stage 2A (LT) test but terminate at step (ii) before proceeding directly to
Stage 2B(LT).
2 For organic materials in LT cases the additional specimens (Clause 4.18.9) shall be subjected to the test sequence of
Specimens 1 and 2, and for HT cases the additional specimens will follow the test sequence of Specimen No. 5.
369
SECTION 4
Description of Item Variability Factor

Grade A Items
Items in which the load-bearing members are of 3.3
annealed soda-lime or annealed aluminosilicate
glass
Ditto - of fused silica 3.3
Ditto - of thermally toughened aluminosilicate 1.4
glass
Ditto - of thermally toughened soda-lime glass 1.9
Ditto - of chemically toughened glass 1.4
TABLE 15
VARIABILITY FACTORS - GLASS
Note: Confirmation that the variability factors quoted in Table 15 apply to material provided by a specific
manufacturer should be established. Variability factors for materials not listed in this table should also be obtained.
370
SECTION 4
No of specimens tested to the

Description of Item full requirements of Test No. 2
(see Clause 4.18.9)
1 2 3
Grade A items which have undergone a 2.75 2.40 2.20
forming operation
Grade A items which have not 2.35 2.05 1.95
undergone a forming operation
TABLE 16
VARIABILITY FACTORS FOR PERSPEX P TO DTD 5592
Note: For information concerning variability factors for other organic materials reference should be made to the PTL.
371
SECTION 4
Test Stage Loading Conditions Total Factors Applicable

No. 2 Non-thermal 1.5 x Variability Factor in
Stage A Steady Table 1 or Table 2
Thermal 1.0
Non-thermal 2.0 x Variability Factor in
No. 2 Steady Table 1 or Table 2
Thermal 1.0
Stage B Non-thermal 2.0 x Variability Factor in
Transient Table 1 or Table 2
Thermal 1.2
TABLE 17
TOTAL FACTORS - ALL MATERIALS
372
SECTION 4
PARAMETER CATEGORY I CATEGORY II CATEGORY III CATEGORY IV CATEGORY V

In-line visual light transmission
In horizontal plane Not less than 60% Not less than 70% Not less than 55%
In area of lowest transmission Not less than 40% Not less than 50% Not less than 40% As Category III As Category III
Haze Not more than 3% As Category I As Category I As Category I As Category I
Absolute deviation 5 minutes variation Not more than 10 Not more than 15 Not more than 25 Not specified
from an agreed value minutes minutes minutes
Optical resolution Ability to resolve 1 Ability to resolve 10 As Category I As Category I Not specified
minute lines with 1 seconds lines with 10
minute separation seconds separation
Visual distortion Requirement covered Line slope not greater Line slope not greater Line slope not Line slope not
- as assessed by divergence by other parameters than 1 in 25 than 1 in 20 greater than 1 in 10 greater than 1 in 5
of adjacent grid lines by
method 5
Binocular deviation Not more than 10 As Category I, also not As Category I As Category I Not specified
minutes to exceed 2.5 minutes
in vertical direction
Secondary image separation Not specified Not specified Not specified Not specified Not specified
Visible inclusions, seeds, Allow 1 Type A defect a) Allow 1 Type B As Category II a) Allow 1 Type As Category IV
hairs, fibres and scratches only within any circular defect and 4 Type A C defect and 4 Type
area of 100 mm (3.93 defects within any area A defects within any
in) radius o Type B of 150 mm (5.899 in) area of 150 mm
defects No Type C radius (5.899 in) radius
SEE NOTES defects
b) Allow 8 Type A b) Allow 2 Type
defects only within B and 8 Type A
the same area defects in the same
No Type C defects area
TABLE 18
ACCEPTABLE LIMITS OF THE PARAMETERS ASSOCIATED WITH VISION THROUGH OPTICAL TRANSPARENCIES
373
SECTION 4
NOTES TO TABLE 18
Type A defects: having a diameter in the range 0.2 - 0.5 mm (0.0079 - 0.0197 in) or equivalent area (0.03 - 0.2 mm2) (0.0000465 - 0.00031 in2); this
includes hairs, fibres or hair scratches of width not exceeding 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) and equivalent area 0.2 mm2 (0.00031 in2).
Type B defects: having a diameter 0.5 - 1.0 mm (0.0197 - 0.0394 in) or equivalent area (0.2 - 0.8 mm2) (0.00031 - 0.0012 in2 ) including hairs etc.
of width not exceeding 0.2 mm (0.0079 in) and equivalent area 0.8 mm2 (0.0012 in2).
Type C defects: having a diameter 1.0 - 1.5 mm (0.0394 - 0.0592 in) or equivalent area (0.8 - 1.8 mm2) (0.0012 - 0.0028 in2) including hairs etc. of
width not exceeding 0.2 mm (0.0079 in) and equivalent area 1.8 mm (0.0709 in).
Defects larger than Type C not admissible.
The following overriding conditions are to be observed:
Defects which are dense black or of intense colour, and strongly reflecting defects (known as "glint") are not admissible in panels of Category I,
areas for weapon aiming, but are admissible in other Category I areas, and in Category II and III areas. Similar black Type B defects are not
admissible in Category II and III areas.
A local accumulation of defects of dimensions smaller than Type A is admissible provided the haze requirement is met. The haze measurement
should then be confined to the area of accumulation.
Permitted defects shall not be within 10 mm (0.3937 in) of each other.
374
SECTION 4
Item Service Location Actuation Remarks

No
1 AIR BRAKE
(a) CONTROL
Single or Tandem On, or adjacent to, throttle grip. )
)
Side-by-side On, or adjacent to, the line of ) Switch or lever - forward for air brakes Standard knob shape to Def Stan 00-970
symmetry of the throttles on side ) IN, aft for air brakes OUT. shall be used when control is adjacent to
nearest to first pilot. Available to ) throttles.
both pilots. )
)
(b) POSITION INDICATOR Forward of engine power controls. - -
2 ASSISTED TAKE-OFF
(a) FIRING CONTROL
Aeroplanes with stick Immediately forward of engine Push button, shrouded but without -
type control power controls when in fully open safety flap. Press for TAKE-OFF.
position. Within reach with
harness locked.
Aeroplanes with spectacle Push button, guarded with a hinged -
type control On throttle hand side of grip of first flap. Press for TAKE-OFF.
pilot.
(b)
MASTER SWITCH On a panel available to first pilot's As SIS 3654. -
throttle hand.
(c) JETTISON CONTROL Near the master switch. Preferably a push button with safety -
flap.
3 AUTOMATIC FLIGHT
CONTROL SYSTEM )
(a) CONTROL PANEL )
Single or tandem On left hand side of cockpit, where ) ) The direction of actuation of
control stick steering is employed. ) ) controls for the control surfaces -
On centre pedestal, accessible to ) ) of the aeroplane shall be in direct
Side-by-side both pilots. 9 ) ) relation to the desired motion of
) ) the aeroplane, The direction of -
) ) actuation of all other controls/
) ) switches shall be in accordance with
) ) Clauses 4.15.20-21.9
AUTOMATIC FLIGHT
CONTROL SYSTEM
375
SECTION 4
SELECTOR Preferably on stick or control

Single or tandem wheel but a less accessible The direction of actuation of controls -
(b) position on either side of the for the control surfaces of the
cockpit is acceptable aeroplane shall be in direct relation to
the desired motion of the aeroplane.
One control available to both pilots The direction of actuation of all other
Side by side is acceptable. controls/switches shall be in -
accordance with ) Clauses 4.15.20-21
9
On flight instrument panel, visible
REMOTE TRIM INDICATOR to first pilot during instrument
(If required) approach. -
(c) On leading edge of stick grip, or in

DISENGAGE BUTTON wheel controlled aeroplanes the Press to disengage Shall have emergency markings if
(EMERGENCY DISCONNECT) disengage button shall be located emergency disconnect is incorporated10.
on the side of the wheel opposite
(d) the throttle hand.
4 BRAKE PARACHUTE As high as possible on, or (i) Electrical - 3 position Standard knob shape to Def Stan 00-970
CONTROL adjacent to, the instrument panel switch aft or down for shall be used.
on the throttle side. Available to STREAM, centre for OFF,
first pilot with harness locked. forward or up for JETTISON.
A gate between OFF and
JETTISON.2
(ii) Mechanical - Pull to STREAM,
turn handle through 90 in
either direction and pull
again to JETTISON. Handle
shall not be rotatable during
streaming.2
5 INTERNAL FLIGHT Adjacent to engine power controls Lever, rearward movement to lock (i) Lever shall be painted red
CONTROL LOCKS2 flying controls. in accordance with Part 1, Section 7,
Clause 7.4.6
(ii) The locks shall be so

designed that it shall be
impossible to obtain
take-off power with locks
engaged.
6 LANDING FLAPS Aft, or outboard of engine power
(a) CONTROL (see also Clause controls on left hand console.2 In Lever - forward or up for flaps UP aft Standard knob shape to Def Stan 00-970)
4.19.13) case of side-by-side seats with or down for flaps DOWN.2 shall be used.
centre console location to be
agreed with the Aeroplane Project
376
SECTION 4
Director. Within reach with

harness locked.
(b) INDICATOR Adjacent to undercarriage position

Single or tandem indicator. )
)
Bottom of central engine )
Side-by-side instrument panel, visible to both ) - -
pilots. )
7 POWERED FLYING Within reach of pilot(s) with Forward or up for power ON. Control failure warning shall be given on
CONTROLS SELECTOR harness locked. Preferably Standard Warning System (see Clause
operable by throttle hand. 4.19.59).
8 TRIM CONTROLS2
(a) Manual Controls A wheel(s) or knob(s) shall be - -

used and located adjacent to the
engine power controls
(b) Electrical controls Stick grip control: switch shall be ) Actuation shall be in direct All trim controls shall be within easy reach
(i) Roll/Pitch switch located on the stick grip so that it ) relationship to the desired motion of with shoulder harness in place and locked.
can be easily operated by the ) the aeroplane.
pilot's gloved finger or thumb. )
)
Wheel control: switch shall be )
placed on each wheel on the side )
opposite to the throttle hand or )
after agreement with the )
Aeroplane Project Director on the )
pedestal adjacent to the engine )
power controls. )
)
(ii) Rudder trim Stick grip control: adjacent to the )
engine power controls )
)
Wheel control: on pedestal )
adjacent to engine power controls. )
)
A guard over the standby pitch ) - Shall have emergency markings.10.
(iii) Trim isolating trim switch, available to pilot(s)
switch with harness locked.
377
SECTION 4
(c) INDICATOR (see also On or adjacent to, each trim - -

Clause 4.19.15) control.
Manual trimmers Pitch trim indicator on left hand - Pitch trim indicator shall be labelled TAIL.
quarter of main instrument panel;
other indicators also on left hand
Electrical trimmers quarter of main instrument panel
or forward to appropriate controls
and easily visible to pilot.
9 UNDERCARRIAGE2
(a) NORMAL CONTROL
Single or tandem Immediately forward and above Lever control: upwards to retract; Lever control handle shape shall be in
the primary engine controls when downwards to extend. accordance with Def Stan 00-970
in the fully open position and shall
be easily reached by pilot(s) in 2 buttons control: top button for
fully restrained position. undercarriage UP, lower button for
DOWN.
(b) STANDBY LOWERING - -

Single or tandem To the left of the pilot, adjacent to
the normal landing gear control.
- -
Side-by-side Adjacent to the normal landing
gear control and accessible to
both pilots.
(c) EMERGENCY Adjacent to or integral with normal Lever control: the override must be Shall have emergency markings
OVERRIDE undercarriage control within reach actuated and then the level raised.
RETRACTION of the pilot(s) in the fully restrained
position. Push Button: 60 twist and push of
undercarriage Up button. -
(d) POSITION INDICATOR Adjacent to undercarriage control. -

(see also Clause 4.19.16)
10 WING SWEEP CONTROL Adjacent to and outboard of To be agreed with the Aeroplane -
engine power controls.2 Project Director.
TABLE 19 - FLYING CONTROLS
Reference 2 – ASCC Air Std 10/15 and STANAG 3220

378
SECTION 4
379
SECTION 4
Control Location
(a) Two or four way trim switch when trimming is by Top aft face of grip, easily operable by the
an electrical system gloved finger or thumb.
(b) Guns/camera trigger, with Mechanical safety Forward face of grip.
catch
(c) Bombs/RP/weapon release button, with guard Top right hand side of grip.
(d) Weapon systems (camera) recorder button Top centre after face of grip.
(e) Automatic flight control system disengage button Leading edge of grip.
(f) Nose wheel steering engagement push button Bottom left hand side of grip.
TABLE 20
CONTROL COLUMN CONTROLS
380
SECTION 4
Control Location
(a) Two or four way trim switch when trimming is by On side opposite to throttle hand easily operable
an electrical system by the gloved finger or thumb (see also Table
19, Item 8).
(b) Press-to-transmit push button On side opposite to throttle hand, positioned to
avoid confusion with trim switch.
(c) Automatic flight control system disengage button On side opposite to throttle hand.
(d) Assisted take-off firing push button, with guard On throttle hand side.
(e) Nose wheel steering push button On side opposite to throttle hand.
TABLE 21
CONTROL COLUMN CONTROLS
381
SECTION 4

No
1 NOSE WHEEL STEERING2
(a) CONTROL
Single or Tandem Push Button control to engage or Press to engage, press to For those aeroplanes with steering
disengage located on control stick grip. disengage control by rudder pedals actuation of the
steering control may be: Push to
engage, release to disengage.
Side-by-Side Either a single wheel type control, Press to engage: press to

outboard of the pilot's station, normally disengage.
left hand seat only, or a rudder pedal
control engaged by a push button on the
flight control wheel or stick. When flight
control wheel is used switch shall be on
the control side opposite the throttle
hand.
(b) INDICATOR On main instrument panel, adjacent to Indicate IN for nose wheel Indicator to be fitted only when a push
undercarriage control. steering engaged.2 button control is used on Army or RAF
aeroplanes.
2 PARKING BRAKE CONTROL On right hand side of cockpit. Available to Pull to apply brakes, with provision The location shall be such as to enable
Single or tandem first pilot only. for locking on. the take-off to be easily and quickly
Side-by-side started.
3 TAIL WHEEL LOCKING On console aft of engine power controls. Switch or lever, forward or up for -
Available to first pilot only in side-by-side LOCK.
case.
4 WHEEL BRAKES A brake pedal on each rudder pedal.2 ) Toe operation.
2
-
(a) NORMAL SYSTEM )
(b) EMERGENCY SYSTEM On left hand console within reach of pilot Pull to select emergency brakes )
Single or tandem with harness locked.2 system. ) Shall have emergency markings.10
)
Side-by-side Adjacent to engine power controls within Pull to apply brakes. )
reach of both pilots with harness locked.2 )
TABLE 22 - GROUND MANOEUVRING CONTROLS

382
SECTION 4

No
1 ABANDON AIRCRAFT
COMMAND VISUAL
SIGNAL CONTROL
(see also Clauses 4.15.39-
40)
All multi-seat aeroplanes At first pilot's station, operable by 2-position switch, guarded12 in Shall have emergency markings.10
throttle hand,12 with harness locked aft or OFF position. Labelled
ABANDON AIRCRAFT,
forward position labelled
ABANDON.
2 AIFRAME DE-ICING
CONTROLS
Single or tandem Grouped together on right hand )
console ) For location of pilot head heater
Side-by-side ) - switch, see Table 29.
Grouped together on centre console.
3 ALTIMETER-CABIN Right hand side of main instrument - -
PRESSURE panel.
4 CANOPY OPEN/CLOSE
CONTROL
(see also Clause 4.19.28)
Single or tandem High and forward on left hand side of )
each cockpit.2 )
)
Side-by-side Separate control for each pilot, high ) Forward or downward to close, Duplicated controls shall be capable
and forward on outboard sides of ) corresponding to movement of of independent operation.2
2
cockpit, easily visible. Alternatively, a ) canopy.
single control, high and forward in )
centre of cockpit, operable by either )
pilot.3 )
5 CANOPY JETTISON
CONTROL
(see also Clause 4.23)
Single or tandem Left hand side of cockpit, about thigh )
level, within reach with arm bent )
383
SECTION 4

No
slightly and harness locked. ) Pull forward and upward to Standard knob shape to by Def Stan
) operate. 00-970 shall be used. Shall have
Outboard of each pilot or ) emergency markings.10
Side-by-side alternatively one control within reach )
of both pilots, about thigh level, within
reach with arm bent slightly and )
harness locked.
6 CABIN PRESSURISATION )
CONTROL ) 2-position or, where relevant, -
) 3-position switch labelled
Single or tandem On right hand console. ) CABIN PRESSURE. Forward
) position labelled CRUISE,
Side-by-side On central console or roof panel, ) centre COMBAT, rear
available to both pilots. ) UNPRESS. Gate between
) CRUISE and COMBAT, thumb
catch between COMBAT and
UNPRESS
7 CABIN EMERGENCY Available to first pilot's throttle hand 2-position switch, labelled Shall have emergency markings.10
DEPRESSURISATION irrespective of location of cabin CABIN PRESSURE
RELEASE. Forward position
SWITCH pressurisation control (see item 6) PRESS, rear UNPRESS. Gate
between switch positions.
8 CABIN TEMPERATURE On starboard console. - Standard knob shape to Def Stan
CONTROL 00-970 shall be used.
9 EMERGENCY OXYGEN On front of seat pan to right of right Pull upward and rearward to Standard knob shape to Def Stan
CONTROL knee, but for side-by-side seats operate. 00-970 shall be used. Shall have
positioning of control to permit emergency markings.
mutual support is acceptable. Knob
to be approximately at console
height, visible to and within easy
reach of pilot.
10 SAFETY HARNESS On front of left hand side of seat pan. "Go-forward" lever operating in Harness shall lock automatically
LOCKING natural sense to permit pilot to when pilot leans back.
CONTROL extend his reach forward
under control of inertia reel.
11 SEAT ADJUSTMENT
CONTROL
(a) VERTICAL ADJUSTMENT On right hand side of seat pan, or for Mechanical control – Lever -
384
SECTION 4

No
side-by-side seats with central operating in natural sense,
console on outboard side of each with push button in knob to
seat when access to seat is limited. unlock lever. Balanced system
Alternatively, for ejection seats, may be used. Electrical control
electrical switch may be on console. - 3-
position switch operating in
natural sense, with centre- off
position.
(b) FORE-AND-AFT Below vertical adjustment lever. Lever operating in natural See also Clause 4.16.13
ADJUSTMENT sense.
(non-ejection seats)
TABLE 23 - ENVIRONMENT AND ESCAPE CONTROLS AND INSTRUMENTS

Reference 3 – Reserved
385
SECTION 4

No
1 CARBURETTOR AIR INTAKE Aft of, or below, primary engine 3-position control; forward or up The knob shape shall be a cube
CONTROL4 power controls.4 for RAM, centre for FILTER, aft mounted vertically through 2 opposite
(Piston engine aeroplanes) or down for HOT.4 On multi- corners or a rectangle with rounded
engine aeroplanes, a single ends mounted along the major axis.4
control shall operate the air
intake valves of all engines.
2 COOLING CONTROLS -
COWL
GILLS, OIL COOLERS, ETC. Right hand console. )
Single or tandem )
At flight engineer's station if ) Forward, up or clockwise to -
Side-by-side carried; otherwise on overhead ) increase cooling.
panel or centre console, aft of )
engine power controls.
3 FUEL CUT-OFF AND IDLING Aft of engine power controls. Forward or up for RUN, aft or -
CUT-OFF CONTROLS down for CUT-OFF.
4 IN-AIR START/RELIGHT
CONTROL
(Turbo-jet and turbo-
propeller aeroplanes)
4
Single or tandem On or adjacent to throttles. ) 2-position switch - forward or up If a separate HP cock is fitted the
) for ON, aft or down for OFF. control shall be on or adjacent to the
Side-by-side On or adjacent to throttles or on ) Push button - press for ON.4 HP cock.
overhead panel.4 )
5 MIXTURE CONTROL 4
(Piston engine aeroplanes)
Single or Tandem On the left of the pilot within easy )
reach with shoulder harness in ) Knob shape shall be a radially
place and locked. (See also ) mounted cylinder with pyramidal
4
Clause 4.16.9). ) projections.
Side-by-side
On a centre console accessible to )
both pilots with the shoulder )
harness in place and locked. On )
aeroplanes having single grip )
386
SECTION 4

No
control of flight services i.e. stick )
control, and side by side seating ) Forward for rich mixture.
which requires duplicated primary )
power controls, one set of controls )
shall be accessible to the left hand )
of each pilot when his shoulder )
(See also Clause 4.16.9).
10
6 PROPELLER FEATHERING Forward in conspicuous position Shrouded push button, press to Shall have emergency markings. .
CONTROL on cockpit coaming, orientated FEATHER, pull to
(Piston engine aeroplanes.) horizontally to correspond with UNFEATHER.
engines. Within reach of pilot(s)
with harness locked.
7 PROPELLER PITCH
CONTROL4 On the left of the pilot within easy ) Knob shape shall be in
(Piston engine aeroplanes) reach with shoulder harness in ) accordance with Def Stan 00-970
Single or tandem place and locked. (See also )
Clause 4.16.9).
Side by side On a centre console accessible to )
both pilots with the shoulder )
harness in place and locked. On ) Forward for increased RPM
aeroplanes having single grip )
control of flight services i.e. stick )
control, and side by side seating, )
which requires duplicated primary )
power controls, one set of controls )
shall be accessible to the left hand )
of each pilot when his shoulder )
8 PROPELLER PITCH On pitch control lever spindle Knurled knob, rotate clockwise -
FRICTION to tighten
CONTROL
9 REVERSIBLE PITCH
PROPELLER CONTROLS4
387
SECTION 4

No
(Piston engine and turbo- Integral with throttle lever. Movement of throttle aft through The control shape shall be a small
propeller aeroplanes) a lift gate to select reverse pitch: diameter cylinder horizontally end
further movement aft to mounted.4
increase reverse power.
10 AFTER BURNER Integral with throttle Outboard and forward through a Throttle position forward of gate to be
CONTROLS4 gate, or forward with a positive labelled 'Afterburner'.
indication between full throttle
and afterburner light-up.
11 AFTER BURNER (VARIABLE
NOZZLE POSITION) On instrument panel near to - -
INDICATOR engine power indicator.
(Turbine engine aeroplanes)
12 REVERSIBLE JET THRUST Adjacent to or integral with throttle (i) Separate control When the Knob shape shall be in accordance
CONTROL4 lever. reverse thrust control is with Def Stan 00-970
(Turbine engine aeroplanes) separated from the throttle, aft
movement of the control shall
result in an increase of the
rearward thrust component.
(ii) Integrated control When
the reverse thrust control is
integrated with the throttle,
reverse thrust shall be
controlled, preferentially by
movement of the throttle aft
through a lift gate with further
movement aft to increase
reverse power.
Note: When this method is
impractical or impossible to
implement, reverse thrust can
be selected by another
movement (e.g. outboard) with
forward movement to increase
reverse power.
13 STARTING CONTROLS
388
SECTION 4

No
(a) IGNITION SWITCHES
Single or Tandem On left hand side of main )
instrument panel, forward of )
engine power controls.4 Within )
reach with harness locked. ) Means shall be provided for switching
) Forward or up for ignition ON. off all ignition switches
Side-by-side On overhead panel, if fitted1: ) simultaneously.
otherwise forward of engine power )
controls. Available to both pilots )
with harness locked. )
(b) STARTER, BOOSTER COIL,

PRIMING AND OIL
DILUTION SWITCHES
Single or tandem Grouped on starting panel )
mounted centrally below main )
instrument panel, or in any other )
position not required for in-flight )
controls. )
Side-by-side ) - Starter and booster coil switches for
Grouped on aft of overhead panel, ) each engine shall be side-by-side.
if fitted; if not fitted, aft on centre )
console; if no centre console, aft
on left hand console.
14 STARTING CONTROLS
(Turbine engine aeroplanes)
(a) IGNITION SWITCHES Adjacent to, and to left of, starter Forward or up for ignition ON. -
button.
(b) STARTER CONTROLS
Single or tandem Aft on right hand console. - -
15 SUPERCHARGER
CONTROLS4
(Piston Engine Aeroplanes)
Single or Tandem Outboard and aft of engine power
controls
389
SECTION 4

No
- The knob shape shall be a radially
Side by Side On centre console to the left and mounted cylinder with fluted sides
aft of engine power controls. representing an impeller or a cube
with rounded edges mounted
horizontally on its central axis.4
16 THROTTLES4
Single or tandem On the left of the pilot within easy ) ) Duplicated controls shall be
reach with shoulder harness in ) ) interconnected.
place and locked (see also Clause ) )
4.16.9). ) )
Side-by-side ) ) Throttle shape shall be in
On a centre console accessible to ) ) accordance with Def Stan 00-970
both pilots with the shoulder ) )
harness in place and locked. On ) )
aeroplanes having single grip ) )
control of flight services i.e. stick ) )
control, and side by side seating ) Forward to increase )
which requires duplicated primary ) performance. )
power controls, one set of controls ) )
shall be accessible to the lefthand ) )
of each pilot when the shoulder
17 THROTTLES - FRICTION On throttle spindle. Knurled knob, rotate clockwise A lever is not acceptable
CONTROL to tighten.
18 ENGINE EMERGENCY Above the engine instruments or (i) 'T' handle: Pull down to shut The 'T' handle control shape shall be
SHUT-DOWN CONTROL4 on the overhead console adjacent down affected engine. in accordance with Def Stan 00-970
to the Fire Extinguishant/Agent
10
Discharge Control. (ii) Protected push button or Shall have emergency markings.
toggle switch. Actuation of the
toggle switch shall be upward or
forward to activate
19 FIRE Above engine instruments or on Push button or toggle switch, Shall have emergency markings.10
EXTINGUISHANT/AGENT the overhead console adjacent to protected where applicable.
DISCHARGE CONTROL4 the Engine Emergency Shut-down Actuation of the toggle switch shall
Control be upward or forward to activate.
390
SECTION 4

No
20 PROPELLER Adjacent to the engine power See Clause 4.19.33 The knob shape shall be in
CONDITION/HIGH controls and in multi-engine accordance with Def Stan 00-970
PRESSURE COCK (TURBO- aeroplanes shall be arranged side
PROP AEROPLANES)4 by side in the same order as the
engine power controls.
21 THRUST VECTOR The thrust vector control shall be Aft movement of the lever or (i) When a three position switch is
CONTROLS18 designed and positioned so that switch shall rotate the direction of used, it shall be spring loaded to
the pilot can easily control the the thrust vector upward from the return to the centre off position.
magnitude and direction of thrust horizontal (i.e. away from the
vector throughout the full range of aeroplane horizontal axis) to the (ii) The shape of the controls shall
engine power and vector control. vertical and if necessary through not conflict with any existing control
Either a lever or a three position the vertical. shapes in Def Stan 00-970
switch shall be used.
TABLE 24 - ENGINE CONTROLS

References 1 – ASCC Air Std 10/22
References 4 – ASCC Air Std 10/13 and 10/44, STANAG 7139
References 10 – ASCC Air Std 10/23 and STANAG 3341
391
SECTION 4

No
1 BOOSTER PUMP CONTROLS On fuel system panel (see Switches guarded against -
Clause 4.19.38). inadvertent operation.
2 CROSS-FEED AND TRANSFER On fuel system panel (see In the natural sense, i.e. left to right -
COCKS Clause 4.19.39). or front to rear, according to the
disposition of the fuel tanks.
3 DROP TANKS RELEASE On left hand console or left hand 2-Position, guarded, switch-forward Control shall be labelled.
CONTROL (see also Clause side panel, within reach with or up for SAFE, aft or down for DROP TANKS/RELEASE.
4.19.40) harness locked. RELEASE.
Alternatively, recessed push button-
push for RELEASE.
4 EMERGENCY FUEL SWITCHES4 On the same side as the throttle - Shall have emergency
(Fuel Isolating Switches) in a position from which it can markings.10
be easily seen and readily
reached by the pilot.
5 FUEL SYSTEM SELECTOR For single and tandem pilots, aft - -
CONTROLS4 of, and as close as practical to
(Toggle or Rotary Switches) the primary power control.
6 FUEL JETTISON CONTROL On fuel system panel (see Double action control, pull and twist -
Clause 4.19.38) to jettison.
7 HP FUEL COCKS Incorporated in throttle lever, - -
(Turbo-jet engine aeroplanes) unless reverse thrust is
provided, then a separate
control adjacent to the
associated throttle.
8 LP FUEL COCKS On fuel system panel (see Forward or up for fuel ON. Standard knob shape to Def
Clause 4.19.38). Stan 00-970 shall be used.
TABLE 25 - FUEL SYSTEM CONTROLS
References 4 – ASCC Air Std 10/13 and 10/44, STANAG 7139

392
SECTION 4

No
1 ANTI-DAZZLE LIGHTING On lighting panel, in such a position 3-Position guarded switch- Switch shall be labelled ANTI-
SWITCH (see also Clauses that pilot(s) can find and operate it forward or up for BRIGHT, DAZZLE.14
4.15.63 -64 and Part 13, quickly and easily when blind and centre for OFF, aft or down for
Section 1.1) with harness locked. DIM.14
2 MASTER ELECTRICAL Together and in the most forward )
SWITCHES 13 position on the right-hand console. )
)
Single or Tandem ) Guarded Switches
Side-by-Side Together and if possible accessible ) -
to both pilots and on the overhead )
panel if fitted. )
3 LIGHTING, DE-ICING, ANTI-
ICING, PITOT HEAD AND EN-
VIRONMENTAL CONTROL
SWITCHES13
Single or tandem Functionally grouped together on ) - -

the right console )
Side-by-Side Functionally grouped together and if ) - -
possible, accessible to both pilots )
and on the overhead panel if fitted. )
4 LANDING LAMP SWITCHES Adjacent to undercarriage control or Beam angle control switch, Multi-purpose switch may be
aft of engine power controls13 within forward for DOWN, aft for UP. used for both landing and taxying
reach of pilot(s). lamps.
TABLE 26 - ELECTRICAL CONTROLS
References 13 – ASCC 10/14 and STANAG 3219

References 14 – ASCC 10/19 and STANAG 3224
393
SECTION 4

No
1 COMMUNICATION, NAVIGATION,
IDENTIFICATION AND APPROACH
AID CONTROLS
(a) CONTROLS USED DURING Operable by pilot(s) throttle Any radio change-over switch If a remote channel and/or
CRITICAL MODES OF FLIGHT, hand with minimum shall operate in natural sense. frequency indicator is fitted, it
INCLUDING TAKE-OFF AND interference with his primary shall be located in the pilot's
LANDING tasks. Readily visible from forward field of view, but not
pilot's normal eye datum below the level of the primary
without movement of head. flight instruments.6
Within easy reach with harness
6
locked.
(b) CONTROLS NOT USED
DURING CRITICAL MODES
OF FLIGHT
Single or Tandem On right hand console6 within ) Any radio change-over switch If a remote channel and/or
reach with harness locked. ) shall operate in natural sense. frequency indicator is fitted, it
Readily visible from pilot's ) shall be located in the pilot's
normal eye datum without ) forward field of view, but not
movement of head. below the level of the primary
6
flight instruments .
Side-by-Side On centre console or over- ) Any radio change-over switch If a remote channel and/or
head panel within reach of both ) shall operate in natural sense. frequency indicator is fitted, it
pilots6 with harness locked. ) shall be located in the pilot's
Readily visible from pilot's ) forward field of view, but not
normal eye datum without ) below the level of the primary
6
movement of head. flight instruments .
2 MUTING SWITCH Adjacent to VHF/UHF controls. 2-position toggle switch-forward -
Operable by throttle hand. or up for NORMAL, aft or down
for MUTE.
3 PRESS-TO-TRANSMIT SWITCH
Single or Tandem In end of inboard throttle grip. )
Side-by-Side On spectacle type control grip, )
on side opposite to throttle ) Press to TRANSMIT Toggle switch not acceptable.
hand, positioned to avoid )
confusion with trim switch. One )
for each pilot.
394
SECTION 4

No
4 RADIO ALTIMETER
SELECTOR
Single or tandem Preferably for operation by - -
throttle hand. Otherwise right
hand side of cockpit.
Side-by-Side Within reach of both pilots. - -
TABLE 27 - RADIO CONTROLS
395
SECTION 4

No
1 BOMB DOORS
(a) CONTROL On left hand console or side panel. 2 or 3-position control. For 3-position -
control-forward or up for OPEN,
centre for CLOSED, aft or down for
AUTO.
(b) POSITION INDICATOR On left hand side of cockpit, or 3-Position magnetic indicator, -
instrument panel. To be mounted labelled BOMB DOORS POSITION,
vertically and easily seen by both showing black for closed, striped for
pilots. transit and white with black O for
open.
2 BOMBS/RP/WEAPON Top right hand side of stick grip.1 Guarded button - press to release. -
RELEASE
3 WEAPON SYSTEM (CAMERA) Top centre aft face of stick grip.1 Push button - push to actuate. -
RECORDER
4 GUN TRIGGER Forward face of stick grip.1 Conventional. Mechanical safety Gun trigger shall also
catch to be fitted. operate cine camera.
5 JETTISON CONTROLS
(Non-nuclear stores)
(a) ALL EXTERNAL STORES On vertical panel immediately Recessed push button, unguarded - Shall have emergency
forward of engine power controls in push to release all external markings.10
such a position that it can be armament stores and fuel drop
operated while maintaining normal tanks. Labelled ALL EXTERNAL
forward vision. Within reach of both STORES JETTISON
pilots, or if not possible, first pilot
only, with harness locked.
(b) EXTERNAL ARMAMENT - Recessed push button, unguarded Selective jettisoning shall be
STORES push to release all external provided when required by
armament stores. the Project Director.
(c) INTERNAL BOMBS Left hand console, well separated 3-Position guarded switch-forward or (i) Shall control
from bomb door control. up for JETTISON, centre for OFF, operation of bomb door and
aft or down for OVERRIDE. jettisoning of bombs in
sequence.
(ii) Shall have

emergency markings.
6 MANUAL AI CONTROLLER Left hand console. - -
7 MANUAL RANGING On throttle grip. Turn anti-clockwise or wrist down for -
CONTROL minimum range.
8 SIGHTING CONTROLS On or adjacent to the throttle lever. - -
396
SECTION 4

No
9 TARGET REJECT SWITCH On throttle grip. 3-Position switch-forward for OUT, -
centre for OFF, aft for IN.
10 WEAPON SIGHT
EMERGENCY RETRACTION On left hand side of weapon sight Push to retract Shall have emergency
CONTROL base. markings.10
TABLE 28 - ARMAMENT CONTROLS
References 1 – ASCC Air Std 10/22

397
SECTION 4

No
1 INSTRUMENTS POWER Adjacent to attitude indicator. Magnetic indicator to show black and -
FAILURE INDICATOR white diagonal stripes when
(see also Clause 4.19.47) changeover to standby inverter has
occurred.
Labelled STANDBY INVERTOR ON
2 PITOT HEAD HEATER With engine starting group. - -
SWITCH
3 TURN AND SLIP STANDBY Adjacent to each turn and slip Labelled T AND S STANDBY -
POWER SWITCH indicator. SUPPLY
ON/OFF.
TABLE 29 - FLYING INSTRUMENT CONTROLS
GENERAL NOTES ON TABLES 29 TO 40
(1) Directions are given as in Note (1) above.
(2) The figures given in Tables 29 to 35 are taken from Reference 2 of Leaflet 0.
(3) The figures given in Tables 37 to 40 are taken from Chapter 307 of Def Stan 00-970 Vol 1 as at AL 10.
(4) Conversions from ft/sec to m/sec are given to nearest 1/2 m/sec.
398
SECTION 4
Direction Max Jerk

(See (Impulse Duration (ms) (G/sec)
Note 1) (see
1000 500 200 100 60 40 20 10 1 Note 2)
Forward 12 17 25 33 40 45 50 60 60 500
Aft 20 23 30 36 38 40 45 47 47 500
Lateral (4) (5) (10) 12 (13) (14) (15) (16) (16) 500
Down 5 7 10 15 20 25 25 25 25 500
Up 5 7 10 12 13 14 17 18 19 100
TABLE 30 - LIMITS OF HUMAN TOLERANCE (G)
NOTES ON TABLE 30
(1) Directions are those of the pilot's eyeball movement, during the impulse, relative to aeroplane axes.
(2) Jerk is also known as 'aggravation' and onset rate'.
(3) Forward, aft, down and up values have been taken from Reference 1 of Leaflet 0 under Clause 4.22.
(4) For lateral accelerations the value 12 at 100 ms has been taken from Para 4.3.5 of USARTL-TR-79-22B. (Part of Reference 1). Other values
have been derived by proportion using forward and aft values for comparison. These are bracketed.
(5) The times given are the plateau durations. Total times will in each case be longer because of the time required for the initial jerk.
(6) For design purposes acceleration factors given may be assumed to be whole-body tolerance limits for all seated fully-restrained occupants.
399
SECTION 4
CASE PARTS PLATEAU

NO AFFECTED DIRECTION VELOCITY CHANGE DURATION
m/s ft/sec m/s
1 Cockpit Longitudinal forward 6.1 20 100
2 Cabin Longitudinal forward 12.1 40 100
3 All Vertical down 12.8 42 50
4 All Lateral 9.1 30 100
5 All Vertical down and 12.8 42 50
Longitudinal forward 8.2 27 100
6 All Vertical down and 4.3 14 50
Longitudinal forward 30.5 100 100
7 Airframe and Vertical down 7.9 26 50
Seats
8 All Seats Vertical down, 13.0 42.6 50
Longitudinal forward, 7.6 25.0 100
and Lateral 2.6 8.7 100
9 All Seats Longitudinal forward 13.2 43.3 100
and Lateral 7.6 25.0 100
10 Crew Seats Vertical down 12.6 42.0 50
TABLE 31
DESIGN AND TEST CASES
NOTES ON TABLE 31
(1) Case 5. High angle approach, 50 ft/sec (15.2 m/s) at 50o.
(2) Case 6. Low angle approach to ploughed field 101 ft/sec (30.8 m/s) at 8o.
(3) Case 7. Undercarriage up case. May also be used as guidance when

considering ditching cases.
(4) Case 8 & 9 Test cases 50 ft/sec (15.2 m/s) resolved.
(5) Case 10. Test case for crew seats with 50% and 95% dummy.
All cases except case 6. Impacts are against rigid hard surfaces.
400
SECTION 4
Direction Acceleration Body Mass Deflection Limit

Factor (G) lb kg in cm
Forward 35 250 114 2 5.1 Max
Aft 12 250 114 2 5.1 Max
Lateral 20 250 114 4 10.2 Max
Down (bottomed)* 48 (25-25) 250 91 12 30.5 Min

(15 preferred)
Up 8 250 114 2 5.1 Max
TABLE 32
SEATS FOR CREW AND SPECIFIED OCCUPANTS

(Clause 4.22 and Leaflet 76 Para. 2.1)
* See Leaflet 75 Para. 7.1
401
SECTION 4
Direction Acceleration Body Mass Deflection Limit

Factor (G) lb kg in cm
Forward (bottomed)* 35 (30-15) 242 110 - -
Aft 12 242 110 - -
Lateral U&OR* 23 (23-10) 242 110 - -

(bottomed) ACR* 20 (20-10) 242 110 -
Down (bottomed)* 36 (14.5 ± 1.0) 198 90 12 30.5 Min
Up 8 242 110 - -
TABLE 33
SEATS FOR OTHER OCCUPANTS

(Clause 4.22 and Leaflet 76 Para. 3.1)
U&OR = Utility and Observation Aeroplanes (Cat B)

A&CR = Attack and Cargo Aeroplanes (Cat A and B)
402
SECTION 4
Direction Acceleration Factor (G) Note

Forward 35
Aft 15 For acceleration factors applicable to Non-Hazardous
Lateral 25 Equipment and Components See Clause 4.22.44
Down 50
Up 10
TABLE 34
HAZARDOUS EQUIPMENT ETC

(Clause 4.22)
403
SECTION 4
Direction Restraint (G)

Forward (bottomed)* 35 (16-6)
Aft As Clause 4.22.49 – 50
Lateral (bottomed)* 25 (10.3) BLANK
Down As Clause 4.22.49 – 50
Up As Clause 4.22.49 – 50
TABLE 35
CARGO AND FREIGHT

(Clause 4.22)
404
SECTION 4
Direction Individually (G) Combined

Forward 20 20 10 10 ) Longitudinal
or or or )
Aft 20 20 10 10 ) Alternatives
Lateral 18 0 9 18 Alternating L & R
Down 20 10 20 10 ) Vertical
or or or )
Up 10 5 10 5 ) Alternatives
TABLE 36
RESTRAINT OF MASSIVE ITEMS

(Clause 4.22)
405
SECTION 4
Direction Restraint (G)

Forward 20
Aft 12
Lateral 20 BLANK
Down 25
Up 8
TABLE 37
(CLAUSE 4.22)
406
SECTION 4
World
Sea Meteorological Organisation Design Design
State Description Significant Wave Wind
No Wave Height (m) Slope Speed (kn)
0 Calm (Glassy) 0 - -
1 Calm (Ripples) 0 - 0.1 - -
2 Smooth (Wavelets) 0.1 - 0.5 - -
3 Slight 0.5 - 1.25 1:20 15
4 Moderate 1.25 - 2.5 1:16 20
5 Rough 2.5 - 4.0 1:12 25
6 Very Rough 4.0 - 6.0 1:10 30
7 High 6.0 - 9.0 - -
8 Very High 9.0 - 14.0 - -
9 Phenomenal over 14 - -
TABLE 38
SEA CONDITIONS
NOTES ON TABLE 38
(1) The Significant Wave Height (SWH) is defined as the average value of the
height (vertical distance between trough and crest) of the largest 1/3 of waves
present.
(2) The Maximum Wave Height (MWH) is usually taken as 1.6 x Significant Wave
Height (e.g. SWH of 6 metres gives MWH of 9.6 metres).
(3) The arbitrary values given in columns 4 and 5 have been selected from North
Atlantic data as those most suitable for use in design.
407
SECTION 4
Direction Cat Cat Cat

A B C
Longitudinal forward 25 9 9
Longitudinal aft 10 5½ 5½
Lateral 10 5½ 7
Vertical down 25 14½ 12½
Vertical up 10 4½ 3½
TABLE 39
INERTIA FACTORS (G) FOR STATIC DESIGN AND STATIC TEST OF SEATS, HARNESSES,
EQUIPMENT, LOCAL FITTINGS AND SUPPORT STRUCTURE FOR THE CREW AND SPECIFIED
OCCUPANTS
NOTES ON TABLES 39 TO 42
(1) All figures are taken from Def Stan 00-970 Vol 1, Chapter 307 as at AL 10.
(2) The figures for Category B aeroplanes are derived from crash data gathered
for Light Aeroplanes during the period 1950 to 1970 scaled down in the ratio 15: 9.
(3) The figures for Category C aeroplanes are from USAAVLABS Tech Report
70-22 (1969) scaled down in the ratio 13: 9.
408
SECTION 4
Direction Vel Change Duration (ms)

ft/sec (m/s)
Cat Cat Cat Cat Cat Cat
A B C A B C
Longitudinal forward 80(14½) 72(22) 63(19) 100 150 150
Longitudinal aft 32(10) 43(13) 39(12) 100 150 150
Lateral 32(10) 43(13) 29(9) 100 150 90
Vertical down 40(12) 58(17½) 35(10½) 50 75 60
Vertical up 32(10) 36(11) 10(3) 100 150 60
TABLE 40
VELOCITY CHANGE AND IMPACT DURATION AT IMPACT POINT FOR DYNAMIC TEST OF
SEATS, HARNESSES, EQUIPMENT, LOCAL FITTINGS AND SUPPORT STRUCTURE FOR THE
CREW AND SPECIFIED OCCUPANTS
409
SECTION 4
Longitudinal forward 9
Longitudinal aft 1½
Lateral Airframe 3
Seats and 4
Attachments
Vertical down 6
Vertical up 3
TABLE 41
INERTIA FACTORS (G) FOR STATIC DESIGN AND STATIC TEST OF TROOP, PARATROOP
AND PASSENGER SEATS, HARNESSES, CARGO, FREIGHT, EQUIPMENT, COMPONENTS OF
SYSTEMS, LOCAL FITTINGS AND SUPPORT STRUCTURE FOR AEROPLANE CATEGORIES B
AND C
Direction Vel change Duration

(see Note 1) ft/sec (m/s) (ms)
Longitudinal forward 58 (17½) 200
Longitudinal aft 10 (3) 200
Lateral 6 (2) 120
Vertical down 9 (2½) 60
Vertical up 4 (1) 60
TABLE 42
VELOCITY CHANGE AND IMPACT DURATION AT IMPACT POINT FOR DYNAMIC TEST OF
TROOP, PARATROOP AND PASSENGER SEATS, HARNESSES, EQUIPMENT, LOCAL FITTINGS
AND SUPPORT STRUCTURE FOR AEROPLANE CATEGORIES B AND C
410
SECTION 4
FIGURE 1
410
SECTION 4
FIGURE 2 - 90° STEP
FIGURE 3 - COS BUMP
411
SECTION 4
412
SECTION 4
413
SECTION 4
Fig. 6a - SINGLE REPAIRED CRATER
Fig. 6b - DOUBLE REPAIRED CRATERS
FIGURE 6 - SINGLE AND DOUBLE REPAIRED CRATERS
414
SECTION 4
FIGURE 7 - RECOMMENDED BOUNDARIES FOR LIGHT SIGNALS
415
SECTION 4
FIGURE 8 - RECOMMENDED BOUNDARIES FOR YELLOW AND RED LIGHT SIGNALS
416
SECTION 4
FIGURE 9 - RECOMMENDED BOUNDARIES FOR GREEN LIGHT SIGNALS
417
SECTION 4
FIGURE 10 - RECOMMENDED BOUNDARIES FOR WHITE AND YELLOW LIGHT SIGNALS
418
SECTION 4
FIGURE 11 - RECOMMENDED BOUNDARIES FOR BLUE AND VIOLET LIGHT SIGNALS
419
SECTION 4
FIGURE 12
420
SECTION 4
FIGURE 13
421
SECTION 4
FIGURE 14
422
SECTION 4
FIGURE 15
423
SECTION 4
FIGURE 16
424
SECTION 4
AIR SPEED HEADING (2) ALTITUDE (3)
ATTITUDE
ANGLE OF ATTACK (1) HEADING (2) VERTICAL SPEED
NOTES: (1) Angle of attack if required.

(2) Heading may be located at the top or bottom of the display.
(3) Altitude may be either barometric, radar, or both.
FIGURE 17 - LAYOUT OF FLIGHT DATA IN PILOT'S DISPLAYS
425
SECTION 4
FIGURE 18
426
SECTION 4
FIGURE 19 - THERMAL REQUIREMENTS FOR OCCUPIED COMPARTMENTS
427
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 0
REFERENCES
Each set of references is divided according to the Clause reference number within Section 4.
(Where a Clause reference is missing there are no additional references).
4.1 GENERAL DETAIL DESIGN
Defence Guides
DG-4 Defence Guide to the use of unified screw threads
British Standards
1580 Unified screw threads

A125 to A168 Stiffnuts (UNF threads) for aircraft
SP90 Corrosion-resisting steel split cotter pins for aircraft
SBAC Technical Specifications
120 AGS 2000 series stiffnuts (including clinch nuts) (BA and BSF
threads) for aircraft
Defence Standards
05-34 Marking of Service material

53-1(Cancelled) Use of Unified screw threads
53-9(Cancelled) Bolts, machine screws, and nuts for aerospace vehicles.
53-88(Cancelled) Washers, lock, key (tab) and spring tension (crinkle), (inch
series) for aerospace applications
95-7(Cancelled) Wire for locking purposes and wire locking practice for
aerospace use
4.3 PROTECTION OF STRUCTURE
AGARD Publications
AGARD-LS-84 The theory, significance and prevention of corrosion in aircraft

(1976)
Defence Specifications
DG-8S Schedule of protective finishes, of which PART TWO is

'Advice to designers on corrosion and its prevention'
D Mat Reports
165 Mechanical properties of paint films in relation to their use on

aircraft
Page 1 of 26
SECTION 4
169 Factors influencing the performance of corrosion inhibited (paint) systems
170 Evaluation of the requirements for the approval of weld through primers
174 The evaluation of anti-fretting compounds for the prevention of fretting

fatigue of aluminium alloys at temperatures up to 150°C.
175 Factors affecting the electrodeposition of paint on aircraft alloys
179 The corrosion properties of airframe contaminants
191 Stress corrosion of titanium alloys by Viton B (also Leaflet 409/2)
192 Evaluation of DOW No. 17 treatment for magnesium alloys
193 Impregnation of anodic films for the protection of magnesium alloys
196 Evaluation of high temperature resisting coatings for the protection of

magnesium alloys
*To be issued
RAE Technical Reports
65073 The effect of environment on fatigue crack propagation Part I
65158 Corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking of an aluminium-5%

magnesium-4% zinc alloy totally immersed in 3% NaCl and other
corrodents
65219 The corrosion of steel in contact with molybdenum disulphide
66167 An assessment of the rain erosion resistance of infra-red transmitting

materials and components
66168 A study of size effects in the plating embrittlement of high strength steels
66176 Hydrogen permeation measurements on some electro-deposited protective

coatings for high strength steels
67019 Multiple impact rain erosion studies at velocities up to 450 m/s (M 1.3)
67042 The water absorption of an unsaturated polyester resin and glass fibre/resin
composites
68041 The effect of environment on fatigue crack propagation. 2 Measurements

on aluminium alloys at different frequencies
68053 Vacuum deposition of adherent cadmium (refer to Def Stan 03-36) layers
on steel
Page 2 of 26
SECTION 4
69133 Rain erosion Part VII. An assessment of various protective coatings
69198 Rain erosion Part VIII. An assessment of miscellaneous materials and

composites
69212 Zinc-nickel alloy electroplating for the protection of high strength steels
69253 Rain erosion Part IX. An assessment of inorganic non-metallic materials
70081 The effect of outdoor exposure on stressed and unstressed adhesive

bonded metal to metal joints. Trial 1 Part 1 - Two year summary
71244 The removal of hydrogen from cadmium (refer to Def Stan 03-36) plated
steel
71247 The electrochemical characteristics of carbon fibre reinforced plastic

aluminium alloy couples
72027 An evaluation of the Dingley and Bednar cadmium (refer to Def Stan 03-36)
plating bath
72160 The resistance to corrosion of some insulating carbon fibre reinforced

plastic to aluminium alloy joints
73016 Effect of outdoor exposure on stressed and unstressed adhesive bonded

metal-to-metal joints. Trial 1. Part 2 - Four year summary
73035 Corrosion risks at contacts between carbon fibre reinforced plastics and
metals
74005 Factors affecting the elimination of hydrogen fluoride from a vinylidene

fluoride/hexafluoropropene/tetrafluoroethylene terpolymer
74096 The resistance of carbon fibre reinforced plastics to certain aviation fluids
74141 Cadmium (refer to Def Stan 03-36) plating by the high current density
(Cleveland) process and the diffusion of hydrogen through 300M steel
74153 A study of the stress corrosion cracking of three aluminium plate alloys
using a variety of tests
75104 Polysulphide sealants
75145 The effect of water on carbon fibre composites Part V - The dependence of
the interlaminar shear strength of epoxy and vinyl ester composites on
temperature, humidity and total immersion in water
76031 Review of textile materials research in Materials Department, RAE 1968-

1975
Page 3 of 26
SECTION 4
76063 The corrosion resistance and paint adhesion properties of chromate

conversion coatings on aluminium and its alloys
76144 Thermal degradation of polyepichlorohydrin elastomers
77031 The breaking strength and extension of weathered rubber-coated fabrics
78114 The axial loading corrosion fatigue properties of 25mm thick high
and low strength X116 plate (DTD 5120 (Superseded by DEF STAN 00-932
Sect 6: Plate - Issue 2) and DTD 5130(Superseded by DEF STAN 00-932
Amendment A 1988: Plate - Issue 1)) (Def Stan 00-932 Replaced by ESDU
932)
79078 Evaluation of the corrosivity of paint removers toward aluminium

alloys used in aircraft structures
79092 The axial loading air and corrosion fatigue properties of BSL 93,
BSL 95, and BSL 97 aluminium alloys
80137 Metallurgical aspects of fatigue cracking at fastener holes
Air Publication
AP 119A-0200-1A to 1D Corrosion manual
British Standards
PD 6484 Commentary on corrosion at bimetallic contacts and its

alleviation
4.4 ACCESSIBILITY, MAINTENANCE AND SERVICING
Specifications
AD2/SRD/902/P Lifting tackle
Defence Standards
01-5 Fuels, lubricants and associated products.
05-18 Symbol markings for servicing and safety/hazard points on

aircraft.
05-19 (Superseded by BS 4500 & BS 1916) Limits and Fits for engineering.
16-17 (Obsolescent) Air supply and test connections for aircraft
17-1 (Superseded by STANAG 3237) Aircraft lifting slings - Aperture of terminal ring or link.
Page 4 of 26
SECTION 4
17-10 (Superseded by STANAG 3278) Towing attachments for aircraft.
49-2 (Superseded by DEF STAN 00-970) Lubricating guns, hand and guns fluid, direct delivery.
British Standards
C12 (Superseded by BS 2C 12) Form of contact surface of aircraft jacking pads.

C15 Coupling dimensions for aircraft-to-tractor tow bar
connections.
MOD (PE) Specifications
D Eng R D 2089 Aero-engine and propeller and engine accessory tools

development procedure.
D Eng R D 2081 Specification of tools for servicing aero-engines and aero-

engine accessories and propellers.
D Eng R D 2024 Interchangeability requirements for engines and accessories.
4.5 MATERIAL STRENGTH PROPERTIES AND VALUES
RAE Reports
Structures 96 A new condition of fixing design strengths for aircraft

materials and structural elements
Structures 234 The effect of contact angle on the fatigue life of bolts and nuts
Structures 238 Fatigue of a nut and bolt
66014 The tension and compression strength of RR58 plate at

temperature conditions between 200°C and 250°C
66111 The residual static strength of a bolted joint cracked in fatigue
67093 Influence of ageing and creep on fatigue of structural
elements in an Al. 6% Cu alloy
RAE Technical Notes
Structures 223 Crack propagation and fatigue strength of some aluminium alloy
panels
Structures 249 The effect of some design features on the fatigue life of bolts and
nuts
Structures 327 Programme loading fatigue tests on a bolted joint
Structures 328 Fatigue strength at elevated temperature of L65 aluminium alloy
notched and lug specimens
Structures 354 The strength in tension and compression of BS S96 and BS S98
steel
Page 5 of 26
SECTION 4
Scientific and Technical Memoranda
3/58 The strength properties of aluminium alloys DTD 5010

(Superseded by DEF STAN 00-932 Sect 6 Plate-Issue 3) in
the form of l"(25.4mm) and 3" plates (76.2mm) and DTD
5020(Not recognised) Part 1: Properties of 1" plate (Def Stan
00-932 Replaced by ESDU 932)
15/58 Cumulative damage in fatigue with reference to the scatter of
results
16/59 The strength properties of aluminium alloys DTD 5010(As
above)and DTD 5020(As above) in the form of 1"(25.4mm) &
3"(76.2mm)plates. Part 2: Properties of 3"(76.2mm) plate to
DTD 502
25/60 The mechanical properties of Ti Rem Cru A110 AT and ICI
317
38/60 Corrosion fatigue and air fatigue tests on 85 ton aircraft steel
S99
11/61 Summary report on tests on representative structural forgings
in ICI 314A titanium alloy and a comparison with steel
13/61 The strength properties of aluminium alloys DTD 5010(As
above) and DTD 5020 (As above) in the form of 1"(25.4mm)&
3"(76.2mm) plates Part 3: Properties of 3" plates to DTD 5010
5/62 Further tests on representative structural components in ICI
314 Ti alloy
ARC Reports
R&M 2877 Permissible design values and variability factors

R&M 3166 A note on test factors
CP 229 Variations in the strength of aluminium alloy sheet
CP 467 Crack propagation in sheet material Some conclusions
deduced from a combination of theory and experiment
CP 564 Crack propagation properties of thin sheet - Some recent
results and their impact on design (formerly RAE Technical
Note Structures 289)
CP 655 Propagation of fatigue cracks in wide unstiffened aluminium
alloy sheets (formerly RAE Technical Note Structures 305)
CP 952 Crack propagation tests on 2024-T3 unstiffened aluminium
alloy panels of various length-width ratios
AGARD Papers
Materials properties Handbooks

Vol. I Aluminium Alloys
Vol.Il Steels
Page 6 of 26
SECTION 4
US Naval Air Engineering Centre,

Aeronautical Structures Library
NAEC-ASL 1096 A method for estimating the fatigue life of 7075-T6 aluminium
alloy aircraft structures
4.6 PROCESSES AND WORKING OF MATERIALS
MOD Specifications
DTD 775(Obsolescent) Adhesive suitable for joining metals

DTD 861(Obsolescent) Adhesive for metal (low pressure type)
DTD 5577(Obsolescent) Heat stable structural adhesives
Defence Standards
03-2 Cleaning and preparation of metal surfaces

05-21(Superseded by AQAP 110) Quality control system requirements for industry
03-24 Chromic acid anodising of aluminium and aluminium alloys
(or prEN 2101)
British Standards
BS 5350 Methods of test for adhesives

Part A Adherent Preparation
Part B Adhesive Properties
Part C (Partly superseded) Joints
Part D Environmental tests
Part E Sampling and analytical test data
Contractors Reports
AL/Mat 3358 Study of the fatigue characteristics of adhesive bonded joints,

Parts 1 and 2.
British Aircraft Corporation (CA) Ltd Contract
KS43a/334/CB43(a)2 1974.
AL/Mat 3300 Factors affecting the strength of adhesive bonded joints in
aluminium alloys.
British Aircraft Corporation (CA) Ltd Contract K43A/183/43A2
1974.
SIRA Report Design data sheets for structural adhesive bonding.
SIRA Report 1975
Contract K/A83A/691.
HSA-MSM-R-GEN-0345 The environmental durability of adhesive bonds made
between CFRP composite and Titanium. Final report 1798.
British Aerospace Aircraft Group,
Manchester.
Contract K/LR32B/2250.
Page 7 of 26
SECTION 4
AL/Mat 2847 Improved pretreatments for the adhesive bonding of

aluminium alloys.
British Aerospace, Aircraft Group
Contract A/93b/36 1979
AL/Mat 3788 Chromic acid anodising of aluminium alloys
AL/Mat 3853 Durability of adhesive bonded aluminium alloy joints.
AL/Mat 3917A Factors affecting the durability of aluminium alloy adhesive
joints.
British Aerospace, Military Aircraft Division
AL/Mat 3864 Prebond treatment for titanium alloys
LR 84,150 The correlation of accelerated ageing tests and natural
weathering tests for adhesive bonds to aluminium and
titanium.
Westland Helicopters Ltd
Contract A/91A/350 1984
LR 86,385 The evaluation of room temperature adhesives for joining
metals/composites. Final Report.
Contract A/91B/1751 1986
LR 86,172 Durability of adhesive bonded titanium joints
Contract A/91A/1375 1986
Influence of final rinse waters on the durability of structurally
bonded aluminium alloys.
Short Brothers plc
Contract K/A9 I A/ 1 3 80
Final Report 1988
RAE Technical Memoranda
Mat 175 The effects of outdoor exposure on stressed and unstressed

adhesive bonded metal to metal joints. Trial 2, Part 2. Four
year summary. 1973.
Mat 184 The effects of twelve months' outdoor exposure in a hot wet
environment of Defence Standard 03-2/1 acid etched
aluminium alloy double overlap joints bonded with an epoxy-
polyamide adhesive and protected with polysulphide sealant.
1974.
Mat 277 The fatigue and tensile properties of Redux joints
between aluminium alloy DTD 646 (Obsolescent) sheets at
temperatures -60C room temperature and +70C.
Page 8 of 26
SECTION 4
Mat 348 A comparison of phosphoric acid anodise bonding retreatment

for aluminium with chromic-sulphuric acid pickle and chromic
acid anodise, 1980.
Mat 349 Evaluation of the wedge cleavage test for assessment of
durability of adhesive bonded joints, 1980.
Mat/Str 1038 An evaluation of the Boeing wedge test for the assessment of
CFRP surface pretreatment.
70081 Effect of outdoor exposure on stressed and unstressed

adhesive bonded metal to metal joints. Trial 1. Part 1. Two
year summary. 1970.
adhesive bonded metal to metal joints. Trial 2. Two year
summary. 1972.
adhesive bonded metal to metal joints. Trial 1. Part 2. Four
year summary. 1973.
82029 The effect of extended exposure to hot-humid conditions and
subsequent drying on adhesive bonded CFRP-CFRP joints,
1982.
82102 A comparison of the strengths of metal-metal and metal-
CRFP adhesive bonded joints at various test temperatures,
1982.
85093 Effect of surface pretreatment and alloy type on the durability
of adhesive bonded titanium alloy joints, 1985.
89001 Effect of extended hot-humid exposure on adhesive bonded
CFRP joints. Part 1: 175C cured matrix.
RAE Translations
886 Contraction and internal stresses in bonded joints March

1960.
1999 Environmental effects on the elastic-plastic properties of
adhesives in bonded metal joints, 1979.
2038 The diffusion of water vapour in humid air into the adhesive
layer of bonded metal joints, 1980.
American Relevant Documents
ASTM-D-1780-72 Recommended practice for conducting creep tests of metal-

to-metal adhesives (RT-ambient).
ASTM-D-1781-76 Climbing drum peel test for adhesives.
ASTM-D-1876-72 Peel resistance of adhesives (T-peel test).
ASTM-D-2919-84 Determining durability of adhesive joints stressed in shear by
tension loading.
ASTM-D-3163-73 Recommended practice for determining the strength
properties of adhesives in shear by tension loading (rigid
plastics).
ASTM-D-3165-73 Strength properties of adhesives in shear by tension loading
of laminated assemblies.
ASTM-D-3166-73 Fatigue properties of adhesives in shear by tension loading
(metal/metal).
Page 9 of 26
SECTION 4
ASTM-D-3167-76 Floating roller peel resistance of adhesives.

ASTM-D-3433-75 Fracture strength of cleavage of adhesives in bonded joints
(Gl).
ASTM-D-3528-76 Strength properties of double lap shear adhesive joints by
tension loading.
ASTM-D-3762-79 Adhesive bonded surface durability of aluminium (wedge
test).
ASTM-D-3983-81 Recommended practice for measuring strength and shear
modulus of non-rigid adhesives by the thick adherent tensile
lap specimen.
ASTM-D-1002-72 Strength properties of adhesives in shear by tension loading
(metal to metal). (Lap shear).
ASTM-D-1151-84 Effect of moisture and temperature on adhesive bonds.
ASTM-D-1183-70 Tentative - Resistance of adhesives to cyclic ageing
conditions.
ASTM-D-1828-70 Tentative - Atmospheric exposure of adhesive bonded joints
and structures.
ASTM-D-2093-84 Preparation of plastics prior to adhesive bonding.
ASTM-D-2295-72 Tentative - Strength properties of adhesives in shear by
tension loading at elevated temperatures (metal to metal).
ASTM-D-2651-79 Preparation of metal surfaces for adhesive bonding.
ASTM-E229-70 Shear strength and shear modulus of structural adhesives.
MM-A-132 Adhesives, heat resistant, airframe structural, metal to metal.
for construction.
Mil-HDBK-691B Adhesive bonding.
Mil-HDBK-725 Adhesives. A guide to their properties and uses as described
by Federal and Military Specifications.
McDonnell-Douglas Primary Adhesively Bonded Structure Technology (PABST),
Progress Reports and Technical Bulletins.
Federal Aviation Agency Quality Control Digest No 5, Bonding Inspection.
SAE ARP 1524 (1978) Surface preparation and priming of aluminium alloy parts for
high durability adhesive bonding (Phosphoric acid anodising).
European Standards (AECMA)
EN 2243 Test methods for adhesives

Part 01 Single lap shear test.
Part 02 Peel test, metal-to-metal
Part 03 Peel test, metal-to-honeycomb core.
Part 04 Flatwise tensile test, metal-to-honeycomb core.
Miscellaneous
A sodium hydroxide anodise surface pretreatment for the adhesive bonding of titanium alloys.
A C Kennedy, R Kohler, P Poole.
Int. J Adhesion and Adhesives 3 (2) 133-138 (1983).
Page 10 of 26
SECTION 4
An evaluation of titanium bonding pretreatments with a wedge test method.

S R Brown.
27th National SAMPE Symp. (1982) 363-376
Adhesion in bonded aluminium joints for aircraft construction.

W Brockmann, O-D Hanneman, H Kollek, C Matz.
Influence of pretreatment rinse waters on the durability of adhesive-bonded aluminium alloys.

W McGarel, H A Farnham, R McGuckin.
Adhesive bonding of aluminium-lithium alloys.

D J Arrowsmith, A W Clifford, D A Moth, R J Davies.
Proc 3rd Aluminium-Lithium Conference, 1985, 148-151 Pub. Inst. Met., London (1986).
Bath life studies on BAC 5555 phosphoric acid anodise.

H W Holmquist.
18th Int. SAMPE Tech. Conf. (1986) 909-920.
Constant amplitude and flight simulation of fatigue tests on adhesive bonded lap joint specimens of
2024-T3 sheet material.
J Schijve, F A Jacobs.
NLR-TR-84090U.
The effect of composite prebond moisture on adhesive bonded CFRP-CFRP joints.

B M Parker.
Composites 14 (3) 226-232 (1983).
Problems in bonding of CFRP for aerospace use.

B M Parker, P Poole, M H Stone, G R Sutton, N Wilson.
Proc. ASE 85 Conference, London (1985).
Influence of interface ply orientation on fatigue damage of adhesively bonded composite joints.
W S Johnson, S Mall.
NASA-TM-86443
Shear stresses in the adhesives in bonded joints. Single step double lap joints loaded in tension.
Item No 78042, ESDU Ltd, 1978.
Inelastic shear stresses and strains in the adhesives bonding lap joints loaded in tension as shear
(computer programme).
Elastic stresses in the adhesive in single step double lap bonded joints.
Item No 8001 1, ESDU Ltd, 1980.
Elastic adhesive stresses in multistep lap joints loaded in tension (computer programme).
Page 11 of 26
SECTION 4
Guide to the use of Data Items in the design of bonded joints.

Surface morphology after pretreatment in relation to bondability of aluminium alloys.

R Exalto, P Bijlmer.
19th National SAMPE Symp. April 1974.
Adhesively bonded joints for fibrous composite structure.

L J Hart Smith.
Douglas Paper 7740 (1986).
Durability of Bonded Aluminium Structures.

A W Bethune.
SAMPE Journal. July/Sept 1975.
Durability of structural adhesives.

A J Kinloch (Editor)
Applied Science Publishers (1983).
Structural Adhesive Joints in Engineering.

R D Adams, W C Wake.
Elsevier Applied Science Publishers (1984).
Adhesion and Adhesives.

A J Kinloch.
Chapman and Hall (1987).
Adhesion and Adhesives: a guide to selected literature and sources of information.

British Library, Science Reference Library (1986).
Surface preparation techniques for adhesive bonding.

R F Wegman.
Noyes Publications (1989).
Adhesive bonding of aluminium alloys.

E W Thrall, R W Shannon (Editors).
Marcel Dekker Inc (1985).
Structural adhesives: chemistry and technology.

S R Hartshorn (Editor).Plenum Press (1986).16/12/91
4.13 OPERATION FROM ROUGH GROUND/GROUND CLEARANCE
1 SOFT GROUND OPERATIONS
1.1 USA AFFDL TR-74-6 Kraft Kahle and Luming

Landing gear soil interaction.
Page 12 of 26
SECTION 4
1.2 BR 80377 RAE TR 81086 W J G Pinsker

Tyre drag below and above aquaplaning speed on surfaces covered with slush or
water.
1.3 BR 67619 Bristol University Aero Eng Dept.

Performance of Pneumatic tyres in clay soil.

Soft ground rolling resistance of aircraft wheels.

Measurement of drag and spray produced by model wheels passing through water
layers.
1.6 USA AFFDL TR-69-51 Crenshaw Butterworth and Truesdale

Aircraft Landing Gear dynamic loads from operation on Clay and Sandy Soil.
1.7 USA AFFDL TR-67-145 Richmond Brueske and Debord

Aircraft Dynamic Loads from sub-standard landing sites.
1.8 S&T Memo 6/76. (BR 49447) I Beaty

An investigation into the rolling resistance of a full-sized Meteor wheel in dry
Leighton Buzzard Sand using the heavy load friction vehicle.
2 ROUGH GROUND OPERATION AND OPERATION FROM DAMAGED AND

REPAIRED RUNWAYS
2.1 BR 87365A Dowty Rotol T.O. REPORT NO T1101

A practical evaluation of Aircraft Undercarriage Shock Absorbers with particular
reference to improving their suspension characteristics.
2.2 BR 80038 BAe Warton

Computer studies of Dowty Standard, Bistable, and Progressively damped
oleo designs.
2.3 P 233214 Boeing A/c Co 1977

Roughness criteria for bomb damage repair of airfield pavements.
2.4 P 244651 (1) Attri and Amberg (Boeing)

Advances in Landing Gear Systems.
2.5 P 237404 AGARD-R-685 (1979)

Aircraft Dynamic Response to damaged runways.
2.6 P 251681 AGARD-CP-326 (1981-82)

Aircraft Dynamic Response to damaged and repaired runways.
Page 13 of 26
SECTION 4
2.7 P 252425 AGARD-AR-198 (1982)

Technical Evaluation Report on specialists meeting on Aircraft Dynamic Response
to Damaged and Repaired Runways.
2.8 Unnumbered draft AGARD report, Private communication from RAE.
4.15 CREW STATIONS - GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
MOD(PE) Specifications/Publications
EL1818 Transilluminated console panels

EL1960 Standard centralised warning system Mk.2
EL2033 Electroluminescent panels for aircraft consoles
RAE Technical Notes
Mech.Eng.69 Noise reduction in aircraft
Defence Standards
25-7(Cancelled) Horns electric

42-13(Superseded by DS 00-970) Fire extinguishers (automatic and hand types) and associated
equipment for aerospace vehicles.
16-24(Superseded by 00-970) Shapes of airframe and engine control handles and knobs in
fixed wing aircraft.
4.17 VIEW AND CLEAR VISION
RAE Reports
BA 1522 Wind tunnel and flight tests on direct-vision wind-screen

openings
Aero 2095 Limiting dimensions of cockpit framing based on the geometry
of binocular view
Mech Eng 25 Tests in the RAE blower tunnel of the air blast system for
TSR2 windscreen rain clearance
64095 Disintegration of insects by blasts of air

65148 Bird impact tests on Vulcan aircraft windscreens
66009 Disintegration of raindrops by shockwaves ahead of conical
bodies
66013 Flight trials of a system for clearing insect debris from an
aircraft windscreen
66375 An evaluation of some rain repellents for aircraft glass
windscreens
67245 Facilities at RAE for the simulation of flight through rain
71022 Aircraft windscreen rain clearance - A review
Page 14 of 26
SECTION 4
71117 An investigation into haze effect on rain repellent windscreens

75126 The development and calibration of the RAE Mk 4 rain gun for
the simulation of flight through rain
RAE Technical Notes
LAP 1005 A review of optical problems associated with fighter aircraft

transparencies
Mech Eng 370 The removal of insect, dust and salt contamination from TSR2
transparencies
Mech Eng 346 Flight tests in tropical rain of double nozzle air blast systems
for windscreen clearance - a preliminary assessment
Flying Personnel Research Committee Reports
FPRC 1005 Measurement of the minimum downward and forward view

required for fighter aircraft to carry out an approach and
landing in bad weather
4.18 OPTICALLY TRANSPARENT COMPONENTS
MOD Specifications (Obsolescent)
DTD 218 Laminated safety glass

DTD 761 Safety glass windscreen, weapon sighting quality
DTD 869 Laminated safety glass, high light transmission
DTD 870 Bullet-resistant safety glass, high light transmission
In Print Standard annealed float glass for aircraft glazings
DTD 900/6017 Process for the toughening of structural glasses
DTD 900/4953 Triplex Ten Twenty glass
DTD 900/6016 Triplex Ten Twenty glass for non-structural applications
DTD 925 The fabrication of acrylic panels and shapings
DTD 108 Dry air sandwich windscreens
DTD 1088 Sealed dry air sandwich windows
DTD 5548 Glazing compound
DTD 5576 Laminated safety glass heated by electrically conducting films
DTD 5592 Acrylic sheets for aircraft glazing
European Committee for Standardisation
EN 2155 Test methods for transparent materials for aircraft glazings
RAE Reports
Structures 167 The strength of annealed and heat-treated glass

TR 68031 Hail impact tests on stretched acrylic panels
TR 69253 Rain erosion Part IX. An assessment of inorganic non-metallic
materials
TR 75009 Rain erosion Part X. An assessment of various materials
Page 15 of 26
SECTION 4
TR 75078 Rain erosion characteristics of Concorde. Part I Summary report

TR 75079 Part II Investigations by whirling arm and rocket sledge techniques
TR 75080 Part III Flight trials in Singapore Operation DA YA
TR 76045 External vision from the military cockpit
D Mat Reports
108 The effect of time and temperature on the strength of toughened

glass
110 (revised) The repeatability of strength of toughened and strengthened clear
white plate glasses
153 The effect of storage on the strength of annealed and toughened
clear white plate glass
163 The repeatability of strength of toughened clear white plate and twin
ground plate glass
171 (BR 23270) The evaluation of Ten Twenty glass
187 (BR 32462) The further evaluation of Triplex Ten Twenty glass (U)
198 (BR 44083) The evaluation of VHR 2A and VHR 3A glasses (Glaverbel-
Mecaniver SA) for aerospace applications
Structures 722 The strength of some chemically strengthened glasses

Structures 731 Transparent materials for aircraft glazings
EP 517 Hail impact tests of Concorde transparencies
SBAC Handbooks
Windscreen design
1 Organic materials
2 Inorganic materials
R Ae Soc Journals
November 1959 Design of transparencies
Aircraft Engineering
December 1964 Proceedings of the SBAC Conference on aircraft transparencies
Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd Papers
Perspex properties
Perspex cementing
Perspex machining
Lucas Aerospace Reports
DEV/R/980/010 Crazing tests on window materials Static electrification of

windscreens
(Paper presented to the 1975 Lightning and Static Electricity
Conference at Culham Laboratory)
Page 16 of 26
SECTION 4
Hawker Siddeley Aviation Reports
TRM 442 (Issue 2) Summary of the results of a research programme for the
experimental investigation of the bird impact
TRM 460 resistance of flat windscreen panels with clamped
TRM 466 edges
British Aircraft Corporation Reports
TN 4398 Polycarbonate transparent plastic materials -

(BR 46523) A literature survey.
MOD Reports
S&T Memo -13-73 The weathering of plastics materials in the tropics

(BR 37168) Part I Polycarbonate
R&M No 3654 Strength variability in structural materials
Civil Aviation Authority Reports
CAA Paper No 77008 Analysis of bird strikes reported by European Airlines 1972-5
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio-Technical Reports (TR)
WADC-TR-56-645 Properties of classes at elevated temperature (Parts I to XI)

AFML-TR-65-212 Transparent materials for aircraft enclosures
AFFDL-TR-73-103 Windshield bird strike structure design criteria
AFML-TR-73-126 Conference on transparent aircraft enclosures
AFFDL-TR-74-75 Improved windshield and canopy protection development
AFFDL-TR-75-150 Bird impact forces in aircraft windshield design
AFFDL-TR-75-2 Vol. I. Bird strike alleviation techniques
AFFDL-TR-75-115 Windshield/canopy/support structure life cycle cost and failure
analysis
AFML-TR-76-54 Conference on aerospace transparent materials and enclosures
AFFDL-TR-76-75 Effects of laboratory simulated precipitation static electricity and
swept-stroke lightning on aircraft windshield sub systems
AFFDL-TR-76-114 The determination of deflection and stress distribution for a
transparent laminated bean
AFFDL-TR-77-1 Vol I and II. Windshield technology demonstrator programme. Detail
design options study
AFFDL-TR-77-92 Evaluation of windshield materials subjected to simulated supersonic
flight environments
AFFDL-TR-77-141 Precipitation static electricity and swept-stroke lightning effects on
aircraft transparency coatings
AFFDL-TR-78 Conference on aerospace transparent materials and enclosures.
1978. (Proceedings to be published.)
Page 17 of 26
SECTION 4
Defence Standards
15-3(Cancelled) Transparent glazing materials and accessories for aerospace

applications
Other Publications
Hans Blockpoel Bird hazards to aircraft. Clarke, Irwin and Co
W E Grether Optical factors in aircraft windshield design as related to pilot visual

performance.
AMRL-TR-73-57 (July 1973)
N S Corney Optical requirements for aircraft transparencies.

AFML-TR-73-126 pages 47-68
N S Corner and The specification of optical requirements for aircraft

W Shaw transparencies Proceedings of SBAC Symposium on optical
transparencies 1971 pages 19-36.
J W Wulfeck Vision in military aviation.

et al WADC-TR-58-399 (AD207780)
J P Acloque Double images as disturbing optical defects of windscreens

Glastechn Ber 43 193-198 (May 1970)
See Mintech Translation No. T6803.
British Standard 857:1967 Specification for safety glass for land

transport.
Principles of light measurement CIE Publication No 18 (1970)
J S Preston The specification of a spectral correction filter for photometry with

emission cells. J Sci Inst 211 (1946)
C L Saunders Accurate measurements and corrections for non-linearities in

radiometers. J Research NBS 76A (5) 437-453 (1972
4.19 COCKPIT CONTROLS
MOD Specifications
EL 1960 Standard centralised warning system Mk. 2
Standard Instruction Sheets
46 Rudder bar toe straps

3654 Switch DP with locking arrangement
Page 18 of 26
SECTION 4
Defence Standards
16-24(Superseded by 00-970) Shapes of airframe and engine control handles and

knobs in fixed wing aircraft.
25-7(Cancelled) Horns Electric
66-26(Part 1 replaced by STANAG 3319 Cancelled; Part 6 replaced by STANAG 3329; Part 3
replaced by STANAG 3643; Part 7 replaced by
STANAG 3436) General Requirements for aircraft
instruments and displays. Part 1 Aircraft instruments
cases.
4.22 CRASH LANDING AND DITCHING
Authors, References Title(s) etc
1 Simula Inc and Applied Aircraft crash survival design guide.

Technology Laboratory.
Fort Eustis VA USARTC
TR-79-22 5 Vols 1980
2 Department of Defence Light, fixed and rotary wing

Washington DC 1974 aircraft, Crashworthiness.
Mil Std 1290 A(AV)
September 1988
3 Aeronautical Systems Cargo aircraft and spacecraft

Division. Air Force forward restraint criteria.
Systems Command
Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base Ohio 45433
December 1977
4.23 EMERGENCY PROVISIONS
MOD(PE) Specifications
DTD1127B Acceptance tests for emergency parachute assemblies

DTD1292 Acceptance tests for aircrew equipment assemblies
65197 A review of the development of underwater escape systems, 1962-64

66080 An investigation of the problems of escape from 'V' bombers
73083 An anthropometric survey of 2000 RAF aircrew 1970/71
80051 Computer simulation of ejection seat motion Part 1 Computer
Programme
Page 19 of 26
SECTION 4
RAE Technical Notes
Aero 1978 Note on the design of jettisonable cockpit hoods

Aero 1848/SME380 Some hydrodynamic and structural aspects of design for the ditching
of landplanes
Aero 2199 Pilot escape from spinning aircraft
Mech.Eng.82 The design of jettisonable cockpit hoods
Mech.Eng.135 Parachute escape hatches
SME359 Trials with explosive cord to determine its efficiency as a means of
providing emergency escape hatches in aircraft
Scientific and Technical Memoranda
8/43 Safety of aircraft in ditching

1/50 Development of explosive bolts
ARC Reports
R & M 2644 Model tests in the 24 ft (7.32mm) wind tunnel to determine the
optimum angle for release of a cockpit hood (formerly RAE Technical
Note Aero 1947)
R & M 2917 Investigation of the behaviour of aircraft when making a forced

landing on water (ditching)
Flying Personnel Research Committee Reports
FPRC1012 Linear deceleration studies and human tolerance

FPRC1016 A study in body ballistics: seat ejection
FPRClO55 Aircraft passenger seat design and crash survival
FPRC1076 An investigation into the feasibility of using Martin Baker ejection seat
systems for underwater escape from ditched aircraft
FPRC1094 Evaluation of the factors which affect survival in a ditching accident in
current operational aircraft, with a recommendation for increasing the
survival rate
4.24 VENTILATION AND HEATING
British Standards
C10 Coupling dimensions for aircraft Ground Air-Conditioning

Connectors.
R.A.E. TECHNICAL Cabin Air Conditioning in high speed flight.

NOTE No. AERO 2196
R.A.E. TECHNICAL Cabin air requirements for crew comfort in Military Aircraft
REPORT No. 68304
Page 20 of 26
SECTION 4
British Civil Airworthiness Requirements
CHAP D6-11 Ventilation and pressurization of crew and passenger compartments.
JAR's
JAR 25-859 Combustion heater fire protection. (Now CS-25.859)

JAR 25-1125 Exhaust heat exchangers. (Deleted)
MISC
APOSH STD 161-8

DRAWING AND 10375
US MILITARY SPECIFICATIONS
MIL-B-81365 (WP)(Inactive) Bleed Air System - General spec.

MIL-D-7890 (AS)(Inactive) Design & Instln - Anti G Suits in jets.
MIL-E-18927 (A)(Superseded by 18927E) Environmental Control Systems.
MIL-H-5484(Inactive) Heater - Combustion Type.
MIL-I-8670 (AS)(Superseded by 8670B) Installation fixed guns & Equip in naval aircraft.
MIL-M-8609(Inactive) Motors direct current.
MIL-PRF-27210(Superseded by 27210G) Oxygen - aviators breathing liquid & gas.
MIL-P-6992 (Aer) Pump Assy's fuel electric aircraft heater.
MIL-T-18606 (Aer) 1 Test procedures - cabin Press & Air Cond.
MIL-T-23103 (AS) AMENDT 2 (Use MIL-STD-2218) Thermal performance Evaluation Electronic
Equipment.
MIL-STD-1472(Superseded by 1472F) Human engineering design criteria.
NATO STANDARDS
STANAG 3208 (ED4) Air Conditioning Connections.

STANAG 3611 GGS(Inactive) Characteristics of Compressed Breathing Air.
4.26 FIRE PRECAUTIONS
Mod Specifications
DTD/RDI 3964 Electrically-driven fuel booster pumps for aircraft low pressure
fuel systems
*DTD/RDI 3968 General requirements for crash resistant self-sealing and
non-self-sealing flexible fuel tanks for use in fuel systems
installed in aircraft.
DTD 5627(Obsolescent) Fibrous polyamide material for use as an explosion
suppressant and as a baffle material in aircraft fuel tanks
DTD 5624(Obsolescent) Fibrous polyester material for use as a flame and fire
suppressant in aircraft dry bays.
*DTD/RDI 3966 General requirements for flexible tanks for use in fuel and
water methanol systems installed in aircraft.
Page 21 of 26
SECTION 4
*DTD/RDI 3967 General requirements for self-sealing covers for flexible fuel
tanks for use in fuel systems installed in aircraft.
D Eng RD 2453 Avtur Aviation Turbine Fuel (with FSII). NATO Code F34.
D Eng RD 2494 Avtur Aviation Turbine Fuel. NATO Code F35
D Eng RD 2454 Avtag Aviation Turbine Fuel. (with FSII) NATO Code F40.
D Eng RD 2490 Aviation Turbine Oil. NATO Code 0.135.
D Eng RD 2491 Thrust Augmentation Water Methanol. NATO Code S-1744.
D Eng RD 2497 Synthetic Lubricating Oil. NATO Code 0.160
D Eng RD 2498 Avcat Aviation Turbine Fuel. NATO Code F43.
D Eng RD 2485 Avgas Aviation Petrol. NATO Code F18.
D Eng RD 2492 Avpin Isopropyl Nitrate Starter Fuel. NATO Code S-746.
D Eng RD 2452 Avcat Aviation Turbine Fuel (with FSII). NATO Code F44.
Defence Standards
91-48 Hydraulic fluid, petroleum.
EP 490 Fire and Explosion Protection of Fuel Tank Ullage.

EP 521 Fuel Tank Fires in Military Aircraft.
Mech Eng 12 Calor Gas Torch for Standard Flame Test.
RAE Internal Departmental Notes
IDN DW 72 Fuel System Protection Methods.
*In process of being superseded by DEF STAN 15-2.
IDN DW 77 Trials of Cobra Fire Suppression System against 23mm HEIT

Shell Attack on Aircraft Fuel related Dry Bays.
IDN DW 82 Effectiveness of Atomel Fire Suppressant Methods against
23mm HEIT Attack on Aircraft Fuel Tank Dry Bays.
RAE Reports
RPD 31 Symposium on Aircraft Fire Hazards.
65138 Spontaneous Ignition of Kerosene (AVTUR) Fuel Vapour: the

effect of vessel size.
65191 Detection and Measurement of Flammable Vapours in
Aircraft.
67107 Spontaneous Ignition of Kerosene (AVTUR) Vapour: the
effect of the ratio: vessel surface area to volume.
67162 Ignition of Aviation Fuel by Hot Pipes.
69002 Survey of Aviation Kerosene Vapour Pressures and Flash
Points.
Page 22 of 26
SECTION 4
69120 Reticulated Material for Prevention of Internal Fuel Tank

Explosions.
70044 An assessment of Explosion Protection of Fuel Tanks with
Reticulated Foam Filling.
71012 Spontaneous ignition of Avtur vapour in various oxygen -
nitrogen mixtures.
71194 Environmental Tests of Reticulated Plastic Foam for use in
Aircraft Fuel Tanks.
72059 Spontaneous ignition of aircraft fuels
72199 An assessment of the spontaneous ignition hazards of M86
hydrazine monofuel.
73068 Fuel Tank Explosion Suppression with Block and Ball Fillings
of Reticulated Plastic Foam.
74066 Spontaneous ignition of aircraft hydraulic fluids.
80002 Examination of a Fibrous Flame Suppressant for Explosion
Protection of Aircraft Fuel Tanks.
RAE Technical Notes
Mech Eng 96 The effect of Air Evolution from Fuel on the Inert Gas
Protection of Aircraft Fuel Tanks.
Mech Eng 210 Treatment of Aircraft Fuel with Nitrogen to reduce Tank
Explosion Hazards (Parts I, II and III).
Mech Eng 241 Flight Tests of Valiant Nitrogen System using Normal and
Treated Fuels.
Mech Eng 273 An Investigation into the effectiveness of Existing and
Experimental Anti-fire Installations for Aircraft.
Mech Eng 341 Spontaneous Ignition within a Heated Fuel Tank when
Pressured with Air under Simulated Diving Flight Conditions.
Mech Eng 379 Spontaneous Ignition of Kerosene (Avtur) Fuel Vapour within
a 4 inch Cylindrical Vessel.
Mech Eng 393/ The Detection and Measurement of Oxygen in
CPM 41 Aircraft Fuel Tanks.
Mech Eng 120 Installation of Lightweight Flexible Fuel Tanks.
RAE Test Notes
Test Note EP 1094 Damage to Liquid Filled Pipes and Surrounding Structure by
12.7mm API/T Ammunition.
Test Note EP 1098 Initiation and suppression of Fuel Based Fire resulting from
Small Arms Fire against Fuel filled Pipes.
British Standards
BS 5423(Superseded by BS EN3 Pt 1-6, 7863 and 7867) Portable Fire Extinguishers

BS C6 Aircraft engine nacelle fire extinguisher doors.
BS 3G 100 Specification for general requirements for equipment for use
in Aircraft.
Page 23 of 26
SECTION 4
BS G 212 General requirements for aircraft electrical cables.

BS G 230 (Superseded by BS 3G 230) Specification for general requirements for aircraft
electrical cables.
MIL Standards
MIL-DTL-83054C NOT 1 (Inactive) Baffle Material for Aircraft Fuel Tanks.

MIL-P-46111A (Inactive) Plastic Foam, Polyurethane for Aircraft Use
MIL-I-8672B (Cancelled) Installation and Test of Aircraft Pyrotechnic
Equipment in Aircraft, General Specification for
MIL-Dtl-23659F Initiators, Electric, General Design Specification for
MIL-D-21625G Design and Evaluation of Cartridges for Cartridge Actuated
Devices.
MIL-F-7872C (Inactive) Fire and Overheat Warning Systems, Continuous, Aircraft;
Test and Installation of
MIL-F-23447 (Inactive) Fire warning Systems, Aircraft, Radiation Sensing Type; Test
and Installation of.
MIL-E-22285 (Inactive) Extinguishing System, Fire, Aircraft, High-rate Discharge
Type, Installation and Test of.
MIL-HDBK 221 Fire Protection Design Handbook for USN
(WP)(Superseded by 221 Change Notice 1)Aircraft Powered
by Turbine Engines.
MIL-Std 326A (S/S by MIL-Std-331) Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous
Materials
USAF Specifications
USAF Spec Detector System; Fire, Thermocouple, Rate of

No. 45000 Temperature Rise, Installation of.
FAA Technical Standard Orders
TSO-C11d Fire Detectors, Thermal Sensing and Ionisation Sensing

Types.
FAA Advisory Circulars
20-53A 'Protection of Aircraft Fuel Systems against Fuel Vapour

Ignition due to Lightning'.
20-100 General Guidelines for Measuring Fire Extinguishing Agent
Concentrations in Power Plant Compartments.
FAA Report
DOT/FAA/CT Users Manual for FAA AC 20-53A

83/3
Page 24 of 26
SECTION 4
SAE Aeronautical Standards
AS 401 Minimum Requirements for Fire and Heat Detection

Instruments for use in Aircraft.
FAR Requirements
FAR Part 23 Airworthiness Standards; Normal, Utility and Aerobatic.

FAR Part 25 Airworthiness Standards; Transport Category Airplanes.
Certification Specifications
CS 25 Large Aeroplanes.
CAA British Civil Airworthiness Requirements
BCAR Section D Aeroplanes.
BCAR Section K Light Aeroplanes.
Aero Propulsion Lab, Wright Patterson AFB Report
AFWAL-TR-80- Evaluation of Explosafe Explosion Suppression System for

Aircraft Fuel Tank Protection.
AGARD
AGARD-LS-123 Aircraft Fire Safety.

AGARD-AR-132 Aircraft Fire Safety.
Vol. 2
AGARD-LS-166 Aircraft Fire Safety.
4.27 ELECTRICAL BONDING
MOD Specifications
D Eng RD 2015(Obsolescent) High-tension ignition harnesses for piston type aero-engines
RAE Reports
EL.1489 Lightning and aircraft, with particular reference to incidents

involving Royal Air Force aircraft during the period 1948 to
1957.
British Standards Specifications
G 175 Aircraft fuel nozzle ground plugs and sockets
Page 25 of 26
SECTION 4
SBAC Drawings
AS 6322 Assembly of bonding socket
Defence Standards
61-12 (Pt.20)(Cancelled) Wires, cords, and cables, Electrical - Metric Units Pt 20

Braids, wire
61-15(Replaced by AP120A-0001-1) Precaution against electric shock in design, installations and
use of servicing workshops and training laboratories for
electrical, electronic and weapons equipment.
Page 26 of 26
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 1
GENERAL DETAIL DESIGN
GRADING OF AEROPLANE PARTS AND ASSEMBLIES
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet explains the objectives of the system of grading of aeroplane parts and
assemblies, and gives acceptable interpretations of the requirements given in Clause 4.1
2 OBJECTIVES OF THE GRADING SYSTEM
2.1 The main purpose of grading aeroplane parts and assemblies is to draw attention to
the consequences of their failure and to ensure that appropriate care is taken in the choice
of materials, in the manufacturing processes used, and in the quality control applied to
them.
2.2 Requirements for design and quality control, particularly those applicable to
materials and manufacturing processes, are more stringent for Grade A parts than for
Grade B parts. Where a part or assembly is not of Grade A importance, the designer is
permitted much wider discretion in the use of materials and in the degree of inspection
required provided that other requirements (e.g. fire resistance and maintainability) are met.
2.3 Provided that the grading requirements are met, there is no need for the grade to be
identified on the drawing. However, the drawing may be used for this purpose where it is
convenient for the Aeroplane Design Organisation to do so.
3 APPLICATION OF THE GRADING REQUIREMENTS
3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 The designation of a part as Grade A need not necessarily signify that the
whole of that part is of special importance. Grade A may be used to indicate that
there is some designated area of the part which is of particular importance and in
such cases the area should be clearly indicated on the drawing. Grade A may also
be used where it is necessary to apply Grade A standards of quality control to parts
which would otherwise be Grade B.
3.1.2 Where a number of similar parts are used in one aeroplane special attention
should be given to the grading of each part individually. If any such part needs to be
Grade A then it should be ensured by design that a Grade B part cannot be fitted in
its place. Alternatively, at the designer's discretion all such parts may be made
Grade A. It follows that the application of each standard part used must be graded
and the part selected accordingly. However it is clearly impossible to achieve
complete non-interchangeability of fasteners and this is an acknowledged risk.
3.1.3 Consideration must be given to grading a part or assembly Grade A if there

is a probability that its failure will result in the malfunction or failure of another Grade
A part or assembly. However, if the failure of a part or assembly would only cause
minor damage to a Grade A part or if there was only an acceptably low probability of
it causing the malfunction or failure of a Grade A part then the part would, from this
aspect, be regarded as Grade B.
Page 1 of 3
SECTION 4
3.1.4 In addition to grading for design and quality control all parts have to be
considered for inclusion in the List of Identifiable Parts required by MAP RA 5221
series. It will usually be found to be convenient to identify and grade parts at the
same time. There is no positive requirement that all identifiable parts must be Grade
A because the two systems have different objectives. The objective of the List of
Identifiable Parts is given in MAP RA 5221.
3.2 STRUCTURAL COLLAPSE
3.2.1 Where parts of the structure support controls, systems, or items of

equipment, the parts should be graded not only as structure but also according to
the effect their failure would have on the controls etc.
3.3 LOSS OF CONTROL
3.3.1 Consideration should be given to any changes in aerodynamic

characteristics which might be caused by structural deformation, or from disturbed
airflow over the aeroplane after a failure or partial failure has occurred. The
possibility of control reversal, flutter, or buffet due to any decrease in stiffness after
the failure of a part, is of particular importance.
3.4 FAILURE OF MOTIVE POWER
3.4.1 Any component whose malfunction or failure could result in a significant

power loss should be Grade A.
3.5 SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
3.5.1 For the purposes of the requirements the following systems are regarded as
essential:
(a) Those on which the safety of the aeroplane and aircrew depends.
(b) Those required for the emergency escape of the occupants.
(c) Those required for the performance of operational missions.
3.5.2 The extent to which the grading system is applied to equipment in one of
these systems should be determined by discussion between the aeroplane designer
and the equipment designer. All mountings and attachments both on the airframe
and on the equipment will need to be considered.
3.5.3 When designing multiple systems the determination of the probability of

failure should be based on the system as a whole. Each unit system may be Grade
B provided that, after failure of one unit system, the remaining system(s) can
function acceptably until the failure is rectified.
Page 2 of 3
SECTION 4
3.6 INCAPACITATING INJURY TO ANY OCCUPANT
3.6.1 In normal flight this should be interpreted to mean an injury which would
significantly impair the efficiency of any occupant and hence:
(a) Hazard safe flight.
(b) Cause a mission to be aborted.
(c) Prevent rapid evacuation in the event of a subsequent crash landing

or ditching.
3.6.2 In a crash landing or ditching the degree of injury will be greater and all local
structure and equipment should be designed to minimise injuries which would
significantly impair the chances of survival.
3.7 UNACCEPTABLE UNSERVICEABILITY OR MAINTAINABILITY
3.7.1 In deciding the grade of a part or assembly the designer should consider the
ease with which the part could be replaced if it failed in service.
Page 3 of 3
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 2
PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN THE USE OF MAGNESIUM ALLOY PARTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet defines the precautions to be taken during design, manufacture and
installation of magnesium alloy parts to prevent corrosion during service and storage. Para
4 exemplifies of usage to be avoided since these are unlikely to be accepted under the
provisions of Clause 4.1
1.2 The requirements for the protection of magnesium alloys are given in Clause 4.3
2 MANUFACTURING
2.1 It is strongly recommended that there should be close and early consultation
between the Design Organisation and the material supplier with regard to surface treatment
and application of protective treatments in accordance with Clause 4.3
3 INSTALLATION PRECAUTIONS
3.1 Magnesium alloys are especially susceptible to galvanic corrosion (Leaflet 10).
Direct contacts between magnesium alloy and carbon fibre reinforced composites are not
permitted. Where magnesium components are in direct contact with other metals it is
particularly important that the precautions against galvanic attack given in Clause 4.3 are
rigorously applied.
3.2 The design and assembly of the parts should be such that water collection in
pockets is prevented (Clause 4.3).
3.3 Parts should be readily accessible for visual inspection, for approved non
destructive tests, and for treatment or replacement in accordance with the requirements of
Clause 4.3
4 LIMITATIONS TO USE OF MAGNESIUM ALLOY
4.1 The use of magnesium alloy parts should be avoided in places where they are liable
to intermittent contamination by corrosive fluids, for example:
(a) for wheel wells, and for other parts which may be subject to the wash
emanating from the main or nose wheels during take-off and landing on runways
affected by snow, slush or salt laden water,
(b) for parts of ship-home aeroplanes exposed to salt spray and other corrosive
agents, such as funnel gases,
(c) for parts of aeroplanes exposed to salt, fog and spray through operating in a
marine environment.
Page 1 of 2
SECTION 4
4.2 Magnesium alloy should not be used for parts whose protective coatings may be
penetrated to expose the bare metal during normal operation, ground handling or servicing,
for example:
(a) parts subject to wear during nominal operation, e.g. sliding parts in
control systems,
(b) parts regularly subject to abrasion e.g. the effects of heavy rain, hail
or sand,
(c) parts which are liable to be damaged during servicing e.g. access
panels, and
(d) parts which may be damaged by personnel or ground equipment

during servicing, e.g. walkways, fitting points for ladders.
4.3 However, when magnesium alloy parts are to be used special care and attention
should be given to the selection of the alloy, protective scheme and inspectability.
Page 2 of 2
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 3
CONTROLLED TIGHTENING OF BOLTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 In many applications, tightening of bolts can be sufficiently accurately determined by

the judgement of a skilled operator. However, in other applications, controlled tightening is
required to improve the effectiveness of the joint, and to ensure bearings rotate on a
lubricated face not on the bolt which would promote rapid wear.
1.2 This leaflet discusses the various applications and means of achieving tightening of
parallel shank bolts.
1.3 When it is proposed to apply controlled tightening of bolts in joints which may
require dismantling during maintenance, the proposal should be discussed with the Project
Team Leader so that details on standard service tools and trade skills can be made
available so that the necessary servicing arrangements can be made (See MAP RA 4000
Series).
2 APPLICATIONS OF CONTROLLED TIGHTENING
2.1 BOLTS IN TENSION
2.1.1 The fatigue endurance of a bolt under cyclic axial load may be considerably
increased by controlled tightening (See Reference 1). Without it an applied load is
transmitted directly to the bolt, whereas with it some of the applied load is absorbed
by a relaxation of the compressive forces in the fitting. Although the mean stress is
slightly increased, the alternating stress is reduced.
2.2 BOLTS IN SHEAR
2.2.1 An effective means of increasing the fatigue endurance of a shear joint is to

clamp the parts tightly together so that the alternating load is transferred by friction
at the mating surfaces. For maximum effectiveness, the pre-load needs to be
sufficient to prevent slipping so that fretting is reduced and no alternating load is
applied to the bolt or to the material round the hole.
2.3 BOLT GROUPS
2.3.1 Where a joint comprises a number of bolts, controlled tightening ensures

that all the bolts in the group are sufficiently and uniformly tight, thus assisting in a
favourable load distribution in the structure.
2.4 JOINTS IN SENSITIVE MATERIALS
2.4.1 The allowable pre-load in bolts in sensitive materials (e.g. transparent

panels) is generally much less than that which would normally be applied. It is
therefore important to limit it accurately in these circumstances.
2.5 JOINTS SUBJECT TO THERMAL STRAIN
2.5.1 When an assembly in which the bolt material differs from the joint material is
subjected to a range of temperatures, it is possible for either the bolt or the joint to
be overstressed, or for the bolt to lose all its pre-load. Controlled tightening of the
bolts is almost certainly necessary to avoid these problems.
Page 1 of 3
SECTION 4
2.5.2 On joints operated at elevated temperatures, where plating, e.g. silver, or

coating of threaded fasteners is used to prevent seizure of the joint, re-assembly of
the fasteners may give incorrect run-down torque valves which may lead to
inadequate or excessive final torques at the joint. Minimum and maximum run-down
torque valves should therefore be identified on the drawing.
2.6 PRODUCTION AID
2.6.1 During the production of an aeroplane there may be some advantage in

controlled tightening all bolts as a means of protecting the structure from slack or
over-tightened bolts.
3 METHOD ACHIEVING A GIVEN PRE-LOAD (See References 2 and 6)
3.1 BOLT ELONGATION
3.1.1 Probably the most accurate assessment of a pre-load is obtained by

measuring the bolt elongation during tightening. The application of this method is
limited because of the difficulty of measuring the bolt elongation in many cases and
the time taken to determine the load in each bolt.
3.2 PRE-LOAD INDICATING (PLI) WASHERS
3.2.1 PLI washers are useful where a high pre-load (e.g. in excess of 80% of the
0.1% proof stress) is required as they have an accuracy of ±15%.
3.2.2 PLI washers are also useful where access for a torque spanner is not
practicable. However, PLI washers have a number of disadvantages as follows:
(a) It is not possible to check for correct assembly after the nut is
tightened.
(b) The assembly indicates that the minimum torque has been applied
but does not prevent a maximum torque being exceeded.
(c) Ordinary washers could be substituted inadvertently on re-assembly

after any servicing of the joints.
3.3 TORQUE LOADING
3.3.1 Although this is probably the most popular method of determining the pre-
load in a bolt, its accuracy may be as poor as +30%, even though the torque applied
may be accurate to within ±1%. Consequently, this method is not recommended
where stresses greater than 80% of the 0.1% proof stress are required.
3.3.2 The threads of all torque-loaded bolts must be lubricated to ensure the
reliability of the relationship between applied torque and pre-load. The lubricant
specified which may be wet or dry must be compatible with any sealing or non-
metallic materials in the immediate vicinity.
3.3.3 Theoretical estimates and empirical formulae (References 4 and 7) have

been derived for the relationship between the applied torque and the pre-load but
neither approach gives reliable data for practical use, and it is recommended that
the relationship be established by test.
Page 2 of 3
SECTION 4
3.3.4 The torque load is usually applied to the nut by means of a torque spanner.
Providing that the nut is coaxial with the drive of the torque spanner, the torque
applied is accurate to within ±1%. However, large errors (See Reference 5 for a full
analysis) can arise when extension adaptors are used to reach into awkward
places. It is essential in this case to calibrate the torque spanner with the
appropriate adaptor in place and with the force applied to the spanner in the same
direction as on the aeroplane.
3.3.5 On large diameter threads with high pre-load it is necessary to apply pure
torque to achieve a consistent pre-load v torque relationship. A high degree of
thread cleanliness is also required.
3.4 TURN OF NUT
3.4.1 This method calls for the nut to be just tightened by hand and then turned a
further specified amount. The major disadvantage of this method is the difficulty of
determining when the nut is just tight, especially if there is any resilience in the joint.
The method is not often used and no experimental results are available.
4 LOSS OF PRE-LOAD
4.1 With pre-loaded bolts the tension reduces significantly with time as the nut and bolt
become embedded in the abutments, and because of other factors such as creep and the
continued extrusion of sealing and jointing compounds. Thus any joint which relies on
controlled tightening to achieve a safe life should either be periodically tightened, or should
be initially pre-loaded sufficiently to ensure that the tension does not fall below a safe value.
REFERENCES
No. Author(s) Title, etc.
1 Walker P Fatigue of a Nut and a Bolt

RAE Structures Report 238 - June 1958
2 Fisher W A P Pre-tensioning as a Means of Preventing

Cross R H Fatigue in Bolts
Norris G M RAE Structures Report 84 - July 1950
3 Stang A H The Tensile Forces in Tightened Bolts

Product Engineering - February 1951
4 Johnson K L Tightening Torque Versus Bolt Tension

Relationships
ASME Paper 69-DE-48 - May 1969
5 Sharman J M The Principle and Practice of Torque Loading

The Production Engineering - February 1961
6 Riches D M Report of Vibration Testing of Threaded

Fasteners BAC Ltd GW Division Report
L74/20/RES/FAS/MS268
7 ESDU Engineering Sciences Data Item 72022

Tension in steel bolts resulting from
tightening torque (tentative)'
Page 3 of 3
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 4
LOCKING OF THREADED FASTENERS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives some background information and acceptable means of complying
with the requirements of Clause 4.1.16
1.2 A threaded fastener in the context of these requirements includes nuts, bolts,
screws, studs, turnbuckles, thread inserts and threaded pipe couplings.
2 STANDARD A LOCKING
2.1 Standard A locking (often called positive locking) is any method of locking which
has been shown by service experience or by representative tests to hold the essential
components of the fastener in that relationship to each other, and to the local structure,
which is essential to the proper functioning of the fastener, according to its purpose,
throughout the life of the joint; and to do this in all combinations of environmental
conditions, loading actions, and modes of vibration, likely to be encountered in service.
2.2 The following are acceptable methods of locking nuts to Standard A:
2.2.1 Preferred Methods:

(a) Standard approved split cotter pins or clips, or locking pins in castellated or
slotted nuts.
(b) Locking wire in accordance with Def Stan 95-07 through the nut comer or
bolt head provided that the nut and bolt are locked together or each is locked
separately. As locking wire is comparatively weak in shear it must not be used
with castellated or slotted nuts, or where the fastener is subject to rotation from
any cause including flexure of the structure.
(c) Approved self-locking nuts (stiff-nuts) with the appropriate grade of approved
locking adhesive.
(d) Approved self-locking nuts (stiff-nuts) or approved screwlocking thread-

inserts without locking adhesive, on bolts in Grade A joints provided that there
are a sufficient number of bolts in the joint to satisfy the damage-tolerance
requirements, and provided that any loose or detached part could cause no
damage.
2.2.2 Other Method(s)

Peening (but not centre-punching or centre-popping) when there is no planned
maintenance which would necessitate the parts secured having to be removed or
dismantled. Adequate precautions are to be taken, particularly with regard to
dollying and the control of impact, to ensure that there is no damage to the
structure. A recommended method of peening is shown in Fig 1. The bolt projection
is specified in Clause 4.1.23 and the peening should be carried down to the nut to
prevent it slackening. Peening is only to be used in circumstances when preferred
methods cannot be used. The agreement of the Project Team Leader shall be
obtained.
Page 1 of 3
SECTION 4
NOTES:
1 Adequate head support is essential particularly where harder modem

materials are involved, however, material must be sufficiently ductile to
obtain deformation without cracking.
2 Special tooling or jigs should be provided as appropriate in order to achieve

consistency.
3 The applicable torque loading should be applied before and after peening. If
any rotation occurs the process must be repeated.
4 Peening is not to be used on set bolts.
FIG.1 - RECOMMENDED METHOD OF PEENING
2.3 The following are acceptable methods of locking threaded fasteners, other than by
nuts, to Standard A:
(a) Screws and bolts may be locked directly or indirectly, via the structure, to
members containing the tapped holes with which they engage, using the
appropriate methods described in Para. 2.2
(b) Studs may be locked by any of the methods described in Para. 2.2 which are
appropriate provided that either they:
(1) are locked independently of the nut,
or (2) have each stud locked to its nut by a split cotter pin and the nut
further locked to the component. In the case of a number of studs the nuts
may be locked together in groups,
or (3) have a lock nut or jam nut and a structural nut on each stud with the
nuts wire locked to each other and to the component or wire locked together
in groups.
Page 2 of 3
SECTION 4
3 STANDARD B LOCKING
3.1 The following methods are acceptable for locking threaded fasteners to Standard B:
(a) Approved self-locking nuts (stiff-nuts).
(b) Double nuts, locked together.
(c) Single or double turn coil spring washers.
(d) Tab washers provided the bolt is also locked.
(e) A single nut locked by an approved locking adhesive.
(f) Approved screw-locking thread-inserts.
4 THREAD INSERTS
4.1 Thread inserts should not be used in basic design if an acceptable alternative is
available. The use of thread inserts in service will be governed by repair schemes in the
maintenance manual. Screw-locking thread-inserts should not be used if they could cause
critical fatigue loading or galvanic corrosion.
5 SWARF
5.1 Consideration should be given in all joints to the possible hazards which may arise
from swarf. In joints where stiff-nuts are permitted those which have non-metallic friction
elements should be used where swarf may cause a hazard.
6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
6.1 Care should be taken to select the correct materials where environmental conditions
may affect the efficiency of locking.
7 PIPE COUPLINGS
7.1 In order to comply with the requirements Grade A pipe couplings will normally have
Standard A locking. Other methods may be used provided that it can be shown by tests that
the design of the coupling is satisfactory for the environment it will have to endure.
7.2 The need for Standard A locking for pipe couplings in airborne ground equipment
having a Grade A application should also be considered.
Page 3 of 3
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 5
MARKING OF AEROPLANE PARTS
METHODS FOR THE IDENTIFICATION MARKING OF AEROPLANE PARTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This Leaflet provides details of the methods recommended for the identification
marking of aeroplane parts. Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 provide a guide for the selection of
identification marking methods for various categories of aeroplane parts.
2 IDENTIFICATION MARKING METHODS (see Clauses 4.2.28 - 4.2.35)
2.1 METHOD 1. HAND, ROLLED OR MACHINE METAL DIE STAMPING
2.1.1 This method affects the structure of the metal in areas of marking and may
reduce fatigue strength of the part. Cold working and notching can cause stress
concentrations. When there is a possibility of damage or distortion during stamping,
the part should be adequately supported and the minimum force should be applied
consistent with the production of legible marks.
2.1.2 This method is not recommended for Grade A parts, as defined in Clause
4.1, subject to fatigue conditions.
2.2 METHOD 2. MACHINE ENGRAVING
2.2.1 This method may reduce the fatigue strength of the part.
2.3 METHOD 3. VIBROPERCUSSION ENGRAVING
2.3.1 This method may reduce the fatigue strength of the part. This reduction can
be minimised by, strictly controlling the marking tool bit radius and the stroke length
or pressure. A bit radius of not less than 0.5 mm is recommended.
2.4 METHOD 4. PACK AND LABEL
2.4.1 The part should be contained in a suitable bag or container to which is

attached a tag bearing all the required identification marks.
2.5 METHOD 5. EMBOSSED, MOULDED OR IMPRESSED FROM MOULD
2.5.1 Raised marks should be used wherever possible.
2.5.2 When raised marks cannot be used, depressed may be specified by the
drawing but the marks should be fully rounded with no sharp angles, corners or
border edges.
2.6 METHOD 6. MARKING INK (INCLUDING PAINT AND STENCIL)
2.6.1 Markings by this method are not of a durable nature and due precautions
should be taken against their accidental removal or obscuration. This method may
be used for permanent marking, but a more permanent method is preferred
whenever possible.
Page 1 of 6
SECTION 4
The markings may be applied:
(a) on parts not requiring protective treatment,
(b) after protective treatment,
(c) after painting, except for bleed-through inks which may also be
applied prior to painting for certain types of paint schemes.
2.6.2 INK MARKING - The ink can be applied either directly onto the part or
alternatively onto a patch of paint of a contrasting colour applied to the part. The
marking should be protected by a clear lacquer, or resistant self-adhesive tape.
2.6.3 BLEED-THROUGH INK MARKING - The mark can be applied to the part
prior to the application of certain paint schemes.
2.6.4 PAINT WITH STENCIL - Paint markings are applied through a stencil.
2.7 METHOD 7. TRANSPARENT PLASTIC LABEL
2.7.1 Transparent parts can be identified by cementing to them a transparent

plastic label which has been engraved and paint filled on its contact surface (see
Clause 4.2.24).
2.8 METHOD 8. METAL LABEL AND SELF-ADHESIVE LABEL
2.8.1 This method is primarily intended for temporary marking, but may be used
for marking more categories than shown in Table 1, at the designer's discretion.
Self-adhesive labels may also have permanent applications.
2.8.2 The label may be protected by a compatible clear lacquer or transparent

coating.
2.9 METHOD 9. ELECTROCHEMICAL MARKING
2.9.1 For limitations on the use of this method, see Clause 4.2.35
Page 2 of 6
SECTION 4
FORM OF THICKNESS GRADE1 METHOD OF REMARKS

MATERIAL MARKING
Forgings, Below 0.9 mm A&B 5, 6, 92
Castings 0.9 mm and A&B 1, 3, 5, 92
thicker
Machined Below 0.9 mm A&B 6, 92
from bar 0.9 mm and A&B 1, 3, 92
thicker
Surface A&B 2, 3, 92 before Marking prior to
Hardened, Nickel treatment or on treatment is
or Chromium untreated areas preferred
Plated
SHEET Below 0.9 mm A&B 6, 92
0.9 mm and A&B 1, 3, 6, 92
thicker
TUBES Below 0.9 mm A 6, 92 Self-adhesive labels
(Method 8) may be
B 3, 6, 92 used and should
normally be covered
with a compatible
clear lacquer
0.9 mm and A&B 6, 92
thicker
GAS/LIQUID A&B 6, 92 Self-adhesive labels
PIPES (Method 8) may be
used and should
normally be covered
with a compatible
clear lacquer.
TABLE 1
GUIDE TO THE SELECTION OF METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION MARKING
CORROSION RESISTING AND NON-CORROSION RESISTING STEELS
Notes: 1 Parts are graded in accordance with Clause 4.1
2 See Clause 4.2.35 for limitations on the use of Method 9.
Page 3 of 6
SECTION 4
FORM OF THICKNESS GRADE METHOD OF REMARKS

MATERIAL MARKING
thicker
Machined Below 0.9 mm A&B 6, 9
from bar 0.9 mm and A&B 1, 3, 9
thicker
Sheet Below 0.9 mm A&B 6, 9
0.9 mm and A&B 1, 3, 6, 9
thicker
Structural and Below 0.9 mm A&B 6, 9
Control Tubes
0.9 mm and A&B 3, 6, 9
thicker
Gas/Liquid Pipes A&B 6, 9
TABLE 2
ALUMINIUM AND ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
MAGNESIUM AND MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
May be marked using similar methods to those recommended for aluminium alloys except that
Method 9 must not be specified.
Page 4 of 6
SECTION 4

MATERIAL MARKING
Forgings, Below 0.9 mm A 5, 6, 9
Castings B 5, 6, 9
0.9 mm and A 2, 5, 9
thicker
Machined from Below 0.9 mm A 6, 9
bar
B 6, 9
0.9 mm and A&B 2, 9
thicker
Sheet Below 0.9 mm A 6, 9
B 6, 9
0.9 mm and A&B 6, 9
thicker
Tubes and pipes Below 0.9 mm A 6, 9
B 6, 9
0.9 mm and A&B 6, 9
thicker
TABLE 3
TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS
Page 5 of 6
SECTION 4

MATERIAL MARKING
thicker
Machined from Below 0.9 mm A&B 6, 9
bar
0.9 mm and A&B 1, 3, 9
thicker
Sheet Below 0.9 mm A&B 6, 9
0.9 mm and A&B 1, 3, 9
thicker
Tubes and pipes Below 0.9 mm A&B 6, 9
0.9 mm and A 6, 9
thicker
B 3, 6, 9
Oilite A&B 2, 3, 4
TABLE 4
COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS
MATERIAL METHOD OF MARKING REMARKS

Transparent Materials See Clauses 4.2.23 - 4.2.26
(e.g. Glass, acrylic
sheet)
Laminated Plastics 4, 6
Moulded Plastics 4, 5, 6, 7
Wood, Leather, Felt, 4, 6 Method 6 is not suitable
Fabric, Canvas, Cork, for felt
Fibre, Glass Fibre
Rubber 4, 5, 6
TABLE 5
NON-METALLICS
Page 6 of 6
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 6
PROTECTION OF STRUCTURE
EXFOLIATION CORROSION OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 In certain heat treated forms aluminium-copper-magnesium (silicon) and aluminium-

zinc-magnesium (-copper) alloys are susceptible to layer or exfoliation corrosion. This form
of corrosion usually initiates on the surface of the alloy, often in areas where end grain is
exposed (such as fastener holes) and especially where end grain is exposed by machining,
such as at changes of section. After an induction period delamination of the alloys
commences; the corrosive attack is usually intergranular and follows an anodic path
parallel to the original surface of the alloy. Once initiated the rate of attack often increases
markedly. Thus major exfoliation damage can appear in an aircraft structure after several
years during which time corrosion had not been detected at the usual inspection intervals.
The first signs of corrosion may be local lifting or blistering of the paint scheme, or in the
form of pits with the layer corrosion spreading laterally from the base of the pits. Exfoliation
corrosion can severely reduce the load-carrying capacity of a structure.
2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS TO

EXFOLIATION CORROSION
2.1 Susceptibility to exfoliation corrosion can be markedly affected by the choice of heat
treatment and working of the alloy. In general, susceptibility can be increased by slow
quench rates, an increase in the directionality of the grain structure, and underageing heat
treatments. For example, the Al-Cu-Mg alloy 2024 is susceptible to exfoliation when
naturally aged, it is most susceptible when rolled into thick sheet or thin plate of from 4 to
20 mm section, and susceptibility increases with heating at 100°C to 150°C for times too
short to achieve peak hardness. The behaviour of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys is similar except that
they are very susceptible when aged to peak hardness, and can be very susceptible in thin
sheet form.
3 ALUMINIUM ALLOYS RESISTANT TO EXFOLIATION CORROSION
3.1 Precipitation heat treatments to peak strength after cold working (T8 tempers) are
suitable for making most Al-Cu-Mg (-Si) alloys resistant to exfoliation; other 2000 series
alloys, such as 2618, are fairly resistant even in the T6 temper, while slight overaging of
2014 alloys is beneficial when done at the upper end of the allowed heat treatment range
(180°C) Overaging of AI-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys can render them immune to exfoliation corrosion.
In the T76 temper the alloys are resistant to exfoliation corrosion while in the T73 condition
they should be immune.
4 TESTS FOR EXFOLIATION RESISTANCE OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
4.1 When it is necessary to demonstrate the resistance of an alloy or component to

exfoliation corrosion then the unprotected component should be submitted to an
accelerated exfoliation test. The intermittent acidified salt fog test1 and the SWAAT test2
both use the salt fog cabinet procedures which are recommended for assessing the
susceptibility to exfoliation corrosion of most types of aluminium alloys including Al-Cu-Mg
(-Si) and Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys. Between one and two weeks exposure is adequate to
demonstrate whether a particular alloy or component is resistant or susceptible to
exfoliation corrosion. The EXCO test3 is recommended for AI-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys, and a useful
guide for assessing test results is given in the ASTM Standard3.
Page 1 of 4
SECTION 4
4.2 It may not be possible to perform an accelerated test on a component to assess the
exfoliation resistance of all of the surfaces. In such cases a suitable portion (or portions) of
the component should be exposed to the test environment, and the portion (or portions)
should be selected so that the surfaces exposed are those in which the grain flow is most
favourable for exfoliation to occur.
REFERENCES
1 An improved exfoliation test for aluminium alloys. B W Lifka and D O Sprowls Corrosion
(NACE) 22 pp 7-15 (1966)
2 An accelerated laboratory test to determine the exfoliation corrosion resistance of

aluminium alloys. H B Romans
Materials Research and Standards pp 31-34, p68 (November, 1969)
3 ASTM standard method of test for exfoliation corrosion susceptibility in 7XXX series copper
containing aluminium alloys. ASTM Standard Method of Test, G34 -72, pl (1973)
Page 2 of 4
SECTION 4
Sheet 3.2mm
Alloy Type section Plate Tube Extruded Bar Forgings
and Temper Sheet < 3.2 mm and Section
T3,T4 BS L105 D BS D BS D
BS L156) B/C D L102(See L103(O)
(See BS BS EN
EN 2395) 2100)
2014 BS
L158)(O)
BS
L163)(O)
BS L164)
BS L157) DTD 5040(O) C BS L168 C BS 2L77 B/C
(See BS
T6 EN 2089)
BS BS 3L63 C
L159)(O)
BS L165) B/C B/C BS L93(O) C BS 2L87 C
BS
L167)(O)
DTD B B 2618-T651 B DTD B/C DTD C
T6 5070(O) 5014(O) 717(O)
2618 2618-T6, B/C DTD B
T62 731(O)
DTD B
745(O)
T71 DTD B
5084(O)
T6 2219-T62 B/C 2219-T62 B/C
2219
T8 2219-T851 B 2219-T851 B/C 2219- B/C
T8510
2024 T3,T4 BS L109 B/C D DTD 5100(O) D
(2124) BS L110 B/C D BS 2L97(O) D
T8 0 2024-T851 B
6082 DTD A/B A/B
346(O)
T6 BS L113 A A BS L115 A/B BS L114 A/B BS A/B BS L112 A
L111(See
BS EN
2326)
6061 T6 BS L117 A
BS L118 A
7010 T76 DTD 5120(O) B
T736 DTD 5130(O) A/B DTD B
M239(O)
7050 T76 7050-T7651 B
T736 7050-T73651 A/B 7050-T736 B
7075 T6 BS 2L88 D D DTD 5110(O) D DTD D
(7175) (See BS BS 2L95(See D 5074(O)
(7475) EN BS EN 2126) DTD D
2092:1994 5124(O)
)
T73 7075-T7351 A BS A BS A
L160(See L161(O)
BS EN BS A
2127) L162(O)
7XXX T6 DTD D DTD D
5114(O) 5024(O)
T7 DTD C
5104(O)
TABLE 1
RELATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITIES TO EXFOLIATION CORROSION OF VARIOUS WROUGHT ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Page 3 of 4
SECTION 4
NOTE 1: The susceptibility of 2000 series (Aluminium-copper) alloys are markedly affected by
grain structure, which is dependent on the amount of working and the quench rate
experienced by the alloy. In general, the thinner section materials will be
categorized B and susceptibility will increase with section to category C: this is
indicated by B/C ratings.
NOTE 2: The susceptibility of forgings is very dependent on the degree of working. Those
categorised D may occasionally be used quite safely and the use of one of the test
procedures given in Para 4 is recommended to assist the Project Team Leader in
assessing the case for using the alloy.
CLASSIFICATION OF SUSCEPTIBILITY
A Immune to exfoliation corrosion.
B Resistant to exfoliation corrosion, although mild exfoliation may be induced under the most
extreme conditions.
C Susceptibility to exfoliation corrosion. Under some conditions exfoliation can occur in

service. Alloys in this category should only be used after discussion with materials
specialists.
D Very susceptible to exfoliation corrosion. These alloys shall not be used without the prior
approval of the Project Team Leader (see Clause 4.3).
Page 4 of 4
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 7
STRESS CORROSION CRACKING
NOTE: The Ministry of Defence requires the minimum use of Cadmium in its equipment. To this end, the
use of Cadmium should be reviewed on a case by case basis with the PTL and a suitable alternative
used where appropriate.
1 DEFINITION
1.1 Stress corrosion cracking was defined by Dix1 as "spontaneous failure by cracking of a
metal under the combined action of high stress and corrosion". Champion2 has expanded this
definition and commented as follows:
"Susceptibility of a metal to stress corrosion implies a greater deterioration in the mechanical

properties of the material through the simultaneous action of a static stress and exposure to a
corrosive environment than would occur by the separate but additive action of those agencies".
2 CHARACTERISTICS OF STRESS CORROSION CRACKING
2.1 Sustained tensile stress is a prerequisite for stress corrosion cracking and may be due to
service loads, fabrication or assembly techniques, heat treatment or the wedging action of
corrosion products. The maximum safe tensile stress level depends upon material susceptibility
in the given environment. It is, therefore, always desirable to reduce the residual and assembly
stresses to the minimum since it is possible that a combination of residual, assembly and service
stresses can reach a level high enough to cause rapid stress corrosion cracking.
2.2 Surface flaws or corrosion pits act as stress concentrators and can thus initiate stress
corrosion cracking of a susceptible alloy (see Para. 2.7).
2.3 With some more susceptible alloys really hostile environments are not necessary; e.g. at
appropriate stress levels moist air (RH 60%) may cause stress corrosion cracking.
2.4 Generally only a few specific environments are effective in causing stress corrosion
cracking in a given alloy.
2.5 Stress corrosion cracking can occur at elevated temperatures at which no liquid water is
present, e.g., hot salt stress corrosion in titanium alloys (see Para. 5.2.6).
2.6 The environment which causes stress corrosion cracking is often one that leads to only
very local corrosive attack; environments that cause general corrosion do not necessarily cause
stress corrosion cracking. There are however exceptions in which neither a pre-existing flaw nor
a corrosion pit is necessary for initiating stress corrosion cracking if the environment has the
critical composition for the alloy. For example, although a titanium alloy may not undergo stress
corrosion cracking in salt water except from a pre-existing crack or flaw, in methanol stress
corrosion cracking initiates readily at a smooth surface of the same alloy.
2.7 In the absence of any significant surface defect there appears to be a threshold stress
( scc ) for each alloy below which stress corrosion cracking does not occur. There also appears to
be a threshold value of plane-strain stress intensity (K Iscc ) below which a crack will not propagate
at a significant rate by stress corrosion. Both  scc and K Iscc vary with grain direction; for example,
in aluminium alloys susceptibility is far greater when stressed in the short transverse direction.
Page 1 of 11
SECTION 4
2.8 Grinding may promote stress corrosion cracking by modifying the surface structure of the
metal and by introducing tensile stresses into the surface.
2.9 Stress corrosion cracking usually initiates from the surface of an alloy but holes can
expose highly stressed interior material and thereby precipitate stress corrosion failures.
2.10 Stress corrosion cracking may initiate in unexpected locations and propagate within a part
for an appreciable distance (e.g. along a flashline plane) instead of breaking surface quickly.
Designers should therefore beware of the danger of hidden cracks occurring, with the resultant
unforewarned reduction in static strength.
3 ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 Severe stress corrosion cracking problems are possible with some aluminium
alloys unless the susceptibility of the alloy is reduced by metallurgical means and by the
use of appropriate heat treatments; the application of protective schemes cannot alone be
relied upon to prevent stress corrosion cracking.
3.1.2 By means of good design (see references) it is possible to make safe use of
susceptible alloys, while even alloys of low susceptibility may suffer stress corrosion
cracking if the design permits excessive residual and assembly stresses in the short
transverse direction. Components should be so designed that defects and other local
stress concentrators are minimised: stress corrosion crack growth is possible if the stress
intensity exceeds K Iscc even though the loads present would be below  scc on a defect-
free component. It should be noted that the categorisation of aluminium alloys (Table 1)
takes into account not only  scc and K Iscc values but also the variation of stress corrosion
crack propagation rates with stress intensity for the various alloys.
3.1.3 Machining of components in the fully heat treated condition may expose material
in which residual tensile stresses exist. These residual stresses can be minimised by the
use of extruded stock or plate which has been controlled stretched, or by the use of cold
compression on forgings. Some rough machining operations can be carried out before
heat treatment and the consequent reduction in residual stress can be beneficial with
regard to stress corrosion susceptibility.
3.2 HEAT TREATMENTS AND STRESS RELIEVING

3.2.1 Cold water quenching of forgings, extruded sections, plate and castings can
induce residual stresses of up to 80% of the alloy's proof stress. With plate, extrusions
and sheet controlled stretching can be used to effectively relieve the stresses, and certain
forgings can sometimes be stress relieved by a cold compression process. However,
many forgings cannot be cold compressed and various special quenching techniques can
be used to minimise the level of any residual stresses. These techniques include the use
of mixtures of polyalkylene glycols in water as quenchants which result in more uniform
cooling rates and hence reduce the level of internal stress.
3.2.2 The conditions at the parting or flash line in forgings can lead to stress corrosion
cracking in susceptible alloys. It is recommended that flash line geometry should be
discussed with the forger to enable a technique to be defined for each forging which will
allow deleterious grain flow to be removed during subsequent machining. Attention to
flash line effects is particularly important for hollow cylindrical components such as jacks,
where a relatively thin wall is close to the original outer surface of the forging. The use of
hand forgings or back extrusions should be considered in such cases.
Page 2 of 11
SECTION 4
3.2.3 Even after optimisation of quenching and stress relieving operations the
susceptibility of aluminium alloys is very dependent on subsequent ageing treatments. In
general, 2000 series (aluminium-copper-magnesium) alloys are susceptible to stress
corrosion cracking when aged at room temperature, but by the correct choice of
temperature (in the region of 175-190°C) artificial ageing for a few hours can greatly
reduce their susceptibility. Compared with naturally aged material, artificial ageing leads
to increased tensile strength, but reduced ductility and resistance to fatigue. The 7000
series (aluminium-zinc-magnesium-copper) alloys are very susceptible to stress corrosion
cracking in the short-transverse direction when aged to peak strength (T6 temper), but
subsequent overageing treatments can lead to progressive improvements in stress
corrosion resistance with ageing time (e.g. T76, T736, T73 tempers). There is a
progressive reduction in tensile strength on overageing, but toughness is generally
improved.
3.3 FORMING TO SHAPE AND OTHER MANIPULATIONS
3.3.1 Appreciable manipulation (other than controlled stretching or compressing) of any

form of the material (unless done in the annealed condition or immediately after
quenching from solution treatment) will often cause very high residual stresses which may
initiate stress corrosion cracking. With the exception of thinner clad sheet, all
manipulation (or correction of distortion) should be carefully controlled to minimise
residual tension stresses.
3.4 FABRICATION STRESSES
3.4.1 Many situations that give rise to severe residual tension stresses, or to tension
stresses in the transverse grain direction, can be avoided at the design stage. Stresses
caused by mismatch during assembly can be alleviated by shimming which must be
carefully controlled. It may be possible to provide a surface compressive layer by an
approved peening process, which may retard or prevent propagation of small cracks by
stress corrosion.
Note: The heat treatment, manipulation, fabrication and sustained service loading
stresses may combine to produce stresses exceeding the proof stress of the material.
4 STEELS
4.1 GENERAL
4.1.1 It is usually accepted that in the absence of surface defects or other stress
concentrators, low alloy steels of below 1450 MPa (93.5 tonf/in2) maximum specified
tensile strength are not susceptible to stress corrosion cracking in the commonly
encountered aeroplane service environments and that steels over this strength may fail in
service when subjected to sustained tension loading (e.g. landing gear pressure
cylinders) in industrial or marine environments. However, some steels of less than 1450
MPa maximum specified tensile strength are readily susceptible to stress corrosion
cracking in specific aqueous environments.
Page 3 of 11
SECTION 4
4.1.2 Steels which appear to be resistant to stress corrosion cracking by laboratory

evaluations using smooth test pieces may indeed suffer stress corrosion cracking from a
pre-existing crack or defect (e.g. in a screw thread root), under sustained tensile loading
(see Para. 2.7). This can be determined by testing pre-cracked bend specimens (Brown
tests) in a 3½% NaCl environment and the threshold stress intensity factor K Iscc gives a
measure of the safe operating stress intensities at a given crack tip under these
conditions. It is emphasised that K Iscc generally decreases as tensile strength increases;
e.g. increasing the maximum tensile strength from 850 to 1800 MPa (55 tonf/in2 to 120
tonf/in2) can reduce the K Iscc value by a factor of 3.
4.1.3 It is not easy to establish whether failures are due to initial hydrogen embrittlement
arising from pretreatment or protective treatment, or to stress corrosion cracking in
service which itself is probably by a hydrogen embrittlement mechanism. As tensile
strength is increased from 1450 to 2000 MPa (93.5 tonf/in2 to 130 tonf/in2) susceptibility to
stress corrosion cracking increases rapidly.
4.1.4 In contrast to aluminium alloys where initiation and propagation are of equal
significance, the period of crack initiation in steels is usually greater by a factor of 105 than
the time for crack propagation. It is therefore important to ensure that the protective
treatment scheme is not broken and that any component made from a susceptible steel
contains no pre-existing cracks or defects. The early development of a fatigue crack could
also be catastrophic. Failures in the higher strength steels i.e. over 1550 MPa (100
tonf/in2) tensile strength, exposed to any wet environment could be produced in a few
hours at stresses as low as one half the tensile strength. However, with adequate
corrosion protection certain steels can perform satisfactorily at strength levels as high as
2000 MPa max tensile strength e.g. DTD 5212.
4.1.5 In general steels over 1450 MPa (93.5 tonf/in 2) maximum specified tensile
strength will require consideration of stress corrosion hazards, and steels over 1800 MPa
(120 tonf/in2) maximum specified tensile strength very special consideration. As with
aluminium alloys successful use may be made of the higher strength materials providing
the design is good and care taken at every stage of manufacture. Close liaison with
structure and materials specialists is essential.
4.1.6 Corrosion resisting steels can suffer severe corrosion and stress corrosion in
crevice situations. This effect should be carefully considered; for example when corrosion
resisting steel pipes are used corrosion can occur beneath identification sleeves, clamps
and earthing straps if chloride contamination occurs (either from the environment or from
the breakdown of contacting materials).
4.2 HEAT TREATMENT AND STRESS RELIEVING
4.2.1 With most steels high residual internal stresses can be introduced by quenching
from the hardening temperature but these may be relieved by subsequent tempering.
Steels with higher tempering temperatures are -usually more completely stress relieved.
4.2.2 The use of a stress relieving heat treatment (see Def Stan 03-4) should always be
considered if residual tensile stresses have been introduced. This consideration should
take account of the magnitude and distribution of the expected residual stresses and the
category for susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking indicated in Table 3.
4.3 FABRICATION AND ASSEMBLY STRESSES
4.3.1 As with other materials these should be minimised with the higher strength steels.
Page 4 of 11
SECTION 4
4.4 PROTECTION
4.4.1 Protective scheme's, such as sacrificial metallic coatings (cadmium, zinc, or

aluminium) or phosphating followed by an approved paint scheme, can prevent the
initiation of stress corrosion cracking. It is important that any specified de-embrittlement
post-treatment is carried out to prevent hydrogen embrittlement which might be induced
by plating or acidic treatments involved in the overall protection scheme.
5 TITANIUM ALLOYS
5.1 GENERAL
5.1.1 Titanium and its alloys are very resistant to corrosion in most media including
marine environments. The metal is usually immune to pitting corrosion and as pitting is
normally the initiator of stress corrosion cracking it follows that titanium alloys without
crack-like defects are not generally susceptible to stress corrosion cracking in industrial or
marine environments.
5.1.2 Certain titanium alloys are susceptible to stress corrosion or sustained load
cracking if a crack or defect is present. The threshold stress intensity factor for stress
corrosion cracking (K Iscc ) can be as low as 25% of the fracture toughness (K Ic ). The
designer should seek appropriate specialist advice and take due account of these affects.
5.2 SUSCEPTIBILITY IN VARIOUS SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTS
5.2.1 Titanium alloys can be embrittled by contact with certain environments. Those
presently recognised are described in the subsequent paragraphs, but others may exist.
5.2.2 CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS
5.2.2.1 Commercially pure titanium is not susceptible but certain titanium alloys
(particularly welded) can be susceptible to stress corrosion when exposed to
chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g. during degreasing or paint stripping). The
requirements of Def Stan 03-2 must be followed.
5.2.3 FLUORINATED SEALANTS
5.2.3.1 Certain sealants when in contact with titanium alloys may cause stress
corrosion cracking (see Leaflet 9).
5.2.4 CADMIUM
5.2.4.1 There is evidence that cadmium can penetrate the surface of titanium
alloys and embrittle them even at temperatures as low as ambient (see Leaflet 8).
5.2.5 SILVER
5.2.5.1 Titanium alloys may be embrittled by penetration when in contact with

silver or silver containing alloys at temperatures above 300°C.
Page 5 of 11
SECTION 4
5.2.6 METHANOL
5.2.6.1 Stress corrosion cracking is possible in certain methanolic solutions. The

water content of the methanol is important: cracking will not take place if 2% or
more of water is present. Stress corrosion cracking has never been detected in
alcohols higher in the homologous series than methanol.
5.2.7 HOT SALT STRESS CORROSION CRACKING
5.2.7.1 Most alloys can be susceptible if they are heated to over 250°C in contact
with dry salt residues. In service this environment will normally occur only on or
near engine parts, but during fabrication there is also a danger of stress corrosion
from this source.
5.2.8 PHOSPHATE ESTER FLUIDS AND PHOSPHORIC ACID
5.2.8.1 Phosphate ester hydraulic fluids (such as Skydrol 500) can cause severe
corrosion and embrittlement of titanium alloys operating at temperatures over
120°C probably because of decomposition of the fluid to phosphoric acid.
5.3 GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
5.3.1 Care in machining (particularly grinding), fabricating and assembly is required, and
surface conditioning by controlled peening is generally helpful (see Ref 6).
REFERENCES
1 Stress Corrosion Cracking in Aircraft Structural Materials

AGARD Conference Proceedings No 18. April 1967
2 Symposium on the Engineering Practice to avoid Stress Corrosion Cracking

AGARD Conference No 53. February 1970
3 Specialists Meeting on Stress Corrosion Test Methods

AGARD Conference No 98. October 1971
4 Avoiding Stress Corrosion Cracking in High Strength Aluminium Alloy Structures

Alcoa Green Letter by E H Spuhler and C L Burton
5 Resistance of Wrought High Strength Aluminium Alloys to Stress Corrosion

Alcoa Technical Paper No 17 by D O Sprowls and R H Brown.
6 The Aerospace Structural Metals Handbook.

US Department of Defence Balfour Stulen Inc.
Page 6 of 11
SECTION 4
Alloy Type Sheet Extruded Bar

and Tempers (See Note 1) Plate Tube and Sections Forgings
BS L108 A BS L105 B/C BS L102 (O) B/C BS L103 C
(NR) (See (see Note 3) (O)
T3,T4 BS L156 B Note 2) DTD C
(See BS 150(O)
2014 EN 2395)
BS L158 B
(O)
BS L163 A
(O)
BS L164 A
BS B DTD 5040(O) B/C BS 3L63 B/C BS L168 B BS 2L77 B/C
L157(See
T6 BS EN
2089)
BS L159
(O) B
BS L165
BS L167 A BS L93 B/C (See Note BS 2L87 B/C (See
(O) A (See Note 2) (See Note Note 4)
4) (O) 4) (O)
DTD A 2618-T651 A DTD A DTD C
T6 5070(O) (See Note 5014(O) 717(O)
2618 5) 2618-T6, B/C DTD A/B
T62 731(O)
(See Note (See
5) Note 5)
DTD B
745(O)
T71 DTD A
5084(O)
2219 T6 2219-T62 B 2219-T62 B
T8 2219-T851 B 2219-T851 A 2219-T8510 A
2024 T3,T4 BS L109 A DTD 5100(O) C
(2124) BS L110 A BS 2L97(O) C
T8 2024-T851 B
6082 T6 BS L113 A BS L115 A BS L114 A BS A BS L112 A
L111(See
BS EN 2326)
6061 T6 BS L117 A
BS L118 A
7010 T76 DTD 5120(O) B 7010-T7651 B
T736 DTD 5130(O) A 7010- A DTD A/B
T73651 M239(O)
7050 T76 7050-T7651 B
T736 7050-T73651 A 7050-T736 A/B
7075 T6 BS 2L88 B DTD 5110(O) D DTD D
(7175) See BS BS 2L95 D 5124(O)
(7475) EN (See BS EN
2092:1994 2126)
T73 7075-T7351 A BS L160 A BS L161 A
(See BS EN (O)
2127) BS L162 A
(O)
7XXX T6 DTD D DTD D
5114(O) 5024(O)
T76 DTD C
5104(O)
Table 1: (O) = Obsolescent, (NR) = Not Recognised
TABLE 1
RELATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITIES TO STRESS CORROSION CRACKING OF VARIOUS ALUMINIUM

ALLOYS (IN SHORT TRANSVERSE GRAIN DIRECTION EXCEPT FOR SHEET AND TUBE)
Page 7 of 11
SECTION 4
NOTE 1: 2014 and 2024 sheet alloys categorized A are clad. If the cladding is extensively removed
the alloys should be categorized B.
NOTE 2: 2014 alloy tubing can suffer intergranular stress corrosion cracking at high hoop stresses.
The normal categorization of C may be modified to B if a stress relieving operation is
carried out after solutionizing and quenching.
NOTE 3: BS L102 (Superseded by BS EN 2100:1992) will be categorized B for thin section

material (less than 3 mm as extruded) but otherwise will be categorized C.
NOTE 4: 2014-T6 alloys may be categorized B or C according to the ageing temperature

employed; material aged at 160-170°C will be categorized C whilst material aged at over
180°C will be categorized B.
NOTE 5: 2618-T6, T62 alloy extrusions will be categorized B for thin section material and
categorized C for thick section material. DTD 731(O) forgings will be categorized A if they
are cold compressed before precipitation treatment, but only B if not. Plate, extrusions,
and forgings in 2618 will be far more susceptible to stress corrosion than indicated in the
Table if the precipitation treatments used are less than those required in the approved
specifications.
NOTE 6: Alloys well rated with respect to stress corrosion may still be susceptible to other forms of
corrosion e.g. exfoliation (see Clause 4.3.84).
NOTE 7: Apart from sheet and tube the above Table considers stress corrosion susceptibility in the
short transverse grain direction (or parting line of forgings) only. It is based on data from
stress corrosion tests performed both in natural environments (marine and industrial
atmospheres) and by alternate immersion in 3½% neutral NaCl (ASTM G 44-75). The
susceptibility is considerably reduced in the long transverse grain direction and is still
further reduced in the longitudinal grain direction. Trouble in the long transverse direction
is unlikely unless design is poor, and the possibility of trouble in the longitudinal direction
can be disregarded. Where the sustained short transverse grain tensile stresses are
known to be very low or alternatively where sheet or plate is thin and no short transverse
loadings are possible, stress corrosion problems may be less severe than indicated by the
ratings in the above Table.
NOTE 8: Where the international alloy and temper designations are quoted in the above Table
material specifications approved to Clause 4.1 are required.
A Very resistant to stress corrosion cracking.
B Resistant to stress corrosion cracking although failures may occur under extreme conditions.
C Susceptible to stress corrosion cracking - Stress corrosion cracking of these alloys can be
expected unless the appropriate precautions are taken at the design stage. Alloys in this
category should only be used after discussion with materials specialists.
Page 8 of 11
SECTION 4
D Very susceptible to stress corrosion cracking - These alloys should not be used where sustained
tensile stresses are applied in the short transverse direction. When possible stresses relieving
treatments should be used to reduce quenched-in residual stresses. The use of alloys in
category D is restricted and is only permitted with the approval of the Project Team Leader.
Alloy Type and Temper UK Specification Susceptibility

242.0 T6 BS 4L35(W) C
295.0 T6 BS2L92(W) C
B295.0 T6 C
355.0 T6 BS3L78 (O) B
C355.0 T6 B
- T6 BS 3L51(O) C
356.0 T6 BS 2L99 A
A356.0 T6 A
A357.0 T6 - A
K0.1 ) T6 - D
Avior B) T7 C
- T6 BS L119 (RR 350) C
- T4 BS L154 A/B
- T6 BS L155 A/B
Table 2: (O) = Obsolescent, (W) = Withdrawn
TABLE 2
RELATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITIES TO STRESS CORROSION
CRACKING OF VARIOUS CAST ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
A Very resistant to stress corrosion cracking.
B Resistant to stress corrosion cracking although failures may occur under extreme conditions.
C Susceptible to stress corrosion cracking - Stress corrosion cracking of these alloys can be
expected unless appropriate precautions are taken at the design stage. Alloys in this category
should only be used after discussions with materials specialists.
D Very susceptible to stress corrosion cracking - These alloys shall not be used without the prior
approval of the Project Team Leader.
Page 9 of 11
SECTION 4
MAXIMUM
SPECIFIED BARS AND ONLY FOR SHEET AND TUBE CASTINGS SPRINGS
TENSILE FORGINGS BOLTS (ETC) PLATE
STRENGTH
IN RANGE
(Mpa)
OVER NOT
OVER
Non- - 1450 BS.S.91(See A BS.S.14 B BS.S.534 A BS.T.53 A BS.HC.3(O) A
Corrosion 3S 91) 7 (See BS 3T
Resisting (See BS 53)
Mild 2S 147)
steels A BS.S.14 B BS.S.535 B BS.T.60 B BS.HC.4(O) A
& Low/ BS.S.95(See 9 (See BS 3T
Medium 3S 95 (See BS 60)
Alloy 2S 149)
Steels B BS.S.15 B BS.T.65(NR A BS.HC.7 B
BS.S.98(See B 8 ) BS.HC.8 C
2S 98) (O)
BS.S.99
(See BS 5S A BS.HC.402 A
99)
BS.S.131
(See BS 2S A BS.HC.403 A
131) A BS.HC.404 A
BS.S.139(O) (O)
BS.S.140
(See BS 2S A BS.S.201 B
140)
BS.S.142(See
BS 2S 142) B BS.S.202 B
BS.S.153 A BS.S.203 B
BS.S.154 A BS.S.204 B
DTD.5082(O)
1450 1550 - - - - - - - - - -
1550 1800 BS.S.134(O) C - - - - - - - -
BS.S.138(O) C - - - - - - - -
1800 - BS.S.135 B DTD.522 D - - - - - -
(See BS 2S 2(O)
135)
BS.S.136See B
BS 2S 136)
BS.S.146
(See BS 2S D
146)
BS.S.155
(300 M Var) D
Maraging 1800 - DTD.5212(O) C - - (New C - - BS.HC.401 C -
Steels Spec)
Nitriding/ - 1450 BS.S.15 A - - - - - - BS.HC.5(O) A
Carburisin BS.S.106(See A BS.HC.6(O) B
g BS 4S 106)
Steels BS.S.133
(W) A
BS.S.157
A
1450 1550 BS.S.132 B - - - - - - - - -
(See BS 3S
132)
BS.S.156
(S82 Type) B
Precipitati - 1450 BS.S.143(See B BS.HR.6 A BS.S.533 B - - BS.HC.101 B -
on BS 2S 143) 50 (See BS
Hardening BS.S.144(Sup 2HC 101)
Steels erseded by BS B
3S 144)
1450 1550 BS.S.145 C - - BS.S.532 - - - BS.HC.102 C -
(Superseded (See BS
by BS 3S 145) 2HC 102)
BS.HC.106 C
1550 1800 - - - - - - - - - - -
1880 - - - - - - - - - - - DTD.5086 C
(O) *
Other - 1450 BS.S.62 (See A DTD.507 B BS.S.524 A BS.T.66(Se A BS.HC.103 A
Corrosion BS 3S 62) 6(O) e BS 27 66)
and/or BS.S.80 (See B BS.S.525 A A BS.HC.104 A
Heat BS 7S 80) BS.T.67(O)
Resisting BS.S.126(O) A BS.S.526 A A BS.HC.105 A
Steels BS.S.129(O)B A BS.S.527 A BS.T.68 A M.190 B
S.S.130 A BS.S.530 B (See BS 2T A BS.S.205 A
(See BS 2S 68)
1300 BS.T.69(O)
BS.S.137(O) B BS.S.531( B BS.T.72 A
BS.S.150 B W) A A
BS.S.151 B BS.S.536 A A
BS.S.152 B BS.S.537 B BS.T.73 A
DTD.5066(O) A BS.S.538 BS.T.74(O)
BS.T.75(O)
(21.6. 9
Type)
1450 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1800 - 440 C - - - - - - - - DTD.326( D
O) *
- 1450 BS.HR.50 A
2(See BS
2HR 501)
Nickel 1800 - These forms are not covered by this Table BS.HR.50 A
Alloys 1(See BS
2HR 502)
Table 3: (O) = Obsolescent, (W) = Withdrawn
Page 10 of 11
SECTION 4
TABLE 3
RELATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO STRESS CORROSION
CRACKING OF VARIOUS STEELS ETC.
NOTE 1. Maximum specified tensile strengths for spring steels BS.S.201/5 vary widely with
wire dia (refer to material specifications for details). Other materials are grouped according
to type of steel and to strength ranges related to strengths arising in Para 4 of this Leaflet.
NOTE 2. Many steels, including some low strength steels, are susceptible to stress corrosion
cracking in hot caustic and nitrate solutions.
NOTE 3. Steels, especially springs, immersed in hydraulic fluid or oil may be so protected,
and even category D materials may be safely used.
NOTE 4. Electropolishing can improve the resistance of the spring steels marked * to
category B, but this treatment should not be applied to light gauge springs.
NOTE 5. Spring steels BS.S.205 and nickel alloys HR501 (Superseded by BS 2HR 501) and
HR502 (Superseded by BS 2HR 502) are recommended for use in high humidity and other
corrosive environments.
NOTE 6. Non-sacrificial metallic coatings can adversely affect the stress corrosion
performance of steels and such coatings (e.g. electroplated silver) should be avoided.
A. Very resistant to stress corrosion cracking in commonly encountered environments.
B. Resistant to stress corrosion cracking. When pre-existing cracks or defects are present,
failures may occur under sustained tension stresses in wet environments. This group of
allows can often be used without many stress corrosion design limitations. The normal
protective treatments applied to stop rusting also give good protection against stress
corrosion to non-corrosion-resisting steels in this category.
C. Susceptible to stress corrosion cracking - Stress corrosion cracking of these steels can be
expected unless the appropriate precautions are taken at the design stage. Steels in this
category should only be used after discussion with structures and materials engineers.
D. Very susceptible to stress corrosion cracking - The use of steels in Category D is restricted
and is only permitted with the approval of the Project Team Leader.
Page 11 of 11
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 8
THE PENETRATION OF TITANIUM ALLOYS BY SOLID CADMIUM
NOTE: The Ministry of Defence requires the minimum use of Cadmium in its equipment. To this
end, the use of Cadmium should be reviewed on a case by case basis with the PTL and a suitable
alternative used where appropriate.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Cadmium can penetrate the surface of titanium alloys and embrittle them at
temperatures as low as ambient. This effect can occur equally from cadmium plated on to
titanium or from cadmium on steel parts with which titanium is in contact.
1.2 The conditions under which penetration occurs, though not fully established, appear
to be: (a) tensile stresses in the surface of the titanium alloy, and (b) surface pressure of
the cadmium, perhaps necessarily accompanied by sufficient strain of the titanium to break
the natural oxide film (present even under electrodeposited cadmium) and so allow actual
lattice contact of the two metals. Penetration has been found to occur more readily in a
vacuum.
1.3 Penetration was first observed in the USA during environmental tests on structures,
and failures in service caused by embrittlement due to penetration have subsequently been
reported. Cadmium alloy fasteners have been used on British aeroplanes for many years
and although no failures have occurred, evidence of penetration has been found.
1.4 It seems certain that liability to penetration increases with increase of temperature,
and it is likely that, given tensile stress, pressure and strain, penetration is a real hazard at
temperatures below, perhaps considerably below, the 250°C hitherto accepted as the safe
limit for titanium in contact with cadmium.
2 RECOMMENDATIONS
2.1 It is recommended that contact between cadmium and titanium should be avoided
wherever the following circumstances exist or are likely to arise:
(a) Contacts containing local areas under high assembly stresses and fasteners
or press fits in which stress is not uniformly distributed. This applies equally to
cadmium plated steel fitments in titanium.
(b) Contacts where the fatigue properties of the titanium are critical so that the
notch effect of even slight penetration would be dangerous.
(c) Contacts which will operate at temperatures higher than those at which
experience has hitherto shown similar contacts to be safe.
(d) Contacts which will operate in a vacuum.
2.2 Titanium alloys should not be coated with cadmium by vacuum deposition because
of the danger that this method may be too effective in giving that intimate lattice-to-lattice
contact that, in most other situations, would be welcomed for its promotion of high
adhesion.
Page 1 of 1
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 9
THE STRESS CORROSION OF TITANIUM ALLOYS BY FLUORINATED SEALANTS AT

ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
1 Results of laboratory tests carried out in the USA have shown the fluorinated sealants can
cause stress corrosion cracking of titanium alloys at elevated temperatures. An investigation into
this effect has been made in UK using a two-part mix of Viton B sealant PR 1720F applied directly
to the metal.
2 With Ti-6Al-4V alloy sheet stressed at 85% and 95% of the 0.1% proof stress, stress
corrosion cracking occurred at 250°C but not at 200°C during continuous exposure lasting 1000
hours. Under extreme conditions of plastic deformation and elastic strain, minor superficial cracks,
up to 0.015mm (0.0006 in) deep, developed during a test lasting 1000 hours at 200°C; no cracks
formed under these conditions at l5O°C.
3 With material that possessed directional properties, specimens that were stressed
longitudinally, (i.e. in the direction in which sheet had been rolled), were appreciably less
susceptible to cracking than specimens that were stressed transversely. Susceptibility to cracking
was somewhat less in static air than in flowing argon.
4 Under the conditions in which Ti-6AI-4V alloy was susceptible to cracking, alloy Ti-8Al-lMo-
IV was somewhat more susceptible and alloy Ti-5A1-2½ Sn somewhat less.
5 The relevance of these results to behaviour in service depends on the temperature at which
Viton B is likely to be used in service. It is assumed that Viton sealants will not be used on fuel
tanks at temperatures above 160°C. In the fire zone region it is assumed that the sealants would
not be used continuously at temperatures above 225°C and that short surges of temperature will
not exceed 250°C.
6 It is concluded that Ti-6Al-4V alloy sheet is not susceptible to stress corrosion cracking
from contact with Viton B at temperatures up to 150°C. At 200°C under extreme conditions of
tensile loading there is evidence of incipient cracking and under these conditions at 250°C some
stress corrosion hazard exists. The hazard is greater in material stressed in the transverse
direction. However, it is likely that the hazard will be less if the Viton and metal are separated by a
coat of primer, and directional stress corrosion effects are likely to be unimportant with metal that
has no pronounced directional strength properties.
Page 1 of 1
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 10
AVOIDANCE OF GALVANIC CORROSION AT BIMETALLIC CONTACTS
NOTE: The Ministry of Defence requires the minimum use of Cadmium in its equipment. To this
end, the use of Cadmium should be reviewed on a case by case basis with the PTL and a suitable
alternative used where appropriate.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives recommendations on the avoidance of corrosion due to galvanic
action between dissimilar metals in the presence of moisture.
1.2 The leaflet should be read in conjunction with BS PD6484 "Commentary on

corrosion at bimetallic contacts and its alleviation". The recommendations are based on
service and laboratory experience, and are more reliable than those derived from tables of
potentials in seawater.
2 GENERAL
2.1 Galvanic action can occur when two metals in electrical contact are also bridged by
an electrolyte, (e.g. condensation, rain, seawater). As a result, the less noble metal is
corroded and the more noble metal protected (for an exception see Note (d) in Table 1).
Although the potential difference between metals is the prime driving force of the corroding
current, the magnitude of the potential is not always a reliable guide to the amount of
corrosion suffered in any particular contact.
2.2 Table 1, taken from the HMSO Publication "Corrosion and its prevention at
bimetallic contacts" (1956), records the degree of galvanic corrosion which can be
expected when any two metals in contact are bridged by an electrolyte. Although more
extensive tables appear in BS PD6484, experience indicates that Table 1 by itself is a very
useful guide in the context of aircraft structures, but it should not be regarded as infallible.
2.3 Table 1 divides galvanic effects into four classes A to D. The letters record only the
acceleration of corrosion by galvanic attack and do not relate to the intrinsic corrosion
resistance of any one metal. The letters have the following meanings:
A The corrosion of the first metal is not increased by the second metal.
B The corrosion of the first metal may be slightly increased by the second metal.
C The corrosion of the first metal may be markedly increased by the second metal.
D The corrosion of the first metal may be very seriously increased by the second
metal.
Where two symbols are given, the corrosion varies markedly with the conditions. Each
member of a contacting pair should be regarded in turn as the first metal, and the degree of
likely attack by the other metal read from the table.
Page 1 of 5
SECTION 4
2.4 Electrolytic corrosion can also be caused by stray or earth currents passing from
one metal to another through an electrolyte. Attack occurs at the anode metal, i.e. the metal
from which the positive current enters the electrolyte, though if the cathode is aluminium
this too can be attacked. The effects of stray currents can be reduced by:
(a) providing as widespread and good a metallic conducting path as possible, so

that concentrations of current are avoided, and
(b) wet assembly with sealants or jointing compounds (Clause 4.3.108) so that
electrolytes are excluded from joints.
3 RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1 The class of contact which can be used safely in an assembly depends on the
environment and the degree of protection which can be given, in particular, whether wet
assembly techniques are used.
3.2 The following recommendations are made:
Class of contact
Environment Safe WITH Safe WITHOUT
wet wet assembly
assembly
I Interior parts of hermetically sealed A to D A to D
components and equipment (Note
1).
II Interior parts subject to A to C A and B
condensation but not to direct (Note 3)
contamination by salt (Note 2)
III Parts liable to be wetted with salt A and B NONE
water, or normally exposed to the (Note 4) (Note 3)
weather
Notes:
1 Imperfect containers which can 'breathe' should be regarded as Class II
environments.
2 If the condensate forms from an industrial or marine atmosphere it may

contain corrosive salts, and should be regarded as tending to a Class III
environment.
3 Some metals are susceptible to crevice corrosion, and wet assembly is

required for all contacts liable to be wetted by salt water and is
recommended for parts subjected to condensation.
4 In places where seawater can collect and remain, and bridge wet assembled
joints, only Class A contacts are safe.
Page 2 of 5
SECTION 4
3.3 Both electrical and electrolytic paths are required for galvanic corrosion to occur
between dissimilar metals or other electrically conducting materials. Consequently electrical
insulation of the dissimilar materials will prevent galvanic corrosion, e.g. when carbon fibre
reinforced composite material is adhesively bonded to aluminium alloy the latter will not
suffer accelerated galvanic corrosion provided that an adequate and complete glue line is
achieved.
REFERENCES
No. Title etc.
1 Commentary on corrosion at bimetallic contacts and its alleviation.

BS PD6484
2 Tropical exposure tests on bimetallic couples. RAE Report Mat 82,

December 1954.
Page 3 of 5
SECTION 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Second Metal Cupronickels,
Monel silver solder Magnesium Stainless steels
Gold Inconel, aluminium- Coppe Tin and Steel Cadmiu Zinc and Chromium Titaniu Aluminium
platinum nickel/ bronzes r Nickel soft and m magnesium m and
brasse
s
First metal rhodium molybdenu tin-bronzes, 'nickel solders cast alloys Austenitic 18/2 13% Cr aluminium
silver m gunmetals silvers' also lead iron (chromated) 18/8 Cr/Ni Cr/Ni alloys
alloys
1 Gold, platinum, - A A A A A A A A A A A A A A(Z) A
rhodium, silver
2 Monel, Inconel, B - A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
nickel/molybdenum
alloys
3 Cupronickels, silver
solder, aluminium-
bronzes, tin
bronzes, gunmetals C(f) B or C - A A A A A A A B or C B A B or C B or C A (c)
4 Copper, brasses,
'nickel silvers' C(f) B or C B or C - B or C B or C (k) A A A A B or C B or C A B or C B or C A (c)
5 Nickel C B A A - A A A A A B or C B or C A B or C B or C A
6 Tin and soft solder,
also lead C B or C (m) B or C B or C B - A or A A or C A B or C B or C B or C B or C B or C A
C
7 Steel and cast iron C C C C C(f) C(f) - A (g) A (g) A C C C C(f) C B (g)
8 Cadmium C C C C C B(n) C - A A C C C C C(y) B
9 Zinc C C C C C B C B - A C C C C C C(e)
10 Magnesium and
magnesium alloys
(chromated) D D D D D C D B or C B or C - C C C C C B or C(e)
11) Austenitic
) Stainles 18/8 Cr/Ni A A A A A A A A A A (x) A A A A A
s
12) Steel 18/2Cr/Ni C A or C(1) A or C(1) A or A A A A A A A (x) A A (j) A
) C(1)
13) 13% Cr C C C C B or C A A A A A C C (x) C C A
14 Chromium A A A A A A A A A A A A A - A A
15 Titanium A (z) A A A A A A D (y) A A A A A A - A
16 Aluminium and
aluminium alloys (h) D C D(c) D(c) C(f) B or C B or A A A (d) B or C B or C B or C B or C(b) C (h) (x)
C
TABLE 1
DEGREE OF CORROSION AT BIMETALLIC CONTACTS
Where a metal is plated, the behaviour should be sought under that of the plated coating.
Class A - The corrosion of the first metal is not increased by the second metal Class B - The corrosion of the first metal may be slightly increased by the second metal
Class C - The corrosion of the first metal may be markedly increased by the second metal Class D - The corrosion of the first metal may be very seriously increased by the second metal
Page 4 of 5
SECTION 4
NOTES TO TABLE 1:
(a) Where contact between magnesium and aluminium alloys is necessary, the use of
aluminium alloys with low or negligible copper and iron content is preferred.
(b) In contact with thin (decorative) chromium plate, the symbol is C, but with thick plating (as
used for wear resistance) the symbol is B.
(c) When contacts between copper or copper-rich materials and aluminium alloys cannot be
avoided, a much higher degree of protection against corrosion is obtained by first plating
the copper-rich material with tin or nickel and then with cadmium (refer to Def Stan 03-36),
than by applying a coating of cadmium (refer to Def Stan 03-36) of similar thickness. The
aluminium in contact with the copper-rich material should be anodised when practicable.
(d) When magnesium corrodes in sea-water or certain other electrolytes, alkali formed at the
aluminium cathode may attack the aluminium.
(e) When it is not practicable to use other more suitable methods of protection, (e.g. spraying
with aluminium), zinc may be useful for the protection of steel in contact with aluminium,
despite the accelerated attack upon the coating.
(f) This statement should not necessarily discourage the use of the second metal as a coating
for the first metal provided that continuity is good; under abrasive conditions, however, even
a good coating may become discontinuous.
(g) In these cases the second metal may provide an excellent protective coating for the first
metal, the latter usually being electrochemically protected at gaps in the coating.
(h) When aluminium is alloyed with appreciable amounts of copper it becomes more noble and
when alloyed with appreciable amounts of zinc it becomes less noble. These remarks apply
to bimetallic contacts and not to the inherent corrosion resistance of the individual
aluminium alloy. Such effects are mainly of interest when the aluminium alloys are
connected with each other.
(j) No data available.
(k) In some immersed conditions, the corrosion of copper or brass may be seriously
accelerated at pores or defects in tin coatings.
(l) Serious acceleration of corrosion of 18/2 stainless steel in contact with copper or nickel
alloys may occur at crevices where the oxygen supply is low.
(m) Normally the corrosion of lead-tin soldered seams is not significantly increased by their
contact with the nickel-base alloys but under a few immersed conditions the seams may
suffer enhanced corrosion.
(n) Tin should not be used in contact with cadmium (refer to Def Stan 03-36) in joints liable to
be heated above 120°C.
(x) Joints liable to crevice corrosion when the oxygen supply is limited.
(y) Under some circumstances cadmium (refer to Def Stan 03-36) can penetrate titanium alloy
and embrittle it, a warning of the danger is given in Leaflet 8.
(z) There is evidence that at elevated temperatures in certain atmospheres (e.g. exhaust
gases), silver coatings may cause cracking of stressed titanium alloy parts.
Page 5 of 5
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 11
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST CORROSION AND DETERIORATION

DETERIORATION OF FIBROUS MATERIALS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives information on precautions to minimise deterioration of textiles and
cordages.
1.2 A general account of the appearance of damaged aerospace textiles is given in

RAE Technical Memorandum Materials 290 (Ref 1).
2 RESISTANCE TO ROTTING
2.1 Synthetic fibre materials are resistant to rotting, i.e. to attack by micro-organisms,
and require no protective treatment. Some microbiological attack, generally harmless in
itself, though possibly unacceptable aesthetically, may occur on surface finishes applied or
where the material is contaminated.
2.2 Natural fibre materials are susceptible to rotting and require protective treatment in
accordance with Clause 4.3.93
3 RESISTANCE TO ACTINIC DEGRADATION
3.1 Textile fibres are susceptible to degradation and weakening by actinic attack. This
needs to be borne in mind when the use or the position of the component in the aeroplane
results in much exposure of the material to light.
3.2 D Materials Technical Memorandum No 8 (Ref 2) describes results of continuous

exposure tests of nylon, Terylene and flax webbings under tropical and temperate
conditions. Considerable losses of strength occurred within an exposure period of six
months. For example, webbings made from 'bright' nylon, 'bright' Terylene (Para 3.6 for
definition of 'bright') and flax yarns, exposed for six months in Australia, lost 53%, 48% and
41% respectively of breaking strength when exposed to direct light and 32%, 27% and 25%
respectively when exposed behind 'Perspex'.
3.3 A review of the literature on the weathering of nylon is given in RAE Technical Note
Chem 1389 (Ref 3); results of weathering trials of nylon and the assessment of some
protective treatments is described in RAE Technical Report 64081 (Ref 4). It was found that
2:4 dihdroxybenzophenone applied from solution in benzyl alcohol or methylated spirit
provided some protection. For extra high tenacity nylon, 90% of the original strength was
retained after 312 days exposure, and 70% after 609 days. Corresponding figures for the
untreated material were 65% and 31%. For delustered nylon, the strength retention of
treated fibres was 90% after 123 days, whilst untreated fibres retained only 32%. Acrylic
fibre materials are more resistant to sunlight than most other fibres, but repeated
immersions in water cause strength losses (RAE Technical Report 77156, Ref 5).
3.4 Where it could be applied, e.g. in certain types of rope, neoprene sleeving resulted
in better than 90% strength retention after 5 years. Sleeved ropes after exposure were
indistinguishable from new, and they did not snarl or shrink; they were also protected from
abrasion.
Page 1 of 5
SECTION 4
3.5 Correlations of fading of dyestuffs with strength loss showed that for single dyes on
high tenacity nylon threads and webbings, coefficients of up to 0.75 were obtained, and
fading constituted a useful non-destructive test for strength (Ref 6). For mixtures of
dyestuffs on extra-high tenacity nylon threads, no similar worthwhile correlation existed (Ref
7).
3.6 With synthetic fibre materials, the presence in the fibre of delustering pigment
accelerates actinic degradation. Fibre of the 'bright' type should preferably be used, i.e.
fibre substantially free from delustering pigment. When the application involves much
exposure to light, only bright type fibre shall be used (Clause 4.3.95).
3.7 When dyeing of nylon is required, it is recommended that CI Acid Black 132, Acid
Green 43, Disperse Yellow 3, Disperse Orange 3 or, Mordant Yellow 34 should be used.
Dyes to be avoided because they enhance actinic attack on nylon are CI Acid Red 211,
Mordant Blue 49 and Disperse Black 1. A number of vat dyes are known to increase attack
on cellulosic fibres BS 6F 100, Refs 8, 9). Continuous exposure to fluorescent lighting in a
room does not cause noticeable damage, but contact with the lamp must be avoided (RAE
Technical Memorandum Mat 302, Ref 10).
3.8 The use of unsuitable marking ink may cause or accelerate degradation of textiles
or polymeric materials; marking ink meeting BS 6F 100 requirements is recommended.
3.9 Coated Textiles may stiffen on weathering. Polyurethane coatings may delaminate
and give a tear strength similar to that of the uncoated fabric. The tensile strength of coated
fabrics is less affected by weathering than the equivalent uncoated fabrics (RAE Technical
Report 77016, 77031, 78005, Refs 11, 12, 13).
3.10 Certain chloroprene adhesives are susceptible to decomposition under the action of
daylight with the formation of acidic products which can cause degradation of fabric,
particularly cellulosic fabric, in contact with the adhesive.
4 RESISTANCE TO HEAT
4.1 Textile fibres are subject to degradation and weakening when exposed to elevated
temperatures. RAE Technical Note Chem 1270 (Ref 14) describes the results of tensile
tests on nylon and Terylene yarns before and after ageing at temperatures up to 180C.
After 16 hours exposure in air at 150°C the room temperature strength of the nylon yarn
was reduced by approximately 40%. The same duration of exposure of the Terylene yarn in
air at 156°C reduced the room temperature strength by approximately 10%.
4.2 Extra-high tenacity nylon yarn of improved heat resistance showed approximately
5% loss of room temperature tensile strength after exposure in air at 150C for 24 hours,
and approximately 35% loss after exposure in air for the same period at 175C (RAE
Technical Report 75113, Ref 15).
4.3 When nylon is introduced suddenly into a hot atmosphere, its temperature takes
time to rise, and useful performance may be obtained during this time. For example the
energy from a shock load may be absorbed before excessive physical deterioration has
taken place. The temperature history in cordage at several load levels when exposed to
ambient temperatures up to 340°C is described in RAE Technical Note CPM 7 (Ref 16).
The lifetimes, i.e. times for which a cord will bear loads without breaking, at temperatures
up to 440°C are also reported. For example, in a 3.56kN (800 lbf) braided cord under loads
of 0, 0.45, 1.78, 2.23 kN(O, 180, 400, 500 lbf), 50 second lifetimes could be obtained when
exposed to air temperatures of 380, 360, 310, 210°C respectively; for lifetimes of 500 s the
corresponding temperatures were 300, 250, 210, 150°C.
Page 2 of 5
SECTION 4
4.4 For circularly woven acrylic and aromatic polyamide cordages of similar construction
to nylon of specification minimum strength of 6.68 kN (1500 lbf) (Ref 17) aromatic
polyamide was superior to nylon at low loads or high ambient temperatures, but there was
little difference at temperatures below 200°C under a high load of 3 kN (675 lbf). Aromatic
polyamide was superior to acrylic under all the temperatures and loading conditions
studied. Nylon was superior to acrylic except under zero load, when acrylic was more
resistant to heat.
5 RESISTANCE TO ABRASION
5.1 Fibrous materials are susceptible to abrasion. Studies have been made (see Refs
18, 19, 20 and 21) of the abrasion which occurs when synthetic fibre cordage runs at high
speed over surfaces of nylon, concrete and asphalt.
5.2 For a nylon surface, it was found that the abrasion mechanism was largely
controlled by the rate of heat production in comparison with the rate of heat loss. It is
essential to avoid the use of synthetic materials such as nylon when high temperatures may
be developed, unless a heat sink or suitable protective layer can be incorporated.
5.3 With concrete, heating plays a less important role, damage being principally a
matter of progressive breakage of filaments by the rough surface. For example for a 3.56
kN (800 lbf) cord under a load of 5N (1.125 lbf) a velocity of 10 m/s (32 ft/s) for nylon and
polyester, and of 5 rn/s (16 ft/s) for polypropylene are sufficient to cause failures in a few
seconds. Higher velocities can be tolerated on asphalt than on concrete.
5.4 When a figure of eight descendeur is used for abseiling, descent speeds should be
limited to 2 m/s at 100 kg, or 1.3 m/s at 150 kg, so as to avoid damage to the rope by
frictional heating (RAE Technical Report 76049, Ref 22).
6 RESISTANCE TO WATER
6.1 The strength of some textile materials is affected by water. For example, wet nylon
is 15% weaker than at standard humidity, and aromatic polyamide 20% weaker. Natural
cellulosic fibre (cotton, flax) are a few per cent stronger, while Terylene and polypropylene
are unaffected.
6.2 Undrawn nylon degrades chemically in warm water unless protected, e.g. by oxine
(Ref 23).
6.3 Ply-tear webbings which are satisfactory in dry conditions may become dangerous
when wet because of ply failure; use of a binder/warp strength ratio of not more than 0.08 is
recommended (Ref 24).
6.4 Immersion of nylon webbing in sea water can cause reductions of a few per cent in
strength, even after rinsing, due to retention of deliquescing substances contained in sea
water which are inadequately washed out: these raise the local relative humidity, with
effects as described in Para 6.1. Sodium chloride crystals themselves do not cause
noticeable deterioration (RAE Technical Report 78043, Ref 25).
7 DETERIORATION BY JOINING
7.1 Joining of fabrics, cordage etc changes the properties compared with the unjoined
materials.
Page 3 of 5
SECTION 4
7.2 When joins are made by knotting, strength losses of up to 50% can be expected. To
join two ends, the blood knot or reverse figure of eight are recommended. To form non-
slipping hitches, the bowlines are good knots (RAE Technical Memorandum 251, Ref 26).
7.3 When joins are made in webbing by stitching, enough stitches should be used to
ensure that the stitching does not break under load; the webbing itself should fail at the join,
with a strength reduction of 10 to 20% of the unsewn material (RAE Technical Report
74183, Ref 27).
REFERENCES
No. Title etc
1 Damage to nylon textiles in aerospace use.

RAE Technical Memorandum Mat 290, March 1978
2 Fibrous nylon in aeronautical equipments - Resistance to actinic

degradation. D Mat Technical Memoranda No 8, January 1961
3 The deterioration of nylon by natural weathering: a literature

survey. RAE Technical Note Chem 1389, February 1962
4 Weathering of fibrous nylon and assessment of some protective

treatments. RAE Technical Report 64081, December 1964
5 Strength and other properties of yarns extracted from cordage

exposed to weather or immersion in water.
RAE Technical Report 77156, October 1977
6 Correlations of strength losses on weathering, strength losses

under a xenon arc and fading of dyed textiles.
RAE Technical Memorandum 50, January 1969
7 Correlations of strength losses and fading of dyed extra-high

tenacity nylon threads on weathering.
RAE Technical Memorandum 98, September 1970
8 The effects of dyes and finishes on the weathering of nylon

textiles. RAE Technical Report 74179, January 1975
9 Inspection and testing of textiles.

British Standard 3F100 (Superseded by BS 6F 100), February 1975
10 Effects of fluorescent lighting on nylon and aramid cordage.

RAE Technical Memorandum Mat 302, September 1978
11 The flexibility of weathered rubber-coated fabrics.

RAE Technical Report 77016, January 1977
12 The breaking strength and extension of weathered rubber-coated

fabrics. RAE Technical Report 77031, March 1977
13 The tearing of weathered rubber-coated fabrics.

14 The effect of heat on the strength of nylon and Terylene yarns.

RAE Technical Note Chem 1270, December 1955
15 Effects of time and temperature on a heat-resistant nylon yarn.

Page 4 of 5
SECTION 4
16 Load capacity and heat transmission for nylon cordage thrust into
a hot environment. RAE Technical Note CPM7, February 1963
17 Lifetimes of cordages when loaded and thrust into a hot

environment. RAE Technical Memorandum Mat 76, February 1970
18 High speed abrasion of nylon cordage on nylon.

RAE Technical Note CPM183, August 1964
19 High speed abrasion of textile cordage on concrete.

20 High speed abrasion of textile cordage on an asphalt surface.

21 High speed abrasion of nylon cordage on concrete and resin coated

concrete, RAE Technical Memorandum Mat 40, September 1968
22 The heating of abseil ropes by friction.

RAE Technical Report 76049, April 1976
23 Wet oxidation of undrawn nylon 66 and model amides.

RAE Report Chem 531, May 1962
24 The energy absorbing efficiency of ply-tear webbings of various

constructions. RAE Technical Report 72051, June 1972
25 The effect of salt and sea water contamination on the mechanical

properties of cord and webbing.
RAE Technical Report 78043, April 1978
26 The strength of a knotted braided nylon cord.

RAE Technical Memorandum Mat 251, June 1976
27 Some observations on the behaviour of superimposed and lap sewn

joints. RAE Technical Report 74183, February 1975
Page 5 of 5
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 12
TOILET AND GALLEY INSTALLATIONS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives recommendations for the design features of toilet and galley
installations to avoid corrosion of the surrounding structure.
2 TOILET INSTALLATIONS
2.1 The installation should be fabricated and where possible installed as a self-
contained unit which is in contact with the aeroplane structure only at its points of
attachment. At these points the best available protective materials and sealants should be
used. The unit should be easily removable from the structure.
2.2 The complete unit should stand on a one-piece non-metallic tray which should also
enclose the drainage and replenishment pipes. The edges of the tray should extend
upwards, except at the entrance which should be well away from any potential spillage, and
should be well sealed to the side walls of the compartment. The unit should be designed to
be easily cleaned with no sharp corners, or, water or dirt traps. It is recommended that the
maximum use of glass fibre reinforced plastic or plastic materials should be made.
2.3 The floor and tinder floor tray should have adequate drain Paths to ensure that any
fluid that might be spilt in the compartment would quickly reach the drain point.
2.4 Both the compartment and the air space around it should be adequately vented.
2.5 The necessary services (e.g. water supplies), drainage and venting should be
contained within the installation and should also be non-metallic. Only electric power
services should be supplied from the aeroplane system. Water replenishing points should
be readily accessible from the outside of the aeroplane; they should be located as close as
possible to the toilet or galley installations which they serve.
3 GALLEY INSTALLATIONS
3.1 The design features of Para 2 should be incorporated in the design of galley
installations where applicable.
3.2 There should be no leak paths from working surfaces and sink units.
Page 1 of 1
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LEAFLET 13
THE SELECTION AND USE OF CORROSION RESISTING STEELS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives recommendations on the selection and use of corrosion resisting
steels in order to optimise their performance in corrosive environments.
1.2 The corrosive environments considered are those normally encountered in

aeroplanes, e.g. heavy condensation, salt spray etc. Selection of materials for contact with
more specialised environments, e.g. containers and pipework for aggressive fluids, are
outside the scope of this leaflet.
2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CORROSION RESISTING STEELS
2.1 The corrosion resistance of "stainless" steels is attributed to the presence of a thin
oxide film on the surface of the metal. This film protects the metal from corrosion, provided
conditions are such that the film is maintained intact, under which conditions the metal is
said to be passive. The range of passivity may be broad or narrow, depending on the
composition of the steel and the conditions to which it is exposed, and passivity may be
destroyed by changes in conditions, e.g. contact with deoxygenated water which can occur
in crevices especially in the presence of chloride ion which is a common contaminant in
aircraft structures. When passivity is destroyed the material corrodes in much the same
way as non stainless steel.
2.2 The most significant alloying element in developing passivity in steels is chromium,
and a minimum of 10% of that element is required to provide a continuous oxide film which
will provide basic protection. Other alloying elements also have a significant effect in
modifying the corrosion resistance under specific conditions and also in determining the
mechanical properties of the steel.
2.3 Corrosion resisting steels can be classified into three basic types as determined by
chemical composition and its affect on their metallurgical structure.
2.3.1 Austenitic (and semi-austenitic) steels - These grades have a high chromium
content (above 17%) together with nickel and in some cases other elements which
confer a high degree of corrosion resistance. The standard grades do not respond
to heat treatment and can only be hardened by cold working. There are a number of
special purpose and proprietary materials which offer exceptional combinations of
mechanical properties and corrosion resistance at high cost and/or limited
availability.
2.3.2 Precipitation hardening steels - These steels contain chromium and nickel
together with other alloying elements which enable them to be heat treated to give
high strength. Their corrosion resistance is generally intermediate between the
martensitic and austenitic grades, but where the higher tensile strength materials
are used, stress-corrosion cracking may be a problem (Leaflet 7).
Page 1 of 3
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2.3.3 Ferritic and Martensitic steels - These contain chromium as the principal
alloying element. Their corrosion resistance increases progressively with increasing
chromium content, and in some grades is further improved by smaller amounts of
other elements. The optimum corrosion resistance in this category is achieved in the
steel containing 18% chromium and 2% nickel (S80); this is not available in sheet
form.
3 SELECTION CRITERIA
3.1 With few exceptions, selection of corrosion resisting steels involves a sacrifice in
corrosion resistance for increased mechanical properties. Where their mechanical
properties and poor friction and galling characteristics can be accepted, the austenitic
grades should be chosen for all exterior, heavy duty interior or maritime applications.
Plating, dry film lubricants or other coatings to approved processes may be used to improve
the frictional characteristics but nitriding or other diffusion processes must not be employed
as these have a detrimental effect on corrosion resistance.
3.2 Where higher mechanical properties are required and/or where coatings cannot be
employed the choice lies between the precipitation hardening and martensitic steels. The
former have generally higher resistance to corrosion, the latter lower manufacturing costs
and are more readily available. The 11-13% chromium steels should not be used for
exterior, heavy duty interior or naval applications unless some specific property makes their
use imperative.
4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 The maintenance of the passive oxide film on the surface of the steel is critically
dependent on a ready supply of air to all surfaces. Therefore, design should wherever
practicable avoid the occurrence of crevices or other areas where there may be a restricted
access of air and where corrosive fluids may be trapped.
4.2 Where crevices are unavoidable consideration should be given to the use of
sealants to prevent the ingress of moisture. It is essential that sealing can be and is fully
effective, as ineffective sealing may give rise to more severe crevice corrosion effects than
would occur if sealing was omitted.
4.3 Where sealing is not practicable (e.g. on moving parts etc), then steels with the
highest corrosion resistance which are compatible with other requirements shall be
selected as these in general have the highest resistance to crevice corrosion. Of the
standard steels the austenitic grades are preferred if their other properties are acceptable,
followed by precipitation hardening and 18% chromium, 2% nickel martensitic types. For
very severe environments e.g. maritime aircraft, especially where small amounts of
corrosion products may affect the function of the parts, consideration should be given to the
use of special purpose or proprietary materials which have been developed to give
exceptional resistance to crevice corrosion, e.g., BS S537.
4.4 Due account should be taken of the effects of bimetallic corrosion where corrosion
resisting steels are in contact with other materials, (Leaflet 10).
Page 2 of 3
SECTION 4
4.5 Where stainless steels are to be painted in particular applications it is important to

select a suitable pre-treatment from Def Stan 03-2 to ensure good adhesion.
5 MANUFACTURING CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 As the corrosion resistance of stainless steels is dependent upon their chemical
composition as it affects the surface, it is essential that all surface contamination which may
be introduced by manufacturing operations is removed so that parts are put into service
with the chemical composition at the surface in conformity with the material specification.
5.2 Surface contamination will inevitably occur as a result of such processes of

manufacture as casting, forging, hot rolling etc. It is therefore essential that such surfaces
have sufficient material removed to ensure freedom from contamination, either by
machining, acid pickling, or abrasive blasting using non-metallic abrasives in accordance
with Def Stan 03-2.
5.3 Prior to operations involving heating, e.g. welding, heat treatment etc, it is important
that all oil, grease or other surface contaminants are removed by thorough degreasing or
other appropriate methods. Inert gas shielded processes are preferred for welding. Vacuum
or inert gas atmospheres are preferred for heat treatment and it is important that any
atmosphere used must not introduce carbon or nitrogen into the surface. Any scale,
oxidation or other surface discolouration resulting from heating operations shall be removed
by appropriate methods given in Para 5.2
5.4 Precautions should be taken at all stages during manufacture to avoid as far as
practicable surface contamination of parts which are to final dimensions on any surface. In
particular good house-keeping and protection should be practiced to prevent swarf and
similar material being impressed into finished surfaces. Where the possibility of such
surface contamination exists as a consequence of manufacturing operations e.g. sheet
metal forming operations, then passivation in accordance with Def Stan 03-2 Method M
should be carried out before final inspection.
6 PROTECTION
6.1 Corrosion resisting steels should be selected so that they can resist the
environment in which they will operate. For certain purposes (such as for identification or to
suppress galvanic effects) it may be necessary to paint corrosion resisting steels. After a
suitable pre-treatment (Def Stan 03-2) epoxy spray primers to DTD 5567(Superseded by
BS 2X 33 Type A) may be used, and they should be force dried to ensure good adhesion.
Alternatively, clear baking resins to DTD 5562 (Obsolescent), stoved on at temperatures up
to 200°C, will adhere well to pretreated surfaces. Good protection can be obtained, for
example, for 11-13% chromium steels from aluminium-rich coatings (DTD
900)(Obsolescent), but these must be cured at significantly higher temperatures.
Page 3 of 3
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LEAFLET 14
GENERAL MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS
NOTES ON THE ORGANISATION OF SERVICING IN THE ROYAL NAVY, THE ARMY AND THE
ROYAL AIR FORCE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 As an aid to an appreciation of the requirements of Clause 4.4, some understanding

of the maintenance organisation in the Services is desirable; it is provided in this leaflet.
1.2 The policy of the MOD is to establish a small specialist project team for each new
major project. This project team will be controlled by the Project Team Leader (PTL), and
will be located at the Contractor's works as soon as practicable in the early design stages.
In addition to advising on maintenance policy, the team will make recommendations on
behalf of the PTL, where changes in design are considered desirable to facilitate economic
servicing and to improve reliability.
2 AEROPLANE PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE
2.1 Preventive maintenance is one element of the through-life maintenance of materiel

within the Military Air Environment (MAE) and is an essential element of the safe operation
of aircraft and equipment. Preventive maintenance is systematic, with prescribed work
undertaken at pre-determined intervals to reduce the probability of failure and to ensure
that performance is not degraded by time or usage. For aircraft and equipment in the MAE,
including support equipment, preventive maintenance shall comprise flight servicing,
scheduled maintenance and condition-based maintenance.
2.2 For MAE aeroplanes, the provisions of MAP RA 4203 apply for aeroplane
preventative maintenance procedures.
3 LINES AND DEPTHS OF MAINTENANCE
3.1 Maintenance activities within the three Services are assigned to either Forward or
Depth Support.
3.2 FORWARD SUPPORT
3.2.1 In the context of 'Forward' and Depth' maintenance, 'Forward support' is

defined as those logistic processes and functions that are focused on, and/or
provide immediate support to, the operating environment or are optimized effectively
best forward.
3.3 DEPTH SUPPORT
3.3.1 In the context of 'Forward' and 'Depth' maintenance support, 'Depth support'
is defined as those logistic processes and functions that underpin the support of
platforms and associated equipment, or by their nature, are optimized best in Depth,
and includes all logistic elements not in Forward support.
Page 1 of 2
SECTION 4
3.4 LINE MAINTENANCE
3.4.1 Any maintenance that is carried out before flight to ensure that the aircraft is
fit for the intended flight. It may include:
(a) Trouble shooting.
(b) Defect rectification.
(c) Component replacement with use of external test equipment if

required. Component replacement may include components such as engines
and propellers.
(d) Scheduled maintenance and/or checks including visual inspections

that will detect obvious unsatisfactory conditions/discrepancies but do not
require extensive in-depth inspection. It may also include internal structure,
systems and power plant items which are visible through quick opening
access panels/doors.
(e) Minor repairs and modifications which do not require extensive

disassembly and can be accomplished by simple means.
4 SERVICING SCHEDULES
4.1 The requirement for aeroplane preventative maintenance is implemented by the

preparation, issue and use of servicing schedules for each type and, if necessary, mark of
aeroplane. Each schedule specifies the work to be undertaken and frequency of its arising,
and is approved by the concerned aeroplane engineering authority.
4.2 For the preparation and amendment of MAE aeroplane schedules, the provisions of
MAP RA4351 apply.
5 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
5.1 It is a requirement that as much as possible of Forward Maintenance of MAE

aeroplanes should be within the capacity of tradesmen using only general purpose tools
from within the tool inventories (See MAP RA4808).
5.2 In the Royal Navy and RAF, standard tool kits for tradesmen are no longer issued.
Tools for the maintenance of Naval and RAF aeroplanes are issued under a system of Tool
Control. Tool outfits are provided for each type of aeroplane and for certain workshops and
maintenance tasks.
5.3 Where use of special tools cannot be avoided they should be simple and robust and
capable of use by men wearing NBC protective clothing.
6 AEROPLANE STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
6.1 The MAE policy and organisation for the maintenance of the structural integrity of
aeroplanes is detailed in MAP RA5720.
Page 2 of 2
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 15
PROCESSES AND WORKING OF MATERIALS
FUSION WELDING, FRICTION WELDING AND DIFFUSION BONDING
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives data and recommendations for the design of structures made by
fusion and friction welding and diffusion bonding.
1.2 Data and recommendations for brazing and soldering are given in Leaflet 19.
1.3 If a significant departure from the recommendations of this Leaflet is proposed for a
Grade A structure, the proposal should be discussed with the Project Team Leader.
2 GENERAL NOTES ON THE DESIGN OF WELDED JOINTS
2.1 In order to take full advantage of the strength of the parent metal it is often
advantageous to increase the cross sectional areas of the parts near the joints. When it is
practical the joint should be designed to be in the position of least stress and by careful
selection of parent metal, welding process, filler metal and sometimes heat treatment, it
may be possible to attain parent metal static properties in the weld.
2.2 As a weld normally acts as a stress raiser, both as a result of the change in section
that usually occurs at the weld and the change in metallurgical structure, this can reduce
markedly the local fatigue strength. Hence, where fatigue strength is important, particular
attention should be paid to weld geometry, and quality of weld and underbead. For optimum
fatigue performance it may be desirable, where practicable, to machine both top and
bottom surfaces of the weld, and preferably both surfaces should be subject to a surface
working process, e.g. shot peening. If the weld is to be machined after welding, allowance
should be made in the initial profile of the basic material for material subsequently
machined away.
2.3 Where a joint is made by a single weld from one side, every attempt should be
made to ensure full penetration. Special attention should be paid to inspection of the weld
root. Where full penetration of the weld is not feasible the joint should comprise two welds,
one from each side, to avoid failure from local bending on either side. Significant tensile
stresses in the root of a partial penetration weld should be avoided in view of the severe
stress raiser thus formed.
2.4 The design of welded joints should take into consideration proper access for the
specified welding process.
2.5 Welding methods which involve the use of a flux should be avoided where possible,
particularly where it is not possible to remove the flux completely after welding, e.g. welded
end fitting which closes the end completely.
2.6 The welded assembly should be adequately protected from corrosion. For this
reason, lap joints which are not welded around all edges should be avoided, or special
attention paid to their method of sealing.
Page 1 of 13
SECTION 4
2.7 The design and construction of components should permit all welds to be examined
in accordance with Para. 3 of this Leaflet as applicable after final welding and heat
treatment and during service. Components which are of such complex configuration that
these requirements cannot be met should be examined by NDT at suitable stages of
manufacture. Alternative methods such as the use of test pieces fully representative of the
component and which can be subject to metallurgical examination may be used with the
agreement of the Project Team Leader.
2.8 Where practicable the parts to be joined should be of the same thickness and they
should be maintained in good alignment.
2.9 It is possible to reheat-treat heat-treatable alloys after welding to obtain maximum

strength (e.g. harden and temper steels or solution-treat and age aluminium alloys), but
heat treatments involving quenching may lead to severe distortion in complicated
assemblies. It is, therefore, recommended that such reheat treatments should be restricted
to simple shapes and where maximum strength is really necessary, or where the parts can
be adequately jigged.
2.10 Welded assemblies made from materials with a tensile strength greater than
approximately 750 MPa should be subjected to a post-weld stress relieving treatment.
Stress relieving of lower strength material can also be advantageous to prevent cold
cracking, to optimise heat affected zone properties and where maximum dimensional
stability is required. It should be noted that some general engineering structural steels
suffer temper embrittlement, and even cracking, if stress relieved.
2.11 The local application of heat should only be permitted for the purpose of preheating
or stress relief, and then only under controlled conditions.
2.12 Welding of high strength carbon and low alloy steels with a carbon equivalent
greater than 0.26% should not be undertaken without consideration of pre and post-welding
procedures that may be necessary to reduce the susceptibility to cracking. The carbon
equivalent (CE) should be calculated using a simplified version of the Dearden and O'Neill
formula:
CE = %C + %Mn/6 + (%Cr + %Mo + %V) /5 + (%Ni + %Cu) /15
2.13 Different welding processes give widely varying rates of heat input (See Table 1).
High rates of heating can give less distortion. High rates of heating can also result in
narrow heat-affected zones so that a smaller volume of a component made from age or
work hardened material is softened. Nevertheless local high intensity heating can give high
hardness in fusion and heat affected zones e.g. in titanium alloys and in carbon and low
alloy steels, resulting from rapid cooling produced by the large volume of adjacent
unheated material.
2.14 The materials in the BS Aerospace and DTD (Obsolescent) series which are
normally accepted as weldable are listed in Table 2, together with the recommended filler
rods. Generally welds are more prone to cracking when high strength filler rods are used
and where operational stress in the weld is low it may be possible to use a lower strength
filler rod with advantage.
Page 2 of 13
SECTION 4
2.15 The ductile-brittle transition temperature of steels is often increased in the heat
affected zone and may increase the possibility of fracture in the operating temperature
range.
3 INSPECTION OF WELDED JOINTS
3.1 GRADING OF WELDS
3.1.1 For quality control purposes all welded joints must be graded A or B as given
in Clauses 4.1.4 to 4.1.9 in relation to the grading of parts.
3.1.2 Further advice on the definitions of Grade A and Grade B is given in Leaflet
1.
3.1.3 Grade A welds must be subjected to the Basic Inspection Techniques

described in Para. 3.2 augmented by one or more of the following (See Para. 3.3):
(a) Radiographic Examination,
(b) Penetrant Inspection,
(c) Magnetic Particle Inspection.
3.1.4 Grade B welds must be subjected to the Basic Inspection Techniques of

Para. 3.2 and such other tests as may be required by the designer and/or the
3.2 BASIC INSPECTION TECHNIQUES
3.2.1 The basic inspection techniques include the following:
(a) The verification of correct application of the specified preparatory and

welding techniques by destructive and non-destructive inspection of
representative test specimens at prescribed intervals during weld production,
and in accordance with the requirements of AvP 84/D505 or its replacement
in the QTR Series.
(b) The visual examination of each weld produced, including fillet size,
toe length, smoothness etc.
3.3 SUPPLEMENTARY INSPECTION PROCESSES
3.3.1 A number of further inspection processes are available, namely:
(a) Proof-loading - This is a suitable method for items like control rods,
drive shafts, ducting etc.
(b) Pressure testing of appropriate welded components.
(c) Magnetic particle inspection - Applicable to steels other than

austenitic stainless steels.
Page 3 of 13
SECTION 4
(d) Penetrant inspection - Applicable to all parts not covered by (b). It

may also be applied to parts made from magnetic materials as a duplicate
inspection, for example, to find surface cracks in areas that are difficult to
check magnetically, such as multiple tube joints.
(e) Radiographic procedures, including the preparation of detailed

procedures, including the preparation of detailed techniques for each item
and the scrutiny of radiographs.
(f) Processes such as ultrasonic and eddy current testing may also be
developed for the examination of welds.
(g) For electron beam welding consideration should be given to the use
of scribed lines on each side of the fraying edge parallel to the joint on both
the top and underside of the weld, to determine if the weld is offset with
respect to the joint.
4 INFORMATION TO BE QUOTED ON DRAWINGS
4.1 The following is a suggested list of information to be quoted on the detail drawings
or in documents related to the drawing as required by Clause 4.6:
(a) The Grade of the weld (See Para. 3.1).
(b) The specification and condition of the material prior to welding.
(c) Details of joint preparation and the location (and sometimes the size) of the
weld.
(d) Details of any stress relieving or other heat treatment to be applied after
welding (See Para. 2.10).
(e) The method(s) of inspection to be applied (See Para. 3) and the acceptance
standards to be achieved, including any inter-stage inspection.
(f) Any routine control tests to be applied during production and the properties
to be achieved.
(g) The welding process to be used and the welding parameters.
(h) Details of the filler rod or electrode, if used.
(i) Details of any special weld precleaning treatment.
(j) If preheating is to be used, the required temperature and method.
(k) Any special methods of cooling after welding.
(l) Cleaning process, where necessary, for the removal of flux.
Page 4 of 13
SECTION 4
4.2 Standard methods of indicating welding requirements on drawings are described in

BS 499.
5 NOTES ON PARTICULAR WELDING PROCESSES
5.1 OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING
5.1.1 Recommended for use on low alloy steels not more than 1.6 mm thick, but
difficult below 0.33 mm thick. Should not be used for material greater than 3.2 mm
thick.
5.1.2 Can be used for stainless steel and aluminium and magnesium alloys with
the use of a flux, but an alternative fluxless method e.g. TIG welding (See Para 5.3)
is recommended.
5.1.3 Not suitable for reactive metals e.g. titanium.
5.2 METAL ARC WELDING (STICK ELECTRODE)
5.2.1 Recommended method for welding low alloy steels greater than 2.5 mm
thick, as penetration is good. Should not be used for material less than 1.2 mm
thick.
5.2.2 May also be used for stainless steel. If the thickness of stainless steel is
greater than 6.5 mm then manual metal arcwelding is preferable to TIG welding.
Nevertheless, in many cases MIG welding will be preferable to manual metal arc
welding since there is no slag to remove between runs or after completion of
welding.
5.2.3 It is necessary to remove the flux between each run and after completion of
welding.
5.3 TUNGSTEN ARC INERT GAS SHIELDED (TIG) WELDING
5.3.1 Suitable for all metals normally accepted as weldable and for a wide range
of thicknesses e.g. 0.25 mm to 12.5 mm with multi-run techniques. For aluminium
and magnesium alloys, the thinner gauges of this range may require special welding
techniques. The process can also be used below 0.25 mm but the preferred
process is micro-plasma, (See Para 5.7).
5.3.2 Recommended method for manual welding of stainless steel, aluminium,

magnesium, titanium, nickel and copper base alloys. When welding titanium and its
alloys by the TIG process special precautions are always advisable. These
precautions involve the use of backing gas, trailing and leading gas shields, or
ideally, conducting all welding in a chamber filled with inert gas (usually argon).
5.3.3 May be used for welding low alloy steels, but particular attention needs to be
given to precleaning, e.g. by shot blasting, and it is normally necessary to re-shot
blast between runs to avoid porosity. When such precautions are applied high
quality welds may be obtained and the method is recommended for critical welds in
low alloy steels.
Page 5 of 13
SECTION 4
5.3.4 The shroud of inert gas prevents contamination of the weld from the
atmosphere and can greatly reduce or eliminate scaling.
5.3.5 Some welding torches are bulky, and thus the method is only suitable where
the design can be arranged to provide adequate access.
5.4 TIG SPOT WELDING OR PUDDLE WELDING
5.4.1 This is an adaptation of TIG welding (See Para 5.3) which produces a fused
"spot" weld for joining sheets. A top part in the thickness range 0.4 mm to 1.6 mm
can be welded to an under-component of like or greater thickness. More than two
sheets can be welded together.
5.4.2 Useful for "spot" welding where only one side of the joint is accessible. Care
should be taken to prevent interface oxidation when applying this weld.
5.4.3 Suitable for stainless steel and titanium alloys and certain alloy steels. When
welding titanium alloys, special precautions may be necessary to protect the
underside of the weld with an inert gas to prevent contamination.
5.4.4 Joints made by this process have relatively poor fatigue characteristics and
are prone to corrosion problems. Weld nuggets should be inspected for the
presence of centre cracking.
5.4.5 Not suitable for aluminium alloys.
5.5 METAL ARC INERT GAS SHIELDING (MIG) WELDING
5.5.1 Suitable for similar applications as TIG welding but enables faster rates of
welding. The torches are more cumbersome than TIG welding torches.
5.5.2 MIG welding is an alternative to manual metal arc welding since both
processes are generally used on relatively thick sections i.e. greater than 3 mm.
5.5.3 Most suitable for machine welding of relatively long runs, but is not suitable
for materials 1.6 mm and thinner.
5.6 CO2 WELDING
5.6.1 CO2 is widely used as a shielding gas for gas metal-arc welding of low
carbon and low alloy steel.
5.6.2 CO2 is an oxidising gas so the electrodes used must contain larger amounts
of deoxidisers such as Si and A1 than are required for argon-base shielding gases.
5.6.3 The short circuit or dip transfer mode of CO2 welding gives the process a
greater degree of application than MIG welding because of the ability to carry out
positional work. The spray transfer of MIG welding is essentially non-positional i.e.
flat or down-hand.
Page 6 of 13
SECTION 4
5.7 PLASMA ARC WELDING
5.7.1 This is a development of TIG welding (See Para 5.3) and produces a very
high heating intensity which produces deep penetration welds e.g. full penetration in
thicknesses up to 6.3 mm can be achieved in a single run. It is also particularly
suitable for very thin gauges e.g. 0.025 mm where the process is known as micro-
plasma.
5.7.2 Suitable for specialised applications for all weldable materials except
aluminium alloys. Although it is possible to weld aluminium and aluminium alloys
using this method it is only accomplished with difficulty and is not recommended.
5.8 VACUUM AND PARTIAL VACUUM ELECTRON BEAM WELDING
5.8.1 Electron beam welding is suitable for all metals, but special techniques may
be necessary for those containing low melting point/high vapour pressure elements,
e.g. zinc. Some alloys usually considered "unweldable" by other techniques can be
welded. In these cases, the properties of the welded structure should be
subsequently evaluated by test.
5.8.2 Welds may have very narrow width and are generally narrow in relation to
depth of penetration; the heat affected zones are also very narrow. It is possible to
obtain very deep penetration, e.g. 50 mm in one run, and hence a wide range of
thickness, e.g. 0.025 mm to 50 mm can be welded.
5.8.3 It is possible for some special applications to weld together different base
metals, e.g. Monel to soft magnetic iron, although in some cases a shim or plated
coating may be used to provide a fusion zone which is metallurgically compatible
with the dissimilar base metals.
5.8.4 Recommended for special applications requiring very high quality welds
and/or minimum distortion, and where access to the joint is difficult for other
methods of welding.
5.8.5 As welding takes place in a vacuum, weld contamination is negligible.
5.8.6 Assemblies for welding have to be capable of being located and

mechanically traversed in a vacuum chamber under the electron beam.
5.8.7 Close dimensional tolerances of detail parts are required to ensure a good fit
at the weld point; normally gaps of less than 0.075 mm are required.
5.8.8 Where possible ferromagnetic components should be demagnetised prior to

welding.
5.9 NON-VACUUM ELECTRON BEAM WELDING
5.9.1 Similar characteristics to vacuum electron beam welding (See Para 5.8) but
the process can be carried out at ambient pressure, e.g. in argon shroud or even in
air and so the weld is more likely to be contaminated. The resultant weld is likely to
be wider than when made by vacuum beam welding.
Page 7 of 13
SECTION 4
5.9.2 The weld position may be up to 25.4 mm from the electron gun.
5.9.3 The thickness of material which can be welded out of vacuum is

considerably less than can be welded with the same power under vacuum.
5.10 FRICTION OR INERTIA WELDING
5.10.1 Joints are characterised by a narrow zone of upset heat affected structure,
and the absence of fused material.
5.10.2 The process is suitable for all metals which can be welded by fusion
techniques. Some alloys considered unweldable by fusion techniques can be
welded by this process. In these cases the properties of the joints should be fully
evaluated by test.
5.10.3 It is possible to join different base metals together.
5.10.4 The design of the assembly should be such that access is provided for
removal of the upset flash by machining. Removal of the upset flash prior to post-
weld heat treatment minimises the risk of cracking during heat treatment.
5.10.5 Local thickening may occur during welding. Thus a limited amount of post-
weld machining may be required in addition to flash removal. With good tooling any
mismatch should not exceed 0.125 mm.
5.10.6 The maximum cross sectional area which can be joined is limited by the
tonnage capacity of available machines.
5.11 DIFFUSION BONDING
5.11.1 Diffusion bonding is a process used to produce high integrity joints,

particularly in titanium but also in dissimilar materials.
5.11.2 It is a process by which materials can be joined in the solid state by atomic
diffusion across the joint interface.
5.11.3 Where such a process is required, specific test work to evaluate the
process/part will be necessary.
5.11.4 For certain alloys e.g. Ti-6A1-4V, diffusion bonding can be combined with a
superplastic forming technique.
Page 8 of 13
SECTION 4
6 STATIC STRENGTH OF WELDING JOINTS
6.1 The static strength of a welded joint depends primarily on two factors, namely, the
strength of the weld metal and the strength of the heat affected zone of the parent metal
adjacent to the weld. With undressed welds in material of 1.6 mm and thinner the effect of
weld reinforcement is such that the weakest part is normally the heat affected zone or
parent metal. A drop in strength occurs in the heat affected zone of work hardened or age
hardened materials. As the thickness of the materials being joined increases, the strength
of the weld metal becomes more important, and above 3 mm is normally the most important
factor. Table 3 gives some typical 'as deposited' weld metal strengths.
6.2 Minimum welded strengths for undressed welds are quoted in some tube
specifications, but it should be noted that the method of welding is not specified.
6.3 The ESDU Metallic Materials Data Handbook 00932 should be consulted for the
allowable stresses in the 'as-welded' condition.
REFERENCES
No. Author(s) Title etc.
1 Engineering Science Data Unit (ESDU

Stress & Strength Volume 5 C5.2 Welds
2 Silbley J S Ultimate tensile strengths derived from
welders' competency tests Jan 1962 -
Oct 1965.
British Oxygen Co Ltd, 13.12.65.
3 The effect of post-weld refrigeration
treatment on the fusion welded sheet
material to VAAS 555 (FV 520).
Vickers Armstrong (Aircraft) Ltd.
Report AL /6 /4 - 159, 27.2.63.
4 Report on the strength decay check on a
FV 520 forging in the region of the weld.
Vickers Armstrong (Aircraft) Ltd. Report
AL /6 /4 - 155, 23.10.62.
5 Bonisczewski T Examination of electron beam welds in
& Kenyin D M 18% Ni-Co-Mo maraging steel sheet.
BWRA Report C139H /l /65, Sept 1965.
6 Dinsdale W 0 An assessment of the weldability, tensile
& Scott M H and fatigue strength of Titanium 8% Al -
l% Mo - l% V.
BWRA Report C129 /2 /66, June 1966.
7 Strength of welded joints in BS 1470 HS
30 aluminium alloy.
Westland Helicopters Ltd. Report ML /
30357, 4 Jan 1966.
Page 9 of 13
SECTION 4
8 Hawker Siddeley Aviation Ltd. Report

AML 2700 / 65, 7 Oct 1965.
9 Clifton F The strength of some welded joints in
& Ellis J steel sheet to DTD 124A.
RAE Report Structures 95.
10 Henwood M J The strength of some welded joints in
steel tube material to specification T45.
RAE Tech Note Structures 103.
11 Leder P L J A review of some recent developments
in welding process.
Journal of the Institute of Metals,
Vol 93, July 1965.
12 Eaton N F Recent developments in welding
technology.
The Metallurgist, Vol 3, No 11, Oct
1965.
TABLE 1
WELDING PROCESSES v HEATING INTENSITIES
(See Para. 2.13)
Page 10 of 13
SECTION 4
Form Specification Recommended filler rod

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Sheet, Strip and plate L113 BS 2901: Pt 4: 1970(now 1990): 4043A or 5056A
L115 " " "
Forging L112 " " "
Bar L111(See BS EN " " "
Tube 2326) " " "
L114 " " "
L118
Casting 2L99 " : 4043A or 4047A
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
Bar 2L508(O) BS2901: Pt 4: 19709now 1990): MAG 141
Casting DTD 5005(O) " : MAG 8
DTD 5055(O) Parent metal
CORROSION AND HEAT RESISTING STEELS
Sheet and strip S524 BS 2901: Pt 2: 1970(now 1990): 347(NR) S96(NR)
S525 " "
S526 " "
S527 " "
S531(W) " : 313 S96(NR)
S532 Parent metal
S533 Parent metal
S536 BS 2901: Pt2: 1970(now 1990): 308 S92(O)
S537 " : 316 S16
S538 *
Bar S126(O) BS 2901: Pt 2: 1970(now 1990): 311 S94
S129(O) " : 347(NR) S96(NR)
S130(See BS 2S " "
130)
S143(See BS 2S Parent metal
143) Parent metal
S144(See BS 3S *
144)
S151
Tube T66(See 2T 66) BS 2901: Pt 2: 1970(now 1990): 347(NR) S96(NR)
T67(O) " "
T68(See BS 2T " "
68) " "
T69(O) " "
T72 " "
T73
T74(O) : 308 S92(o)
T75(O) : 316 S92(o)
Casting HC101(See BS *
2HC 101) *
HC102(See BS
2HC 102)
HC104 BS 2901: Pt 2: 1970(now 1990): 347(NR) S96(NR)
HC105 " : 318 S96(NR)
HC106 *
O = Obsolescent W= Withdrawn NR = Not recognised
TABLE 2
MATERIALS NORMALLY ACCEPTED AS WELDABLE WITH RECOMMENDED FILLER RODS FOR TIG
WELDING
Page 11 of 13
SECTION 4
Form Specification Recommended filler rod

CARBON AND LOW ALLOY STEELS
Sheet, and Strip S534 BS 2901: Pt 1: 1970(now 1983): A32(NR)
S535 " "
Bar S142(See BS 2SP " "
142) " "
DTD 5082(O)
Tube T53(O) " : A31(O) or
T60(O) " A32(NR)
T65 " : "
"
NICKEL ALLOYS
Sheet and Strip HR203 BS 2901: Pt 5: 1970(now 1990): NA 35
HR206 Parent metal
Bar HR5 BS 2901: Pt 5: 1970(now 1990): NA 34
HR10 " : NA 38
Tube HR403 " : NA 34
HR404 " : NA 38
Casting HC205 " : NA 38
HC206 " : NA 38
OTHER HEAT RESISTING ALLOYS
Sheet HR207 BS 2901 : Pt 5: 1970(now 1990): NA 42
HR240 Parent metal
Bar HR40 Parent metal
HR55 BS 2901 : Pt 5 1970(now 1990):: NA 42
TITANIUM ALLOYS
Sheet and strip TA1(See 2TA1) Parent metal
TA2(See 2TA2) "
TA6(See 2TA6) "
TA10(See 2TA10) "
TA21(See 2TA21) "
Plate TA58 "
Forging TA13(See 2TA13) "
TA24(O) "
TA44(O) "
TA55(O) "
Bar TA11(See 2TA11) Parent metal
TA22(O) "
TA53(O) "
Tube DTD 5073(O) "
Casting DTD 5363(O) "
TABLE 2 (Continued)
*No standard fillers, use austenitic type + e.g. T308 or matching fillers (choice depends on
requirements)
+ Austenitic type should not be used in cases where thermal fatigue is a possibility.
Page 12 of 13
SECTION 4
Method of Filler Rod Yield Tensile Elongation Izod Hardness

Deposition Stress Strength on 50 mm (J) HB
(Mpa) (MPa) %
ALUMINIUM & ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Gas BS 1453 G1B 40 78.7 38 17 14
NG2 88 152.8 6 4 47
NG6 100.4 216 12 7 58
NG21 57.2 114.2 7 5 38
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
Gas BS 1453 D1 108 151.3 1.2 1 71
D2 29.3 101.9 6.8 7 43
STEELS
Gas BS 1453 A1 261 386 32 81 121
A2 352 491 31 74 145
284 429 22 30 146
A3 278 438 22 69 150
A4 364 538 23 28 202
A5 821 2 9 286
A6 349 503 19 61 180
TIG BS 2901 A8 Nb 528 671 41 - -
COPPER & COPPER ALLOYS
Gas BS 1453 C1 63 231 45 54 52
C2 167 449 22 40 117
C4 221 463 12 27 112
C5 268 579 16 42 151
TABLE 3
TYPICAL "AS DEPOSITED" WELD METAL STRENGTHS

Values to be used only as a guide - see Para. 6.1
Note: Information based on data supplied by British Oxygen Company Limited
Page 13 of 13
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 16
ADHESIVE BONDING OF STRUCTURAL PARTS - PROCESSES AND CONTROL
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The purpose of this Leaflet is to give, for the information of designers, a summary of
the considerations and recommendations affecting the use of adhesives for the bonding of
structural materials. It is not a complete process document but should be taken into
consideration when preparing a Process Schedule; it does not override any relevant
mandatory document.
2 SURFACE PREPARATION
2.1 GENERAL
2.1.1 Silicone and fluorocarbon compositions, e.g. aerosols, greases, oils, release
agents and rubbers should not be kept or used in work areas where any part of any
adhesive bonding process is carried out. Any contamination by these materials of
items to be adhesively bonded is almost impossible to remove and complete
removal cannot be assured. It may be necessary; however, for certain materials of
the above type to be used in specific applications, and in such cases prior approval
should be obtained from the Design Organisation.
2.1.2 Specially prepared papers impregnated with hardened silicone resins, e.g.
as used for the protection of 'pre-pregs' and film adhesives, are acceptable but it
should be verified that silicone transfer cannot take place. These papers should not
be used for any purpose other than that for which they were intended and are to be
removed immediately from the work area.
2.1.3 Surfaces which have been prepared for adhesive bonding are very sensitive
to any contamination and this will have an adverse effect on bond performance. It is
essential that care should be taken at all times to avoid contamination by hand,
clothing, protective wear, cleaning and wrapping materials, PVC bags, vapours from
release agents and dirty working areas. Despite all precautions for protection it
should be noted there is a limiting time between surface preparation and application
of bonding primer or bonding. Suitable protected prime items may, however, be
stored in clean, dry conditions for periods as specified for particular primer systems.
2.2 CLEANING AND DEGREASING OF METAL SURFACES
2.2.1 All aluminium and aluminium alloys, and corrosion resisting steels, should be
degreased in accordance with the requirements of Def Stan 03-2 / 1 Methods A1 or
A2 or, B1 or B2.
2.2.2 Titanium CP and titanium alloys should be vapour degreased in accordance

with the requirements of Def Stan 03-2 / 1 Method A1 using 1.1.1 - Trichloroethane.
Page 1 of 4
SECTION 4
2.3 ALUMINIUM AND ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
2.3.1 After degreasing, surfaces should be pickled in chrome/sulphuric acid in

accordance with Def Stan 03-2 / 1 Method 0.
2.3.2 When anodising is required the aluminium alloys should, after degreasing,
be pickled in accordance with Def Stan 03-2 / 1 Method 0. This should be followed
by chromic anodising, in accordance with Def Stan 03-24, or by an alternative
approved anodising process.
2.4 CORROSION RESISTING STEELS
2.4.1 Subsequent to cleaning and degreasing, surfaces should be etched in a 30

% solution of sulphuric acid.
2.5 TITANIUM CP AND TITANIUM ALLOYS
2.5.1 Information on approved processes for pretreating these materials may be

obtained from the DRA, Farnborough.
2.6 OTHER METALS
2.6.1 If metals other than aluminium, corrosion resisting steels and titanium CP or
titanium alloys are to be bonded special treatments will be necessary. Information
may be obtained from the DRA, Farnborough.
2.7 FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMERS
2.7.1 Surfaces should be swab degreased with an approved cleaning fluid for that
material to remove any parting agent or surface contamination and then carefully
abraded, with removal of all resultant dust and debris, to ensure a clean matt
surface suitable for bonding.
2.7.2 Surface water content of composites can affect bond strength. Composite
components to be bonded should be dried prior to bonding until the total moisture
content is less than 0.4 per cent by weight.
2.8 HONEYCOMB
2.8.1 Uncoated metal honeycomb - After machining operations and prior to

bonding, metal honeycomb should be degreased. Repeated immersion may be
necessary for effective vapour degreasing. Any materials, such as wax or temporary
adhesive, used to support the core during machining should be removed by a
specified and controlled process prior to final degreasing for bonding.
2.8.2 Non-metallic and resin coated honeycomb - The honeycomb must be clean
and dry, and may require oven drying immediately prior to bonding. Any feathered
ends formed when the honeycomb is cut should be removed. Cutting swarf and dust
should be removed by blowing with clean dry air or by vacuum cleaning.
Page 2 of 4
SECTION 4
3 APPLICATION OF PRIMER AND/OR ADHESIVE
3.1 It is strongly recommended that primer or liquid adhesive be applied or bonding

accomplished within four hours of prebond treatment. All items awaiting priming or bonding
should be kept in a clean area. Where a film adhesive is used without a primer and
assembly cannot be completed within four hours the process should be demonstrated to be
adequate to the satisfaction of the Project Team Leader.
3.2 Consideration should be given to the possibility that with certain adhesives, water
absorption prior to bonding may have an adverse effect on the properties of adhesive
bonded components.
4 BONDING
4.1 The fit of component details should be such that a solid glueline free of gaps and
voids and of a substantially uniform thickness is achieved. Actual glueline thickness
achieved will depend on the particular adhesive used, the type of component (e.g.
honeycomb or plate to plate), the bonding pressure and the area of plate to plate joints.
Flow of adhesive away from the central region of large area plate to plate bonds will be
limited and the problem more apparent in autoclave processes. Development components
should be used to study fit and flow of adhesive.
5 PROCESS CONTROL
5.1 A complete Process Schedule should contain requirements regarding materials,

preparation of surfaces, application of the adhesive, bonding and subsequent treatment
tests required, including non-destructive inspection techniques and the keeping of records
and tests values.
5.2 Coupon test pieces will normally be bonded with the work piece. The methods of
preparation and testing should be in accordance with Specification DTD 5577 or other
approved MOD testing schedule. The tests required are normally overlap shear, but peel
tests may also be specified. When the adhesion quality of plate to honeycomb joints is
measured by a peel test method due allowance should be made for the work done in
bending the metal skin. The peeling torque will change with variation in the stiffness of the
metal skin even though adhesion may not have changed. Tests should be carried out in
accordance with DTD 5577(Obsolescent) or to other Process Schedules approved by the
PTL. Where hot/wet durability is required, a wedge test (e.g. ASTM-D-3762-79) may be
used to assess joint performance.
5.3 It is essential that full records are kept of all stages in the process. The records
should show for each component:
(a) details of cleaning and pretreatment (including time of immersion and

withdrawal, and temperature of the acid pickling bath),
(b) time of pretreatment and application of the adhesive or primer,
(c) time between application of the adhesive and the bonding process,
Page 3 of 4
SECTION 4
(d) the complete time, temperature and pressure history of the cure cycle,
(e) results obtained on test pieces processed with the components,
(f) any non-destructive inspection results obtained on the component.
Cumulative elapsed times that adhesives are without refrigerated storage and, for two part
adhesives, the date and time of mixing the components should also be recorded.
5.4 The tests of Para. 5.2 should be supplemented by periodic tests on components or
on specimens cut from components. Records of all tests should be kept, preferably in chart
form, showing the comparison between results obtained on the coupon test pieces and on
components or specimens cut from components. The use of statistical quality control
methods to control the process is recommended (see also FAA Quality Control Digest No
5, Bonding Inspection).
Page 4 of 4
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 17
ADHESIVE BONDING OF STRUCTURAL PARTS - RECOMMENDED DESIGN PRACTICE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives recommendations on the design and strength of structures with
approved adhesives.
2 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 The design requirements for the application of any form of bonding process to
Grade A structures are given in Clause 4.6.2
2.2 There are two main types of bond used in adhesive bonded structures, namely plate
to plate and plate to honeycomb, and a bonded structure may be effected by using either
one or a combination of both types of joint.
2.2.1 Typical applications for bonded joints include the attachment of stringers to
skins, stiffeners to rib webs, shear plates, reinforcing plates bonded around cutouts
and edges to reduce stress concentration and to permit cut countersunk riveting.
2.2.2 Typical examples of adhesive bonded sandwich structures are for

bulkheads, flooring, doors and control surfaces. Construction of the components
provides stiff lightweight structures where tensile and compression loads are carried
by the facing skins and resistance to acoustic fatigue, bending and buckling is
afforded by the bonded honeycomb.
2.3 Detailed consideration is recommended at the design stage in matching the

requirements of joint manufacture with the requirements of the joint and component design.
When designing sandwich structures consideration should be given to the bonding
operations which must be effected with suitable bonding pressures to prevent collapse of
the core. Since the integrity of the structure is dependent on the bonding of the honeycomb
cell walls to the skins with which they are in contact, the adhesive should have adequate
filleting and gap-filling properties. The components dimensions have to be closely
controlled and due allowance made to accommodate the thickness of the adhesive layer.
Foaming adhesives may be used in bonding and consolidating honeycomb structures and it
should be noted that the expansion properties of the adhesives enable them to fill relatively
large gaps. Adequate precautions should be taken to seal sandwich structures against the
ingress of water to minimise deterioration.
2.4 Due account should be taken of differing thermal properties when bonding dissimilar
materials or sheets of different thickness.
2.5 The substitution of adhesive bonding for riveting, welding or other jointing
procedures without a re-design of the structure is unlikely to result in a satisfactory design.
2.6 The designer should satisfy himself that the design values used take into account
degradation due to environmental ageing. Exposed edges of adhesive layers should not lie
unprotected in contact with water/fluids in undrained parts of the structure.
2.7 In the design of honeycomb structures due allowance should be made for damage
tolerance in the presence of internal pressure and acoustic pulses.
Page 1 of 3
SECTION 4
2.8 As peeling and cleavage stresses are unevenly distributed through a bonded joint
they can under working conditions cause premature failure, and anti-peel devices should
be incorporated in likely cleavage situations. Likewise the strength of an adhesive in
tension, e.g. butt joint, normal to the plane of the joint, is very sensitive to the quality of the
bond, uniformity of loading and level of stress concentrations. Adhesive bonded joints
should therefore be designed to minimise stress concentrations in shear, cleavage, peel
and tension stresses.
2.9 The fatigue characteristics of bonded joints relative to their static strength will be
influenced by joint design and the adhesive used.
2.10 Design should not include the bonding of previously mechanically fastened or
welded sub-assemblies which may allow entrapment of pretreatment solutions.
2.11 The adhesive is normally electrically insulating, and it will therefore be necessary to
provide electrical connections between the parts to comply with the requirements of Clause
4.27.
2.12 The load distribution of sandwich structure to the main structure is normally
achieved by conventional methods of riveting or bolting through reinforced edge members
or other reinforced areas. These joints must comply with the requirements of Clause 4.6.2
2.13 As aluminium honeycomb core material is itself a bonded item, it is important to

verify that the curing cycle/cycles applied when bonding the structure does not permanently
degrade the honeycomb nodebond adhesive and thereby reduce the structural efficiency of
the honeycomb structure.
3 CHOICE OF ADHESIVES
3.1 It should be noted that certain structural adhesives are intolerant of multistage cures
and this aspect should be checked with the manufacturer and Approving Authority.
4 STRENGTH CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 In order to predict the failing strength of a bonded joint with an adhesive loaded in
shear, it is advisable to perform a detailed load diffusion calculation taking into account the
shear modulus of the adhesive and the stiffness of the components being joined. This
calculation is to find the peak shears which occur at the extremes of the joint because they
determine the ultimate strength. There are no simple rules to estimate these peak shears
relative to the average stress in the joint. As a general guide to the allowable design values
for these peak shears the results of single lap shear specimens, such as are used for
process control purposes, can be used directly since the average failing shear on a short
overlap specimen is almost equal to the peak shear, especially if there is some plasticity in
the adhesive. In the case of large area plate to plate bonds, where ventilation holes cannot
be provided, inwards migration of the adhesive can result in a thick glueline. Account
should be taken of the reduction in strength and stiffness of the thicker layer.
4.2 For repairs Adhesive design data should be derived from the Thick Adherend Test
as per ASTM D3983 and ASTM D5656-04. Repairs should not be designed using data
derived from lap-shear strength tests.
4.3 Care should be taken in structures designed to buckle that such buckling does not
lead to peel failure.
4.4 Soft tack rivets should not be regarded as contributing to the static strength of the
joint.
Page 2 of 3
SECTION 4
5 TEMPERATURE CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 Adhesive-joints are temperature/time sensitive. The maximum temperature which

the is likely to achieve from all sources of heat, including kinetic heating is therefore to be
determined and due allowance made in strength calculations or in the interpretation of test
data for the associated reduction in bond strength incurred for the time at which the
structure is at that temperature.
5.2 When practicable, strength data is to be obtained from structural tests under the
most adverse conditions of load and temperature/time that will occur in operation.
5.3 When sandwich structures are designed hermetically sealed to exclude moisture
then the effect of change of pressure in the structure with change of temperature and
altitude should be allowed for in the strength calculations of the component.
5.4 The coefficient of thermal expansion of the adhesive is greater than that of metal
parts of the assembly but may be the same as, or similar to that of non-metallic parts.
6 HANDLING AND MANUFACTURING CONSIDERATIONS
6.1 Control of the adhesive glueline thickness is achieved by controlling the constituent
parts of the assembly being bonded, the tools heat-up rate and bonding applied during the
curing cycle.
6.2 Unsupported edges of adhesive bonded joints are particularly susceptible to

damage, the use of tack rivets to prevent damage at such edges is recommended even
when subsequent assembly procedures would provide adequate protection. Location by
one or more tack rivets may be necessary to ensure adequate positioning during the curing
process. The tack rivets should be loose in order to avoid variable glue line thickness. It
should be noted that rivets can provide a means of water ingress into the bonded area, and
that with brittle adhesives, riveting after the adhesive bond has cured, may result in fracture
damage to the adhesive. These effects may adversely affect the fatigue life and durability of
the joint and, therefore, appropriate protection should be given.
6.3 As a bonding process may involve hot curing, the jigged assembly requires to be of
a size and shape that will permit curing of the adhesive under the specified conditions of
temperature and pressure. The component should be suitably jigged so that the bonding
surfaces can be of an intimate fit with the adhesive before application of the bonding
pressure.
6.4 It is normal to bond edge reinforcements at the same time as the core to skin bond
is effected in a honeycomb structure. If the edge attachments or further skins are secured
as a second operation, the exposed bond at the skin to core edge should be protected until
the operation has been completed. Where multi-stage curing is carried out, adequate
support and protection should be given to previously bonded joints and subsequently
bonded faces.
6.5 Adhesive bonded sandwich should never be manipulated after bonding, and it is
only possible to manipulate bonded plates under closely controlled conditions which have
previously been demonstrated to be satisfactory.
Page 3 of 3
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 18
THE EFFECT OF SURFACE FINISHING AND PROTECTIVE TREATMENTS ON FATIGUE

PROPERTIES
NOTE: The Ministry of Defence requires the minimum use of Cadmium in its equipment. To
this end, the use of Cadmium should be reviewed on a case by case basis with the PTL and a
suitable alternative used where appropriate.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The severe reduction of fatigue properties caused by stress concentrations

associated with notches, sharp radii and poor surface finish is generally known and
appreciated. Less well known, however, are the effects of various surface and protective
treatments applied to finished machined parts. Some of these treatments impart fatigue
properties considerably lower than those of the polished machined test pieces by which
materials are normally evaluated. Although the effects of surface treatments are of a
second order compared with those of holes, small radii and poor machining, they become
increasingly important as the basic fatigue design is improved.
1.2 Fatigue properties are affected by surface treatment in many ways. In particular,
those which introduce residual surface stresses modify the fatigue performance under
some conditions of loading, compressive stresses being beneficial, and tension stresses
deleterious. Treatments which roughen the surface tend to reduce fatigue strength. Some
chemical and electrochemical treatments cause absorption of hydrogen by the metal which
may have a harmful effect.
1.3 The following information, based, it should be emphasised, in all cases on plain un-
notched test specimens, is intended as a help to designers in considering the effects of
post-machining treatments. The importance of the effects is usually smaller on notched
specimens, but data are meagre. The changes in fatigue properties quoted in this Leaflet
are the changes in alternating stress required to produce failure at a number of cycles of
the order of 10 million.
1.4 Many of the treatments which reduce fatigue properties are very desirable for
protection against corrosion, and give much enhanced fatigue properties under corrosive
conditions. The data given in this Leaflet do not imply a recommendation to omit protective
treatments.
2 ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
2.1 EXTRUSIONS AND FORGINGS
2.1.1 The fatigue properties of "as extruded" and "as forged" surfaces are up to
50% lower than those of polished machined test specimens.' Chemical pickling has
little deleterious effect on these surfaces, the deleterious effect of roughening being
apparently balanced by the benefit arising from removal of the original surface, but
chemical pickling by many solutions, (e.g., caustic soda), reduces the fatigue
properties of machined surfaces.
Page 1 of 4
SECTION 4
2.2 SHEET
2.2.1 The fatigue strength of clad high strength sheet alloys may be up to 40%
less that of unclad sheet of the same total thickness.2 This reduction is much
greater can be explained merely by the reduced thickness of the high strength core,
and is usually ascribed to a special influence exerted by the low strength surface
cladding.
2.2.2 The removal of the "as rolled" surface from unclad thick sheet, by chemical
means, causes some reduction in fatigue properties.3
2.3 ANODISING
2.3.1 Normal anodising has little effect on fatigue properties except at holes,
where a reduction may be caused. Hard anodic films 0.025 mm and more thick,
however, reduce fatigue properties of Wohler type test pieces of aluminium copper
alloy by up to one half.4 This effect can be reduced to a 10% reduction by a sealing
treatment in boiling 5% potassium dichromate solution5. The sealing treatment,
however, causes a 20% reduction in the abrasion resistance of the coating.
2.4 ABRASIVE BLASTING
2.4.1 Under reversed bending fatigue, the compressive surface forces induced
have a good effect, and any roughening has a bad effect. Mild blasting treatments
which leave a satiny finish have been found to have a net beneficial effect. Heavy
abrasion such as grit blasting would probably have an effect depending on the
sharpness of the grit; the overall effect with very sharp grit being probably
deleterious.
2.4.2 Under axial fatigue, compressive surface forces give little benefit, except at
radii and notches. Roughening from abrasive is detrimental.
3 MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
3.1 The nominal chromate treatments have little effect on fatigue properties.6 The thick,
hard film deposited by the H.A.E. process and the DOW 17 anodic process, however,
reduces the fatigue strength, an effect analogous to that of hard anodic films on aluminium
alloys. The observed reduction can be up to one third,7 but this will vary with alloy type and
should be verified by the Design Organisation.
4 STEELS
4.1 Electropolishing treatments have been shown to reduce the fatigue properties of
conventional machined Wohler type test pieces considerably.8, 9 Non-electrolytic treatments
which dissolve the surface layers of the metal would probably have the same effect. The
fatigue properties can be restored by shot-peening or nitriding or partially restored by light
abrasive blasting.10 Results on stainless steels suggest that the effect of electropolishing on
fatigue properties of sheet is not large.
4.2 Cadmium and zinc plating have little effect on the fatigue properties of medium
strength carbon steels.11 Tests on high tensile steels, however, show that the fatigue
properties of heat treated alloy steels of conventional high strength types having an
ultimate tensile strength greater than 1235.5 MPa can be lowered by the standard anodic
and cadmium plating treatment even when followed by baking.12 The harmful effect can be
avoided by plating the cadmium on to a grit blasted surface without any interposed
chemical cleaning treatment.13
Page 2 of 4
SECTION 4
4.3 Hard chromium plating causes a reduction in the fatigue properties of steel, the
reduction tending to be greater on stronger steels. On a low alloy steel heat treated to an
ultimate tensile strength of 1235.5 MPa a 40% reduction in limiting fatigue strength is
caused by a deposit of 0.025 mm chromium. The harmful effect is increased by a post
plating heat treatment to 150°C. to 200°C., but is removed by heating to 450°C. to 500°C.
Deleterious effects can be avoided by prior shot-peening.14
4.4 Nickel plating can also cause an appreciable reduction in fatigue properties. The
effect varies with the type of plating solution used, and is related at least in part to the
magnitude and sign of stresses in the plated layer.14
4.5 The beneficial effect of suitably controlled shot-peening on the fatigue properties of
high tensile steels is well known. Grit blasting has also been found to have a similar
beneficial effect, but the subsequent aluminium spraying, for which it is a pre-treatment,
reduces the fatigue properties to those of "as machined" metal.
4.6 Approved prebond cleaning and etch processes for metals may have been shown to
have adverse effects on fatigue properties.
4.7 Surfaces of steel components should be checked for grinding burns before any
protective treatment is applied.
REFERENCES
1 Fatigue properties of unmachined and machined extruded sections in aluminium alloy to

D.T.D.364 S. & T. Memo 7/52.
2 Unpublished information, also: Fatigue properties of light alloy sheet materials and the
influence of aluminium cladding. S. & T. Memo 3/42.
3 The effects of contour etching on the bending fatigue properties of aluminium alloy sheets
and plate. S. & T. Memo 19/60.
4 The effect of hard anodic coatings on the fatigue strength of D.T.D.364B aluminium alloy.
R.A.E.Tech. Note Met. 200, June, 1954.
5 Further work on the effect of hard anodising on the fatigue strength of D.T.D.364B
aluminium alloy. R.A.E.Tech. Note No. Met. 216, March, 1955.
6 Corrosion and fatigue tests on magnesium alloys treated by a French galvanic process
R.A.E.Tech. Note No. Met. 156, February, 1952.
7 Tests on the H.A.E. treatment for magnesium alloys. R.A.E. Technical Note No. Met. 212,
March, 1955.
8 Electrolytic Polishing and metal fatigue. Trans. Inst. Metal Finishing 31, 1954.
9 Electropolishing, its influence on the fatigue endurance limit of ferrous and non-ferrous
parts. Aircraft Production, July, 1943.
10 The fatigue properties of investment case 0.2% C. 18% Cr. 2% Ni. stainless steel and the
improvement by nitriding and shot peening. N.G.T.E. Memo. 162, October, 1953.
11 Influence of surface coatings on the fatigue strength of steel. Proc. First World Met.
Congress U.S.A. 1951, p.606.
Page 3 of 4
SECTION 4
12 Effect of some metallic surface protection procedures on the fatigue properties of high and
ultra-high strength steels. Trans. Inst. Met. Finishing, 38, 5 p.175, 1961. Also S. & T. Memo.
13/60.
13 The effect of electroplating on fatigue strength. Metallurgical Reviews, 1960, 5, No. 18.
14 Limitations of plated nickel in jet engine design. Electroplating and Metal Finishing, 10, 3,
p.74, March, 1957.
Page 4 of 4
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 19
BRAZING AND SOLDERING
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives data and recommendations on the use of brazing and soldering.
1.2 If a significant departure from the recommendations of this leaflet is proposed for a
Grade A part, the proposal should be discussed with the PTL.
2 BRAZING GENERAL
2.1 The term brazing is used to describe the joining of metals by means of a filler
material without melting the parent metal. The filler when molten is normally drawn by
capillary action into the space between closely adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined.
The composition of the filler material is not necessarily similar to that of the parent metal
and the melting point is normally higher than 500°C, but lower than that of the parent metal.
2.2 In the case of bronze welding (braze welding) a fillet is produced by a technique
similar to fusion welding using a filler material with a lower melting point than the parent
metal but without using capillary action or intentionally melting the parent metal.
2.3 The heating to achieve this may be attained by any means, providing the
temperature and, in some cases; the atmosphere surrounding the joint can be adequately
controlled. Available processes are listed in Para. 6.
3 EFFECT OF BRAZING ON MATERIAL PROPERTIES
3.1 The temperatures required for brazing are such that heat treated and work
hardened normally suffer reduction in mechanical properties and the designer should make
due allowance for such reductions in strength. These changes may be localised when torch
or induction brazing is used, but affect all the material after salt bath or furnace brazing.
3.2 The melting temperature of the brazing filler material sometimes precludes
subsequent full heat treatment to restore the properties although this is possible in certain
special cases such as the copper brazing of steel. Post-braze precipitation treatments of
some aluminium and nickel base alloys may be used to restore the properties of the parent
metal.
3.3 Tests made to determine the effects of copper brazing and subsequent heat
treatment upon the impact, tensile and fatigue properties of a number of heat treated
steels, weldable low alloy steels and plain carbon steels showed that the impact resistance
of almost all the steels was reduced by the brazing cycle. The ultimate tensile and proof
stresses of heat treated low alloy steels and cold worked steels are also reduced by the
brazing cycle. Some form of post-brazing treatment to restore properties is essential for
heat treated low alloy steels and desirable for plain carbon steels. The properties of cold
worked materials cannot be restored after brazing.
3.4 High nickel alloys, corrosion resistant steels and plain carbon carbon-manganese
and steels may be subjected to intergranular penetration by the filler alloy if brazed in a
state of stress (see Para’s. 6.2, 7.2, 7.3.2 and 7.5.2).
Page 1 of 14
SECTION 4
4 DESIGN AND STRENGTH OF JOINTS
4.1 The strength and efficiency of brazed joints depend on a number of factors,
including the design of the joint, the method of applying the process, the composition of the
materials to be brazed, the use of correct brazing materials and fluxes, and the competency
of the operator. Primarily the strength of the joint depends on the area of the braze which
unites the surfaces of the parts forming the joint. There is an optimum overlap in a lap
shear joint above which the strength will barely increase. This is because the load is carried
mainly by the extremities of the lap, the centre carrying little or no load. In practice the
optimum length of overlap is 3 to 4 times the thickness of the thinner component of the
joint.
4.2 To a lesser extent the joint strength is also governed by the thickness of the braze.
Recommended joint clearances are listed in Table 1. The fit of parts to be joined is of vital
importance; the gap between the joint faces is critical and must be obtained without strain
at room temperature and at the brazing temperature. The liquid filler material is drawn
through the gap by capillary attraction and the extent of this action is governed by the gap
clearance. Non-uniform joint gaps allow different rates of progress of the advancing liquid
metal front through the gap with the subsequent risk of flux or gas entrapment on
solidification resulting in low integrity joints. An adequate gap is necessary to allow
sufficient flux, when required, to be present to complete its action without chemical
exhaustion.
4.3 Joints for assembly by brazing shall be designed so far as possible with the plane of
the brazing material in shear. The exception is bronze welding where provision must be
made on the joint design for direct application of the brazing filler material. Such joints
should not be designed in shear but as fillet or butt joints as for fusion welding.
4.4 So far as possible, joints should be positioned so that the edges of the joint are not
subjected to tension or bending.
4.5 Allowance must be made in the design for application of the filler material.
Assemblies that are to be brazed by a process requiring the use of a flux should be
designed so that flux residues are easily removed and entrapment of flux is avoided. Blind
cavities must be vented to prevent gas entrapment.
4.6 Parts should be designed to be self jigging during the brazing process (see Figs.1h,
k and l).
4.7 In all cases the temperature of operation must be considered. Strength at elevated
temperature depends largely upon the type of filler material used. In general terms the
silver brazing filler materials, having the lowest melting temperatures, are suitable for
continuous service at temperatures up to about 200°C.
4.8 In appropriate cases where fatigue resistance is important, care should be taken to
avoid stress concentrations and marked discontinuities in structure stiffness.
Page 2 of 14
SECTION 4
4.9 The dependence of brazed joint strength on the wide range of interacting variables,
as described in Para’s. 4.1 to 4.4, makes it unrealistic to define strength values for brazed
joints. However the provision of sound joints of optimum strength can be assisted by careful
design based on consideration of the factors outlined above. The final design adopted
should be checked by a full scale trial embodying strength tests, if so required, on important
joints before going into production. The following points will assist in achieving satisfactory
results:
(a) Design the joint in such a way that the filler material will flow through the joint
to an edge that can be inspected.
(b) Ensure that minimum assembly stresses are induced prior to brazing.
(c) Guidance on recommended joint clearances is given in Table 1. Allowances

should be made for changes in the joint gap at room temperature and the brazing
temperature. This will depend on the method and the materials used for jigging, but
for self-jigging applications on parts manufactured from similar materials, there will
be no significant change. When brazing dissimilar materials allowance should be
made for the effects of differing thermal expansion coefficients.
(d) For critical joints establish a technique of manufacture.
(e) The design of joints should be such as to minimise possible corrosion

hazards.
(f) Some recommended joint forms are shown in Fig. 1.
5 INSPECTION OF BRAZED JOINTS
5.1 GRADING OF JOINTS
5.1.1 For inspection purposes all joints must be graded in accordance with Clause
4.1.4 and 4.1.5 in relation to the grading of parts and will be inspected as required
by Clause 4.6
5.2 BASIC INSPECTION TECHNIQUES
5.2.1 The basic inspection techniques include the following:
(a) Visual examination of each joint produced.
(b) Verification that adequately controlled techniques and operators of

acceptable competency are employed.
Page 3 of 14
SECTION 4
5.3 SUPPLEMENTARY INSPECTION TECHNIQUES
5.3.1 A number of supplementary inspection processes are available, namely:
(a) Radiographic inspection, including the preparation of detailed

techniques for each item and the scrutiny of radiographs. When radiography
is used an acceptable defect level should be established for the joint. Where
radiographic examination is impractical because of unsuitable geometry,
alternative arrangements for inspection should be agreed with the MOD
Quality Assurance Authority.
(b) Dye penetrant or magnetic particle inspection as appropriate. It

should be noted that dye penetrant or magnetic particle inspection effectively
inhibits the use of a reheating procedure to rectify defective joints. This is
due to potential capillary contamination by the fluids these methods entail.
(c) Processes such as ultrasonic and eddy current testing may also be
developed for the examination of brazed joints.
(d) Proof loading - this is a suitable method for items such as ducting.
(e) Mechanical testing, cut-up or NDT of test pieces.
(f) Pressure or rig testing as necessary.
6 BRAZING METHODS
6.1 TORCH BRAZING
6.1.1 Heat is applied by means of a hand torch burning a variety of gas mixtures
of oxygen with acetylene, hydrogen, propane or natural gas or air with acetylene,
natural gas or propane. The process is inexpensive and is suitable for all types of
work. The brazing alloy may be hand fed by the operator or pre-placed as an insert.
A flux is generally required.
6.2 BRONZE WELDING
6.2.1 Bronze welding is a special form of torch brazing, using a joint design similar
to that for welding. It is a useful process for joining low strength mild steel
components in complex configurations with minimum distortion. The process is not
recommended for use on Grade A components unless it can be shown by test that
the fabricated component will meet the appropriate design requirement. Bronze
welding is particularly liable to introduce cracking and intergranular penetration in
low alloy steels if welding is attempted in the non-stress relieved condition.
Page 4 of 14
SECTION 4
6.3 INDUCTION BRAZING
6.3.1 The heat required is developed within the component by placing it in the
magnetic field of a coil carrying a suitable high frequency alternating current. The
heating effect is rapid and by careful design of the induction coil the heat may be
closely localised to minimise distortion and oxidation and reduction of the properties
of fully heat treated materials. A protective atmosphere may be used if the heating
operation is effected within a suitable container. When heating is effected in air a
flux is required. The method is particularly suitable for high speed brazing of ferrous
materials in large quantities.
6.4 FURNACE BRAZING
6.4.1 Heating is effected within a furnace and a suitable protective atmosphere or

vacuum may be used to prevent oxidation. When heating is effected in air a flux is
required.
6.4.2 The method is suitable for large batches of small parts which are self-
locating or easily jigged or for parts likely to distort through uneven heating. Furnace
brazing of aluminium and aluminium alloys is widely used. Furnace brazing using a
controlled atmosphere is specially suitable for mild steels and for steels brazed with
copper and requiring heat treatment after brazing.
6.4.3 Vacuum brazing is particularly suitable for components requiring clean,

contamination free surfaces. It is possible to combine brazing with heat treatment
and it is also used for producing high integrity joints in which the brazing alloy is
diffused into the parent metals. Materials containing elements which form stable
surface oxides can only be fluxless brazed in vacuum or in a strongly reducing
atmosphere. Titanium alloys are often vacuum brazed because protective
atmospheres, other than argon, result in contamination and embrittlement.
6.4.4 Filler materials containing alloying elements with low boiling points or high
vapour pressures should be avoided. The amount of filler material applied to the
joint area must be carefully controlled to reduce the likelihood of filler material
spreading into other areas.
6.5 SALT BATH BRAZING
6.5.1 Heating is effected within a salt bath. Whenever possible the constituents of
the salt bath are chosen so that they have some fluxing action upon the parent and
filler materials. The method is particularly suitable for aluminium and certain of its
alloys (see Para 7.4). The design needs to be such that removal of the residual salt
can be achieved.
Page 5 of 14
SECTION 4
6.6 RESISTANCE BRAZING
6.6.1 The heat required is developed by:
(a) resistance at the joint surface, as in resistance welding,

or
(b) resistance in carbon electrodes which are in direct contact with the
area to be brazed and which conduct heat to the joint faces.
7 NOTES ON BRAZING OF PARTICULAR METALLIC MATERIALS
7.1 GENERAL
(a) The following Para’s. summarise the use and the limitations of the more
commonly used brazing alloys in relation to the main aerospace structural materials
currently employed viz steels, aluminium alloys, copper and heat resistant alloys3.
(b) Full details of the composition and melting range of brazing filler materials
are contained in BS EN 1044. Brazing alloys which are satisfactory for the materials
covered in Para. 7 are given in Table 2.
7.2 CORROSION RESISTANT STEELS
7.2.1 It is recommended that all corrosion resistant steels be stress relieved after
forming and before brazing to reduce the risk of cracking and intergranular
penetration.
7.2.2 For brazing austenitic steels where strength and/or oxidation resistance at
temperatures above 250°C are required, palladium and gold bearing materials can
be used. Both are suitable for vacuum or controlled atmosphere brazing
applications.
7.2.3 Furnace brazing in a dry reducing atmosphere using copper brazing material
may be used with austenitic corrosion resistant steels.
7.2.4 Butt joints can be made with the silver brazing materials but lap or shear
joints are preferred.
7.2.5 For brazing corrosion resistant steels other than the austenitic types the
brazing cycle and material should be compatible with the heat treatment required by
the parent metal.
7.3 PLAIN CARBON AND WELDABLE LOW ALLOY STEELS
7.3.1 Silver brazing materials (silver solders) are suitable for joining:
(a) carbon steels,

and
(b) carbon manganese steels.
The normal brazing methods are torch or induction. Butt joints can be made with
these silver brazing materials, but lap or shear joints are preferred.
Page 6 of 14
SECTION 4
7.3.2 Brazing brasses have limited use for joining:
(a) Plain carbon steels, e.g. S21, 2S510.
(b) Carbon manganese steels, e.g. S92, 2S514, 2S515, T64

(Obsolescent).
(c) Chromium-molybdenum steels, e.g. 2S142, S534, 3T53.
The brazing materials used melt in the temperature range 870°C and 920°C.
Furnace brazing may reduce cracking and intergranular penetration of the parent
metal because of the more uniform heating and cooling and the annealing effect of
the process.
7.3.3 Bronze welding (see Para. 6.2) is a suitable process for joining parts in mild
steel. Bronze welded parts have a similar static strength to oxy-acetylene welded
joints, but the fatigue strength of bronze welded joints is appreciably lower than that
of fusion welded joints2.
7.3.4 Copper brazed joints produced by furnace brazing have limited application
(see Para. 3.3).
7.4 ALUMINIUM AND ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
7.4.1 Aluminium brazing is suitable for joining:
(a) Pure aluminium: L16, L17, L34 (Obsolescent), BS 4L 54, L116

(Withdrawn).
(b) Aluminium-manganese alloys: BS 4L 59, L60 (Obsolescent), L61

(Obsolescent).
(c) Heat treatable aluminium-magnesium-silicon alloys with a maximum

magnesium content of 2 per cent: L111 (Obsolescent), L113, L114.
Note: Aluminium magnesium alloys L44 (Obsolescent), L56 (Obsolescent),

L80 (Obsolescent) and L81T (Obsolescent) may only be brazed if the actual
magnesium content is not greater than 2.25 per cent.
7.4.2 Higher strength aluminium alloys suitable for brazing have recently been
developed, e.g. US alloy 7005.
7.4.3 The advantages of aluminium brazing are that joints can often be made in
thinner metal than is possible with welding and it often enables a neater joint to be
made with less distortion than results from welding - Parts can also be heat treated
after brazing if required. Aluminium alloys are frequently fillet brazed where fillet
welds are unsatisfactory such as brackets, especially under 16 SWG (0.064in).
Page 7 of 14
SECTION 4
7.4.4 The filler materials used for aluminium brazing are aluminium silicon or
aluminium-silicon-copper alloys which have melting points slightly lower than that of
the metal being joined, to avoid melting of the parent metal during brazing.
7.4.5 In applications of aluminium alloy brazing where the mass of one component
is large relative to another, preheating of the larger component may be essential.
7.4.6 Parts may be brazed by torch, furnace, or for complex assemblies, by salt
bath brazing.
7.5 NICKEL BASE ALLOYS
7.5.1 Nickel alloys should normally be brazed in the annealed condition. Thin
sections, e.g. honeycomb cores, are liable to grain growth at temperatures in
excess of 1100°C.
7.5.2 Most of the high nickel alloys can be readily joined using silver rich filler
materials, but may be subject to intergranular penetration by the filler material if
brazed in a state of stress. When high melting point silver rich brazing materials are
used all stresses may be relieved during the brazing process, but if low melting
point silver rich brazing materials are used on heavily worked components, stress
cracking could result if the components are not stress relieved prior to brazing.
Nickel alloys can be attacked by sulphur compounds and only sulphur free fluxes
and gases should be used.
7.5.3 For joining nickel base heat resisting alloys where strength and/or oxidation
resistance at temperatures above 250°C are required, three types of brazing alloy
are available:
(a) Nickel base brazing materials.
(b) Palladium bearing brazing materials.
(c) Gold bearing brazing materials.
Suitable filler materials are given in Table 2. Both palladium bearing and gold
bearing materials are suitable for vacuum or controlled atmosphere brazing
applications.
7.6 TITANIUM ALLOYS
7.6.1 Processes for the brazing of titanium alloys are available but where such a
process is required specific test work to evaluate the process and the brazing
material selected will be necessary.
Page 8 of 14
SECTION 4
8 TECHNIQUE OF MANUFACTURE
8.1 In order to achieve satisfactory joints the following aspects should be considered:
(a) The required surface finish of the joint prior to brazing and the positioning of
the filler metal should be defined.
(b) Jigs and fixtures should be designed to minimise assembly stresses prior to
brazing and stresses arising during the brazing cycle. The design should be such
that the correct design joint clearances are maintained to ensure satisfactory flow of
the filler material.
(c) Non-uniform heating and cooling, including that which might arise from
dissimilarities in mass should be avoided to ensure freedom from distortion.
(d) Distortion can also be caused by stress relief of component parts during the
brazing cycle.
9 SOLDERING (For other than electrical systems)
9.1 GENERAL
9.1.1 Solders are alloys applied at temperatures below 400°C for joining such
metals as steels and copper alloys. Soldering is NOT normally recommended for
Grade A joints (see Leaflet 1).
9.1.2 Steel parts having a tensile strength of 770 MPa or over should not be
soldered or sweated owing to the susceptibility to intercrystalline penetration by the
molten solder.
9.1.3 Aluminium and magnesium alloys, zinc base die-casting alloys, high tensile
brasses to BS EN 12420 and BS 1400 BS EN 1982 and aluminium bronzes are not
suitable for soldering.
9.2 Standard grades of solder are covered by BS EN 29453) which also indicates the
type of work for which the various grades are suitable. All of these standard grades start to
melt at approximately 185°C, but special solders, which have melting points up to
approximately 310° C, are available and these are used when retention of strength at
elevated temperatures is required.
9.3 Where it is impracticable to remove flux residues, a resin-based soldering flux to

DTD 599 should be used. When any other type of flux is used all residues should be
removed. Parts to be soldered should be an easy fit, a gap of 0.08 mm (0.00315in) to 0.3
mm (0.0118in) being, suitable.
9.4 For soldering oxygen equipment, the requirements of BS 4N 100 are to be

observed, especially restrictions therein applying to the use of resinous fluxes.
Page 9 of 14
SECTION 4
9.5 There are restrictions on the use of soldered or brazed parts which may come in
contact with explosives or pyro-technic material and guidance should be sought from the
Director PERME.
9.6 Where soldered joints are to be used in components for which creep is a design
criterion the following properties may be used as a guide. Specific tests should be
conducted to establish requirements for a given design:
(a) Soldered lap joints in copper, brass and mild steel have “short time" shear
strengths of 30 to 45 newtons per sq mm of the lap area, the precise value
depending on the material, the solder and the conditions under which the joints are
made. However, solders creep at normal temperature so that lower stresses cause
failure if applied for long periods. Tests on lap joints gave maximum stresses for a
500 day life ranging from 1.4 to 3.2 newtons per sq mm of lap area, the lower values
being obtained for joints in steel made with antimony-free solders and the higher
values for joints in brass. At a life of 500 days the shear stress-life curves were
nearly parallel to the life axis indicating that slightly lower stresses than those
quoted could be applied indefinitely without causing failure.
(b) The strength of soldered joints falls off rapidly with increasing temperature.
In some recent tests it was found that lap joints in copper made with a solder to BS
219 had a "short time" shear strength of 38 MPa but when tested at 100°C, the
shear strength was only 23 MPa. The creep strength is also reduced; for instance
joints in copper which at room temperature would withstand a shear stress of 2.1
MPa for 500 days would only withstand a stress of 0.7 MPa for the same period at
80°C.
REFERENCES
1 RAE Report No Net 18, "Effect of copper brazing and subsequent heat treatments on the
tensile, impact and fatigue properties of heat treated steels, weldable low alloy steels and
plain carbon steels".
2 RAE Report No M 5536C - "Tests on fillet brazed joints".
3 M.H. Sloboda, "Selection of brazing alloys". Welding and Metal Fabrication. October 1966.
4 W A Baker. "The creep properties of soft solders and soft soldered joints". J Inst. of Metals
1939, Vol 65 pp 277-300.
Page 10 of 14
SECTION 4
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following references contain useful information on the design and strength of brazed joints and
on brazing technology.
1 Brazing Manual 1963 - American Welding Society.
2 Welding and Brazing - Metals Handbook, Volume 6 1971, 583-702.
3 Design and Strength of brazed joints - M H Sloboda, Welding, and Metal Fabrication, July
1961.
4 Notes on the strength of brazed joints - J Colbus, C G T Keel and C M Blanc. Welding
Journal Research Supplement, September 1962, Volume 41 No 9 1335 to 1495.
5 Investigation of factors determining the tensile strength of brazed joints. N Bredzs - Welding
Journal Research Supplement, November 1954, Volume 43 No 11, 5435-5635.
Brazing Alloy Material being joined Method Clearance (mm)

Copper Low C. Steel Furnace with 0.025 to 0.050
Corrosion resistant steel Reducing atmosphere 0.025 to 0.075
Nickel base alloy 0.050 to 0.125
Silver alloy Low C. Steel Torch 0.050 to 0.125
BS EN 1044 Type
AG1
Corrosion resistant steel Torch 0.025 to 0.100
Copper alloys Torch 0.050 to 0.15
Aluminium/Silicon Aluminium alloys Torch 0.075 to 0.38
BS EN 1044 AL1
TABLE 1
RECOMMENDED JOINT CLEARANCES (AT BRAZING TEMPERATURE)

(for guidance only)
Page 11 of 14
SECTION 4
Material Brazing Filler Material BS Melting Point or Melting Range °C Remarks

1845 Type
Corrosion resistant Silver Brazing fillers
austenitic steels AG 14 630-660 Cd free
(see Para 7.2.5) AG 15 675-735 Cd free
AG 5 700-775 Cd free
AG 7 V 780 Zn and Cd free. Suitable for
vacuum or induction brazing.
Can be used for service
temperature up to 300°C
Palladium bearing brazing Good resistance to oxidation
fillers 805-810 at temperatures up to 500°C.
PD 1
Good resistance to oxidation
1235 at temperatures up to 1000°C.
PD 14 Good mechanical strength up
to 700° C.
Gold bearing brazing filler
AU 5 950 Good strength and resistance to
oxidation at temperatures up to 500° C.
Plain carbon and Silver brazing fillers
Weldable low alloy steels AG 14 630-660 Cd free
AG 15 675-735 Cd free
Copper-zinc brazing fillers
CZ 3 885-890
CZ 6 875-895
CZ 6A 875-895
CZ 7 870-900
CZ 7A 870-900
CZ 8 920-980 Has a higher Zn content to
other CZ filler metals listed
Copper 1083
TABLE 2
GUIDE TO BRAZING FILLER MATERIALS
Page 12 of 14
SECTION 4
Material Brazing Filler Material BS Melting Point or Melting Range °C Remarks

1845 Type
Aluminium and aluminium Aluminium brazing fillers
alloys AL 1 535-595 Low silicon, high copper
AL 2 565-595 High silicon, low copper
Nickel base alloys Silver brazing filler
AG 5 700-775 Cd free
AG 7 780 Cd and Zn free. See Para 7.5.2
Nickel base brazing fillers
NK 3 970-1000
NK 4 980-1040
NK 5 980-1070
NK 6 980-1060
NK 8 1080-1135
Palladium bearing brazing
fillers
PD 1 805-810
PD 14 1235
Gold bearing brazing filler 950
AU 5
TABLE 2 (Continued)
Page 13 of 14
SECTION 4
FIG 1 - JOINT FORMS
NOTE: STRENGTH IMPROVES FROM LEFT TO RIGHT ARROWS INDICATE DIRECTION OF

APPLIED LOAD
Page 14 of 14
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 20
SEALANTS AND SEALING
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This Leaflet relates to the use of sealants for three main purposes:
(a) Sealing of integral fuel tanks.
(b) Sealing of pressurised zones such as cockpits and cabins.
(c) Sealing in high temperature regions such as ductings.
Bearing in mind that these zones have also to meet structural requirements the
following aspects should be taken into consideration. In all cases the designer must
satisfy himself that the sealant chosen has adequate performance in all the
environments to be met during its design life.
2 DEFINITIONS
2.1 SEALANT
Any material which is applied between, or over, joints to prevent passage of a fluid.
2.2 ONE-PART SEALANT

A sealant requiring no mixing of additional components before use. These materials
normally attain their final physical form through chemical reaction with moisture vapour in
the atmosphere or through the evaporation of contained solvent.
2.3 TWO-PART SEALANT

A sealant which requires the addition of a second component which through chemical
reaction causes the material to attain its final physical form.
2.4 BARRIER COATING/BARRIER SEALANT

A material which is applied over a sealant to provide additional resistance to a particular
medium/environment.
2.5 OVERCOATING
The application of a further coat of sealant, a second sealant, or a barrier coating over
partially or fully cured sealant to provide enhanced environmental resistance.
3 MATERIALS
NOTE: The information below is given as a broad guide only, particularly that relating to
working temperature range which may vary within a class depending on the formulation of
the sealant and the working environment.
Page 1 of 5
SECTION 4
3.1 POLYSULPHIDE SEALANTS
3.1.1 A range of sealants is available with the exact properties of the sealants
depending upon the type of curing system used. In general these have a good
resistance to fuels and mineral oils and may be expected to perform satisfactorily
within the temperature range -50°C to +100°C. However, higher temperature
properties may be obtained by selection of the curing system used. These sealants
have good weather resistance but may absorb moisture resulting in slight swelling.
Certain types can be obtained with insoluble chromates specifically added to inhibit
corrosion. Grades of each type are available having differing work lives and
rheological properties to assist application. These are suitable for use in fuel tanks,
cabin, and dry structure low temperature areas. However, for optimum performance
in fuel tanks certain types may require overcoating with a compatible barrier coating.
3.2 FLUOROCARBON SEALANTS
3.2.1 These materials have excellent fuel resistance and weather resistance and
may be expected to perform satisfactorily in the temperature range -45°C to +160°C
or +200°C for fuel tanks and dry structures respectively. (Warning: Hydrogen
Fluoride may be liberated by the sealant when operating at 160°C and above for
long periods). Partial precuring and/or overcoating with a barrier sealant may be
necessary in fuel zones to overcome leakage caused by shrinkage. A number of
grades having different rheological properties is available. A range includes
compositions of varying solid content and solvents to assist the control of the open
assembly times. Primer systems are essential to obtain maximum adhesion. Special
application techniques are available which employ the sealant in the form of semi-
cured tape. This reduces the sealant shrinkage on the final assembly application
and also ensures that the interfay sealant thickness is consistent. The tapes can be
produced in varying widths and thicknesses. They are suitable for use in fuel and
ducting systems where heat or chemical resistance is required.
3.3 SILICONE SEALANTS
3.3.1 These materials are not resistant to fuels and oils but have excellent weather
and heat/oxidation resistance and may be used within the temperature range -70°C
to +250°C continuously, or up to 300°C intermittently. These materials are available
as one or two component systems. Single component materials require atmospheric
moisture to crosslink and care should be taken to ensure that the bond area and
thickness are such that full cure can be obtained throughout the joint. Some of
these single component sealants liberate acetic acid vapours during cure and
consideration should be given to this potential corrosion risk particularly on copper,
copper alloys, magnesium or aluminium alloys in the vicinity, especially if the
sealant has been applied to the internal surfaces of a sealed container adjacent to
electrical contacts. Whenever possible sealants not liberating acetic acid vapours
should be used when in contact with or in proximity to these alloys. For many of
these materials primers may be necessary to enhance adhesion. These are used in
ductings and fire walls.
Page 2 of 5
SECTION 4
WARNING: Particular care should be exercised when silicone polymers are

involved as they can act as "release agents" consequently preventing effective
adhesive bonding or painting. Contamination from products embodying these
materials can occur by both contact and in some cases proximity alone.
3.4 FLUORO-SILICONE SEALANTS
3.4.1 These materials have good resistance to fuels and mineral oils and will
operate satisfactorily within the temperature range -60°C to +175°C but they have
poor resistance to some synthetic oils even at temperatures as low as 100°C. They
are particularly susceptible to degradation (reversion) when enclosed in a confined
space with minimal ventilation.
3.5 NITRILE BARRIER COATINGS
3.5.1 These materials have good resistance to fuels, mineral oil and water. They
are low viscosity liquids (20% solids) which can be applied by brushing or fill and
drain methods and can be expected to operate satisfactorily within the temperature
range -50°C to + 100°C. The majority of these materials do not cure but dry by
solvent evaporation. Because of this their long term high temperature ageing
properties are questionable. For continued satisfactory performance, once wet with
fuel they should remain so.
3.6 POLYURETHANE BARRIER COATINGS
3.6.1 These materials have good resistance to fuels and mineral oil. Water
resistance is superior to that of nitrile compounds at and slightly above ambient
temperatures, but their long term hydrolytic stability at high temperatures is
questionable and they may be subject to reversion at any temperature. They can be
expected to operate satisfactorily within the range -50°C to 100°C. However,
samples of old materials taken from aeroplanes in service have shown that thick
sections tend to embrittle. Therefore, care should be taken on application to keep
coatings as thin as possible and also to prevent thick sections forming by flow to the
lowest point (sumping).
NOTE: There is a potentially very large family of fully elastomeric

polyurethane based coatings which do not tend to embrittle and to which the
thickness strictures do not apply.
3.7 FLAMMABILITY
3.7.1 All the listed sealants will burn under certain conditions. Some, once ignited,
will continue to burn in the presence of sufficient air. Others will only burn if heat is
supplied from another source. In many cases the smoke and fumes arising from the
burning sealants are asphyxiating and/or toxic to an extent which varies with the
nature of the sealant, the temperature of the fire and the degree of combustion. In
general, partial combustion arising from lack of air is more likely to produce toxic
emissions.
Page 3 of 5
SECTION 4
4 SEALING PRACTICE
4.1 GENERAL
4.1.1 It is recommended that to cover anti-corrosion and fluid sealing requirements

an interfay sealant should always be used. When sealant is applied as interfay,
subsequent assembly and torque tightening of the fasteners should be completed
within the work life of the sealant. Where there is sealant shrinkage during cure
access should be provided in critical structure positions to allow retightening of the
attachments prior to overcoating.
4.1.2 To ensure good sealing and adequate joint behaviour it is necessary that the
surface of the joint be properly prepared and primed where required, before
application of the sealant. The Design Organisation should ensure that the sealants
to be used are compatible with any surface treatment or coating on the detail or
sub-assemblies. It is recommended that trial assemblies are made and any action
taken to correct the fit to ensure that proper mating and sealing can be attained.
Where fasteners are inserted during the work-life, adequate sealant should be
present to ensure that fasteners are fully wet, assembled in holes etc.
4.1.3 Most types of sealants form a bead from the excess material exuded when
the joint is finally assembled. Dependent on the type of interfay sealant used, the
bead may be satisfactorily formed into a continuous fillet. In all other cases, the
excess bead should be removed and consideration given to the need for the build
up of a fillet with additional filleting grade material and whether overcoating is
necessary to complete the seal.
4.1.4 In all areas where sealants are used the extent of sealing and the filleting
and overcoating requirements should be shown on the appropriate drawing to
ensure full inspection is possible. Provision should be made for the internal
inspection of the sealant i.e., access panels. Should the design prevent the
provision of adequate inspection access panels then access for probe inspection
should be provided i.e., removal of bolts or special adaptors with self-sealing caps.
4.2 SEALING OF INTEGRAL FUEL TANKS AND SIMILAR VESSELS
4.2.1 As far as possible highly loaded attachments, with their resulting high local
strains, should not be included in the vicinity of the tank/vessel boundary.
4.2.2 Tank edge members should preferably face away from the fuel space to
ensure that the edge member skin attachments are external to the fuel. Tank edge
members should be free from steps or joggles. Where this is not possible they
should be as small as possible.
4.2.3 Where possible the design should allow for the wet assembly of fasteners
and where necessary subsequent overcoating.
Page 4 of 5
SECTION 4
4.2.4 Consideration should be given to the pitch of fasteners and the extent of
overlaps to ensure proper sealing where consideration of the strength requirements
alone might otherwise lead to insufficient joint integrity. Blind fasteners should not
be used at tank overlaps.
4.2.5 Subsequent to initial tightening, retightening of bolted assemblies should not

be carried out unless absolutely necessary.
4.3 AREAS NOT SEALED FOR LIQUID RETENTION
4.3.1 It is often preferable to require interfay and overcoating in these areas also.
These areas should be fully sealed to prevent moisture ingress as well as provide
the necessary sealing.
5 FORM-IN-PLACE GASKETS AND SEALS
5.1 Where it is required for these form-in-place seals/gaskets to remain attached

preferentially to one half of the assembly this may be achieved by the use of a suitable
adhesion promoting primer on that part or alternatively a release agent on the other. In
some assemblies a combination of both techniques may be required. Where such primers
and release agents are used, care should be taken to ensure that they are compatible with
the sealant chosen.
5.2 When designing form-in-place gaskets and seals consideration should be given to
the effects of compression set and load transmission. Compression set in most sealants
will reduce the effectiveness of the seal and load transmission through flexible jointing
materials will be poor i.e., by bolts bending.
NOTE: Where release agents are used consideration should be given to the means
of their removal prior to any subsequent finishing operations.
6 PROCESS INSTRUCTIONS
6.1 The process specification detailing the sealing operation should give all details
pertaining to surface treatment, primers, mixing and curing instructions and any other
information necessary to ensure a properly sealed joint.
Page 5 of 5
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 21
CASTINGS
STATIC STRENGTH APPROVAL OF CASTINGS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This Leaflet explains the procedure for the approval of the static strength of
castings.
2 MATERIAL STRENGTH VALUES
2.1 Clause 4.5 states requirements which must be compiled with when using A, B or S
values given in the ESDU Metallic Materials Data Handbook (ESDU 00932). The
specification may give S values for both cut-up tests and for test bars and these may also
be given in ESDU 00932.
2.2 The value given for cut-up tests is a minimum which must be obtained in these tests
and may therefore be used directly. From these tests however there should be eventually,
sufficient data to provide A and B values and when available these may be used in
accordance with the requirements of Clause 4.5
2.3 If the test bar S value is to be used to devise an allowable value for calculation it
must be appropriately reduced. In the absence of better data the reduction factors given
below should be used.
SAND CASTING INVESTMENT CASTING

LIGHT ALLOYS STEELS SPECS DTS OTHER STEELS
666 or 5072
1.6 1.25 1.15 1.25
2.4 When specification S values only are available and failure in any mode other than
tension (e.g. shear, bending or torsion) may be expected then design ratios f so / f t , b 10 / t 2
and F q /f t may be established in accordance with the methods of ESDU 00932.
3 APPROVAL
3.1 CALCULATION
3.1.1 The uncertainties in approval by calculation relate not to the material used,
but to the calculation process arid, therefore, no special provisions are necessary
for castings.
Page 1 of 2
SECTION 4
3.1.2 Allowable values for sand castings in aluminium alloys and for steels other
than DTD 666 (Superseded by BS HC7 & 9), and 5072 (Superseded by BS HC 8 &
10) may be used for investment castings in the same materials unless the designer
prefers to obtain his own by the methods of ESDU METALLIC MATERIALS DATA
HANDBOOK 00932. The first two methods of Para 5.1 below are acceptable to
provide data for the calculation of allowable values but the third is not. Of test bar
data it has been found hat either the mean of the standard deviation of both often
do not represent the casting properties accurately enough for this purpose.
3.2 TEST
3.2.1 The test factor for castings may be obtained from Part 1, Section 3, Clause
3.1
3.3 COMPARISON
3.3.1 Approval by comparison with a casting of similar design, which has

previously been approved by test, involves production under the same conditions of
manufacture. This may only be achieved by using the same founder.
4 GRADE B CASTINGS
4.1 There are no mandatory requirements for the static strength approval of Grade B
castings.
5 MONITORING
5.1 Monitoring of production castings by the founder is commonly done by one of 3

methods:
Method (a) - tests on standard test pieces cut from castings,
Method (b) - tests on standard test pieces taken from an attachment to the casting
which are processed with the casting throughout,
Method (c) - tests on standard test bars from the same melt as the castings.
The object of this monitoring is to ensure that the material strength properties of the
castings are maintained in production.
5.2 Methods (a) and (b) of Para 5.1 above are the preferred methods for monitoring by
the designer as required by Clause 4.5 when clearing a casting by calculation.
Page 2 of 2
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 22
PLASTICS MATERIALS
SELECTION OF PLASTICS MATERIALS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This Leaflet amplifies the requirements of Clause 4.5 relating to the selection of
Plastics Materials.
2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
2.1 When considering mechanical requirements of the component to be manufactured

all aspects of the environment in which it is to function shall be taken into account, including
temperature, proximity of other materials and contact with liquids whether by design or by
accidental contamination.
3 EFFECTS OF FIRE
3.1 All plastics will burn under certain conditions. Some, once ignited, will continue to
burn in the presence of sufficient air. Others will only burn if heat is supplied from another
source. In many cases the smoke and fumes arising from the burning plastics are
asphyxiating and/or toxic to an extent which varies with the nature of the plastics, the
temperature of the fire and the degree of combustion. In general, partial combustion arising
from lack of air is more likely to produce toxic emissions.
4 DIMENSIONAL STABILITY
4.1 Dimensional stability is an important aspect in the selection of plastics materials. It

is dependent on a number of factors including.
4.1.1 Thermal Expansion - The coefficient of thermal expansion of plastics is

higher than that of metals by approximately a factor of ten. In addition some plastics
e.g. PTFE undergo a volume change due to allotropic change. Thus unless the
component is to operate over a relatively small temperature range design should
avoid the need for close tolerances and small clearances in, for example bearings
where the journal is metallic. The effect is reduced by dilution in plastics containing
fillers, e.g. glass fibre or ballotini.
4.1.2 Creep - All plastics and particularly unfilled thermoplastics are subject to
creep under sustained stress at ambient temperatures. The effect increases with
temperature. Fibre filled materials and thermo-setting plastics exhibit considerably
better behaviour in this respect.
4.1.3 Manufacturing Process - Internal stresses resulting from the method of

manufacture result in dimensional change with time usually manifested as distortion.
It is important that the process should be devised and adequately controlled to
minimise this effect. Depending on the application stress relieving may be desirable
and is usually essential before machining to required tolerances.
Page 1 of 2
SECTION 4
4.1.4 Moisture - All plastics absorb moisture to some extent, and some,
particularly polyamide, attain a high equilibrium water content and hence are
sensitive to the relative humidity of the environment. The resulting dimensional
changes can be significant but occur slowly. Where frequent changes of
environment are involved conditioning to the average humidity may be satisfactory.
Filled plastics are less sensitive to this effect.
5 INTERACTION OF PLASTICS WITH OTHER ORGANIC MATERIALS
5.1 Plastics containing certain plasticisers may cause deposits on surrounding

equipment such as windows. In addition these migratory chemicals can interfere with the
functioning of electrical contacts.
6 ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS CRACKING
6.1 In some cases the effect can arise when the plastic is only lightly stressed and can
result from internal stress which has not been relieved. Account should therefore be taken
of all possible contact with liquids including operational liquids whether by design or
accident, cleaning agents, paints etc.
Page 2 of 2
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 23
AERO-ELASTICITY
FLUTTER CLEARANCE PROGRAMME
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet describes the programme of calculations and tests likely to be required
under Clause 4.8
1.2 The flutter clearance programme must include assessment of all failures and
malfunctioning of any part of any system which is required under Clause 4.8.8
2 FLUTTER CALCULATIONS
2.1 Flutter calculations should begin as early as possible in the design of an aeroplane.
The object of the early flutter calculations is to ensure that flutter considerations are
included in the choice of basic design features, for example, wing geometry, type of control
surfaces and position of taileron rotation axis. Similarly, as the design progresses, flutter
calculations should be scheduled to provide guidance on the design of structural
components at the times major decisions are made.
2.2 The scope of flutter calculations at any stage can be chosen to be appropriate to the
important information required. In the early design stage it is important to identify clearly the
types of flutter to which the design may be sensitive and effort is better spent to this end
rather than in formally making the aerodynamic data consistent in frequency parameter for
all modes and flight conditions or matching the flutter conditions with properties of the
standard atmosphere, for instance.
2.3 The effect of stiffness variations on calculated flutter speeds of a structural

component can usually be found with little loss of accuracy from calculations for the
component in isolation.
2.4 An important aspect of the identification of the types of flutter in flutter calculations is
the assessment of the sensitivity of flutter characteristics to changes in aerodynamic data.
This is required for an appreciation of the effect of inaccuracies in estimated aerodynamic
forces and the need for experimental verification.
2.5 The effect of aeroplane stability augmentation systems on flutter should be found as
soon as the system is defined in sufficient detail. An initial estimate of its likely importance
can be made from a knowledge of its response at the frequencies of the aeroplane
structural modes.
3 FLUTTER MARGINS
3.1 With some systems (e.g. some control surfaces mounted on a main surface) it may
be found that there is a range of values of a parameter (mass, stiffness or damping) in
which there is either no flutter at any speed or flutter at a very high speed. In these cases
the objective should be to achieve a value for the parameter in the flutter-free range, the
value to be agreed with the Project Team Leader.
Page 1 of 5
SECTION 4
3.2 If flutter cannot be eliminated, the objective should be to achieve a margin between
calculated flutter speed and V D , the design diving speed. Design diving speed is defined in
Part 0, and is specified in the Aeroplane Specification. It is regarded here as a speed never
to be exceeded, which implies that there is an associated Service limiting speed V MAX ,
(Section 2 Leaflet 9 Para. 5) which is lower than V D , the difference between the speeds
providing a safety margin for the accommodation of inadvertent deviations, due to upsets,
to speeds above V MAX . The flutter margin between calculated flutter speed and V D is
defined on Figure 1. The margin is normally represented by a factor applied to V D ; the
factor should not be less than 1.15
3.2.1 For an aircraft in normal operating conditions, the calculated flutter speed
should not be below the factored V D , expressed as equivalent airspeed, at constant
Mach number and, separately, at constant altitude.
3.2.2 For an aircraft with system failures or malfunctions considered under Para
4.8.8 the clearance speed may be reduced below the factored V D , as defined in
Leaflet 97. The calculated flutter speed should not be below this clearance speed,
expressed as equivalent airspeed, at constant Mach number and, separately, at
constant altitude.
4 WIND TUNNEL MODEL TESTS
4.1 Wind tunnel model tests are desirable to check the aerodynamic assumptions made
in flutter calculations. In a direct check, the pressure distributions or forces on models
undergoing prescribed motions are measured and compared with estimates. In an indirect
check, the dynamic behaviour, including critical flutter speeds, frequencies and mode
shapes, of a structurally representative model is found and compared with estimates for the
model using the same aerodynamic theory that will be used in calculations of the
aeroplane.
Note: Advice on wind tunnel model testing is given in Leaflet 27.
5 STRUCTURAL TESTS ON COMPONENTS
5.1 Stiffness tests and/or still-air resonance tests on important structural components
are desirable to establish the accuracy of stiffness data used in calculations.
5.2 The stiffnesses of some structural items which are important are difficult to estimate
accurately. Examples are wing-store pylons and their attachments, the operating
mechanism and supporting structure of all-moving tailplanes and of conventional control
surfaces. Detailed stiffness and/or resonance tests on such items will normally be required.
Note: Advice on structural testing is given in Leaflet 28.
Page 2 of 5
SECTION 4
6 ACTUATOR IMPEDANCE TESTS
6.1 Impedance tests on control surface actuators will be required. The objective of
these tests is to provide test results for checking data included in flutter calculations or for
introducing directly into flutter calculations.
Note: Advice on impedance testing is given in Leaflet 29.
7 STILL-AIR RESONANCE TESTS
7.1 Still-air resonance tests on a complete aeroplane are required. These tests should
normally be completed before first flight.
7.2 The objective is to measure the nearest practical equivalent to undamped normal
modes within a frequency range that covers all modes that may be significant in flutter.
7.3 The aim should be to measure modes of a standard such that they can be
incorporated directly into flutter calculations but the measured modes will usually be used
as a basis for improving the structural representation used in calculations, if necessary.
7.4 Repeat testing is required after any redesign which is estimated to result in a
significant change in flutter characteristics.
Note: Advice on resonance test procedures is given in Leaflet 30.
8 INITIAL FLUTTER CLEARANCE
8.1 For the first flights of a prototype aeroplane, an initial flutter clearance will be agreed
with the Project Team Leader. Assuming that the results of the preflight flutter investigation,
including the full scale ground tests completed before first flight, are satisfactory, an initial
flutter clearance of about 0.5 V D will normally be allowed. Flutter clearances to higher
speeds will be obtained by flight flutter testing.
8.2 It will often be a useful preliminary to flight flutter testing to obtain simple records of
the responses to stick jerks during the first flights.
9 FLIGHT FLUTTER TESTS
9.1 In flight flutter tests, an instrumented aeroplane is excited and the structural
response is measured. The general philosophy of testing is that flight at higher airspeeds is
allowed only after analysis of flight records at lower airspeeds shows no evidence of the
onset of flutter within the next airspeed increment.
9.2 For an aeroplane with wing stores some variation in approach is possible due to the
primary variable becoming store mass or moment of inertia but the general philosophy of
safe increments will still be observed.
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9.3 The final objective of the tests is to demonstrate freedom from flutter up to V, by
measuring the decay rates in all significant structural modes. If it is found that the decay
rate of a mode is decreasing with airspeed, flight at speeds above 90% of an extrapolated
airspeed for zero decay rate will not normally be allowed. The extrapolation should be
9.4 If practicable, the effect of failures in aeroplane systems relevant to flutter should be
represented. If practicable, tests should be conducted with any autopilot or stability
augmentation system operative and inoperative.
Note: Advice on flight flutter test instrumentation, excitation and analysis methods is given
in Leaflet 31.
10 FINAL FLUTTER CLEARANCE
10.1 The final flutter clearance will normally be given after flight flutter testing up to V D , or
to maximum permitted airspeeds which will then take the place of V D in the derivation of
operational airspeed clearances. The interpretation of flight flutter test results with regard to
the basic flutter requirements of Clause 4.8 must be agreed with the Project Team Leader
(see Clause 4.8). It must also be agreed with the Project Team Leader what range of mass
and flight conditions can be given flutter clearance from the results of a test programme
with specific mass distributions and flight configurations. If there subsequently arises the
need for flutter clearances for mass conditions outside the range already agreed (for
instance, with a new type of wing-mounted store), a new programme of calculations and
tests must be agreed with the Project Team Leader (See Clause 4.8).
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FIG.1 - FLUTTER MARGINS
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LEAFLET 24
AERO-ELASTICITY
MAIN SURFACE FLUTTER
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives recommendations for the prevention of main surface flutter. Since
this form of flutter can have a considerable influence in determining the configuration and
the structural weight of an aeroplane it should be considered at an early stage in design.
1.2 The simplest form of main surface flutter arises from aerodynamic coupling of the
fundamental bending and torsion modes of a high speed aspect ratio wing, the critical
speed depending primarily upon the wing torsional stiffness. However, for modern high
speed aeroplanes, a number of other factors can have a profound influence both on the
flutter speed and on the character of the flutter. Some of the more common forms of flutter
are described briefly in this leaflet, but an exhaustive account is not possible. For
unconventional aeroplanes the Project Team Leader should be consulted early in the
design.
2 FLUTTER CALCULATIONS
2.1 Calculations play an essential part in the flutter clearance of high speed aeroplanes.
It is normally assumed that the critical speed may be computed with sufficient accuracy
using small perturbation theory, the system being represented by a set of linear differential
equations with mass, stiffness, damping and aerodynamic terms. It is not possible in a
leaflet to give a detailed account of the methods which should be used to construct and
solve flutter equations but some general guidance on the implementation and limitations of
linear theory is set out below.
2.2 DEGREES OF FREEDOM
2.2.1 The freedoms used in calculations depend on a number of factors. At the

early design stage it may be expedient to use assumed modes appropriate to a
particular flutter. Calculated whole aeroplane normal modes, which are also
required for comparison with those measured on the aeroplane resonance test, can
be used at a later stage. A versatile method is to use branch normal modes for the
main aeroplane components in conjunction with assumed modes for the
attachments and some guidance as to the relevant freedoms of these types which
should be included for particular flutter mechanisms are given in appropriate
sections of the leaflet.
2.2.2 Aeroplane rigid body freedoms and fuselage modes are usually included in
calculations. For conventional aeroplanes without external stores, the influence of
such freedoms is often small, but rear fuselage modes may have an effect on flutter
of the tail unit.
2.2.3 The definition of an acceptable set of freedoms in calculations often stems

from previous experience of similar aeroplanes. For unconventional aeroplanes
possibly the greatest potential source of error is the omission of an important
degree of freedom and the Project Team Leader should be consulted at an early
stage in the design of such aeroplanes.
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2.3 MASS DISTRIBUTION
2.3.1 The most common method is to idealise the aeroplane as a set of discrete
lumped masses. Some points to note are:
(a) The influence of aeroplane internal and external fuel sequencing may
be important, in particular for wing flutter.
(b) The distribution of fuel in partially full tanks can depend to a

significant extent on the aeroplane attitude and flight condition.
(c) Fuel sloshing in partially full tanks may influence the effective mass
and damping of the system.
(d) In some cases there may be a significant scatter in the mass

distribution of nominally identical external stores.
2.3.2 It is good practice to establish the sensitivity of calculated flutter speeds to

variations in the assumed mass distribution.
2.4 DAMPING AND STIFFNESS
2.4.1 The calculation of structural damping is not usually possible. Because the
influence of damping on main surface flutter is small and benign in most cases, it is
common practice to assume a small arbitrary amount (e.g. 1% of critical) or zero
structural damping in calculations.
2.4.2 The methods commonly used to calculate stiffness are beam theory, plate
theory and the finite element method. The finite element method is to be preferred
on the grounds of generality and accuracy, but it is advisable to check the results of
such a calculation with one of the simpler methods. Some points to note are:
(a) The influence of thermal effects on the stiffness properties of

supersonic aeroplanes, both steady state and transient, may be important.
(b) Stiffness can depend to a significant extent upon steady loading.

Such effects are often considerable in the case of external-store
attachments.
(c) Attachment flexibilities between the main aeroplane components

require some care, being partially dependent on the methods used to
analyse the components. For example, if beam theory is used for the
fuselage, the estimated local distortion of the fuselage frames etc. should be
included in the total attachment flexibility at the wing, fuselage junction.
2.4.3 Calculation of main surface stiffness will usually give acceptable accuracy
but the accuracy of fuselage calculations depends to a large extent on the influence
of structural cut-outs and access doors, such features being difficult to idealise. The
calculated stiffnesses of structural joints can be overestimated by 100% or more,
and it is of particular importance to establish the variation of flutter speed for a
realistic range of attachment stiffness in calculation.
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2.5 AERODYNAMIC FORCES
2.5.1 There is a wide variety of methods for the calculation of oscillatory

aerodynamic forces. The problem divides roughly according to the speed range.
2.5.2 At moderate subsonic speeds the assumptions of linearised compressible

potential flow are normally adequate. Steady lift and thickness effects may be
neglected in most cases but steady tailplane lift can have some influence in T-tail
flutter. Main surface aerodynamic interference is important in some cases, in
particular for close-set wing, tailplane configurations and T-tails. Fuselage
aerodynamic forces are usually small. External store aerodynamic forces are
negligible but a large store could have a significant effect on wing aerodynamics,
particularly on the position of the wing aerodynamic centre, if placed at the wing tip.
2.5.3 Linearised potential-flow theory is not adequate in the transonic flight regime
where large variations in the oscillatory aerodynamic forces occur with changes in
Mach number and the flow is sensitive to lift, thickness and viscous effects. The
best that can usually be done by way of calculation is to determine the important
aerodynamic terms by linearised theory and to adjust them in the light of any steady
and/or unsteady experimental data available.
2.5.4 At supersonic speeds similar assumptions as for subsonic flow are usually
made. However, at high supersonic Mach numbers simpler methods based on
aerodynamic piston theory can be used.
2.5.5 Transonic flow is the critical regime for bending, torsion flutter of a high
aspect ratio wing. However, this is by no means true of all forms of main surface
flutter. The supersonic flow regime may be critical for low aspect ratio and all
moving surfaces. Main surface flutter speeds are often determined largely by the
aerodynamic stiffness, the influence of aerodynamic damping being relatively small.
In such cases, steady experimental data provides a useful means of checking the
accuracy of the aerodynamic calculations.
2.5.6 Flutter-like oscillations can also be the result of the flow separating from the
wing due to such different phenomena as low-speed stall and transonic shock
waves.
3 WING FLUTTER
3.1 BARE WING FLUTTER
3.1.1 The main features of conventional wing flutter are illustrated in Figs. 1 - 5.
Flutter can be looked on as arising from aerodynamic coupling of the fundamental
bending and torsion normal modes. The coupling is de-stabilising when the
frequency of the torsion mode is higher than that of the bending mode, the
aerodynamic axis is in front of the torsional nodal line and the incidence in the
bending mode is such that its frequency increases with airspeed. In supersonic flow
the aerodynamic axis is further aft than in subsonic flow and the coupling may not
be de-stabilising.
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3.1.2 For modern wing mass densities the flutter speed, in terms of equivalent
airspeed, does not vary much with air density. The tendency is for the flutter speed
to decrease as the air density decreases and the critical height for a subsonic
aeroplane of limited performance will be the maximum height at which the maximum
EAS can be attained. In compressible flow the flutter speed will vary with Mach
number and the most critical height will generally be that at which the maximum
EAS coincides with the Mach number which gives the most-adverse lift distributions.
3.1.3 If the frequencies of the modes are well separated at zero airspeed the
flutter speed will vary as the square root of the stiffness in the torsion mode and will
be little influenced by the bending stiffness. The flutter speed tends to vary as the
square root of the difference between unity and the square of the ratio of the
frequencies (bending/torsion) so that, if the frequencies are close, the flutter speed
can be very low.
3.1.4 The flutter speed also tends to vary inversely as the square root of the wing
lift-curve slope. The drop in flutter speed transonically (Fig. 4) is largely due to the
increase in lift-curve slope, although forward shifts of the aerodynamic axis will have
a similar effect. The influence of aspect ratio, taper ratio and sweep-back can be
partly attributed to their effect on lift-curve slope.
3.1.5 The chordwise position of the nodal line in the torsion mode has a significant
effect on flutter speed. For a simple upswept wing the flutter speed decreases as
the nodal line is moved aft reaching a minimum value in the region of three-quarters
chord. If the frequencies of the modes are well separated, the torsion being the
higher, the torsional nodal line will be close to the inertia axis. In such cases the
flutter speed tends to be relatively insensitive to small variations in the position of
the flexural axis and the influence of the position of the inertia axis will be typically
as shown in Fig. 5.
3.1.6 For a low aspect ratio wing, chordwise bending can have a marked effect on
the flutter speed and the distribution of wing properties (e.g. nodal lines) in the
span-wise sense may be an important feature in the flutter. In such cases the critical
speed may be in the supersonic flow regime.
3.1.7 For a conventional bare wing, coupling of the fundamental modes normally
determines the critical speed. However, overtone flutter can be critical if the wing
mass and/or stiffness distribution is highly discontinuous.
3.1.8 The influence on wing flutter of rigid body freedom, fuselage modes and
wing attachment freedoms tends to be small for a conventional aeroplane. However,
the influence of such freedoms must be borne in mind for unconventional
aeroplanes.
3.2 WING, STORE FLUTTER
3.2.1 In the context of wing flutter, the term 'store' is used to refer to bombs,
external fuel tanks, engines, undercarriage and any other discrete items which may
be attached to the wing.
3.2.2 For transonic strike aeroplanes, the bare wing flutter speed is often high.
However, the carriage of stores on the wing may change the flutter speed by a large
factor. Wing overtone modes and/or the flexibility of stores and their attachments
may play an essential part in the critical flutter mechanism.
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3.2.3 Some examples showing the influence of rigidly mounted stores on wing
flutter speed are given in Figs. 6 and 7. The influence of store position (Fig. 6) is
roughly consistent with the trend with wing inertia axis position shown in Fig. 5, but
there are significant spanwise effects. The influence of store mass and inertia
changes for a store located in the apparently favourable forward region of Fig. 6
may be as shown in Fig. 7. Thus the wing flutter speed depends in a complex
manner on the mass distribution and position of the store. For small stores, these
effects can be explained mainly by the influence of the store on the natural
frequency and nodal line of the wing fundamental torsion mode. As the store-to-
wing mass ratio increases, the system tends to the limiting case of a store on a
weightless wing and the dominant wing property as regards fundamental mode
shapes and frequencies is its stiffness at the store attachment point. However, it is
normally the case that overtone modes play some part in the critical flutter
mechanism at extremes of store mass and/or position.
3.2.4 In practice the trends described above are of somewhat limited applicability,
since the influence of store and mounting flexibility can change the picture
drastically. There are potentially a large variety of flutter mechanisms which can
arise from coupling of various combinations of store, wing and wing-root freedoms.
Results for one of the simpler mechanisms are given in Fig. 8. In this case low
flutter speeds occur at values of store pitch inertia which give similar frequencies of
wing fundamental bending and a store pitch freedom, the latter inducing some wing
torsion due to inertia coupling. It is fairly typical of wing, store flutter that the critical
region is associated with close modal frequencies, the lowest flutter speed being
found at high values of store mass and/or pitch inertia, when the frequencies are
low. If store mounting flexibility plays a major role in the flutter mechanism, the
flutter tends to be mild and structural damping becomes an important factor in
determining the flutter speed.
3.2.5 It is difficult to particularize the degrees of freedom relevant to wing, store

flutter. A commonly used mathematical model has rigid bodies representing store
and pylon, in conjunction with rotational freedoms at the attachments of such items.
However, modes of the store and/or pylon may be important in some cases. In-
plane root and bending freedoms of the wing are often omitted from flutter
calculations, but an underslung store may introduce significant inertial coupling
between such freedoms, and, for example, wing torsion, influencing important
modal frequencies.
3.2.6 It is often the case in wing, store flutter calculations that modes of the bare
wing are used over a wide range of store mass and inertia. This approach may
require a large number of wing modes (10 or more) to give satisfactory results. A
more economical method is to use bare wing modes in conjunction with wing static
deflection modes generated by unit loads and moments at the store attachment
points.
3.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
3.3.1 From the flutter viewpoint, the design objectives for a conventional high
aspect ratio bare wing are to maximise wing torsional stiffness and to keep the wing
inertia axis as far forward as possible. For transonic aeroplanes of metal
construction, satisfaction of the wing strength requirements will often result in a
structure which satisfies the torsional stiffness requirement without redesign. The
strength requirements generally arise from bending cases however and if the
material of construction is non-isotropic, such as a composite, this relationship
between bending strength and torsional stiffness may no longer hold. Thin
supersonic wings may also be deficient in torsional stiffness in this sense.
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3.3.2 The wing stiffness distribution is the primary variable in design, but the
stiffness tends to be strongly constrained by the wing geometry and the maximum
allowable structure weight. It is important therefore that stiffness requirements are
considered early in wing design. The wing mass distribution can have a powerful
influence on flutter speed, but there are usually severe limitations on the variations
possible in the wing structure, systems and fuel distributions.
3.3.3 The design requirements for the avoidance of wing, store flutter are
complex, and must depend to a large extent on the particular aeroplane
configuration. If stores with a large range of inertia properties are to be carried, the
required flutter speeds may not be achieved unless the bare wing has substantial
flutter margins. A complete definition of stores to be carried may not be available at
the early design stage, attention being focused on a small number of stores of
particular importance. However, likely future requirements should be borne in mind
when defining wing stiffness requirements and optimum store locations since such
features are difficult to modify late in the design. Flutter calculations with rigidly
mounted stores are useful at the early design stage, as the results show up
potential problems particularly sensitive to wing stiffness and store location, but data
on storemounting flexibility should be estimated as soon as possible and included in
the flutter calculations.
4 TAILPLANE FLUTTER
4.1 Tailplanes can be divided into 3 classes according to the freedom they have in pitch
at their roots. The simplest to deal with are those fixed at the root and carrying elevators for
pitch control of the aeroplane. More difficult to deal with are those which are themselves
rotated in pitch to provide pitch control of the aeroplane. Further complication is provided
when the two sides of the aeroplane can be rotated independently to control the aeroplane
in roll (tailerons).
4.2 Aerodynamic interference can influence flutter of the tailplane. Of particular

importance in this respect are the aerodynamic loads induced on the tailplane by deflection
of the wing, if the tailplane is very close to the wing. Such interference and structural
coupling via the fuselage can generate a flutter which does not occur with either wing or
tailplane considered in isolation.
4.3 ROOT-FIXED TAILPLANES
4.3.1 The flutter characteristics of a root-fixed tailplane will be broadly similar to

those outlined above for the wing but fuselage modes, which result in translations of
the tailplane as a rigid body, can be important in some cases. However, the
influence of such freedoms on the critical speed is small provided the ratio of the
bending to the torsion frequency is low and the, fuselage, frequencies are similar to
the tail lane bending frequency. In general the torsional stiffness of the strength-
designed tailplane will be large enough to give a high flutter speed.
4.4 ALL-MOVING TAILPLANES
4.4.1 Typical of the tailplane layouts considered is that shown in Fig. 9. The
important feature is the existence of a symmetric tailplane pitch freedom, which can
be represented approximately by tailplane rotation about the pivot against the
stiffness of the actuator and its attachments.
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4.4.2 The tailplane symmetric flutter boundary may be as shown in Fig. 10, the
points indicated on the boundary arising as follows:
(a) If the tailplane pitch frequency is high, the flutter mechanism

approximates to fixed-root tailplane bending, torsion flutter.
(b) As the pitch frequency falls, the pitch freedom plays a progressively
larger part in the flutter and the minimum flutter speed occurs when the
fundamental frequency of tailplane pitch and torsion is near to that of
tailplane fundamental bending. The position of the pivot axis relative to the
tailplane aerodynamic centre is important in this region. If the pivot axis is
well aft the flutter speed may be low and tailplane pitch divergence may
become critical at lower values of pitch stiffness.
(c) A separate mechanism may occur with very low flutter speeds, when
the pitch mode frequency is close to that of the fuselage fundamental
bending mode. The fuselage bending frequency is usually lower than the
tailplane bending frequency and the existence of this mechanism must be
borne in mind if the avoidance of tailplane bending flutter does not put a
lower limit on pitch stiffness.
4.4.3 For the tailplane configuration shown in Fig. 9 symmetric flutter will usually
provide the critical case, the antisymmetric flutter speed being close to that of the
fixed-root tailplane. Fuselage overtone modes, and fin fore-and-aft modes for a
high-set tailplane, can have some influence on the symmetric flutter boundary and
such effect should be investigated. The influence of flexibility of the pivot mounting
must be considered. Such flexibility may, for example, influence the pitch mode
frequency and/or the effective pitch mode axis position to a significant extent.
4.4.4 For high speed aeroplanes, point (b) on the flutter boundary (Fig. 10) will
often lie in the flight envelope. In such cases, an adequate flutter margin may be
achieved by increasing the tailplane pitch and torsional stiffnesses in combination
but an increase in pitch stiffness alone is usually the economical solution. To ensure
adequate pitch stiffness it is of particular importance that sufficient space exists in
the design for an actuator of adequate size and with an adequate moment arm
about the pivot. When defining stiffness requirements, it should be borne in mind
that partial failure of the aeroplane hydraulic system will reduce actuator stiffness. If
stalled, an actuator will provide less stiffness, increasing the likelihood of flutter, but
it will possibly also provide more damping which will counteract the effect of the
reduced stiffness. Backlash can reduce the tailplane flutter speed by reducing the
effective pitch stiffness at small amplitudes. For design purposes, a limit of 0.0009
rads peak-to-peak is recommended.
4.5 TAILERONS
4.5.1 The principal difference between tailerons and all-moving tailplanes is that
tailerons can rotate antisymmetrically and so (a), (b) and (c) of Para 4.4.2 apply in
the antisymmetric case as well as the symmetric case. Mutatis mutandis, the
comments and recommendations given in Para 4.4 for the symmetric case apply
equally for the antisymmetric case here.
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4.6 PLATE-LIKE TAILPLANES
4.6.1 The structure and planform of some tailplanes are such that they behave as
a plate rather than as a spanwise beam. They have been found in some cases to
suffer types of flutter not covered in the sections above. An example of a taileron
with such a layout is shown in Fig. 11. Important features are the low aspect ratio
and the taileron bending moments being reacted at a spigot.
4.6.2 Taileron pitch is of less significance than bending of the attachment and the
flutter boundaries may be as shown in Figs. 12 and 13. Antisymmetric flutter can be
critical, the symmetric flutter speed being approximately that of the fixed-root
taileron. Fuselage antisymmetric overtone modes can have a strong influence on
the flutter and their effect must be checked as early as possible.
4.6.3 It is important to have adequate values of taileron attachment stiffness,

bending in particular. The taileron provides one of the few cases where it may be
economical to suppress main-surface flutter by using added mass. However, the
influence of added mass may not conform with the trends shown in Fig. 6 for the
high aspect ratio wing and optimum location of the mass may be at the taileron apex
(see Fig. 14).
5 FIN FLUTTER
5.1 The main characteristics of conventional and all-moving fin flutter are covered in
essence by the description of wing and tailplane flutter given above. A high-set tailplane
configuration however can introduce a number of new features to fin flutter, and these
effects are discussed below.
5.2 T-TAIL FIN FLUTTER
5.2.1 The critical flutter mechanism for a T-tail unit will normally arise essentially
from adverse aerodynamic coupling of the fin fundamental bending and torsion
normal modes. However, the influence of the high-set tailplane can be powerfully
destabilising due to a number of structural and aerodynamic effects.
5.2.2 The effect of tailplane inertia, in particular on fin torsion, tends to give a fin
torsion/bending mode frequency ratio close to unity, with a consequent adverse
influence to fin flutter speed. The fin mode shapes and frequencies may also
depend to a certain extent on the fin, tailplane attachment stiffnesses in roll and
yaw, and fin, fuselage attachment freedoms may be significant.
5.2.3 Aerodynamic interference can have an influence on the fin flutter speed. It is
important, especially in the transonic flow regime, that all such interference terms
between fin, tailplane and rudder are included in flutter calculations. Such effects
are sensitive to tailplane sweep and dihedral. The tailplane also acts as an end-
plate, consequently increasing the aerodynamic forces in the region of the fin tip.
5.2.4 Other aerodynamic terms which are not given by conventional lifting-surface
theories are caused by displacements of the tailplane further to those normally
considered (i.e. normal translation and incidence). For instance, due to fore-and-aft
velocity there are additional terms proportional to the steady lift on the tailplane.
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5.2.5 It is often necessary to design the fin structure of a T-tail unit to meet
stiffness requirements for the avoidance of flutter. Fin torsional stiffness is the
primary variable and a fin torsion/bending mode frequency ratio greater than 1.5 will
normally be required. Some other rough rules for design may be formulated as
follows:
(a) Tailplane anhedral is better than dihedral.
(b) Tailplane attachment frequencies > Fin torsion

frequency.
(c) Rudder rotation frequency > Fin torsion frequency.
The rudder rotation mode should always be included in T-tail fin flutter calculations.
5.2.6 In practice, the detailed design of a T-tail unit will require extensive flutter
calculations and use of a flutter model is of particular value in this case to provide a
means of checking the accuracy of such calculations.
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LEAFLET 25
AERO-ELASTICITY
FLUTTER OF CONTROL SURFACES (AILERONS, ELEVATORS AND RUDDERS)
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The majority of flutter incidents that have occurred have involved motions of control
surfaces relative to the main surfaces to which they were attached. In some cases, i.e.
those due to classical flutter, motion of the main surface was also present and was
essential to the instability: in the others, i.e. those due to the various forms of buzz, any
motion of the main surface was simply a response to the forcing provided by the control
surface. The usual methods of preventing classical flutter involve alterations only to the
structural properties of the wing and control system but those of preventing buzz can
involve alterations to the aerodynamic properties of the control surface. Methods of
avoiding classical flutter will be dealt with first.
2 PREVENTION OF CLASSICAL FLUTTER
2.1 One of the two principal methods of preventing classical flutter of control surfaces is
to arrange that the inertia couplings between the control rotation modes and the pertinent
distortion nodes of the main surface have suitable values, generally near zero, by adding
mass to the control surface at appropriate places. This is the classic method of prevention
by massbalance. The other method is to ensure that the operating system of the control is
stiff enough for the natural frequencies of the control-surface rotation modes in still air to be
high enough for all the flutter speeds that exist to be far enough above the limit speed of
the aeroplane. Other methods of flutter prevention are available including damping the
control surface rotation artificially.
3 MASSBALANCE
3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 If the stiffness of the circuit operating the control surface is inherently low it
will generally be most efficient to use massbalance to prevent flutter. Criteria have
been provided in previous issues of clause 4.8 giving recommendations as to the
amount of massbalance required for the various controls. These criteria were based
on experience gained on classes of aeroplanes unlike those to which the present
requirements are likely to be applied and it is no longer thought appropriate to
include them. Detailed calculations should be made in all cases in which
massbalance is to be used to prevent flutter.
3.2 VARIATION OF FLUTTER SPEED WITH MASSBALANCE
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3.2.1 The general form of the variation of the flutter speed with massbalance is
sketched in Fig. l. For massbalances below a certain value, m 1 , there is no upper
critical flutter speed and the flutter is likely to be severe, i.e. the rate of change of
the decay rate with speed at the critical speed is large and negative, as is the decay
rate within the unstable region. For massbalance greater than m 1 there is an upper
critical flutter speed (above which the control surface will be stable) and the flutter
becomes less severe as the amount of massbalance is increased until it disappears
altogether at a critical value, m 2 in the figure. In general, the lower critical speed
does not change much for changes in the amount of massbalance if the
massbalance is less than m 1 . Above m 1 the rate of change of the upper critical
speed is much greater than that of the lower speed. It is possible for there to be no
upper critical speed for any value of massbalance, i.e. for m 1 and m 2 to have the
same value.
3.2.2 If more than one main-surface mode can combine with the control-surface
mode to give flutter there will be a massbalance curve corresponding to each of
these main-surface modes. These curves may be interconnected but in general a
superposition of the separate binary curves will be a good approximation to the
continuous curve for the complete system. The flutter speeds will generally be
higher, the higher the frequency of the main-surface mode.
3.3 MARGIN OF SAFETY
3.3.1 The amount of massbalance fitted on the evidence of calculation must

contain an allowance for possible errors in the data used in the calculation. All the
data can be in error to some extent but it is likely that the aerodynamic data will be
the least accurate. Estimates of the aerodynamic forces on the control surfaces will
not be as good as those for the main surface. Fortunately the errors appear to effect
the results of calculations least when severe flutter is predicted. Aerodynamic
balance, either in the form of area forward of the hinge or as geared tabs, is difficult
to treat theoretically and its presence tends to increase the errors in the
aerodynamic estimates.
3.3.2 It can be seen from Fig. 1 that there are two ways of avoiding flutter: one is
to fit an amount of massbalance greater than m 2 and the other is to limit the speed
of the aeroplane to some speed below the flutter speed. In the case of flutter
involving the graver modes the second course is almost certainly impractical for the
flutter speed is likely to be too low. For the higher-frequency modes the flutter
speeds with no massbalance will be high enough to be beyond the capabilities of
the aeroplane. The margin of safety should be greater than that for main surface
flutter because the aerodynamic data is likely to be less accurate. An estimate of
the highest-frequency main-surface mode that needs be considered can be
obtained from the rough rule that flutter will not occur within the speed range if the
value of frequency parameter (based on the main-surface chord, clearance speed
and estimated flutter frequency) is greater than two.
3.3.3 If flutter is to be avoided completely by massbalance the question arises as

to how much greater than m 2 , the amount should be to provide a sufficient margin
of safety. This is best estimated by making calculations of the variations of decay
with speed for a number of massbalances greater than m 2 with the object of finding
the minimum massbalance for which the rate of decay does not fall below a
satisfactory level throughout the speed range. Due allowance must be made for the
probable inaccuracies of the aerodynamic data when choosing this level.
Page 2 of 11
SECTION 4
3.4 EFFECT OF POSITION OF NODAL LINE ON AMOUNT OF MASSBALANCE

NEEDED
3.4.1 The effectiveness of a massbalance depends on the relative amplitudes of

its deflection and the deflections of the control surface, locked to the main surface,
in the main-surface mode. The positions of the massbalance and control surfaces
relative to the nodal lines give some idea of their relative displacements for, roughly
speaking, the amplitude of a point will vary as its distance from the nodal line.
3.4.2 Fig. 2 is a collection of sketches of typical nodal lines for a rectangular wing
with an aileron with a concentrated massbalance at its most-outboard section. The
nodal line in (a) is coincident with the wing root and the massbalance is in the most
effective position. It would be even more effective in a mode in which the nodal line
is between the wing root and inboard end of the aileron. The nodal line in (b) is
typical of one for a fundamental torsion mode. The massbalance is nearer to it than
is the control surface and tends to be ineffective. The effectiveness is further
reduced if the massbalance has a significant moment of inertia about a spanwise
axis through its cg. The aerodynamic coupling of control surface and wing is fairly
weak with this type of mode but this is offset by the poor aerodynamic damping of
torsion modes. The net result is a mild flutter which is very difficult to eliminate by
massbalance. An equivalent in the case of tail units is fuselage-vertical-bending,
elevator flutter which has occurred comparatively often. The nodal line in (c), typical
of that of an overtone torsion mode, is a more extreme example of a
disadvantageous nodal line for it intersects the massbalance arm and the
massbalance works in the opposite sense to that desired. The nodal line in (d)
divides the control surface spanwise so that one part of it tends to balance the
other. In this case massbalance is scarcely necessary. In cases (c) and (d) the
modes are generally of high frequency and so the speeds of associated flutter will
tend to be high.
3.5 DISTRIBUTED VERSUS CONCENTRATED MASSBALANCE
3.5.1 Distributed massbalance is taken to mean massbalance distributed over the

span of the control surface in such a way that there is no inertia coupling at any
section between control-surface rotation and one particular main-surface mode.
This state of affairs can only apply for one main-surface mode as the local rates of
pitch to heave of the main surface are not the same for any two modes. One would
not expect the overall inertia coupling for any mode to be large however.
3.5.2 Generally distributed massbalance is uneconomical in weight for, even if it is

possible to fit massbalance over the whole of the control-surface leading edge,
shortage of space will restrict the length of arm possible. It is more economical to
concentrate the massbalance at just a few positions along the span. Thus, in the
case of an elevator, the tips are the best places to add massbalance for the
fuselage torsion mode. Space, however, will be limited and although there will
probably be enough for the mass needed for the torsion mode there will not be
enough for the fuselage vertical-bending mode which it is more difficult to
massbalance. There will probably be enough room at the centre-line of the elevator
for the further massbalance needed for this mode however.
Page 3 of 11
SECTION 4
3.6 EFFECT OF CONTROL CIRCUIT
3.6.1 The structural terms in the control-surface degrees of freedom should

include allowances for those parts of the control circuit which move with the surface.
It is often very difficult to estimate what the allowances should be when the circuit is
manual. A simple manual will have a zero-frequency natural mode in which the
pilot's control, the circuit and the surface move as a rigid body. It will also have a
mode in which the pilot's control and the control surface move in opposition with a
node in the circuit. Thus, for the stick-free case, there are theoretically at least two
control rotation modes. The case, corresponding to the pilot holding his control rigid
could also be considered.
3.6.2 Manual circuits rarely behave ideally and rather than make particular
calculations for the theoretical circuit modes it is more realistic to make a general
calculation in which the circuit is represented by a variable mass-and-spring system,
of the type suggested by Templeton1. This can be used in the design of a
massbalance system suitable for a range of circuit characteristics and ground tests
can be made when the aeroplane is available to evaluate the mass-and-spring
systems that best represent the actual circuit.
3.7 EFFECT OF FLEXIBILITY OF MASSBALANCE ARM
3.7.1 The massbalance will have a natural frequency on its arm when the control
surface is held rigid. If this frequency is above and near the flutter frequency the
flexibility of the arm will increase the effectiveness of the massbalance. In the
interests of strength and simplicity of inspection and maintenance no advantage
should be taken of this phenomenon and the designed frequencies should be such
that there is no significant change in flutter stability for small variations in
massbalance frequency.
3.7.2 Massbalance via linkage appears attractive in that the massbalance can be
made more effective by gearing up its motion and there are fewer restrictions on its
position. However, the use of linkages is not encouraged because it is difficult to
achieve adequate stiffness and wear in the joints leads to backlash.
3.8 FLEXIBILITY OF CONTROL SURFACE
3.8.1 The massbalance should be attached to the control surface and the control
surface should be attached to the main surface in ways such that the effectiveness
of the massbalance is not compromised by distortion of the control surface.
3.9 ATTACHMENT OF MASSBALANCE
3.9.1 Massbalances, their attachments and the local control-surface structure

should be designed for strength as part of the control surface. It should be borne in
mind that inertia loadings are likely to be of more importance than they are in the
case of an unmassbalanced control surface.
3.10 OTHER COMMENTS
3.10.1 The design of the massbalance should be such that the amount of
massbalance can be altered to allow for the painting of and possible repairs to the
control surface.
3.10.2 The massbalance must be effective at all available control angles.
Page 4 of 11
SECTION 4
4 STIFFNESS
4.1 GENERAL
4.1.1 If the control surface is operated by a powered unit the fundamental control
surface rotation frequency can be high and it is generally best to avoid flutter by
ensuring that this frequency is above those of the pertinent main surface modes.
The control surface frequency depends not only on the stiffness of the powered unit
itself but also on the stiffnesses of the structure on which the unit and the control
surface are mounted. Powered units will provide damping as well as stiffness and
this will be beneficial in general. A complication when stiffness is the primary
method by which flutter is avoided is the maintenance of stability after a 'safe'
failure. Either there has to be sufficient redundancy in the control circuit to ensure
that the frequency is still adequate or other means of flutter suppression have to be
provided and these might make flutter suppression in the unfailed case more
difficult.
4.2 EFFECT OF MASSBALANCE
4.2.1 Control-surface flutter will generally not occur if the natural frequency of
control-surface rotation is above that of the pertinent main-surface mode. The
addition of massbalance reduces the rotation frequency and makes it more difficult
to fulfil this condition. Low control-rotation frequencies also increase the probability
of an instability occurring in a single degree of freedom. It is for these reasons that
the inclusion of massbalance in schemes relying principally on a sufficiently-high
control stiffness is discouraged.
4.2.2 Sketches of possible variations of flutter speed with control stiffness are
given in Fig. 3. Curve (a) is for a very-undermassbalanced control surface and
shows severe flutter which persists at circuit stiffnesses above that corresponding to
coincident main-surface, control-surface frequencies. If the control is less severely
undermassbalanced the flutter curve will be similar to (b) which shows severe flutter
which disappears just before the natural frequency of the mode becomes greater
than that of the main-surface mode. It might be advantageous in some cases to fit
sufficient massbalance to convert a control characterised by (a) into the one
characterised by (b). Curve (c) is for a slightly-undermassbalanced control surface
and the flutter extends up to the stiffness equivalent to coincidental natural
frequencies in which condition the flutter speed is extremely low. The flutter is
considerably milder than in the first cases however.
4.3 FLEXIBILITY OF POWERED-CONTROL ATTACHMENTS AND SUPPORTING

STRUCTURE
4.3.1 Usually the flexibility of the attachments and aeroplane structure supporting
the powered control reduces the stiffness seen by the control surface by a
considerable amount from that were the powered control mounted rigidly. It is
important that this is borne in mind when the attachments and structure supporting a
powered control and the circuit between it and the control surface are being
designed.
Page 5 of 11
SECTION 4
4.4 FLEXIBILITY OF CONTROL SURFACE
4.4.1 The control-surface mode most critical in flutter will generally be the
fundamental. There will be a component of control-surface torsion in this mode and
the stiffness of the control surface should be large enough for this component to be
small.
4.5 DAMPING IN POWERED CONTROL
4.5.1 The powered control will provide damping as well as stiffness. Allowance
may be included for a known minimum value of this. It may become very important
when the powered control is stalled.
4.6 INCLUSION OF IMPEDANCE OF POWERED CONTROL
4.6.1 The foregoing has assumed that flutter can be avoided by maintaining a
sufficiently-high value of the real part of the powered control impedance in all cases
(except perhaps the stalled). More comprehensive treatments of impedance are
possible if necessary.
4.6.2 If the impedance can be represented by a quotient of two polynomials with

the Laplace operator as argument the method described by Smith can be used. In
this further degrees of freedom representing the characteristics of the powered
control are included in the flutter calculation. Using this method it is also possible to
include the effect of distortion of the structure on the input to the control.
4.6.3 Analytical representation of the impedance is unnecessary if the flutter

equations are solved in a way such that the locus of the impedance required for
flutter at a particular frequency can be determined for a number of flutter
frequencies2. The estimated impedance is compared with these loci. A coincidence
of required and estimated impedance at a common frequency represents a critical
flutter condition.
4.7 BACKLASH
4.7.1 The limit of permissible backlash recommended for design purposes is ±O.l°
in the case of main control surfaces and ±0.5° in the case of geared and trim tabs.
5 DAMPERS
5.1 The less-severe types of flutter can sometimes be suppressed by damping control-
surface rotation. Complete reliance on damping is not recommended in general and any
design based on this should be discussed with the Project Team Leader at an early stage.
6 GENERAL COMMENTS ON CALCULATIONS
6.1 DEGREES OF FREEDOM TO BE INCLUDED
6.1.1 One of the aims in designing an aeroplane against flutter should be to

achieve a design whose estimated flutter stability does not depend on an exact
knowledge of the stiffnesses of minor parts of the structure, such as hinge arms and
their attachments. Such stiffnesses are generally difficult to estimate and their
actual values are only known with any certainty when results of mechanical tests
are available, generally at a comparatively late stage. Further it is often difficult to
increase the stiffnesses of such items significantly without extensive redesign.
Page 6 of 11
SECTION 4
6.1.2 If minor stiffnesses can be kept high enough for the effect of their associated
degrees of freedom on the flutter speed to be insignificant, the only degrees of
freedom necessary in calculations are those describing control-surface rotation and
the principal flexibilities of the main surface. The modes of the main surface should
be those up to and including the overtone flexure and fundamental torsion whatever
the value of the frequency given by the rough criterion in Para 3.3. The same
criterion can be used to obtain a value of control-surface frequency which should be
high enough for there to be no flutter within the capability of the aeroplane. A
frequency obtained thus will almost certainly be higher than that necessary.
6.1.3 The main-surface flexibilities are generally described most conveniently by

normal modes with the control surface fixed in some way so that nominally it has no
movement relative to the main surface. Control-surface rotation with no associated
main-surface deflection is added to complete the representation.
6.1.4 Approximate aileron-flutter speeds can usually be obtained for a wing

without stores using root-fixed wing modes (with the addition of the roll mode in the
antisymmetric case) and this is also probably true for severe aileron flutters of a
wing with stores. It is not as simple to obtain an approximate system in those cases
of elevator and rudder flutter in which the fuselage flexibility is significant because
the appropriate fuselage constraints can only be conjectured.
6.1.5 If the flexibility of a minor part of the structure is such that it is possible that it
will influence the flutter, further degrees of freedom must be included or the effect of
the flexibility must be included in one of the basic degrees of freedom. Thus if the
control surface is flexible in torsion this should be allowed for either as a separate
torsion mode or by replacing the rotation mode by the fundamental normal mode of
the rotation and torsion degrees of freedom. A separate torsion mode will be
needed if the frequency of the overtone mode is low, if the overtone mode leads to
large aerodynamic forces on the main surface or if its aerodynamic stiffness is
negative. Tabs are so powerful aerodynamically that geared tabs and their circuits
should always be stiff enough to behave as though rigid.
6.2 AERODYNAMIC FORCES
6.2.1 The aerodynamic forces on control surfaces are less easily predicted than
those on main surfaces. Work is continuing on methods of calculating them and the
Project Team Leader should be consulted as to those recommended for use at the
particular time of the calculation. Comparisons with wind-tunnel measurements,
either oscillatory or steady, are valuable.
7 STATIC AEROELASTICITY
7.1 The data used in flutter calculations can often be also used to obtain a rough
estimate of the effect of flexibility in other cases such as its effect on control power.
7.2 Taking loss of rolling power as an example, the rolling power of a rigid wing
depends upon the aerodynamic forces in the roll mode due to aileron rotation and due to
motion in roll. When the wing is flexible aerodynamic forces due to distortions of the wing
are also present. The amplitude of these distortions can be obtained by dividing the forces
in the coordinates describing the distortion of the wing due to aileron rotation and wing roll
by the sum of the aerodynamic and structural stiffnesses in these coordinates. The forces
and stiffnesses needed are similar to those that would be used in a calculation for the
ailerons fluttering antisymmetrically.
Page 7 of 11
SECTION 4
7.3 In general, the aerodynamic coefficients will be in error because they should be
those for a frequency parameter of zero and the representation of the structure might be
inadequate if the coordinates used are the normal vibration modes and concentrated
masses are present but the result should be accurate enough to be useful.
8 NATURE OF BUZZ
8.1 Buzz of a trailing-edge control surface is a flow-induced vibration which can occur
on aeroplanes flying at high-subsonic or speeds. It is usually of limited amplitude and thus
is not so liable as classical coupled flutter to lead to catastrophic failure. It is essentially an
oscillatory instability of a single degree of freedom, namely, motion of the control surface
relative to the main surface. In its simplest form the motion is purely rotation of the control
surface about its hinge, but the possibility of a motion including distortion of the control
surface must not be overlooked.
8.2 For many purposes, it is probably sufficient to regard the oscillation as the result of
a mechanical system (the control surface) being set into a state of self-excitation by the
aerodynamic damping becoming negative. Non-linearity of the damping with amplitude
usually leads to a limit-cycle oscillation, the frequency of which will probably not be very
different from the uncoupled natural frequency of the control surface with aerodynamic
stiffness included.
8.3 The occurrence of aerodynamic negative damping appears to be restricted to a

range of non-dimensional frequency parameters and depends on certain particular types of
flow being present locally over the control surface or adjacent parts of the main surface.
Thus a necessary, but not a sufficient, condition for buzz to occur is the presence of one of
the following types of flow:
(a) mixed supersonic and subsonic flows over the main surface with a shock
wave ahead of the control surface hinge-line.
(b) mixed supersonic and subsonic flows extending onto the control surface with
a shock wave at the control surface, or
(c) supersonic flow over the whole control surface with the local Mach number
not much greater than unit.
8.4 An interaction of the shock wave with the boundary layer causing thickening or
separation is thought to be essential to buzz occurring with flow type (a). A coupling
between shock-wave motion and control-surface motion and possibly viscous effects are
thought to be involved in the instability occurring with flow type (b). Neither of these flows
are sufficiently amenable to theory for the aerodynamic damping to be calculable in the
general three-dimensional case. Unsteady thin-wing theory is able to predict negative
damping for flow type (c), but calculations based on this theory are probably not sufficiently
reliable for use in practice.
9 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR BUZZ
9.1 GENERAL
9.1.1 Unlike classical coupled flutter, control-surface buzz is not predictable during
design However immunity from buzz can be assured by making the natural
frequency of the control surface sufficiently high or by incorporating enough
mechanical damping.
Page 8 of 11
SECTION 4
9.1.2 Information regarding the bounds of the frequency and mechanical damping
required is contained in Ref. 3. It appears that no buzz will occur if the product of
the natural frequency in hertz and the control surface chord in metres is greater
than 35 However, it is almost certain that the attainment of this value is
impracticable. The designer can do little more than bear in mind features that are
beneficial to the avoidance of buzz. These are:
(a) the absence of backlash in control mechanisms,
(b) a high angular stiffness about the hinge,
(c) a low moment of inertia about the hinge,
(d) sweepback of the hinge,
(e) the avoidance of massbalance and
(f) a control surface of low aspect ratio.
9.1.3 In the event of buzz actually occurring, possible remedial measures are:
(a) the fitting of a damper or, if one is already fitted, an increase in the
amount of damping provided,
(b) an increase of the control-surface natural frequency and
(c) modifications to the surfaces that alter their aerodynamic

characteristics and increase the damping.
9.2 APPLICATION OF MECHANICAL DAMPING AND INCREASE OF NATURAL

FREQUENCY
9.2.1 A sufficiently large increase in mechanical damping completely suppresses

buzz and the most probable effect of some smaller amount is a reduction in the
limit-cycle amplitude. Similarly, buzz could be eliminated by a sufficiently-large
increase in natural frequency but whereas damping reduces the limit-cycle
amplitude monotonically, stiffness cannot be relied on to do the same.
9.2.2 Although Ref. 3 gives some information about the bounds of the amount of
negative aerodynamic damping and the range of frequency parameter for the worst
case, there is no way of estimating a minimum amount of mechanical damping or a
minimum natural frequency for a particular system apart from testing a suitable wind
tunnel model.
Page 9 of 11
SECTION 4
9.3 AERODYNAMIC MODIFICATIONS
9.3.1 It is possible for the occurrence of buzz to be sensitive to small modifications

to the profile of the wing or control surface. The subject is briefly discussed in Ref.
3, but no physical explanations can be offered as to why buzz can be affected by
this means. Of all the possible modifications, spanwise strakes or spoilers attached
to the upper and lower surfaces of the control surface probably represent the best
cut-and-try method. The strakes should have a height that is a few per cent of the
chord of the control surface. The most effective chordwise position is a matter for
trial; it could be anywhere between the hinge and the trailing edge.
REFERENCES
No Author Title, etc
1 H Templeton Massbalancing of aircraft control surfaces

pp 205-211. London, Chapman & Hall (1954)
2 A D N Smith Flutter of powered control and all-moving

tail-planes Chap.4, Part V of Manual of
Aeroelasticity, AGARD (1968)
3 N C Lambourne Flutter in one degree of freedom

Chap. 5, Part V ibid
Page 10 of 11
SECTION 4
Page 11 of 11
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 26
AERO-ELASTICITY
SPRING AND SERVO TAB FLUTTER
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives a general description of the effect of some of the most important
parameters in the flutter of spring and servo tabs. The description is confined to a three
degree-of-freedom system with main surface motion, control surface rotation and tab
rotation but should prove valuable for the interpretation of results from the large system,
with many degrees-of-freedom describing main surface motion that will normally be set up
and solved.
1.2 The effects on flutter of train or geared tabs are not considered. It is recommended
that trim and/or geared tabs which may be fitted to a control-surface are made stiff enough
so that trim tabs have no effect on control-surface, tab flutter, and so that the effect of
geared tabs may be introduced into flutter calculations by modifying the inertia and
aerodynamic properties of the control surface. If this is not achieved, the effect of trim
and/or geared tabs will have to be found by introducing their rotations as additional degrees
of freedom.
2 TAB SYSTEMS
2.1 A diagram of a simple type of operating system for a spring tab is shown in Fig. l. In
addition to the main spring A a subsidiary spring B may be fitted to provide the desired
control characteristics. The follow-up ratio of the tab (N) is defined as the ratio of tab angle
to control surface angle when the control surface is moved with the lever PQ held fixed
relative to the main surface (spring B being assumed not to deflect). In Fig. 1 the follow-up
ratio is evidently N = PQ/RS.
2.2 In an aerodynamic servo system, the spring A is omitted (and usually no flexibility is
introduced at B) and control is by means of the tab only: with a pure aerodynamic servo the
follow-up ratio is made zero, for example, by turning here the lever PQ through a right-
angle about P so that it becomes perpendicular to the plane of the paper in Fig. l.
3 THE GENERAL FLUTTER PICTURE
3.1 For an investigation of any specific design of spring or servo tab system at least a
ternary calculation, i.e., one involving three degrees of freedom, has been found to be
necessary. The degrees of freedom considered are tab rotation about its hinge, control
surface rotation about its hinge, and translatory motion of the main surface, e.g. wing
bending in the case of the aileron. Specific investigations of this sort are usually made by
calculating the flutter speed for a range of values of tab massbalance weight in a given
position and plotting a curve between flutter speed and tab massbalance. The control
surface massbalance is at the same time assumed varied so as to keep a constant cg
position of the combined control surface and tab. A typical curve is that labelled I in Fig. 2,
from which the salient features of spring and servo tab flutter may be demonstrated.
Page 1 of 9
SECTION 4
3.2 In general, for any given tab massbalance m there may be two critical flutter
speeds. For speeds up to the lower critical speed the system is stable, for speeds between
the lower and upper critical speeds the system is unstable, and for speeds above the upper
critical speed the system again becomes stable. Referring to curve I of Fig. 2 it is seen that
for zero tab massbalance the upper critical speed is very high and may in fact be infinite.
As in is increased the two critical speeds approach each other until at m = m 1 they become
coincident. For values of m between m 1 and m 2 no flutter occurs at any speed but, above
m 2 , flutter represented by a second branch of the curve, is again experienced. The
objective in preventing flutter is to be within the range m 1 and m 2 where flutter is impossible
at any speed, rather than to be outside this range even though the lower critical speed as
given by the curve may theoretically be considerably greater than the design diving speed
of the aeroplane. The main reason for this is that approximations and uncertainties
(primarily aerodynamic) inherent in the data used for the calculations affect the absolute
values of the critical speeds much more than the limiting values (m 1 and m 2 ) of tab
massbalance which define the flutter-free region.
3.3 The two branches of curve I represent two distinct types of flutter. In the left-hand
branch (low values of m) the flutter consists mainly of tab rotation, with some control
surface rotation but very little main surface motion. In the right-hand branch (high values of
m) control surface rotation and main surface motion are considerably greater. Since very
little main surface motion occurs in the left-hand branch it could be expected that a binary
calculation involving only tab and control surface rotations would give much the same
results, and this in fact is so; a binary calculation will in general give a curve approximating
to the left-hand branch of the ternary curve but will of course give no curve corresponding
to the right-hand branch of the ternary.
4 THE MAJOR PARAMETERS AFFECTING THE FLUTTER CHARACTERISTICS
4.1 In any specific case the curve obtained will depend upon several parameters,
geometric (as affecting the aerodynamics), inertial and elastic. It is in fact this dependence
that makes the formulation of a reliable yet reasonably simple criterion so difficult.
4.2 Geometrically the tab, control surface and main surface dimensions are all relevant
but the most important parameter is probably the follow-up ratio. Mass moment and
moment of inertia of the tab about its hinge and of the combined control surface and tab
about the control surface hinge are the major inertial parameters. Elastically the stiffness of
the springs A and B, and of the circuit between Q (see Fig. 1) and the pilot, enter into the
picture along with the stiffness appropriate to the main surface motion.
4.3 The above parameters are appropriate to the stick fixed condition; if the stick is free
the inertia of the stick about its axis is an additional parameter. Experience so far has
shown that the stick fixed condition is likely to be worse than the stick free and attention is
therefore usually confined to the stick fixed condition. In certain cases, however,
consideration of the stick free condition becomes necessary; as for instance where a mass
is fitted to the stick on a horizontal arm for g-restriction purposes, the mass may materially
modify the effective tab mass moment about its hinge.
Page 2 of 9
SECTION 4
4.4 Of the parameters relevant to the stick fixed condition the inertial parameters have
received the most attention. The effect of tab mass moment is of course directly related to
the tab massbalance. The effects of tab and control surface moments of inertia have also
been extensively investigated and are discussed in Para 5. Much less is known
quantitatively about the effect of control surface mass momentousness the control surface
is usually statically balanced (or nearly so)about its hinge and most investigations have
been confined to this condition. It is known, however, that over-massbalance of the control
surface produces a greater separation between the two branches of the curve of Fig. 2
(Curve I to Curve 11 for example): conversely, under-massbalance of the control surface
contracts the flutter-free region and may, if carried far enough, cause the two branches to
join up and form a continuous curve, thus completely eliminating the flutter-free region. It is
interesting to note, incidentally, that a similar result (involving mainly a movement of the
left-hand branch towards the right) may be obtained if the mass of the tab is exceptionally
large.
4.5 The elastic stiffnesses are usually expressed in the form of the natural frequencies
of the tab, control surface, and main surface. If these frequencies are well removed from
each other, the stiffnesses determine the absolute values of the critical speeds but have
little effect on the extent of the flutter-free region; in other words, the two branches of the
curve in Fig. 2 may be moved up or down, but the values of m 1 and m 2 are unaltered.
Proximity of the frequencies, however, produces a contraction of the flutter-free region and
is therefore to be avoided; most important in this connection is proximity of the tab
frequency and either the control surface frequency or the main surface frequency (e.g. wing
fundamental bending in the case of the aileron).
4.6 Of the geometric parameters, the effects of tab span and chord relative to the span
and chord of the control surface have been investigated and are discussed in Para 5. In
addition, aerodynamic balance appears to have an appreciable influence: results obtained
have indicated that the effect of aerodynamic balance on the control surface is to expand
the flutter-free region, whilst aerodynamic balance on the tab has the opposite effect. There
are unfortunately not enough results available to establish the effect of aerodynamic
balance on a quantitative basis; all that can be said is that tab aerodynamic balance is
likely to be unfavourable but that its effect may be partially or even wholly neutralised by
control surface aerodynamic balance.
5 APPROXIMATION TO THE LIMITING VALUES
5.1 From a combination of theoretical calculations and statistical evidence1 and

approximation to the limiting value m 1 for the left-hand branch of the curve of Fig. 2 is given
in the form of the criterion:
d. mx  ( N + 1) IT
K
Ic
(Corresponding to m > m 1 )
Page 3 of 9
SECTION 4
where d …….. distance between tan and control surface hinge

lines,
mx …….. tab mass moment about tan hinge line, positive

when
tab cg is behind hinge.
N …….. follow-up ratio
IT …….. moment of inertia of tab about tab hinge line, and
IC …….. moment of inertia of control surface (plus

fixed tab) about control surface hinge line.
5.2 The factor K was originally established as constant and equal to 0.02. Later it was
shown that K might more justifiably be taken as a function of the tab geometry and a value
of K'P3/2 was suggested where K' is a constant and p the ratio of tab chord to control
surface chord. It is probable that K is actually a function of both geometry and inertias and
based on the statistical evidence a value of K' = 0.12 is recommended for inclusion in K =
K'p3/2 There is some evidence that, if the ratio of tab span to control surface span q is below
0.5, the value of K' may be increased.
5.3 From the form of the criterion it is evident that small N, small I T and large I C are
good effects.
5.4 On the ternary side a similar criterion has yet to be established but accumulated
evidence from a number of investigations suggests that the value of m 2 will be
approximately that for tab static balance given by the condition:
mx  0
5.5 The conditions for which the above approximations have been established are as
follows:
(a) stick fixed,
(b) static or nearly static balance of control surface-plus-tab, and
(c) No aerodynamic balance of the tab or of the control surface.
6 RULES FOR ESTIMATING TAB MASSBALANCE REQUIRED TO PREVENT FLUTTER
6.1 GENERAL
6.1.1 From the foregoing considerations the following rules are recommended for
estimating tab massbalance, where:
p tab chord/control surface chord (both chords measured from hinge line to
trailing edge).
q tab span/control surface span.
Page 4 of 9
SECTION 4
6.2 RULE 1
6.2.1 If the control surface-plus-tab is massbalanced, involving static or nearly

static balance, and provided that p 0.2 and q 0.25 and moreover that no
aerodynamic balance is fitted to either control surface or tab* then the tab
massbalance may be estimated as that appropriate to the condition:
d. mx ( N  1) I 
 1  (1   2 ) K 
Ic Ic
where K = 0.15 p 3/2
 1 and  2 are safety margins for which the values  1 = 0.003,
 2 = 0.2 are recommended.
6.2.2 At the same time, to avoid unfavourable effects due to proximity of

frequencies, it is recommended that the following frequency ratio conditions be
observed:
(a) f  /f ß > 2
(b) f  /f z > 1.5
where f  …….. natural frequency of tab oscillating about its hinge line
with control surface fixed,
fß …….. natural frequency of control surface about its hinge line

with tab fixed to control surface, and
fz …….. fundamental frequency of main surface
*A control surface or tab having a semi-circular nose with its centre at the hinge is considered as
having no aerodynamic balance.
6.2.3 Of the frequency ratio conditions quoted, (a) is more important than (b).
Also, the limiting values given are in fact not hard and fast but depend to some
extent on the actual margins achieved in the inertia criterion of Para 6.2.1 If these
margins are good then some relaxation may be permissible on (a) and (b), but
actual coincidence of frequencies should at all times be avoided.
Note: Rule 1 is strictly applicable to the stick fixed condition.
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SECTION 4
6.3 RULE 2
6.3.1 If p < 0.2 or q < 0.25 or if the inertia criterion of Para 6.2.1 is not quite met,
but conditions are otherwise the same as for Rule 1, then the inertia criterion may
still be used for estimating tab massbalance provided that the value of K is obtained
by a binary calculation involving tab and control surface rotations. For the
preliminary design the value of K quoted under Rule 1 may be used. The frequency
conditions of Rule 1 also be observed.
6.4 RULE 3
6.4.1 If the criterion of Para 6.2.1 is not quite met under the conditions of Rule 2,
or if any of the conditions appropriate to Rule 1 and 2 are not observed, e.g.:
(a) control surface under-massbalanced,
(b) aerodynamic balance on the tab, or
(c) close proximity of any-two of the three frequencies f  ,f ß , f z , (say

within 10 per cent),
then the tab massbalance required to prevent flutter should be obtained by a ternary
calculation involving tab and control surface rotations and the appropriate main
surface motion - wing bending in the case of the aileron, fuselage vertical bending
for the elevator, and fuselage lateral bending for the rudder. If it is required to
investigate antisymmetric elevator flutter by a ternary calculation fuselage torsion
would in this case provide the appropriate main surface motion.
7 GENERAL POINTS IN DESIGN
7.1 From the inertia criterion of Para 6.2.1, it is evident, as has already been noted, that
a small tab inertia relative to the control surface inertia is favourable. This leads
immediately to the conclusion that for a given tab power (aerodynamically) the tab should
generally be of small chord and large span and, of course, that the tab construction aft of its
hinge line should be as light as possible. This conclusion remains valid even when
allowance is made for the reduction in K with decreasing chord according to the law K =
K'p3/2. The reduction in K in fact represents the influence of the aerodynamic
characteristics, whose effect is opposed to but smaller than the effect of the inertia
characteristics. It should also be borne in mind that the tab torsional stiffness should not be
reduced to the extent that it reacts unfavourably on the tab rotation frequency, and that
there is some evidence that it is advantageous to have the tab span ratio q below 0.5 (see
Para 5.2).
7.2 For the case in which the control is moving in the sense associated with its normal
action (e.g. aileron antisymmetrically) the frequency conditions of Para 6.2.2 are usually
easily met for tab systems in which there is no subsidiary spring: they may however be
difficult to meet with a subsidiary spring, when it becomes a matter of compromise between
flutter and aerodynamic requirements. For pure servo tabs (where f ß = 0) the frequency
condition of Para 6.2.2(a) is automatically met. It remains however to consider the
possibilities of flutter with the control moving in a sense opposite to that of its normal action.
Page 6 of 9
SECTION 4
7.3 The conditions for symmetric flutter of the ailerons will generally be little different
from those for antisymmetric flutter. Aileron and tab natural frequencies will generally be
rather higher than the stick fixed antisymmetric frequencies because of the shorter circuit
involved. For pure servo tabs the aileron frequency will again be zero, unless of course
there is a balance circuit. The wing frequency f z will be that for the appropriate symmetric
mode.
7.4 For the elevator the position is rather different and experience has shown the
necessity for keeping a careful watch on the possibility of antisymmetric flutter. If the two
halves of the elevator are directly connected together the natural frequency (f ß ) of the
elevator antisymmetrically will be largely determined by the stiffness of the interconnection.
In general, f ß will be high enough to be of the same order as or greater than the tab
frequency f ß , even though the tab frequency may be rather higher than in the stick fixed
symmetric case. This means that there will be no flutter-free region - the frequency
condition of Para 6.2.2(a) being far from met - and flutter will occur at some finite speed.
With a very stiff interconnection f ß will be high enough for the flutter speed to be so well
above the design divine, speed that there is no danger of flutter within the speed range of
the aeroplane. It is possible however to satisfy the official tip-to-tip elevator stiffness
requirement (which is not concerned with spring tab flutter) with a combination of stiff
elevator and relatively flexible interconnection, in which case f ß may be neither high enough
to prevent flutter within the speed range nor low enough to enable the frequency condition
of Para 6.2.2(a) to be met. This may be avoided either by having a very stiff interconnection
or by having no interconnection at all; the latter being quite permissible if the elevator is
massbalanced against fuselage torsion. For the very stiff interconnection it is difficult at the
present stage to make specific recommendations, but as a rough guide the stiffness should
be such as to make f ß ≥ 3 f  .
7.5 It is interesting to note further that if the elevator and interconnection were stiff
enough to be effectively rigid then binary tail-plane-tab flutter becomes possible, the tab
being under-massbalanced for this type of flutter. There is therefore an upper range of
elevator stiffness values to be avoided, though in practice there is little likelihood of such
values being achieved.
7.6 The case of an elevator with a spring or servo tab on one side only merits special
consideration. Flutter, if it occurred, would consist of both symmetric and antisymmetric
motions - unless of course the elevator and interconnection were infinitely stiff. It is
therefore possible for flutter to occur in which that side of the elevator carrying the tab
oscillates while the other side of the elevator remains relatively stationary; which means
that, to cover this possibility, the value of I c used in the right-hand part of the inertia criterion
of Para 6.2.1 (i.e. d. mx / I c  (1   2 ) K  ( N  1 ) I  / I c ) should be that appropriate to the
half-elevator. This of course makes the criterion more difficult to meet. At the same time-the
value of I c used in the left-hand part of the criterion (i.e. 1  d. mx / I c ) should still be that
appropriate to the full elevator. Generally speaking, one-sided systems should if possible
be avoided: the least problematical design from a flutter point-of-view is a symmetric
system with no interconnection and elevators massbalanced against fuselage torsion.
Page 7 of 9
SECTION 4
7.7 Finally, mention should be made of the optimum position for the tab massbalance.
The primary effect of adding tab massbalance is of course to reduce mx in the inertia
criterion, but since at the same time I  and I c are both increased the net effect on the right-
hand part of the criterion will be a combination of all these effects and will depend upon the
position of the mass. The familiar 'limiting' and 'Optimum', lengths of massbalance arm
(from the tab hinge) have been derived, as d/(N + 1) and d/2(N + 1), but it should be noted
that these derivations are based on consideration of the effects on mx and I  only. In many
cases the added effect on I c may have-a negligible influence, but for any specific design it
is probably better to obtain the most effective position of the massbalance by a direct
examination of the inertia criterion for a range of massbalance positions.
8 EFFECT OF FAILURES
8.1 Clause 4.8 states that if a structural member is designed to be 'damage tolerant',
the flutter requirement shall be met with the permitted damage. This must be considered in
the design of tab systems. There is a choice between duplicating a member to maintain
stiffness after damage and adding massbalance to compensate a loss of stiffness. In view
of the delicate balance between many effects in flutter involving tabs, this choice may not
be straightforward, and results from flutter calculations should be available early in the
design process of a 'damage tolerant' tab system.
9 SUMMARY OF DESIGN POINTS
9.1 For given tab power, the tab chord should be as small as possible, provided that the
tab torsional stiffness is not reduced to the extent where it reacts unfavourably on the tab
frequency. It should be borne in mind that there is some evidence that it is advantageous to
keep the tab span ratio q below 0.5
9.2 Introduction of a subsidiary spring into the tab circuit may make the frequency
conditions difficult to meet, depending on the spring stiffness.
9.3 To cover the case of antisymmetric elevator flutter, the interconnection between the
two halves of the elevator should either be stiff enough to make f  ≥ 3f  , or should be
dispensed with entirely and each half of the elevator massbalanced against fuselage
torsion.
9.4 If the elevator is fitted with a spring or servo tab on one side only, the value of I c
used in the right-hand part of the inertia criterion of Para 6.2.1 (i.e.
d. mx / I c  (1   2 ) K  ( N  1) I  / I c ) should be that for the half-elevator. In the left-hand
part of the criterion (i.e. 1  d . mx / I c ) the full elevator inertia should still be used.
9.5 For an elevator system the best design from a flutter point of view is to have a tab
on each half of the elevator, with no interconnection between the two halves, each being
separately massbalanced against fuselage torsion.
9.6 For the most effective position of the tab massbalance consideration should be
given to the effect of massbalance on I c as well as on mx and I 
9.7 The limit of permissible backlash recommended for design purposes is ±¼°.
REFERENCES
No.
1 R & M 2637
Page 8 of 9
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FIG 2 - TYPICAL FLUTTER DIAGRAM
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LEAFLET 27
AERO-ELASTICITY
MODEL TESTING IN WIND TUNNELS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Models may be used to provide information which can assist in establishing flutter
safety margins. Experience has shown that wind tunnel testing is to be preferred to free
flight or sled testing. This leaflet describes the types of wind tunnel testing that are possible.
The information most needed for any project will vary with the particular problems of that
project. The object of this leaflet is to assist the designer to decide what test data to seek
by listing advantages and disadvantages of the different types of testing.
1.2 There are, broadly, two types of model: rigid models, designed to obtain
aerodynamic forces or pressures for a basic oscillatory motion of the main and control
surfaces, and flexible models, designed to measure stability characteristics over a range of
aerodynamic conditions which may include a flutter condition. The former will be designed
to remain effectively rigid up to the frequencies at which the tests are to be made, whilst the
latter will be designed to be, as far as possible, fully representative of the aeroplane in
respect of mass and stiffness characteristics. Both types of model can lead to information
about the accuracy of the aerodynamic data to be used in the flutter calculations of the
aeroplane. With a rigid model, a motion is imposed and the resulting aerodynamic force is
determined and compared with the theory. This type of model is usually used for general
checks of theory in a research programme. For a project, it may be used to check some
new feature (e.g. a wing with a store mounted at the wing tip). With a flexible model, the
flutter characteristics of the model are calculated and are compared with the experimental
results thereby giving a check of the accuracy of the aerodynamic data in the calculations.
Once a flutter model is available the opportunity is usually taken to vary stiffness and mass
parameters to extend the range of conditions for which theory and test can be compared,
and to test the effect of proposed structural modifications.
1.3 Neither the construction, nor the testing, of models should be embarked upon
without a full appreciation of the technical difficulties to be faced. If a model is inadequately
representative of the full scale aeroplane or component, or if the testing technique fails to
achieve the desired accuracy, it could be difficult to derive anything of value from the test
programme. It is strongly urged that the construction of models and rigs and the testing be
entrusted to a team experienced in these matters.
2 TEST WITH RIGID MODELS
2.1 GENERAL
Page 1 of 8
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2.1.1 Rigid model tests are used to measure unsteady aerodynamic forces for a
particular planform oscillating in rigid body motion. The ideal is that measurements
should be made at the same value of non-dimensional frequency parameter as that
at which the aeroplane is likely to flutter. This requirement will determine the
oscillatory test frequency once the linear scale and tunnel airspeed have been
chosen. The model should be designed to be as stiff as possible, and to have
natural frequencies well above the test frequency. Achieving a model that is
effectively rigid at the required test frequency is often difficult and, if this is
impractical, correction must then be made for the distortions that occur Tests at
lower frequencies, at which the model is effectively rigid, will, in any case, be useful.
2.1.2 There are two measurement methods and these are described below.
2.2 FORCE MEASUREMENTS
2.2.1 There are various ways of obtaining the overall oscillatory aerodynamic
forces. In some, an oscillatory motion is inexorably imposed on the model and the
excitation force and the support reactions are measured. In others, the model is
incorporated in a spring system giving the required degree of freedom.
Measurement of the oscillatory characteristics of this system at a natural frequency
then leads to a determination of the required aerodynamic forces.
2.2.2 Fundamentally there is the difficulty of separating a small aerodynamic force

from the comparatively larger inertia force of the model and rig - Some methods
circumvent this problem better than others. Usually additional measurements have
to be made in still air (ideally in a vacuum chamber) and the determination of the
aerodynamic forces involves taking the difference between two sets of measured
quantities.
2.3 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
2.3.1 By measuring oscillatory pressure distributions, basic information on

unsteady aerodynamics is available, without the problem of having to separate
aerodynamic and inertial forces. Thus pressure measurements become more
attractive the higher the frequency. Basically there are two approaches:
(a) Direct measuring miniature pressure transducers are mounted flush

with the model surface, or, if this is not practicable, installed inside the model
as close as possible to the pressure orifices.
(b) Pressures are transmitted through tubes and switched to one or

more transducers outside the tunnel.
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The second technique is economic in instrumentation and is usually acceptable for

low speed tests, but is not always suitable when compressibility is important and at
high frequencies. Care must be taken to account for tunnel flow effects upon the
dynamic calibration of the tubing system. Some direct measuring pressure
transducers should be installed to quantify these effects. It is important to measure
the true model distortion at the conditions for which pressures are measured. This
feature assumes increasing importance as the frequency increases. It is inevitable
that test pressures can be measured only at a limited number of points on the upper
and lower surfaces of a model. The measuring points must, therefore, be chosen
carefully to suit the information required.
2.3.2 The information on pressure distributions is useful in showing, how sensitive

certain effects can be to small errors. For example, the change in sign in the
pressure distributions over the chord of the in-quadrature pressure due to control
rotation at subsonic speeds implies uncertainty in estimation or measurement of lift
due to control rate, due to nearly equal contributions of different sign. The effect of
such uncertainties on flutter should be explored in calculations and the need for
special care in the direct measurement of such effects by the methods of Para 2.2 is
indicated.
2.3.3 It is difficult to obtain detailed pressure distribution if space considerations

prevent the installation of transducers near the leading or trailing edge. For a control
surface, therefore, it may be preferable to combine the measurement of pressured
distribution, with the direct measurement of control surface hinge moment.
2.4 USE OF MEASURED AERODYNAMIC DATA IN FLUTTER CALCULATIONS
2.4.1 When overall forces are measured the aerodynamic information is presented
in the form of equivalent strip derivatives. It is now unusual for a flutter calculation to
include aerodynamic data in the form of derivatives and a set equivalent to those
measured has to be specially calculated using the aerodynamic theory used in the
flutter calculations if comparisons are to be made. If the flutter calculations have
been made with arbitrary variations in aerodynamic force coefficients, to establish
the sensitivity of flutter conditions to aerodynamic characteristics, the most
appropriate set of coefficients is that for which the equivalent derivatives are nearest
those measured.
2.4.2 When pressures are measured they may, in principle, be integrated to give
forces and they also provide an opportunity to modify the aerodynamic theory. The
theory may be applied to the particular planform for the test conditions and the
oscillatory pressures at the test sections computed. The computed pressures can
then be factored empirically to agree with the test pressures and these corrections
can be introduced into the standard computation of generalised force coefficients.
This type of correction is based on the assumption that, for any combination of
Mach number and frequency parameter, the same correction can be applied for all
mode shapes. Care is needed in assessing the changes in flutter characteristics
resulting from the corrections.
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3 FLEXIBLE MODELS
3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 The aim with flexible models is to represent, at model scale, the structural as
well as aerodynamic characteristics of the full scale aeroplane. The flutter
characteristics of the model in a wind tunnel should then be similar to those of the
aeroplane. The model flutter results will be a valuable check on the flutter
calculation methods and the effects of modifications.
3.2 SCALING REQUIREMENTS
3.2.1 Model characteristics are usually based on the following considerations of

similarity:
(a) Structural similarity, which includes mass and stiffness distributions.

This together with overall mass and stiffness scaling (see (c) and (d)) is
necessary so that the model normal mode shapes, generalised stiffness and
inertias are similar to those of the aeroplane.
(b) Aerodynamic similarity, which is expressed as equal Reynolds

number, Mach number and frequency parameter. Full scale Reynolds number
can hardly ever be reproduced because of tunnel limitations, and so boundary
layer transition devices are frequently employed on the model to provide a
turbulent rather than a laminar boundary layer. Equality of Mach number is
essential when compressibility effects are important. Frequency parameter
matching is automatically satisfied if mass and stiffness scaling is achieved
(see (c) and (d)) but some mismatch is often acceptable if correct mass
scaling cannot be achieved.
(c) Mass scaling, which ensures that the ratio of structural mass density
to air density is the same for the model and aeroplane.
(d) Stiffness scaling, which ensures that the ratio of structural stiffness to
kinetic pressure is appropriately scaled between aeroplane and model.
The scaling relationships are given in the Supplement.
3.2.2 It is not usually necessary to attempt to represent kinetic heating effects,

which would be very difficult, and the effect of gravity on the flutter characteristics is
usually small. It is not generally possible to represent structural damping but, if the
design of the model results in small structural damping, the effects of this damping
in the comparison of flutter tests and calculations can be allowed for simply.
3.3 LOW SPEED MODELS
Page 4 of 8
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3.3.1 There are many Wind tunnels in which the maximum tunnel airspeed
corresponds to low Mach number (Mach numbers of 0.15 to 0.30 are typical). These
tunnels tend to be larger than those in which higher Mach number flow is possible,
and so allow the testing of larger models. It will be shown below that the scaling
laws for this type of model result in heavier models than equivalent models, for high
Mach number tunnels. The increases in size and weight case model construction
problems, and, sometimes, the advantages if model construction and testing make
up for the disadvantage that Mach number is not representative. For instance, in the
investigation of flutter involving the complete aeroplane or of flutter of a wing with
many store configurations, larger, more rugged models will be simpler and cheaper
to build and to test. Obviously the model tests will have to be backed by flutter
calculations to check that the effect of Mach number has not changed basically the
type of flutter.
3.3.2 Typically a complete strike aeroplane could be represented at a linear scale

of about 1:7 in low speed wind tunnels normally available. The relaxation of the
Mach number requirement means that the stiffness scaling can include a scaling on
airspeed so that the required aeroplane speed is represented by a convenient
tunnel airspeed in the tunnel being used. A true airspeed scale, of about 1:5 is
typical. Supplement S2 shows that these ratios lead to a typical rotation stiffness
ratio of 1:8575 and to a typical mass ratio of 1:343. For conventional spar-rib
construction. these requirements are compatible with robust models and there
should be no problems associated with model fatigue. Models can usually be tested
up to flutter speeds. Long tunnel running times Cause no problems for the model,
and are practicable for low speed tunnels. Records of the response to tunnel noise
or to simple external excitation may be analysed to obtain the variation of model
frequency and decay rate with airspeed.
3.4 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW MODELS
3.4.1 When Mach number is represented, models have to be smaller to match the
wind tunnels available. The largest sized model is achieved by testing a half model
mounted on the tunnel wall and a linear scale of about 1:7 is typical for strike
aeroplanes. This ratio is chosen because it is also typical of the scale for a complete
aeroplane model in a low speed tunnel. (see Para 3.3) and the choice of the same
linear scale for low speed and high speed models clarifies the comparison of mass
and stiffness ratios the two types of model. The Supplement shows that both model
stiffness and mass depend on the stagnation pressure available in the wind tunnel.
If, for instance, the aeroplane at M = 1.0 at sea level in the standard atmosphere is
to be represented in a wind tunnel running conveniently at a stagnation pressure of
one atmosphere the Supplement shows that this results in a rotational stiffness,
scaling (with a linear scale of 1:7) of 1:650. In this typical example the mass scaling
is 1:541.
Page 5 of 8
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3.4.2 Comparing these values with those for the low speed model with the same
linear scale in Para 3.2, it may be seen, from Supplement S5, that the rotation
stiffness of a compressible flow model component is 13.2 times that of the
equivalent low speed model component, but the mass is 0.634 times that of the
equivalent low-speed model component. This obviously increases the difficulty of
model design as a stiffer structure has to be built with a smaller mass. To achieve
high speed models which are not substantially overweight requires considerable
skill and ingenuity on the part of model designers and manufacturers.
3.4.3 The Supplement S3 shows that the higher the tunnel stagnation pressure
the higher are the model stiffness and mass. This usually results in a more rugged
model.
3.4.4 It will sometimes prove better to deliberately design an overweight model of

the right stiffness to make the model structure stronger. This will have the effect of
increasing the model equivalent altitude and reducing the model frequency
parameter, which in general, will reduce the model critical equivalent airspeed. This
complicates the definition of an equivalent aeroplane condition in the standard
atmosphere. If flutter characteristics are calculated using model structural values
and if the same method is used to deduce the aerodynamic forces as in the
aeroplane calculations, the differences in equivalent altitude and frequency
parameter can be allowed for, and conclusions drawn about the accuracy of the
aerodynamic theory. Sometimes it is possible to represent some part of aeroplane
non-structural mass (e.g. fuel) by model structural mass in order to make the model
stronger.
3.4.5 High speed models are inevitably fragile. Tunnel conditions for actual model
flutter are usually avoided to prevent model failure and this means that model
subcritical behaviour has to be measured and extrapolated for flutter. This tends to
require relatively long tunnel running times, aggravating the fatigue problem.
However, the advantages of a high speed flutter model programme in giving
experimental results, particularly in the transonic region, where aerodynamic
theories are suspect, have often amply justified the investment.
Page 6 of 8
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SUPPLEMENT
Page 7 of 8
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Page 8 of 8
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LEAFLET 28
AERO-ELASTICITY
STIFFNESS TESTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Stiffness tests involve the application of loads to a structure and the measurement
of deflections. The results from stiffness tests can usefully be compared with theoretical
values for structural items for which estimates are difficult (e.g. structural joints) or which
are known to be important in flutter (e.g. wing torsional stiffness). The main value of the
results from stiffness tests is that they can include the effect of large applied loads and, in
this respect, stiffness tests are a useful adjunct to resonance tests in which the loads
throughout the structure are generally smaller. This section makes general comments on
the different types of stiffness test rather than attempting to lay down detailed testing
requirements.
2 STRUCTURES FOR STIFFNESS TESTING
2.1 Stiffness tests may be made on prototype aeroplane components, either before or
after assembly of the aeroplane, or on structural test specimens.
2.2 The advantage of stiffness tests on prototype components or assembled prototype

aeroplanes is that results will usually be available earlier than results from structural
strength test specimens. However, the absence of suitable rigs at the early prototype stage
results in difficulties in applying and reacting the loads and prototype tests are usually
restricted to comparatively small applied loads. Large loads can be applied to structural
strength test specimens and the opportunity should be taken to check the linearity of load-
versus-deflection curves and to explore in more detail the stiffness characteristics at loads
for which parts of the structure have become ineffective (e.g., due to skin buckling).
3 TESTS ON MAIN STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS (WING, FUSELAGE, FIN, TAILPLANE)
3.1 Stiffness tests on components before assembly or on a completed prototype

structure provide the earliest results to compare with those given by theoretical estimates.
The tests may be restricted to simple loading systems with enough measurements of
deflection for the distribution of stiffness as well as overall stiffness values to be estimated
from the results. In this form the results would be a useful addition to the results of
resonance tests which are usually available at about the same time and give indirect
information on theoretical stiffness data used in the calculation of normal modes.
3.2 The structural joint between an all-moving surface and its operating jack and the
mounting structure for the jack are difficult to analyse theoretically and over-estimates of
stiffnesses important in flutter are not uncommon. The assembled prototype provides an
opportunity for testing these parts of the structure. The substitution of a stiff link for the jack
will not reduce the value of these tests from the structural point-of-view. The jack will be
tested during impedance tests. In view of the likelihood of hysteresis effects and backlash
in these parts of the structure, deflection measurements should be obtained with the
applied load increasing, then decreasing to negative values and then increasing again.
Page 1 of 2
SECTION 4
3.3 Structural strength test specimens for main components will usually be available.
These are often scheduled for testing after prototypes have flown and after initial stiffness
data from tests has been obtained from prototype stiffness tests and resonance tests.
Stiffness tests on the structural strength test specimens may be made to resolve any
remaining difficulties and to check any variation of the structural stiffness with applied load.
4 TESTS ON CONTROL SURFACES AND FLAPS
4.1 Stiffness tests on control surfaces and flaps are normally necessary only if flutter
calculations show stiffnesses to be important or if there is doubt as to the accuracy of
theoretical estimates. For manually-operated controls, similar considerations will usually
show the need for tests on the main control surface operating circuit up to the control
column, and on any tab control circuit. Stiffness tests may also be required for the
massbalance arms.
4.2 For powered controls, there will normally be a need to stiffness test the structural
joint between the control surface and its jack and the mounting structure for the jack.
4.3 In the above cases, deflection measurements should be obtained with the applied
load increasing, then decreasing to negative values and then increasing again.
5 WING PYLONS FOR STORES OR ENGINES, AND WING ENGINE SUPPORTS
5.1 Stiffness tests on these components will usually be required because of the difficulty
of estimation, the likely inaccuracy of theoretical estimates, and the possibility that
stiffnesses may be dependent on the magnitude of steady loads. Large steady loads will
have to be applied and these tests will, therefore, have to be done in a rig. Loads should be
applied in both directions to observe backlash or 'soft centre'. The rig for the structural
strength tests on the component will often be usable.
5.2 The results obtained from the tests will be used to improve the mathematical model
of the structure and this should be borne in mind in the choice of the loads to be applied
and deflections to be measured. For instance for a single store on a pylon, it is advisable to
aim to measure the complete 6 x 6 flexibility matrix for loads at the (rigid) store. For a rack
carrying several stores, it may not prove practical to do this for all stores, and in this case it
may be better to do rig resonance tests first to find the lower frequency modes. The shapes
of these modes will give some indication of the mathematical model required and thus the
best set of loads and deflections for determining the stiffness distributions in the model.
5.3 Wing pylons, together with the spigot mounting structure and the store release units
(a major source of non-linearity) may be tested in two ways. The tests may be carried out
either on a pylon attached to a wing or on a pylon in a rig. In the first case, store deflections
have to be measured relative to the wing deflections. In the second case, the store
deflections should be adjusted for the effects of the stiffness of the spigot mounting in the
wing, obtained from a supplementary test on a wing only loaded at the spigot mounting.
5.4 For engine supports any engine anti-vibration mounts should be included in the
structures tested.
Page 2 of 2
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LEAFLET 29
AERO-ELASTICITY
HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR IMPEDANCE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The stiffness and damping of hydraulic actuators are important terms in the flutter of
all-moving main surfaces and of control surfaces, and measurements are needed to
establish values for use in flutter calculations. The stiffness and damping are conveniently
described by the complex output impedance of the actuator over the range of frequencies
relevant to flutter. Generally, stiffness is the more important component of impedance.
Problems are most likely with piston driven linkage outputs, as opposed to motor driven
rotary screw outputs.
1.2 This leaflet gives a brief account of some points, obtained from a linearised
theoretical description of an actuator, that are of interest from the flutter point of view, and
describes what is required from an actuator impedance test.
2 IMPEDANCE IN THEORY
2.1 A piston actuator can be described theoretically, and some qualitative appreciation
emerges from a linearised representation of actuator dynamics. In particular, the broad
compromise between the actuator's performance as a position control, and its output
impedance can be identified and this allows some appreciation of the interaction between
response and flutter requirements.
2.2 Impedance is defined here as the inverse of the ratio of the complex output
displacement response to an externally applied sinusoidal force when input is held fixed (x 1
= 0, Fig. 1) and when there is no output inertia. Actuator performance is described by the
frequency response, defined here as the ratio of the complex control surface displacement
response to a sinusoidally applied input demand.
3 THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION OF A PISTON ACTUATOR
3.1 LINEARISED REPRESENTATION

The expressions for output impedance and frequency response for a linearised
representation of an actuator, shown schematically in Fig. I, are derived here and are
based upon the work of Ref 1. A linearised actuator is also treated in Ref 3, but the
treatment does not include the effect of either structural or pressure feedback.
From Fig. 1 and considering only small perturbation about a steady state:
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In Figs.3 and 4, a typical flutter frequency is marked, and limiting values of impedance are:
1
 1 1 V 
I     2
 k b k o 4 NA 
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1
 1 1
I oa    
 k b ko 
 1 1 Gb G p C p  1
I ob = I od =      
 k b k o G o k b G o A 2 C G o A 
 1 1 2G b 2G p  C p  1
I oc =      
 k b k o G o k b G oA 2C  G oA 
 1 1 Gb C p  1
I o =     
 k b k o G o k b 2C G oA 
From Figs. 2, 3 and 4 it may be seen that:
(a) Introducing, and increasing the amount of those actuator feedbacks which
reduce structural mode contributions in the response to input demands (Figs. 2a,
2b, 2c) also reduce stiffness at all frequencies(Figs. 3a, 3b, 3c and 4a, 4b, 4c).
(b) Increasing actuator rate of response to input demands (Figs. 2b, 2d) reduces
stiffness at all frequencies (Figs. 3b, 3d and 4b, 4d).
(c) A high impedance at very low frequencies, which may be desirable in order
to minimise distortion effects on aeroplane stability can be achieved by filtering out
the low frequency content of the stabilising feedbacks, but this tends to reduce
stiffness at flutter frequencies (Figs. 3b, 3e and 4b, 4e).
4 IMPEDANCE TESTING
4.1 The theoretical impedance characteristics from a linearised representation of an

actuator are modified by significant non-linearities, and the effect of these must be
investigated in impedance tests (Ref 2). The essential features of an impedance test are
the ability simultaneously to apply large steady and oscillatory loads to the actuator over a
wide range of frequencies.
4.2 It is usual to measure impedance with the actuator in a rig to avoid the practical
problems of applying and reacting external loads and measuring associated displacements
on actuators installed in the aeroplane. The rig itself should be stiff. Sometimes part of the
actuator mounting structure is represented in the rig, for example, if mounting flexibility
produces significant feed-back. The following features should also be represented if they
are not known to be unimportant:
(a) Actuator end fittings and bearings.
(b) Non-return valves.
(c) Actuator input demands, representative of pilot/autopilot activity.
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(d) hydraulic supply failure conditions.
(e) Alternative modes of operation (for example with electrical or mechanical

position feedback).
(f) Steady output loads, up to and including stall or blow off, if this can occur in
flight.
(g) Service wear.
4.3 Impedance should be measured over a range of oscillatory applied load levels, up
to at least ±20% of stall load. Some typical results are shown in Figs. 5a and 5b.
4.4 Output inertia representation of the control surface need not be introduced, since
this may be included analytically in the flutter calculation equations.
4.5 Care must be exercised in automated data reduction. Visual inspection of force
input and output responses is essential to judge any significant non-linear effects (for
example, associated with actuator rate limits). If non-linear effects are present, the
response at the excitation frequency can be extracted as the basis for impedance.
4.6 Force can be measured by strain gauging the actuator ram. Output response can be
measured from pin-to-pin to include bearing and bush effects, or from ram-to-body to
exclude them.
4.7 For reliable impedance results, the accurate measurement of response is of

paramount importance. Ram-to-body displacements, particularly with modern actuator
designs, are likely to be extremely small, typical 0.001 inch. The transducers must of
necessity have high sensitivity, and the signal conditioning have high accuracy.
5 FLUTTER ANALYSIS
5.1 Actuator impedance characteristics can be accounted for in flutter analysis either:
(a) By the introduction into the flutter equations of further degrees of freedom
representing actuator impedance, if the test data can be expressed at a ratio of
polynomials in (i), or
(b) By computing a map of flutter characteristics (speed and frequency) over the
range of impedance characteristics and 'matching' by superimposing the measured
impedance data.
The latter allows a more direct treatment of the measured data.
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REFERENCES
No. Title etc.
1 Some design considerations of hydraulic servos of the jack type.

N F HARPUR.
Proceedings of the Conference on Hydraulic Servomechanisms, Institution of Mechanical

Engineers, February 1953.
2 AGARD Manual on Aeroelasticity. Vol. IV. Chapter 4.
3 AGARD Manual on Aeroelasticity. Vol. l. Chapter 5.
NOTATION
A Piston Area
q q
CP Valve flow rate per unit pressure = 
p1 p2
q
C Valve flow rate per unit valve opening =

F Externally applied force
Gb Structural feedback gearing
Go Output position feedback gearing
Gp Pressure feedback gearing
Io Impedance at zero frequency (static stiffness)
I Impedance at infinite frequency
kb Mounting structure stiffness
ko Output linkage stiffness
M Effective mass of rigid control surface
N Bulk modulus of hydraulic fluid
Pr Return line pressure )

) assumed constant
Ps Hydraulic supply pressure )
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P 1 -P 2 Actuator pressure difference
q Valve flow rate = C  + C p P
s Laplace operator
V Volume of fluid in cylinder
xb Mounting structure displacement
xc Control surface displacement
xl Input displacement demand
xo Actuator ram displacement
xp Pressure feedback ram displacement
 Valve opening = x l - G b x b - G o x o - G p x p
 Defined in equation (8)
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FIG. 2 - SOME TYPICAL FREQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS
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FIG. 3 - SOME TYPICAL IMPEDANCE CHARACTERISTICS - VECTOR PLOT
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FIG. 4 - SOME TYPICAL IMPEDANCE CHARACTERISTICS - AMPLITUDE
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F
FIG 5a - EFFECTS OF STALL
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FIG 5b - NON-LINEARITIES DUE TO DIFFERING OSCILLATORY LOAD
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LEAFLET 30
AERO-ELASTICITY
STILL AIR RESONANCE TESTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 For most aeroplanes, the results from still-air resonance tests on components, or on
the assembled prototype, provide the first checks from full scale dynamic tests of the
adequacy of the mathematical model that has been used in the flutter calculations. They
also provide checks on the adequacy of the structural representation achieved in flutter
models. It follows that the resonance test is of prime importance. The aim of the test is to
obtain experimental data which can be used to check earlier assumptions and calculations
of the model characteristics of the aeroplane. It is essential to undertake the test in such a
way that this cheek can be made. In the design stage of the aeroplane, the normal modes
of vibration of the structure are calculated from estimates of the mass and stiffness
distributions and the modes thus obtained are the undamped normal modes; the purpose of
the resonance test is to obtain the undamped modes of the aeroplane, so that a direct
comparison of calculated and measured modes may be made. The main difficulty in making
a resonance test which satisfied the above requirements lies in the extraction of the
undamped modes of vibration from a structure in which (unknown) damping forces play a
significant part in the vibratory behaviour and in which components with non-linear
properties may be present.
2 GENERAL APPROACH
2.1 There are, in general, two methods by which an undamped normal mode of a
damped structure can be obtained from a resonance test. The first method is to apply
excitation forces to the structure at the undamped natural frequency in such a way that the
structure responds in the undamped normal mode, which may then be directly measured.
The second method is to apply a number of patterns of excitation forces to the structure,
each pattern being applied at several frequencies in the region of the undamped natural
frequency. The structural response to each pattern at each frequency is measured, and the
undamped normal mode is calculated from the test measurements. With both methods, the
process is repeated for each mode of the structure.
2.2 The advantage of the first method is that the undamped normal modes are obtained
directly from the test, so that their characteristics may be seen and assessed while the test
is in progress; with the second method the modes required will not be obtained until the
results have been computer-processed. However, if on-line computational facilities are
available at the test site, there need be little delay in data processing. Non-linear behaviour
of the structure is usually the main reason for test results that fall below the required
standard. If non-linearity is present, the first method of test enables impurities in a mode to
be detected during the test and allows it to be investigated at that stage; where a pure
mode cannot be excited even after several attempts have been made, it will generally be
possible to arrive at excitation conditions which give optimum response. With the second
method of test, it will generally be possible to detect non-linear behaviour either during the
test itself or from inconsistencies revealed during the processing stage. Some form of
optimisation of the results may then be attempted in order to derive a mode having
minimum impurities.
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2.3 In recent years there has been a trend towards combining both methods of test in
order to obtain a better understanding of the dynamic behaviour of the test specimen and to
reduce the time taken to do the tests. There are various ways in which the two methods
may be combined in a test. One way, which has been the subject of some research, is to
use the second method to predict from initial test data the excitation required to excite a
mode with minimum impurity. This excitation is then applied to the structure, and the mode
is directly measured in the manner of the first method. Test procedures of this type are still
in the research stage and there have, in fact, been few full scale applications of the second
method of test. By far the greatest number of resonance tests in the UK in the last ten years
have been made using the first method, and the remainder of this leaflet is concerned with
this method.
3 AEROPLANE CONDITION
3.1 The condition of an aeroplane for the test depends on the results of the previous
flutter investigation. There are three main conditions that must be decided upon:
(a) the fuel loading,
(b) the aeroplane loading in respect of both internal and external masses,
and
(c) the state of controls, both powered and unpowered, and of stabilising
systems.
3.2 The flutter investigation that has been made before the resonance test will have
indicated the loading conditions that are important, that is to say, the mass distributions that
are associated with critical flutter characteristics. The resonance test should normally be
made with the aeroplane in one or more of these conditions. However, it is impossible to lay
down hard and fast rules, and a decision on the aeroplane loading condition must be based
on a compromise between what would be technically and ideally desirable, what is practical
within the time scale available for the test, and what opportunities for further tests may be
available. For example, consideration of these factors in a particular case may lead to a
decision to make a complete test for one fuel distribution condition, then to re-measure the
wing modes with a different fuel distribution. Fuel tanks should be either full or empty,
unless there are very pressing reasons for part-filled tanks. This avoids additional
difficulties due to fuel sloshing.
3.3 When an aeroplane has manually-operated control surfaces, the control system
should be left free, except that if a control circuit has a bias spring, (or if for other reasons
the free control surface does not remain in the neutral position) the pilot's control should be
held neutrally with a light spring. The spring stiffness should be such that the natural
frequency of the control circuit against the spring is well below the non-zero natural
frequencies of the circuit or of the aeroplane. It may be found that some main structural
modes are difficult to excite in a pure form when the control surfaces are free; in these
circumstances the control surfaces may be locked to the adjacent main surfaces, but this
should not be done for any modes which are predominantly modes of the control surface or
circuit.
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3.4 For an aeroplane fitted with power-operated control surfaces, the power units
should be operative during the test. There may be circumstances in which it is necessary to
switch off the power units, but care should be exercised that this does not invalidate the
test results. If the power-operated controls have provision for manual reversion, the need to
test in the manual reversion mode should be considered. With some control systems, it
may be thought that non-linearities or other problems associated with a power unit may
complicate the test procedure to the extent of prejudicing the value of the tests. In this
case, the substitution of a power unit by a strut of similar stiffness is recommended. If this is
done, it will be necessary to calculate modes with the strut stiffness included in the stiffness
data. Power unit stiffness data can be obtained from impedance tests.
3.5 Various forms of stabilising systems may be fitted to an aeroplane, ranging from the
conventional auto-pilot to stability augmentation. Whether any such system should be
operative during the resonance test depends on whether its operation will have an effect on
the modal characteristics and whether the system has been included in the calculation of
structural modes. The response of an auto-pilot system at the frequencies of structural
modes is generally so low that its effect of modal behaviour can be ignored. At the other
end of the scale the stability augmentation system, which may be designed to reduce
response in certain structural modes, clearly cannot be ignored, although it will generally be
advisable to include its effect in calculation rather than attempt to measure the modes of an
'active' system. Valuable data for these calculations can be obtained by measuring the
outputs of the sensors in the augmentation system during the tests.
4 AEROPLANE SUPPORT
4.1 Ideally, an aeroplane should be supported for a resonance test so that the support
system has no effect on the structural modes of the aeroplane and so that the mass
distribution of the structure is the same as in flight. Thus the support system should have a
low natural frequency compared to the lowest structural mode frequency and the support
damping should be low. It is desirable that a retractable undercarriage should be retracted
during the tests, particularly if there is likely to be a significant effect on mass distribution of
undercarriage position. In practice it is sometimes difficult to provide a low frequency
support for a large aeroplane that satisfies the above requirements and the undercarriage
itself may be used by reducing the tyre pressures to about half their standard value. A
partially deflated tyre will often have an unexpectedly high stiffness in the fore and aft
direction leading to possible interference with wing torsion modes in which the
undercarriage movement follows pitch of the wing section to which it is attached. Whatever
method of aeroplane support is used in the test, the influence of the support system should
be assessed in all cases, and should be allowed for in the calculation of the aeroplane
modes.
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5 EXCITATION SYSTEM
5.1 To excite the undamped normal -modes of a structure, simultaneous force inputs at
a number of points on the structure will generally be required. The force inputs must be of
sinusoidal waveform and all inputs must have a phase relationship to each other of either
0° or 180° (i.e. 'mono-phase'.) Provision should be made to adjust any force input level
independently of the other force inputs, and the excitation system should be capable of
operating over a sufficiently wide frequency range to cover all the modes of interest. As a
rough guide, a frequency range from 0-100 Hz will be adequate for almost any aeroplane
still-air resonance test. An accurate check by summation of the generalised inertia matrix is
advisable; the contribution of large masses having small displacements may be as
significant as that of small masses with large displacement in any term of the matrix, so that
the accuracy of the check may well depend on the accuracy of measurements of relatively
small responses at the large mass regions of the aeroplane. The level of force required to
excite adequate response depends on the structural damping. Generally, this is small (less
than 0.04 of critical damping) and the maximum force that need be available to excite an
aeroplane on resonance is about 0.04 Newton per kilogram of all-up mass of the
aeroplane. The maximum output of any one exciter should be about 0.02 N/kg.
5.2 The presence of non-linearities may modify the excitation requirements. For
example, where solid friction occurs, it is desirable to apply sufficient force to ensure
breakout. This may not always be possible and a decision on how to proceed will have to
take into account the particular circumstances and their importance in the test programme.
Backlash in control surface and control system motions is a frequent source of non-linearity
and should be removed. This can often be done by biasing the control to one side of the
backlash region, though care should be taken not to modify essential linear dynamic
behaviour. It is advisable to look for symptoms of non-linear behaviour at an early stage of
the tests, so that those (such as solid friction or backlash) which may be eliminated can be
dealt with. Obvious symptoms of non-linearities are distortion of response waveforms when
the force input is sinusoidal and audible rattles, which are usually due to backlash, loose
internal components, etc. (It is usually advisable to monitor the waveform of exciting forces
since these may become non-linear if an exciter is damaged or misaligned). Some forms of
non-linearity will not be immediately obvious and may only be revealed at a later stage of
the tests. For example, a stiffness non-linearity may result in an apparent change of a
natural frequency with excitation level. The wide variety of stiffness and damping non-
linearities that may be present in an aeroplane structure has made it impossible to lay down
precise ways of dealing with every lay down precise ways of dealing with every symptom of
non-linear behaviour. However, where a structure exhibits significantly non-linear
characteristics it is better to rely on stiffness tests to determine the source than to resort to
resonance testing with large excitation forces. In such a case it may be desirable to attempt
to remove the non-linearity during the resonance tests in order to allow the test to proceed.
This would be possible if the non-linearity were, for example, in a localised unit such as a
control linkage but would not be feasible for a severe non-linearity of the main structure.
Fortunately, such occurrences are rare.
5.3 It is standard practice to use electromagnetic exciters for applying the forces in a
resonance test and more development of this type of exciter and of the associated control
and driving equipment has been undertaken than of any other type. Nevertheless there is
no objection, in principle, to the use of other types of exciters (such as hydraulically-driven
units) although in practice it is difficult to satisfy the control requirements (particularly the
mono-phase force input requirement) for some types of unit.
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6 RESPONSE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
6.1 The prune requirement of the response measurement system is that it should
enable the response of all parts of the structure to the excitation to be measured in terms of
the amplitude of the motion and of the phase relative to the force input. The responses
measured should include those of internal masses which may have dynamic significance.
There are three stages of response measurement:
(a) the survey stage in which the response vectors at a selected number of
points on the structure are plotted for the whole range of frequency using simple
force distributions that are nevertheless designed to excite all significant modes.
The response plots enable the resonance frequencies to be found approximately,
(b) the excitation stage for each resonance frequency, in which a number of
exciters are deployed so as to give responses satisfying a phase criterion at a
number of monitoring points on the structure,
(c) the mode measurement stage for each resonance frequency in which the
responses at a large number of points on the structure are measured under the
excitation conditions found in stage (b) above.
6.2 Generally, the points on the structure at which the responses are to be measured in
each mode (stage (c)) will have been decided in advance of the test, and it is general
practice to install a transducer at each point. For stage (a) tests, the response vectors at a
selection of these points are measured, and the selection should be made so that the
possibility of detecting every mode is maximised. It is good practice to select at least one
point on each major structural component, and the need to detect modes of control
surfaces and systems, as well as of internal components of large mass, should influence
the selection. For stage (b) tests it is essential to use at least as many transducers as there
are exciters, although it is not necessary for each transducer to be used with a separate
channel of response-measuring equipment; it is only necessary to provide an indication of
phase and a means of checking the force-response phase relationship with accuracy at the
phase-criterion values.
6.3 In all three stages, the transducers should be so light in weight that they have a
negligible effect on the behaviour of the structure; this is particularly important in
measurements on control surfaces and tabs, and it is often necessary to use miniature or
proximity transducers on these and similar parts of the structure.
7 TEST PROCEDURE
7.1 RESONANCE SEARCH
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7.1.1 It is convenient at the start of a test to concentrate a modal search on the

symmetric modes, exploring the range of frequency from the support frequencies
upwards, and then repeating the search for the antisymmetric modes. The
separation of symmetric and antisymmetric modes by using appropriate excitation
may not always be completely successful but it will generally simplify the
interpretation of vector responses and hence mode identification. The modal search
should be made by means of plots of the responses at a number of points on the
structure to a simple pattern of excitation. The response points should be anti-nodal
regions of the aeroplane, to reduce to a minimum the chance of not detecting any
mode. Thus a typical search might be made with two exciters acting symmetrically
at outboard sections of the wing and recording the vector responses of vertical
motion at a wing tip, tailplane tip, and fuselage nose (and/or tail). The two exciters
may then be used to apply an antisymmetric input, recording the responses of
vertical motion at the wings and tail, and the responses of lateral motion at the
fuselage and fin. The modal search should also include the responses of the control
surfaces, although specific excitation patterns may be required to excite control
surface modes.
7.1.2 Analysis of all the response plots will then yield a number of resonance
frequencies. The plots may be of amplitude and phase separately against
frequency, in which peak amplitudes and a rapid phase change are criteria for the
resonance frequencies, or they may be vector plots on which the real and imaginary
parts of the response at each frequency are plotted. Resonance frequencies on
these vector plots are characterised by circularity (or near-circularity) of the locus of
the tip of the response vector and by maximum values of the rate of change of
distance traversed along the curve by the vector tip with frequency. Detection of the
latter condition is simplified if the responses are measured at equal intervals of
frequency in the region of each resonance since the plotted points will then have
maximum spacing at resonance.
7.2 MODE EXCITATION AND MEASUREMENT
7.2.1 Each resonance frequency found in the vector response plots should be
investigated; it will (generally be possible at this stage to make some assessment of
the characteristics of the modes of the structure by considering:
(a) the information available; from the vector plots,
(b) the results of earlier mode calculations, and
(c) the modal characteristics of similar structures.
This assessment may enable the fundamental modes of the major components of
the aeroplane (wings, tailplane, fuselage and fin) to be identified with particular
resonance frequencies on the vector plots. As a general rule, it is advisable to
measure these easily-identifiable modes first since an accurate knowledge of their
frequencies and shapes may facilitate the proper excitation of the remaining modes
at a later stage in the test.
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7.2.2 The method of adjusting the excitation pattern so as to obtain the required
form of the response will depend on the type of excitation control equipment being
used. Remembering that the condition sought is mono-phase displacement
response of the structure in quadrature with mono-phase force input, the finding of
an excitation pattern that satisfies this condition will generally require a number of
trials of force distribution and exciter positioning. A team experienced in resonance
testing, and following a logical sequence of steps, will be able to reduce this
iterative process to a minimum but there will be, many modes for which the required
response condition cannot be found with the excitation that is available. In these
circumstances, a compromise solution must be accepted, in which phase errors
occur over certain areas of the structure. It will usually be uncertain whether failure
to satisfy the response conditions is the result of inadequate excitation equipment,
ineffective handling of the equipment, or some form of structural behaviour which is
outside the scope of the theory of pure mode excitation in a linear structure.
Whatever the reason may be, the best practical procedure in the light of present
knowledge is to arrange, as far as possible, for the phase errors to occur in regions
of the structure which are not primarily associated with the mode under
investigation. Thus, for example, where a predominantly tailplane mode is being
excited and the mono-phase response condition cannot be achieved, it is better to
record the mode shape under an excitation condition that results in mono-phase
tailplane response and phase errors in the wing motion, than under a condition in
which there ire phase errors associated with the relatively large tailplane motions.
Each case must be judged on its merits, however, and there are no hard and fast
rules which must be applied.
7.2.3 When the optimum excitation conditions have been achieved, the mode
should be measured in detail. The number of points at which motion should be
measured will depend on the use which is to be made of the test results. In any
case, the measurement coverage should be sufficient to leave no doubt as to the
modal behaviour of any dynamically or aerodynamically significant portion of the
structure.
7.2.4 Modal damping measurement should also be made at this stage. The
greatest accuracy in damping value is likely to be derived from analysing a vector
response plot (for a point of relatively large motion) which is obtained by varying the
excitation frequency through the modal bandwidth whilst maintaining constant the
force level and distribution which has been used to excite the mode.
7.3 MODE ANALYSIS
7.3.1 Generally, there are two stages in the analysis of resonance test results. The
first stage is to prepare a graphical display of mode shapes and response phases in
order to check the following points (which may not be obvious from an examination
of responses in tabular form):
(a) The phase scatter throughout the structure. (A plot of all the
response vectors for a mode on a single graph will help in judging whether
phases are acceptable).
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(b) Mode shape at the junctions of main structural components. (For

example, the slope of the wing displacement curve at the fuselage should be
consistent with the measured fuselage motion at the junction of wing and
fuselage).
(c) Control surface motion relative to the appropriate main surface.

(Diagrams of motion across chordwise sections of main and control surface
are essential).
7.3.2. A check should be made that the relative motions of main structural regions
are consistent between modes, and it is essential to make sure that a complete set
of modes showing consistent behaviour has been obtained. (As an example of inter-
mode consistency, the relative motions of an underbalanced control surface and its
parent main surface in a mode at a particular frequency should be the opposite of
that in a mode at higher frequency when the natural frequency of the control surface
on its circuit lies between the two).
7.3.3 The second stage of analysis consists of computing by summation the

inertia matrix for the measured modes. If pure undamped natural modes are excited
and measured in the resonance test, all the modes will be orthogonal and hence the
cross-inertia terms will be zero. The inertia matrix for the measured modes serves
two purposes; it indicates the degree of orthogonality of the modes and it provides a
check on the calculated values of the direct inertia terms. Whilst it is desirable that
the inertia matrix should be built up as the test proceeds, it is sometimes difficult to
arrange for computational facilities to be available during the test. It may be
advantageous to measure, in the test, the direct generalised inertia terms. This will
ensure that a comparison of measured and calculated values can be made whilst
the test is in progress, even if orthogonality checks have to be delayed. Experience
has shown, however, that there can be a wide scatter in the measurement of
generalised inertia, particularly if there is modal impurity.
8 IMPULSE TESTS
8.1 Useful information may be obtained by applying impulses to control surfaces or

wing-mounted stores. It will be possible to detect some of the natural frequencies of the
system from the responses, and, by varying the type of impulse and making use of
calculated normal modes, modes may be identified. The simplicity of this type of testing is
its main advantage. There is a possibility that the results will be difficult to interpret, but the
technique is so simple compared with those requiring more controlled excitation that
impulse testing should be considered a worthwhile item in the list of possible testing
techniques.
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9 COMPONENT RESONANCE TESTS
9.1 MAIN STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
9.1.1 Resonance tests on main structural components provide a good check on

mass and stiffness estimates as the results are much easier to interpret than results
from tests on complete aeroplanes and the comparison with calculated normal
modes is more straightforward. Normally the strength test specimen is not suitable
due to unrepresentative mass distribution. If no suitable rig can be made available,
a component could be tested while flexibly suspended. Test results would then have
to be compared with calculations in an equivalent condition.
9.2 WING PYLONS
9.2.1 Resonance tests on wing pylons in a rig will normally be required. These
tests should be with a representative store attached to the pylon and store-release
unit. Results will usually be compared with modes calculated using a mathematical
model of the pylon. Sufficient modes with each store should be measured, and
sufficient stores should be tested, to result in any modifications to the mathematical
model being an improvement over the full range of mass distributions of the stores
to be carried.
9.2.2 These tests should be performed with different levels of excitation to observe
the effect of stiffness non-linearities with amplitude, and results should be compared
with those derived using stiffnesses found from stiffness tests, in which it is usually
possible to apply larger loads.
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LEAFLET 31
AERO-ELASTICITY
FLIGHT FLUTTER TESTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The purpose of the flight flutter test is to demonstrate that the aeroplane is free from
flutter up to V D . Flight flutter tests should check the dynamic behaviour of the aeroplane in
flight conditions in which the flutter stability margins are smallest and are particularly
important if the flutter calculations are based on uncertain data. It should not be assumed
that the test results will always confirm the expected behaviour and the test programme
should be designed to ensure that any unexpected characteristics will be revealed in time
to avoid jeopardising the safety of the aeroplane.
1.2 The information required from a flight flutter test consists of the decay rate and
frequency of all structural modes relevant to the aeroelastic behaviour of the aeroplane for
a range of flight speeds up to the design diving speed. The information is obtained by
applying a force input to the structure, and extracting modal frequency and decay rate by
analysis of the structural response. The dominant variable in a flight flutter test is almost
always the kinetic pressure and it is against this that modal decay rates and frequencies
are usually plotted. Flights at successive increments in kinetic pressure are allowed after
analysis of measurements and comparison with calculated results have shown that the
possibility of flutter within the next increment may be virtually excluded.
2 FLIGHT PROGRAMME
2.1 The flight programme should be designed to explore not only to the limits of the
design diving speed but also any other regions within the flight envelope where critical
conditions may be met. The atmosphere is not uniform with height so that there may be
preferred altitudes at which most tests should be done.
2.2 Broad generalisations of the effect of the atmosphere on calculated flutter behaviour
are that critical kinetic pressures are reduced as altitude increases if the Mach number is
constant and are minimum at transonic Mach numbers if the altitude is constant.
2.3 Some typical applications of these generalisations are:
(a) for a subsonic aeroplane for which design diving speed is defined as
constant equivalent airspeed up to a certain altitude and constant Mach number at
higher altitudes, the altitude at which maximum equivalent airspeed and maximum
Mach number coincide will usually be the most critical,
(b) for a transonic aeroplane, Mach number effects will usually dominate and
the aim should be to test at constant Mach number, with the programme arranged
so that flight at what is expected to be the critical Mach number is preceded by tests
at higher kinetic pressures at less critical Mach numbers.
Flutter characteristics should, however, be calculated for each specific configuration to be

tested.
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2.4 For supersonic aeroplanes, the uncertainties associated with the transonic region
will require a programme similar to (b) above, and flutter calculations may indicate a need
for additional testing at supersonic Mach numbers.
2.5 For all types of aeroplane, it is prudent to fly to the V D boundaries over the whole
range of altitude during flight flutter testing. At altitudes where flutter margins are expected
to be higher than the minimum required, the initial flutter clearance speeds may be higher
and the speed increments larger than at the critical altitudes.
2.6 When the general policy for covering the flight envelope has been settled, the speed
increments must be specified. Clearly the kinetic pressure or Mach number increments
must be small enough to enable a safe check to be made on changing aeroplane
behaviour, particularly in conditions where the behaviour may be changing rapidly. On the
other hand, it is wasteful to make small incremental changes in conditions that are remote
from critical conditions. Frequent reviews of the size of the increments are necessary as
data are accumulated from the flight test, and a flexible approach to the test programme is
needed.
2.7 The considerations that apply to a choice of speed increments apply also to the
choice of modes that are to be investigated in the flight test. That is to say, there should not
be undue emphasis on the investigation of modes that have been shown by previous work
to be unimportant. On the other hand, if an unsuspected and unpredicted flutter condition
occurs during the test, it may be associated with one or more of these modes. It is
advisable, therefore, not to reduce the number of modes under investigation but to reduce
the number of speeds at which modes thought to be of lesser importance are investigated.
2.8 A departure from the general rule that kinetic pressure is the dominant variable may
be made when dealing with the complexities of wing flutter with wing-mounted stores.
Calculations may show that there is more uncertainty about the value of a store parameter
(e.g. mass or radius of gyration) which is most critical than about the flutter speed for any
specific set of parameters. In this case, it would be safer to test up to an initial clearance
speed with very safe store parameters and approach the most critical store parameters by
changes in the parameters between flights, then repeating with higher speeds until the full
speed range has been covered. A dummy flutter test store of which the mass properties
may easily be changed will be very useful in this type of test.
2.9 The importance of detail planning in a flight flutter test programme cannot be over-
emphasized. Two requirements are of prime importance,
(a) the need to ensure the safety of the aeroplane, and
(b) the need to economise in cost and time.
These are to some extent conflicting requirements, and it is invariably difficult to strike a
balance between them.
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2.10 The results from each flight condition should be analysed and assessed before the
aeroplane flies at a higher speed or with a more critical wing store. In order to economise in
flight time, a strategy for flutter testing should be developed. The strategy could take the
form of the definition of combinations of conditions to give regions of equal safety,
according to flutter estimates and experience. Typical conditions would be airspeed, Mach
number, altitude, fuel load, wing store combination. Typical combinations of equal safety
could be different airspeeds at different altitudes in one loading condition, with subsequent
equal percentage airspeed increments at the altitudes for the next flight, or, for a particular
wing store parameter, a range of speeds and altitudes required for clearance, with a
subsequent store parameter change in the direction of the most critical value of that
parameter to be tested over the same speed range. An alternative is to flutter test during
only part of a flight and do other testing during the rest of the flight.
3 EXCITATION
3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 A flight flutter test is usually made with either transient or continuous
excitation of the aeroplane, though sometimes with both.
3.1.2 The simplest transient input is the 'control jerk' in which the pilot applies a
disturbing force to the aeroplane by jerking the appropriate control and releasing it.
A more controlled transient input is obtained from small explosive charges suitably
positioned in the aeroplane.
3.1.3 Several forms of continuous input excitation have been used in flight flutter
tests. These include inertia exciters in which two rotating out-of-balance weights are
arranged so as to give a unidirectional oscillatory force, hydraulically-driven inertia
exciters in which a heavy slug is oscillated in a cylinder, and electrodynamic exciters
in which the 'fixed' body of the exciter is suspended by a low rate spring from the
aeroplane structure, whilst the exciter coil is rigidly attached to the structure. Other
forms of excitation have relied on aerodynamic forces to generate an input; small
vanes, projecting into the airflow, and oscillated in pitch may be used to provide
large input forces over a wide frequency range. Alternatively, where control surfaces
are power operated, it may be possible to feed an oscillatory electrical signal into
the jack so that excitation forces are produced by control surface rotation.
3.1.4 The equipment for continuous excitation is generally bulkier than that for
transient excitation but where space in the aeroplane permits, it is preferable to use
continuous excitation since this can lead to more accurate analysis and since
continuous excitation has the unique advantage that the excitation frequency can
easily be changed.
3.1.5 A form of continuous excitation which does not need the installation of
excitation equipment is natural turbulence. This advantage is offset by some
disadvantages which will be detailed in later sections.
3.1.6 The excitation system must be capable of exciting symmetric and

antisymmetric modes.
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3.2 LEVELS OF EXCITATION REQUIRED
3.2.1 The analysis associated with each type of excitation require different levels
of excitation for equivalent accuracy of analysis.
3.2.2 For transient excitation, an initial response of about five times the level of
background vibration due to turbulence or other inevitable excitation is required.
3.2.3 With continuous excitation from inertia exciters, vanes or powered control
surfaces, it is usual to excite through a range of frequencies at a rate such that
longer records than with transient excitation are obtained. This eases the analysis
and a general level of response of about twice the background vibration is usually
adequate.
3.2.4 With continuous excitation from turbulence, the background vibration is the
response analysed.
3.3 EFFECTIVENESS OF EXCITATION
3.3.1 Control surface jerks are an effective method of exciting some of the lower
order modes of main surfaces but they cannot be relied upon to excite all lower
order modes and are generally ineffective with higher order modes. Generally, jerks
do not take up much flight tune and so they are well worth including in the
programme as a back-up to the more controlled excitations, and they will generally
result in larger levels of response for the modes that they do excite.
3.3.2 Explosive charges can be obtained which give a uniform or shaped thrust for
a specified period. By choosing appropriate positions, burning times and ignition
patterns, it is possible to produce force inputs to excite particular modes. A
complete flight flutter test with this type of force input will usually require charge
installations on wings, tailplanes and fin; facilities for firing charges to give either
symmetric or anti-symmetric excitation will be required and charges or combinations
of charges covering a range of thrust and burning times will generally be necessary.
3.3.3 In general, inertia exciters cannot be made to deliver large forces at low
frequencies without an extremely massive installation which will usually be
unacceptable. Control surface oscillation through the powered control system is
most effective at low frequency but generally becomes less so as frequency rises,
as the result of the characteristics of the powered control. To some extent,
therefore, the two methods of excitation are complementary and they may be used
together to ensure adequate coverage of the force input and frequency range in a
test.
3.3.4 An oscillating vane system can provide large excitation forces particularly if
vanes are installed at the tips of wings and/or tailplane. A feature of both vane and
control surface excitation is that the excitation forces applied to the structure are not
in phase with the motion of the oscillating surface, so that provision should be made
for measuring a suitable input for use as a phase reference in response analysis.
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3.3.5 There is no control over turbulence excitation and turbulence conditions for
exciting adequately all the modes required at all the flight conditions may not be
found.
3.4 FLIGHT TIMES REQUIRED
3.4.1 If the flight time possible at some speed and altitude condition is very limited,
transient excitation is the only choice. If explosive charges are used, the number of
charges that can be fitted is limited and the requirements for a variety of firing
patterns at each speed may result in the need for more than one flight for each test
speed.
3.4.2. With continuous excitation, a minimum flight time at the speed and altitude
condition is necessary for the frequency sweep to be completed. If flight duration
allows, the frequency sweep scan be repeated in order to give a higher chance of
obtaining a response with little background vibration.
3.4.3 With turbulence excitation the length of record required at each condition is
longer than with the other methods of excitation.
4 RESPONSE
4.1 The instrumentation necessary for response measurement will be the same
whatever the method of excitation used. In practice it is not feasible to make measurements
at as many points as in a still-air resonance test. Neither is the response pattern as simple
because the form of excitation applied in a flight flutter test is less controlled than that in a
resonance test and because in flight flutter tests the modes are not essentially unifies as
they are in still-air resonance tests, due to the aerodynamics forces. However, it is
generally adequate if the main features of the response at each significant frequency can
be defined.
4.2 The response instrumentation should consist of transducers which are positioned so
as to respond to motions of wing, tailplane, fuselage, fin and stores as well as to rotation of
all control surfaces. The total number of transducers may exceed the number that can be
simultaneously handled by the recording equipment and a judicious selection has then to
be made for each flight condition. The ability to switch from one batch to another in flight
eases the flight planning.
4.3 The types of transducer that are used will depend on the method of test and on the
environmental conditions. The factors that need to be considered include sensitivity,
frequency response and phase characteristics as well as the operational temperature,
pressure and humidity conditions.
5 ANALYSIS
5.1 When transient excitation has been applied, the response is analysed for the modal
decay rates and frequencies contained in the free oscillations after the excitation has
ceased. With continuous or turbulence excitation, the response of the forced system is
analysed to give the damping and frequencies of equivalent single degree-of-freedom
systems.
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5.2 The fundamental task is to identify the modes which are excited so that their
evolution with airspeed can be traced and judgements about flutter stability can be made.
This is achieved by relating the dominant surface responses at each natural frequency and
the aeroplane zero airspeed normal modes of vibration. As the number of airspeed and
Mach Number points increases, further aids to identification appear in the modal frequency
variations with speed, which are sometimes quite characteristic when judged against the
background of flutter calculations. In this identification process recourse can be made to
power spectra of response parameters particularly where modal frequencies are tending to
coalesce.
5.3 The primary bases for judging flutter speed margins is the variation of modal decay
rate with airspeed and extrapolation of measured decay rates to higher speeds is the most
reliable quantitative basis for justifying and defining further speed increments during flight
envelope expansion.
5.4 Secondary criteria are the raw tune histories of individual transducer responses,
particularly to specific transient excitation, augmented by the general level and pilots'
opinion of responses to turbulence, engine noise, flight manoeuvre etc. In Toto, these allow
a judgement of flutter safety to be made with confidence, but reliable measurements of
modal decay rates allow the largest airspeed increments to progress the clearance.
5.5 It is clear that accurate measurements of modal decay rates lead to the most
confident and efficient flight flutter clearance but a compromise must be faced at the outset.
Accuracy in decay rate measurement can only be increased if excitation force level is
increased and this is limited by flutter excitation system mass, which modifies flutter
characteristics, space limitations on the power supplies needed, and fatigue implications. In
practice therefore measurements of decay rate will inevitably lie within a band of
uncertainty. In general, this band of uncertainty is least when the decay rate is small, that
is, when flutter is imminent.
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LEAFLET 32
FLUTTER AND VIBRATION
FLIGHT VIBRATION SURVEY
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The flight vibration survey is undertaken for the purpose of establishing the vibration
severities at various aeroplane locations during a specific series of flight conditions. These
measurements will form the basis for assessing the suitability of equipment to perform and
survive in this environment. For equipment, particularly sensitive to vibration, the results may
be used to improve the design.
1.2 This leaflet details guidance on the conduct and requirements of the vibration
survey. This guidance is given under the following headings:
(a) Measurement Requirements - This section makes recommendations on the type,

quantity and location of the measurements to be made.
(b) Flight Conditions - This section gives advice on the selection of appropriate flight
conditions during which vibration data should be acquired.
1.3 The flight vibration survey is usually undertaken after the flight flutter testing. The
survey may form part of the work to identify flight conditions producing significant vibration
severities. It may also be used as the basis for identifying potential problematic aeroplane
locations. However, detailed investigations of such conditions and locations will, largely, be
additional to the flight vibration survey discussed in this leaflet. The flight vibration survey is
intended to establish the general vibration severities of the aeroplane rather than those at
specific items of equipment. The requirements to measure vibration severities at specific
equipment will be additional to those described here. As far as practical the build standard of
the aeroplane should be similar to that of the production aeroplane. Guidance on the
processing and assessment of measured flight data is given in Part 1, Section 2 Leaflet 63.
2 MEASUREMENT REQUIREMENTS
2.1 For the purpose of this survey an adequate instrumentation coverage, of this
aeroplane, will be required to allow overall aeroplane vibration severities to be established.
This will require typically 50 separate measurements, although for high performance
aeroplanes this number may be significantly exceeded. The measurements will usually be
made using acceleration transducers; however, in some circumstances other devices may be
more appropriate.
2.2 The choice of location for the vibration measurement transducers will be dependent
upon the structure of the particular aeroplane under investigation. Consequently specific
recommendations for measurement locations would be inappropriate. However, the following
paragraphs provide detailed advice on the selection of suitable locations, whilst Fig 1 and
Table 1 illustrate an example arrangement.
2.2.1 The transducers should be spaced 'evenly' over key structural locations and areas
to be occupied by equipment.
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2.2.2 The transducers should be attached firmly to relatively rigid parts of the structure
(frames, bulkheads etc.). Ideally, the locations should be those to which equipment may
be attached or those which will produce measurements representative of main structural
response.
2.2.3 The aim should be to establish the general level of severity of the aeroplane, without
special attempts to measure the response of particular equipment, which are likely to
change fairly frequently. Thus, in the case of a particular equipment bay, the vibration
environment of the structure or shelf should be established rather than that of individual
equipment.
2.2.4 In general, response measurements will, where appropriate, be made in the vertical,
lateral and longitudinal aeroplane axes. However, in some circumstances these axes may
be inappropriate and alternative axes may be selected; for example the use of wing axes
for measurements on the mainplanes. Also, the use of triaxial measurements may not be
necessary, or appropriate, at every location.
2.2.5 To permit the assessment of any degradation of crew performance and comfort,
measurements will be, required, at crew and passenger locations. The requirements are
specified in Clause 4.15 and detailed in Leaflet 69. That leaflet also details appropriate
methods for the evaluation of human performance and comfort in the aeroplane vibration
environment.
2.2.6 Acoustic measurements, to permit the evaluation of noise levels experienced by the
crew, are specified in Clause 4.15.76 It may be appropriate to undertake these acoustic
measurements during the flight vibration survey. The acoustic measurement requirements
are detailed in Leaflet 66. That leaflet also details appropriate methods for the evaluation
of the measured acoustic levels.
2.2.7 In some circumstances the measurement of the general acoustic noise within
equipment bays may prove to be valuable, particularly when equipment is sensitive to
high frequency excitation.
2.3 The aeroplane will normally have been utilised for flight flutter testing immediately
before the flight vibration survey. The instrumentation for flutter testing may therefore still be
in place. Consideration may be given to utilising this instrumentation particularly for quantitive
measurements of airframe vibration. In general the majority of instrumentation fitted for flutter
purposes is unlikely to be suitable for the purposes of the flight vibrations survey. However, it
may be possible to reposition transducers, to more appropriate locations, using the existing
cable runs. If repositioning is not practical the instrumentation may still produce useful
additional information particularly to identify aeroplane flight conditions producing significant
vibration severities.
3 FLIGHT CONDITIONS
3.1 The flight vibration survey is undertaken to establish the vibration severities at
various locations during a series of mission profiles as defined in the Aeroplane
Specification. It is often the case that the aeroplane is capable of manoeuvres not required
by the original specification. Experience has shown that such manoeuvres, can sooner or
later, become part of the normal operation. Consideration must be given to including these
manoeuvres in the vibration flight survey. This information is required to ensure adequate
data exists for future potential uses of the aeroplane. In addition the survey should
encompass a number of standard flight conditions to facilitate comparison between
aeroplanes.
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3.2 The flight conditions included in the sorties flown should be selected in conjunction
with the specific capabilities and characteristics of the aeroplane under test. The flights must
be formulated in close co-operation with the test pilot and information from the service
operational branch. Attention should be given to the possibility of combining vibration
recording with other flight test activities to achieve overall economies.
3.3 Prior to the flight vibration survey it is usually prudent to plan for a short flight to
permit appropriate transducer gains and recording levels for the instrumentation to be
established prior to the vibration survey flights. In addition the plan should allow for
measurements to be made, with the aeroplane on the ground and the engine/systems both
running and inoperative. These measurements can be used to establish 'base line' severities
and background noise levels to assist in the setting up of measurement equipment.
3.4 Measurements should ideally be made continuously for the whole of each flight. It
will generally be possible to condense several standard mission profiles into a single sortie,
for example by eliminating long periods of cruise. However, such reductions may be limited
by data analysis constraints. To allow repeatability of the measured data to be assessed it is
good practice to include, in each sortie, at lease one flight condition common to all missions
in the flight survey. This is usually a straight and level condition maintained for at lease 60
seconds.
3.5 If not included within the mission profiles, measurements should be made at a
limited number of standard flight conditions to allow a degree of comparison between
aeroplane types. These would normally include straight and level at flight speeds of 155 and
215 m/s (300 and 420 knots), a pressure altitude of 3km (10,000ft) and maintained for at
least 60 seconds.
3.6 In planning the survey, consideration needs to be given to flight operations likely to
produce significant vibration levels. Such operations may include high angles of attack,
airbrake deployment, gun firing, flap deployment, intentional spinning as well as conditions
producing structural and jet efflux interaction. High vibrations can also be expected by any
form of manoeuvre causing 'large scale' turbulence such as buffet from the main wing, tail
and stores. Further details on these and other sources of vibration are given in Section 2
Leaflet 62. The analysis and assessment of vibration information from such conditions
involves the consideration of transient and non-stationary data, this is referred to in Section 2
Leaflet 63.
3.7 In addition to the noise and vibration conditions due to flight conditions certain
ground running procedures, system checks etc., can also generate a severe environment. It
is advisable, therefore, that measurements should be taken during normal ground running
procedures with the engine and systems fully operative. This data should be incorporated
with the flight data in estimating vibration severities.
3.8 To facilitate the identification of parameters and trends affecting the vibration
environment, a number of specific flight conditions may need to be included in the missions.
A typical example would be the inclusion of measurements at a number of different flight
dynamic pressures, all straight and level, to investigate the effect of aerodynamic turbulence.
A number of parameters which may need to be investigated are addressed in Section 2
Leaflet 63.
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3.9 In order to permit appropriate assessment of the measured vibration and acoustic data,
details of the flight conditions actually flown, will be required. This information will normally
include flight speed, altitude, aeroplane configuration, angle of attack and engine power
settings.
ITEM GROUP SENSE LOCATION COMMENTS

1 Fuselage Vertical Frame C All instrumentation
2 Structural Lateral Frame C
3 Group Vertical Frame 5 Bottom a. Fitted to Main
4 Lateral Frame 5 Bottom Structural Frames
5 Axial Frame 5 Bottom and Members
6 Vertical Frame 10 Bottom
7 Lateral Frame 10 Bottom b. Spaced Approx
8 Axial Frame 10 Bottom Every 5 frames
9 Vertical Frame 15 Top
10 Lateral Frame 15 Top c. Mainly in Lateral
11 Vertical Frame 15 Bottom and Vertical Axes
12 Lateral Frame 15 Bottom
13 Vertical Frame 23 Bottom
14 Lateral Frame 23 Bottom
15 Axial Frame 23 Bottom
16 Vertical Frame 25 Top
17 Lateral Frame 25 Top
18 Vertical Frame 28
19 Lateral Frame 28
20 Axial Extreme Aft Fuselage
TABLE 1 - Typical Instrumentation Locations
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ITEM GROUP SENSE LOCATION COMMENTS

21 Fin Lateral Fin Upper Aft
22 Group Lateral Rudder
23 Vertical Rudder
24 Tailplane Vertical Port Tailplane Outboard Vertical Measurements
25 Group Axial Port Tailplane Outboard Normal to Plane
26 Vertical Port Tailplane Inboard of Tail
27 Wing Vertical Port Wing Outboard Measurement axis
28 Group Vertical Port Wing Inboard Normal to Plane
29 Vertical Port Flap of Wing
30 Vertical Port Aileron
31 Engine Vertical Engine Forward Mounting General Indication of
32 Mounting Lateral Engine Forward Mounting Engine Vibration
33 Group Axial Engine Forward Mounting Levels
34 Lateral Engine Aft Mounting
35 Cockpit Vertical Front Seat Surface Required For
36 Group Lateral Front Seat Surface Evaluation of
37 Axial Front Seat Surface Human Performance
38 Axial Front Seat Back and Comfort
39 Vertical Front Instrument Panel
40 Lateral Front Instrument Panel
41 Axial Front Instrument Panel
42 Vertical Rear Instrument Panel
43 Lateral Rear Instrument Panel
44 Axial Rear Instrument Panel
45 Equipments Vertical Equipment Shelf Three Transducers
46 Bay Lateral Equipment Shelf On Each Main
47 Group Axial Equipment Shelf Equipment Shelf
48 Vertical Equipment Shelf
49 Lateral Equipment Shelf
50 Axial Equipment Shelf
51 Vertical Equipment Shelf
52 Lateral Equipment Shelf
53 Axial Equipment Shelf
TABLE 1 - Typical Instrumentation Location (Continued)
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LEAFLET 33
FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet contains information related to Clause 4.10, which deals with general
characteristics of the flight control system. The flight control system and inceptor forces are
defined in Part 1, Section 2, Leaflet 6.
1.2 Reference should also be made to the requirements of Clause 4.8, Part 1, Section
1, Clause 1.1, Part 1, Section 3, Clauses 3.9 and 3.10 and Part 1, Section 6, Clause 6.5
2 ADVISORY INFORMATION
2.1 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
2.1.1 Some of the important mechanical characteristics of control systems

(including servo valves and actuators) are: friction and preload, lost motion,
flexibility, mass imbalance and inertia, non-linear gearing, and rate limiting.
Requirements for some of these characteristics are contained in Clause 4.10.
2.2 AUTOMATIC DEVICES
2.2.1 The requirements for fully automatic controllers (i.e. systems in which
complete flight path control is performed automatically, e.g. auto-approach, autopilot
holds, etc.,) are to be found in Part 1, Section 6, Clause 6.5
2.3 AUGMENTATION DEVICES
2.3.1 Part 1, Section 2, Clause 2.1, permits the use of automatic devices in some
circumstances to achieve the specified flying qualities. Augmentation devices may
be used in this manner and, in general, consist of any device which directly affects
the flying qualities whilst the pilot is flying the aeroplane by means of the flying
controls. Such devices can respond either to pilot commands or to external
disturbances, e.g. gusts. Examples are:
(a) Powered flying control (PFC)
(b) Direct electrical links (DEL)
(c) Electrical signalling (ES)
(d) Autostabilizers (AS)
(e) Stability augmentation systems (SAS)
(f) Command and stability augmentation systems (CSAS)
(g) Fly-by-wire (FBW)
(h) Stall and spin prevention systems (SPS)
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(i) Artificial feel systems.
(j) Flying control schedulers and shapers.
(k) Auto-throttle when used whilst the pilot control the flight path by
means of the flying controls.
2.3.2 Some systems exist in which the pilot can intervene via the flying controls
whilst the aeroplane is under 'fully automatic control', e.g. control wheel steering
(CWS). Such a system will need special consideration in terms of the flying qualities
to be provided during the intervention which essentially modifies the flight path from
one automatically controlled state to another.
REFERENCES
No. Author Title, etc.
1 Chalk, C.R. "Background Information and User Guide for MIL-F-8785B(ASG)

and others (Inactive)
"Military Specification - Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes".
Technical Report AFFDL-TR-69-72, August 1969 (Para's 3.5.1 and
3.5.2)
Page 2 of 2
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LEAFLET 34
FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM
1 INTRODUCTION (Ref 1)
1.1 This leaflet contains information related to Clause 4.10
2 ACCEPTABLE MEANS OF COMPLIANCE
2.1 CONTROL HARMONY AND INCEPTOR FORCE CO-ORDINATION
2.1.1 An acceptable means of complying with Clause 4.10 is for the forces
required to perform manoeuvres, simultaneously not to exceed the values in Table
1.
Type of Control Pitch Roll Yaw

Column
Centre stick 220 110 660
[50] [25] [150]
Wheel 330 180 660

[75] [40] [150]
TABLE 1
MAXIMUM SIMULTANEOUS INCEPTOR FORCES (N)
(Values in square brackets in lbf)
2.2 BREAKOUT FORCES
2.2.1 An acceptable means of complying with Clause 4.10 is for the breakout force
to be within the limits given in Table 2. Measurement of breakout forces on the
ground will ordinarily suffice in lieu of actual flight measurement, provided that
qualitative agreement between ground measurement and flight observation can be
established.
Classes I, IV Classes II, III

Flying Control Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
Centre Stick 2 [0.45] 13 [2.9] 2 [0.45] 22.5 [5]
Pitch
Wheel 2 [0.45] 18 [4] 2 [0.45] 31 [7]
Centre Stick 2 [0.45] 9 [2] 2 [0.45] 18 [4]
Roll
Wheel 2 [0.45] 13 [2.9] 2 [0.45] 27 [6]
Yaw 4 [0.9] 31 [7] 4 [0.9] 62 [14]
TABLE 2
ALLOWABLE BREAKOUT FORCES (N)
2.3 TRANSFER TO ALTERNATIVE CONTROL MODES
2.3.1 An acceptable means of complying with Clause 4.10 is for the aeroplane
motions, with the inceptors free, not to exceed the limits given in Table 3, for at least
2 s after transfer of control mode.
Page 1 of 3
SECTION 4
Regime Limit
Within the Operational 0.1 g normal or lateral acceleration at the
Flight Envelope pilot’s station and 3 degrees per second
rate of roll.
Within the Service Flight 0.5 g normal acceleration at the pilot’s
Envelope station, 5 degrees per second roll rate, and
the lesser of 5 degrees sideslip or the
structural limit.
TABLE 3
LIMITS FOR TRANSFER OF CONTROL
Type of Control Pitch Roll Yaw

Column
Centre stick 90 [20] 45 [10] 220 [50]
Wheel 220 [50] 135 .[30] 440 [100]
TABLE 4
MAXIMUM VALUES OF CHANGE IN FLYING INCEPTOR FORCES (N)
2.3.2 With the agreement of the Project Team Leader, exceptions may be made in
the case of disengagement of automatic terrain-following systems.
2.3.3 An acceptable means of complying with Clause 4.10 is for the change in
inceptor forces required to maintain attitude and sideslip not to exceed the limits in
Table 4 for at least 5 s after transfer of control mode.
3.1 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
3.1.1 So many arrangements of flying control systems are possible, considering

direct mechanical, power-boosted, and fully powered controls, artificial feel, artificial
stabilization, autopilot tie-in, etc., that a limited set of requirements such as those
specified in Clause 4.10, can hardly be expected to rule out all undesirable
characteristics. In general the important factor is the relation between the deflection
or force at the flying control and the response of the aeroplane; hysteresis or phase
lag being undesirable. With simple systems, in which the inceptor is linked more or
less directly to the corresponding motivator, experience has shown that some of the
important variables, are friction in the control valve; friction, flexibility, back-lash,
gear ratio, and inertia in the control system; viscous damping and preload in the
control system or valve; rate limiting of the control actuator; and the level of
aeroplane static and dynamic stability. The introduction of non-linear linkages or
valve characteristics further multiplies the important variables. The phase lag
between the inceptor deflection or force and motivator deflection should be kept to a
minimum for reasonably large amplitude motions at frequencies considerably above
the aeroplane natural frequencies and should not increase unduly at very small
control amplitudes.
Page 2 of 3
SECTION 4
3.2 RATE OF MOTIVATOR DISPLACEMENT
3.2.1 For powered or boosted controls, the effect of engine speed and the duty
cycle of both primary and secondary controls together with the pilot control
techniques should be considered.
3.3 PILOT INDUCED OSCILLATIONS
3.3.1 Advice on transfer of control and subsequent pilot-induced oscillations is

given in Leaflet 36, Para. 3.2
REFERENCE
1 Chalk, C.R. Background Information and User Guide for MIL-F-8785B (Inactive)
and others (ASG) "Military Specification - Flying Qualities of piloted
Airplanes".
Technical Report AFFDL-TR-69-72, August 1969 (Para 3.5)
Page 3 of 3
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 35
SECONDARY FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
1.1 This leaflet contains information related to Clause 4.10 Secondary flight control
systems include the trim system, and all control devices (except those in the primary flight
control system) which alter the loading or external geometry of the aeroplane.
2.1 TRIM OPERATION AND TRIM FOR ASYMMETRIC THRUST
2.1.1 An acceptable means of complying with Clause 4.10 is, for Level 1 and
Level 2, in straight flight, for the trimming devices to be capable of reducing the
steady state inceptor forces to zero. For Level 3, in straight flight, the untrimmed
inceptor forces should not exceed the values in Table 1.
Type of control Pitch Roll Yaw

column
Centre stick and 90 [20] 45 [10] 180 [40]
wheel
TABLE 1
MAXIMUM VALUES OF UNTRIMMED INCEPTOR FORCES, LEVEL 3, STRAIGHT FLIGHT (N)
2.1.2 An acceptable means of complying with Clause 4.10, for Level 1, is for the
trimming devices to be capable of reducing the inceptor forces to zero. For Level 2,
the yaw inceptor force should not exceed 45 N (10 lbf) and the trimming system
should be capable of reducing the pitch and roll inceptor forces to zero. For Level 3,
the forces should not exceed the values of Table 1 above.
2.2 RATE OF TRIM OPERATION
2.2.1 An acceptable means of complying with Clause 4.10, as far as the pitch
inceptor forces are concerned, is for the trim devices to operate sufficiently rapidly
to maintain pitch inceptor forces below 45 N (10 lbf) for a control column (centre
stick type), or 90 N (20 lbf) for a control (wheel type), throughout:
(a) dives and ground attack manoeuvres required normal service

operation.
(b) level-flight accelerations at maximum augmented thrust from 250 kn

or VRC, whichever is less, to Vmax at any altitude when the aeroplane is
trimmed for level flight prior to initiation of the manoeuvre.
(c) the overshoot (OS) flight phase and until reaching steady climb
conditions in climb configuration.
Where, in the case of a wheel type of control column, operation of the trim system
requires removal of one hand from the inceptor, Level I force limits shall be as for a
centre stick.
Page 1 of 2
SECTION 4
2.3 TRANSIENTS AND TRIM CHANGES
2.3.1 An acceptable means of complying with Clause 4.10, as far as the pitch
inceptor forces are concerned, is for the pitch inceptor forces required to be less
than the values given in Table 2 when configuration changes are made under
conditions representative of operational practice.
2.3.2 By agreement with the Project Team Leader, the forces referred to in Para
2.3.1 above may be increased in high speed, clear-of-the-ground configuration
changes.
Maximum pitch inceptor force

Level Centre stick Wheel type
type
1 45 [10] 90 [20]
2&3 70 [16] 135 [30]
TABLE 2
MAXIMUM PITCH INCEPTOR FORCES FOR TRIM CHANGE (N)
3.1 A variable-speed or a two-speed trimmer should, if possible, be avoided because

the pilot may, in a moment of stress, inadvertently misuse it.
3.2 Trim control systems should be designed to ensure that trimmer runaway cannot
occur when the trim inceptor is not being operated, and if it occurs while the pilot is
trimming, that it stops if he releases the trim inceptor, or trims in the opposite direction.
REFERENCE
1 Chalk, C.R. Background Information and User Guide for

and others MIL-F-8785B(ASG)(Inactive) "Military Specification - Flying
Qualities of Piloted Airplanes".
Page 2 of 2
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 36
FAILURES IN FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
1.1 This leaflet contains information related principally to Clause 4.10, but also to Part
1, Section 3, Clause 3.9 and Clause 3.10 and to Part 1, Section 6, Clause 6.5
2.1 FAILURE INDUCED TRANSIENT MOTIONS
2.1.1 An acceptable means of complying with Clause 4.10, as far as trim changes
are concerned is for the change in inceptor forces required to maintain attitude and
sideslip not to exceed the values given in Table 1 for at least 5 seconds after the
failure has occurred.
Type of Control Pitch Control Roll Control Yaw Control

Column
Centre Stick 90 [20] 45 [10] 220 [50]
Wheel 220 [50] 135 [30] 440 [100]
TABLE 1
MAXIMUM VALUES OF CHANGE IN INCEPTOR FORCES - NEWTONS
3.1 FAILURES CONSIDERED
3.1.1 The following discussion related to all failures which result in a change in the
handling characteristics or behaviour of the aeroplane, or require some action by
the pilot to overcome their effects. These failures include those of the basic flight
control system (including trimming and other secondary controls), of active control
systems, and of autopilot systems. The discussion is also relevant to engine failures
resulting in asymmetric or longitudinal trim changes.
3.2 PILOT'S RESPONSE TO A FAILURE
3.2.1 The success of the pilot in dealing with a failure will depend on a number of
factors:
(a) The task he is performing at the time of the failure.
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SECTION 4
(b) What sign there is of the failure, either a cue (which could be the
transient motion of the aeroplane as seen or felt by the pilot, or as seen on
the flight instruments) or a warning (a discrete indication given by an
automatic warning system).
(c) The rate at which the aeroplane diverges from the intended flight
condition, after the failure.
(d) What decision and action by the pilot are necessary for recovery.
(e) The change in handling qualities resulting from the failure and
transfer to an alternative control mode.
The significance of these factors will be discussed further below.
3.2.2 How long it takes the pilot to recognize that a failure has occurred, and the
speed with which he reacts to it will depend on what he is doing at the time. This
may be described as his state of alertness: active, if he is directly concerned with
controlling the aeroplane, as in a ground attack manoeuvre; passive, if the
aeroplane is being left to fly steadily, as in high altitude cruise, while he attends to
some other task such as updating the navigational system.
3.2.3 If the pilot is alerted by an automatic warning, then, provided it is sufficiently

compulsive, his recognition of the failure will be swift and the recognition time will be
fairly predictable, depending on the characteristics of the warning system and the
rate at which the relevant variables diverge. If, on the other hand, the pilot is alerted
by visual or motion cues, recognition will depend on the magnitude of the
accelerations and rates existing before the failure and on the transient and
subsequent motions of the aeroplane afterwards. It is not possible to generalize in
this area: an imperceptible transient followed by a gentle divergence which the pilot
may at first attempt to correct by retrimming could be more dangerous than a sharp
jolt, an unmistakable failure, followed by a rapid divergence; and a change that
would be obvious in steady flight might pass unnoticed in a vigorous manoeuvre.
However, Ref 2 suggest the following physiological thresholds which may be used
as a guide applying to relatively steady flight and gentle manoeuvres:
Active - acceleration in any direction changing by 0.2 g for

0.2 sec or longer, OR
- rate of rotation about any axis changing by 3 deg/sec

for 0.2 sec or longer.
- in the case of asymmetric engine failure on take-off, a

heading change of 2 deg.
Passive - acceleration in any direction changing by 0.25 g

for 0.25 sec or longer, OR
- rate of rotation about any axis changing by 5 deg/sec for

0.25 sec or longer.
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SECTION 4
3.2.4 Once the pilot has recognized that a failure has occurred, some further time
will elapse before he begins to take corrective action. This pilot response time will
be made up of decision time and of reaction time. Decision time also depends on
the pilot's state of alertness, as described above, and on whether the aeroplane is
being controlled manually or automatically, on whether external visual references or
flight instruments are being used, and on whether or not the cue or warning gives
clear guidance as to the pilot action required. Reaction time may be assumed to be
short except in automatically controlled flight when the pilot may be engaged on
other manual tasks and has to move his hands some distance before he can begin
recovery action. Ref 2 suggests the following values for these times which are
additional to the recognition time discussed in Para 3.2.3
State of Mode of flight Decision Reaction time Pilot response

alertness control time time
(sec)
(sec) (sec)
Manual see note ½ ½ to 1½
Active Automatic
“hands on” 1 to 1½ ½ 1½ to 2
Manual 2 ½ 2½
Passive Automatic
“hands off” 3 1 4
TABLE 2
GUIDELINES FOR PILOT RESPONSE TIMES
NOTE: Zero for instinctive action (flight path disturbances in VMC only); 1 sec
for considered action.
3.2.5 While the reasoning given above may be adequate in straight-forward cases
it must be remembered that there is the danger that a failure in one part of the over-
all system may be disguised by the action of another part of the system, so that
recognition of the failure may be dangerously delayed. As an example, if a trimmer
runaway were to occur when the aeroplane was under automatic control, the
autopilot would at first correct the out-of-trim until it could do so no longer and
automatically cut out. By this time the aeroplane would be badly out of trim and
control forces possibly insuperable.
3.2.6 The possibility that the pilot may mistake the nature of a failure, and in
consequence take the wrong action, must also be considered.
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SECTION 4
3.3 RECOVERY FROM A FAILURE
3.3.1 Once the pilot has initiated recovery action, which may include transfer to an
alternative control mode, he is faced with the task of correcting the disturbance
caused by the failure (worsened, perhaps, by the transient resulting from the
transfer) with a control system presenting handling characteristics which may be
significantly different from those to which he had been accustomed before the
failure. In the following paragraphs, some guidance is given on these problems,
Para 3.4 suggesting limits to the size of the disturbance immediately following the
failure, Para 3.5 discussing pilot induced oscillations during the period of adaptation
to the changed handling characteristics, and Para 3.6 emphasizing the need for
training in the alternative control mode.
3.3.2 It may be argued, as the converse of the requirements of Clause 4.10 (and
of Part 1, Section 3, Clause 3.9), that a standby trim system is not needed if it can
be shown that a pilot can overcome any trimmer setting for any flight condition. But
there may be operational conditions such as GCA approaches where, even if the
pilot could override the out-of-trim forces, it would be undesirable and dangerous for
him to have to do so. Such arguments must therefore be treated with caution, and
tested in the most critical conditions.
3.4 FAILURE INDUCED TRANSIENT MOTIONS (Ref 3)
3.4.1 The values in Table 3, which have been obtained from experience with
limited authority automatic control systems, may be used as a guide in relation to
the requirements of Clause 4.10, as far as aeroplane motions are concerned. The
limits in Table 3 should not be exceeded, inceptors free:
(a) In Category A and Category C Flight Phases - for at least 1 sec

following the failure.
(b) In Category B Flight Phases - for at least 2 sec following the failure.
Level after failure- Limits of the failure-induced transient

induced transient motions applicable during the first 1 sec
motions have (Category A and C) or 2 sec (Category B)
subsided
1,2 0.5 g normal or 0.2 g lateral acceleration at
the pilot’s station and 10 deg/sec roll rate,
except that neither stall angle of attack nor
structural limits should be exceeded.
In addition, for Category A, vertical or lateral
excursions of 5 ft, and 2 deg of bank angle.
3 No dangerous attitude or structural limit should
be reached; no dangerous alteration of the flight
path to a situation from which recovery is
impossible should result.
TABLE 3
AEROPLANE MOTION LIMITS FOLLOWING FAILURE
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SECTION 4
3.5 PILOT INDUCED OSCILLATIONS
3.5.1 During the period immediately following a change in the overall

characteristics of the aeroplane and control system the pilot will, in general, have to,
adjust his control strategy. The period of adaption may last from a few seconds to a
few tens of seconds and may be accompanied by pilot-induced oscillations which
disappear when adaptation is complete. Many factors influence the severity and
duration of these oscillations but, in the circumstances envisaged in Clause 4.10 the
most significant factor over which the designer has control is probably the relative
magnitude of the change in characteristics - the smaller this is, the less severe the
oscillations are likely to be. Another influential factor, in addition to those discussed
in Part 1, Section 2 Leaflet 45, is the tightness of control demanded for the success
of a particular task; generally speaking, the tighter the control the worse the
resulting pilot-induced oscillations.
3.6 TRANSFER TO ALTERNATIVE CONTROL MODES
3.6.1 The purpose of the requirement at Clause 4.10 is to allow the pilot to be
trained in the exact control he will have over the aeroplane in emergency conditions.
This additional means of transferring control should, if possible, enable the pilot to
transfer control about each axis separately. If any single foreseeable failure in the
main flying control system can affect control about more than one axis of the
aeroplane, then consideration should be given to the ability to transfer control about
the appropriate axes together. It is not, however, essential that control about the
axes concerned should be transferred by a single switch.
3.6.2 On aeroplanes designed specifically for training duties, whenever the pilot is
provided with the facility to change to the standby system, it should be possible for
him to revert to the main system in flight. This facility should also be incorporated in
other aeroplanes except where its application would involve undue mass or
complexity.
3.7 THE NECESSITY FOR FLIGHT TESTING
3.7.1 The numerical information given in Para's 3.2 and 3.4 above and especially
the response times given in Table 2, are offered for guidance only and will normally
be subject to the overriding judgement of the pilots involved in the assessment.
Once the aeroplane and its system have been defined, possible fault conditions
must be considered. Calculations of the response of the aeroplane to failures in
various flight conditions can point to critical cases. Where recovery depends on the
pilot's correct identification of the failure and prompt reaction to it, these cases
should be investigated using a range of likely response times, initially in a ground
based simulator with adequate motion cues, and, for final confirmation, with the
failures simulated in flight.
Page 5 of 6
SECTION 4
REFERENCES
1 C.R. Chalk and Background Information and User Guide for

other MIL-F-8785B(ASG)(Inactive) "Military Specification - Flying
Qualities of Piloted Airplanes".
2 J.K. Appleford Performance Division Clearance Philosophies for Fixed

wing Aircraft.
A&AEE Note 211, 5 December 1978.
3 R.H. Hoh and Proposed MIL Standard and Handbook - Flying Qualities of
others Air Vehicles.
Volume II: Proposed MIL Handbook.

Technical Report AFWAL-TR-82-3081 November 1982.
Page 6 of 6
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 37
DESIGN OF UNDERCARRIAGES - OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
OPERATING ENVIRONMENT
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives a list of those natural phenomena and materials which may affect
the performance or life of the undercarriage units.
2 NATURAL PHENOMENA
2.1 High and Low temperature.
2.2 High relative humidity.
2.3 Extremes of ambient pressure.
2.4 Water, ice, snow, frost, fog and salt spray.
2.5 Dust, dirt, sand and mud.
2.6 Fungal growth.
2.7 Noise, vibration and thermal shock.
2.8 Mechanical shock, knocks, scratches and abrasions.
2.9 Electromagnetic interference.
2.10 Explosive atmosphere.
2.11 Sunlight and Ozone.
3 MATERIALS
3.1 Lubricants.
3.2 Hydraulic fluid.
3.3 Cleaning materials.
3.4 Paint strippers.
3.5 Exhaust gases.
3.6 Aircraft de-icing and de-frosting fluids.
3.7 Runway de-icing and de-frosting chemicals.
3.8 Kerosene.
3.9 Industrial impurities in the atmosphere.
Note. For further details of any of the above apply to the Project Team Leader.
Page 1 of 1
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LEAFLET 38
DESIGN OF UNDERCARRIAGES - GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
SHIMMY ANALYSIS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Shimmy is defined as an oscillatory motion of an undercarriage unit which involves

yawing and lateral motions of the wheels/tyres and the interplay of tyre-to-ground forces
with elastic, inertia and damping forces. It is an instability phenomenon whose degree of
severity depends on ground speed and in some cases the instability may be present only
over a limited speed range. Those ground speeds at which there is a transition from stable
to unstable motion are known as shimmy speeds.
1.2 Although shimmy is an instability phenomenon the amplitude of oscillation in

unstable conditions does not usually grow indefinitely but rather is limited by nonlinearities
of leg or tyre. It should not be confused with oscillations caused by periodic exciting forces
such as are associated with wheel/tyre out of balance or brake judder, etc. which also show
a speed dependence. If the gear is only marginally stable from a shimmy aspect then these
periodic exciting forces may provoke large oscillations which are best suppressed by
improving the stability.
1.3 It is also theoretically possible for a non-oscillatory instability or divergence to occur

but in such cases the gear geometry and/or stiffness would probably be unusual. Although
experience shows in a majority of cases that nose units are more likely to be susceptible to
shimmy, due to inadequate torsional restraint, main wheel assemblies are likely to shimmy
if the combination of leg torsion, leg bending and tyre characteristics are critical.
2 MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
2.1 When a mathematical analysis is required it should be used to assess the stability
of the combined landing gear/aeroplane system throughout the operational ground speed
range of the aeroplane and not merely to find the shimmy speeds. The first phase of
analysis need represent only the landing gear but a second phase incorporating the
aeroplane structure should also be considered.
2.2 In order to develop a mathematical model in which the tyre elastic and ground
forces are inevitably dominant, it is necessary to describe the forces exerted by a tyre when
moving in an arbitrary manner along the ground (see Note). It is this feature which makes
theoretical analysis of shimmy different from more familiar stability problems such as flutter.
2.3 The scope of the analysis should be such as to take account of the following:
(a) ground speed,
(b) undercarriage unit geometry,
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(c) tyre/wheel inertias, stiffness and damping,
(d) tyre-to-ground forces (e.g. self-aligning torque and side force),
(e) tyre/wheel out of balance,
(f) leg inertias, stiffness (this includes backlash), structural damping,
(g) local attachment structure stiffness,
(h) aeroplane normal modes of vibration (the leg and aeroplane structure may
be treated in a unified modal manner),
(i) gyroscopic forces,
(j) steering system impedance.
2.4 It may be assumed that small displacement theory is adequate for use together with
linearised tyre and structural equations of motion provided that the nonlinear terms are
covered by variations of the linearised constants, and the results interpreted in an
appropriate manner. The characteristic roots (frequency and damping) of the equations of
motion can then be found for a series of speeds for each landing gear configuration.
2.5 Systems which rely heavily on friction for shimmy suppression may require a
different method of analysis from that of Para 2.4, such as a time-history analysis in which
the variation of decay of the motion in response to various levels of disturbance should be
examined.
2.6 Important items of data should be varied in order to evaluate the sensitivity of the
system's stability.
2.7 When mathematical analysis predicts shimmy, or stability which is only marginal, in
the operational ground speed range of the aeroplane, then a decision must be taken
whether to modify the design or to undertake tests to demonstrate that the data used in the
analysis does not in practice take values which are unacceptable.
3 ASSOCIATED TESTS
3.1 Tests in support of the theoretical analysis will often be necessary to obtain reliable
values for the data required in the analysis. These may include:
(a) static stiffness tests of the leg and attachment structure,
(b) impedance tests of the steering jack system,
(c) resonance tests,
(d) rolling (oscillatory or non-oscillatory) tyre tests.
(e) taxying tests. (See Leaflet 39)
Page 2 of 3
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4 DAMPING
4.1 The damping required will be determined by consideration of the effect of shimmy
on fatigue strength and on crew performance. Any oscillation which is not eliminated by the
design/test process must be included in the fatigue analysis of all relevant parts of the
structure and the results of all shimmy tests must be examined to ensure that the fatigue
analysis provides for these residual oscillations. For preliminary theoretical calculations the
minimum damping requirement should be set at a level (about 5% of critical is suggested)
which will ensure that there is an adequate margin over the worst value of any single
parameter, or likely combination of parameters, so that it is extremely improbable that the
damping will ever become negative. Adverse tyre size (caused by wear or incorrect
pressure or a combination of the two) and both wet and dry runway conditions should be
considered. Wear of mechanical parts, within permitted limits, should also be considered.
Note: Currently the best tyre mathematical model which can be recommended is based on work
by Von Schlippe and Dietrich. This may be used unless a better method is available. Sufficient
experimental data of the mechanical properties of tyres is available to enable the theory to be
applied but it currently does not cover the full range of tyre types in use (e.g. sizes, tyre pressure,
ply rating, depth of tread etc.) and most of it has been obtained from non-oscillatory tests.
Therefore the tyre data used in the theoretical investigation should be varied in order to allow for
the uncertainties of the tyre dynamic characteristics.
Page 3 of 3
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LEAFLET 39
SHIMMY TESTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet describes taxying tests which may be necessary specifically to check
whether anti-shimmy requirements have been met.
1.2 When it is agreed with the Project Team Leader that tests are required in addition to
or in place of analytical calculations to ensure that no shimmy, divergence or related
dynamic instabilities can occur then these tests must be potentially capable of exciting the
phenomenon concerned. Acceptable methods of testing are detailed below.
2 TESTS
2.1 A plank should be fixed to the runway surface at an optimum angle to the direction
of forward motion and of such a shape and height that the forces induced on the
undercarriage unit excite the relevant vibration mode of the undercarriage (usually side
bending and/or torsion). The edges of this plank may be rounded to avoid tyre damage.
2.2 The aeroplane should be taxied over the plank at a number of speeds up to the
speed which will allow calculations to be extrapolated accurately to cover all possible
ground speeds both normal and emergency. The damping of the response should be
analysed to show that it does not fall below that required.
2.3 Alternatively or additionally an impulse rocket may be attached to the unit to provide
the necessary excitation in the horizontal plane.
Page 1 of 1
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LEAFLET 40
DESIGN OF UNDERCARRIAGE - GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
ESTIMATION OF EQUIVALENT SINGLE WHEEL LOAD FOR MULTI-WHEEL

UNDERCARRIAGE UNITS ON AIRFIELDS WITH RIGID PAVEMENTS AND DERIVATION OF
LOAD CLASSIFICATION NUMBER AND LOAD CLASSIFICATION GROUP
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Increased knowledge of methods of stressing rigid slabs has made it possible to
improve the method of calculating the effect of aeroplane wheel loads. This leaflet
describes the method of estimating the Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL) for
undercarriage units having twin wheels, tandem wheels, and twin tandem wheels. It also
describes how to apply the ESWL to obtain the Load Classification Number (LCN) and the
Load Classification Group (LCG).
1.2 The system of calculation described in this leaflet provides for aeroplanes the
method of calculating LCN and also indicates the corresponding LCG used in pavement
design.
1.3 See Leaflet 50 for Equivalent Soft Surface Single Wheel Load.
2 DEFINITION OF ESWL
2.1 The ESWL of a group of two or more wheels is defined as that Single Wheel Load
which, applied in isolation through a tyre operating at the same inflation pressure as the
tyres on the wheels in the group, produces maximum stresses in the airfield pavement
equal to those produced by that group of wheels.
2.2 The ESWL is given by the expression:
Total load on one undercarriage

ESWL 
Re duction Factor
where the Reduction Factor is obtained from either Fig. 1, for twin and tandem wheel
undercarriages, or Fig. 2, for twin tandem wheel undercarriages, as described in Para 3.
3 ESTIMATION OF ESWL
3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 It is assumed that the wheel arrangements are symmetrical, so that each
wheel in the group is equally loaded and that all the wheels are at least 1.5m (5ft)
from the nearest wheel on any other undercarriage unit. If the tyre pressures are
unequal, all the tyres should be assumed inflated to the greatest pressure. When
wheels are fitted with twin contact tyres the track should be measured from points
mid-way between the pairs of contact areas.
Page 1 of 5
SECTION 4
3.2 TWIN WHEEL AND TANDEM WHEEL AEROPLANES
3.2.1 Referring to Fig. 1, for a gross tyre contact area of 0.58 m2 (900 in.2) and a
wheel spacing of 0.86m (34 in) the Reduction Factor is 1.35. If the total load on one
undercarriage leg is 280 kN then, from the formula at Para 2.2 above, ESWL =
207kN.
Note: Wheel spacing for twin wheels is the horizontal distance between the tyre
centres and for tandem wheels it is the axle to axle distance.
3.3 TWIN TANDEM WHEEL AEROPLANES
3.3.1 Taking, for example, a gross tyre contact area 1.23m2, front (first) wheel
spacing 1.24m (49 in) and rear (second) wheel spacing 1.63m (64 in) and referring
these to Fig. 2 gives a Reduction Factor of 3.3. If the total load on one
undercarriage leg is 845 kN then from Para 2.2 the ESWL = 256 kN.
4 METHOD OF OBTAINING LCN AND LCG
4.1 The LCN and LCG may now be obtained from Fig. 3 for a particular ESWL and tyre
pressure. For the example at Para 3.2 above and taking a tyre pressure of 0.48 MN/m2 the
LCN and LCG are found to be 43 and IV respectively. For the example at Para 3.3 above
and at a tyre pressure of 0.69 MN/m2 the LCN and LCG are 57 and III.
Page 2 of 5
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LEAFLET 41
FATIGUE LOAD SPECTRA FOR MAIN UNDERCARRIAGE UNITS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This Leaflet gives recommendations for the derivation of a spectrum of loads from
which the life of a main undercarriage unit may be assessed.
1.2 Many of the recommendations herein are generalizations based on data obtained
from a wide range of undercarriages. The designer is encouraged to use data more specific
to his particular undercarriage wherever possible. Where the geometry of the undercarriage
is such that its structural deflection is likely to have a significant effect upon the attitude
which the wheel and tyre present to the ground and thus influence the loads produced by
the tyre, for example due to the torsional deflection of an undercarriage with a single offset
wheel, then this effect must be taken into account.
1.3 The Leaflet deals with external forces relative to ground axes and not with the loads
within the undercarriage.
1.4 A typical fatigue spectrum of loads is given in Annex A to this Leaflet.
2 AEROPLANE MASS AND CG POSITION
2.1 There will always be some difference in mass and CG position from mission to
mission for both take-off and landing. Consideration should be given to the effect which
these variations might have on the undercarriage fatigue life although, in general, it will be
acceptable to use an average take-off mass and CG position for take-off and similarly an
average landing mass and CG position for landing.
3 RESOLUTION AND POINTS OF APPLICATION OF FORCES
3.1 Aeroplane attitude, undercarriage geometry, structural deflection and tyre

deflections should be those appropriate to the loading case being considered. See Clause
4.11 for points of application of forces.
4 TOUCHDOWN PHASE
4.1 VERTICAL FORCES
4.1.1 IMPACT AND BOUNCE
Each landing may be represented by an initial impact and one bounce. The vertical
force at first impact is largely determined by the aerodynamic lift and the velocity of
descent. Unless the characteristics of the aeroplane or operational conditions
suggest otherwise, no account need be taken of the effect on vertical forces of the
bank angle or rolling velocity of the aeroplane. The force may be assumed to reduce
to zero at the top of the bounce. At the second impact the force may be assumed to
be equal to the static vertical force when the aeroplane is supported by the two main
units.
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4.1.2 AERODYNAMIC LIFT
The aeroplane may be assumed to be fully airborne at initial impact unless

otherwise specified.
4.1.3 VELOCITY OF DESCENT
The velocity of descent consists of the velocity normal to the mean grade of the
runway and a velocity which allows for the deviation of the landing surface from that
grade. The first component is the vertical velocity and the second component is
related to the roughness of the runway; no account need usually be taken of the
latter for aeroplanes which are required to operate only from good quality paved
runways.
4.1.4 Main wheel vertical velocities at touchdown are presented in Fig.1; they may
be assumed to be representative of operations in all weather conditions.
4.1.5 The velocity component due to landing surface deviation may be assumed to
be a variate which has zero mean and is normally distributed with a standard
deviation of 0.003  Vx, where  is the runway roughness severity factor (See
Leaflet 49) and Vx is the landing speed.
4.2 DRAG FORCES
4.2.1 SPIN-UP
The spin-up force occurs during the build up of the vertical force at first impact. A
modern tyre on a modern runway in dry conditions may be assumed to achieve a
maximum value of the coefficient of friction µ of 0.8. On wet, worn or contaminated
runways µ will be less than this value. For the purpose of calculating spin-up drag it
is recommended that a value of µ equal to 0.65 should be used for all occasions. It
may be assumed that load magnification due to the dynamic response of the
undercarriage is already contained by the use of this relatively high value of µ.
Alternatively a µ-slip diagram appropriate to typical landing conditions, which has
been agreed with the Project Team Leader, may be used and the dynamic response
of the undercarriage taken into account.
4.2.2 SPRING-BACK
For a typical telescopic landing gear raked aft with a ground angle of 85 the initial
spring-back force may be assumed to be 0.8 of the spin-up force. It has been found
that the spring-back forces decay fairly quickly. Unless the dynamic analysis shows
otherwise it will be sufficiently representative to assume two cycles only (including
the spin-up), reducing the peak amplitudes of consecutive half cycles by a factor of
0.8. The spring-back forces should be assumed to occur whilst the vertical force is
at its maximum at first impact and to be completed before rebound.
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4.2.3 TORSION DUE TO ASYMMETRY OF THE DRAG FORCES
In units with laterally spaced wheels, a torque can arise during landing from
differential spin-up and spring-back forces on the inner and outer wheels. The
asymmetry of the forces may be caused, for example, by bank angle at touchdown,
by a cambered runway, by unequal wear of the tyres or by unequal pressures in the
tyres. In the absence of measured data it will be acceptable to represent the torque
by apportioning the spin-up and spring-back forces between the inner and outer
wheels of the undercarriage unit in the ratio of 55% to 45% - alternating between
the wheels on each landing.
4.3 SIDE FORCES
4.3.1 Measurements on operational aeroplanes indicate that side forces at

touchdown are small but that they are likely to be followed by larger forces during
the landing run. Forces during the landing run are considered in Para 5.3. In
general, unless there is evidence to the contrary, it will be acceptable to assume
that there are no significant side forces during the touchdown phase.
5 FORCES DURING LANDING RUN, TAXYING AND TAKE-OFF RUN
5.1 VERTICAL FORCES
5.1.1 A spectrum of forces can most satisfactorily be derived by determining the

aeroplanes responses on surfaces of various levels of roughness and considering
the expected usage by the aeroplane of those surfaces as agreed with the Project
Team Leader.
5.1.2 Alternatively, a spectrum of acceleration factors at the CG may be derived

from the reference spectrum of Table 1 of this leaflet (reproduced from MIL Spec A
008866B (USAF)). For aeroplanes with long take-off and landing runs or when long
taxying distances are expected the number of occurrences should be increased as
agreed with the Project Team Leader. To take account of the different types of
surface the alternating component of nz in Table 1 should be multiplied by the
roughness factor  of the surface. See Leaflet 49.
Nz - Acceleration Factors at the Cumulative Occurrences per

Aeroplane CG 1000 landings
1 ± 0.0 494,000
1 ± 0.1 194,000
1 ± 0.2 29,000
1 ± 0.3 2,100
1 ± 0.4 94
1 ± 0.5 4
1 ± 0.6 0.155
TABLE 1
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5.1.3 The method of Para 5.1.2 yields unrealistically severe spectra for high
values of  . An aeroplane designed to operate from rough surfaces will have
undercarriage units which will ameliorate its response: use of the method of Para
5.1.1 is appropriate to such a case.
5.2 DRAG FORCES
5.2.1 Rolling resistance on paved surfaces may be ignored; on unpaved surfaces

the appropriate co-efficient of rolling resistance may be found in Leaflet 51.
5.2.2 High performance military aeroplanes are usually retarded during the landing
run by a method additional to wheel braking, for example by a brake parachute or
by a reversal of engine thrust. The proportion of the total retardation made by the
wheel brakes will be different for each type of aeroplane. Until data specific to the
undercarriage and aeroplane in question are available it should be assumed that for
each landing the maximum braking drag force which can be developed (as limited
either by the maximum brake torque available in the appropriate phase of operation
or by the coefficient of friction between tyre and runway) is applied once. In addition,
a force which corresponds either to half of the maximum brake torque or to a
coefficient of friction of 0.3 whichever gives the greater value should be applied five
times. If the dynamic effects of cyclic torque variation are structurally significant,
they should also be included. The distribution of the brake applications between the
landing run, taxying and the take-off run is specified in Para 6.3
5.2.3 If an anti-skid unit is fitted the oscillations in the drag force which result from
its functioning should be considered and the dynamic effects of cyclic torque
variation should be included if they are structurally significant. In the absence of
information to the contrary, it may be assumed that on dry surfaces the device is
either inactive or produces small magnitude/numbers of oscillations in drag force
which may be ignored. For each full stop landing on a wet surface it is assumed that
30 oscillations occur between levels corresponding to coefficients of friction of 0.35
and zero. The percentage of landings which are performed on "wet" surfaces
depends on the climate in the area of operations. For European operations it is
suggested that a figure of 2% be used which assumes all landings are on modem
water absorbent runways with a friction course surface.
5.2.4 On undercarriage units which have wheels which are spaced laterally,
torsional loads will be caused by differential functioning of the brakes on the
individual wheels. In the absence of specific data it should be assumed that any
increment in the total braking drag force is applied to the inner and outer wheels in
the proportions 55% and 45%, alternating the proportions on successive sorties.
5.3 SIDE FORCES
5.3.1 Side acceleration factors measured at the CG of the aeroplane during

operations on smooth hard surfaces are presented in Fig. 2. The occurrences per
flight presented herein are the total number of half cycle loads to port and to
starboard, and it may be assumed that the accelerations act alternately to port and
to starboard. In the absence of data for other surfaces it is acceptable to assume
that the accelerations on all types of surfaces are the same.
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5.3.2 Unless the characteristics of the aeroplane suggest otherwise, the tyre loads
developed to balance aerodynamic side forces and yawing moments due to
crosswinds (there being no net CG acceleration) may be ignored.
5.3.3 As an alternative to the data in Fig. 2 a spectrum of side forces may be

deduced from consideration of the predicted ground usage of the aeroplane. To aid
in calculating the side loads whilst taxying a frequency distribution of turns at
different radii per average sortie, covering the taxi tracks on various airfields used
by different types of aeroplanes, is given in Fig. 3. The taxying speeds to be
assumed must be agreed with the Project Team Leader. In addition, side forces
occur during the landing and take-off runs and must be included. The only available
data are the spectra of side acceleration factors during the landing and take-off runs
of a fighter-strike aeroplane without unusual steering characteristics given in Fig.4.
However, note that these factors were measured 5 meters aft of the CG and are
therefore likely to be unnecessarily severe. Aeroplanes with unusual steering
characteristics on the ground, as for example a reduction in fin effectiveness when
the thrust reverser is operating, may experience higher levels of side acceleration.
5.3.4 When turning, the wheels on the undercarriage unit on the inside of the turn
may stop rolling momentarily and then sustain high side forces. Allowance must be
made for this eventuality by assuming that an outward force, corresponding to a
side force factor of 0.4, is developed on the inner undercarriage unit once every 4
sorties for aeroplanes which are normally steered by differential braking and once
every 12 sorties for those steered by other means. The turns should be assumed to
occur during the taxying-out phase and to occur always in the same direction. (The
only other force which need be associated with this side force is the static vertical
force).
5.3.5. A small proportion of the side force will be reacted by air loads on the
fuselage and fin but for undercarriage design purposes it should be assumed that
the total side force is reacted at the ground.
5.3.6 In general, during turning the roll angle is not in phase with side force; the
side force comes on at entry to the turn before the imbalance of the vertical forces
occurs. In the absence of data proving otherwise, it should be assumed, for turns
other than those described in Para 5.3.4 that the side force is divided equally
between the two main units.
6 LOADING SEQUENCE DURING LANDING RUN, TAXYING AND TAKE-OFF RUN
6.1 The alternating forces act simultaneously with a steady vertical force, which can
usually be assumed to be equal to the portion of the weight supported by the undercarriage
unit under static conditions. However, allowance must be made for the increase of that
force during rotation due to the application of tailplane load (See Para 6.2).
6.2 Occurrences of the vertical and side forces as specified in Para's 5.1 and 5.3 may,
in the absence of other information, be apportioned equally between the landing run,
taxying-in, taxying-out and take-off run. In the absence of measurements it may be
assumed that 10% of the vertical, but none of the side, alternating forces which occur
during the take-off run do so whilst the vertical force due to rotation is acting.
Page 5 of 18
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6.3 In the absence of other information it may be assumed that three of the smaller
braking forces, as specified in Para 5.2.2, occur during the landing run and that the
maximum and one of the smaller braking forces occur during the taxying-out phase and
that the remaining smaller force occurs during the taxying-in phase.
6.4 Side loads may be combined to form full cycles, it being assumed that an
acceleration in one direction is followed by corrective action in the other direction.
6.5 The dissimilar responses of the undercarriage to applied vertical, drag and side
force make it impracticable to define time correlations between these alternating force
components. It will be sufficiently accurate for the purpose of life estimation and fatigue
testing to assume that these components do not act simultaneously. The loads should be
applied 'flight-by-flight' and within each 'flight' the loads in each phase, i.e. landing, taxying
and take-off, should be applied in the order in which they occur.
7 PIVOT TURN
7.1 A pivot turn (which produces torque but negligible net side force on an
undercarriage unit) should be assumed to occur on average once per sortie. Half the turns
may be assumed to occur at the average landing mass, M L, and half at the average take-
off mass, M T, successive turns being to port and to starboard. The radius of the turn
should be the minimum permitted by the steering system; if differential braking is used as a
means of steering, the drag co-efficient on the braked unit may be limited to 0.4. For
undercarriage units which have wheels spaced fore and aft, the side forces resulting from
tyre slip must be allowed for; the maximum resultant horizontal force coefficient may be
taken to be 0.65 On undercarriage units with only laterally spaced wheels the tyre slip
angles produced are small and the associated side forces may generally be ignored.
8 ROLLER LANDING
8.1 When considering the forces associated with a roller landing the following
assumptions may be made:
(a) the mass of the aircraft is the average landing mass ML,
(b) the loading spectrum during the touchdown phase is the same as that during
the touchdown phase of a full-stop landing, and
(c) the ground run between touchdown and becoming airborne involves the
same loading spectrum as would occur during a normal take-off run and rotation,
excluding any braking forces.
9 RUN-UP OF ENGINES
9.1 The frequency of engine running for servicing is irregular. The following
assumptions should be made unless the Aeroplane Specification or the Project Team
Leader indicates otherwise:
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(a) the engine, or one engine where there are two or more, is run to maximum
power (including re-heat) once in 50 flights.
(b) two or more engines are run simultaneously to maximum power (including
re-heat) so infrequently as to not warrant inclusion in a fatigue Spectrum for the
undercarriage.
9.2 Where the maximum power cannot be held against the brakes alone and some
other means of restraint (e.g., chocks or the arresting hook) are used, the loads appropriate
to these means should be used.
9.3 If the take-off procedure includes running up the engine(s) before the take-off run,
the resulting forces should be included in the spectrum as agreed with the Project Team
Leader.
10 OTHER LOADS
10.1 Loads arising from retraction and lowering must be included if they are significant.
See Clause 4.11
10.2 Loads arising from normal towing and steering should also be included. See Part 1,
Section 3, Clause 3.11
10.3 Though towing backwards and taxying backwards may be used in service
occasionally, neither the magnitude of the loads, nor their frequency, normally justifies their
inclusion. If either becomes significant an allowance should be made.
10.4 Loads arising from slinging and jacking need not be included.
11 VSTOL EFFECTS
11.1 The effect of VSTOL landings, particularly unflared landings and touch-downs, on
the vertical velocity spectrum will be to increase the incidence of the higher velocities. This
will have a direct effect on the fatigue spectrum of the undercarriage and its support
structure. (See Clause 4.11).
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ANNEX A
TYPICAL FATIGUE LOAD SPECTRUM FOR A MAIN

UNDERCARRIAGE UNIT
1 The values of the loads quoted in this Annex have been chosen for illustration purposes
only; they are not related to any particular undercarriage or aeroplane. They are for one
undercarriage unit only.
2 For this exercise the following specification and conditions have been assumed:
Aeroplane type -2 engine fighter/strike aeroplane
Undercarriage Conventional: two main units and a steerable nose

unit. Each main unit has a side-by-side twin-wheel
arrangement with an anti skid system
Maximum take-off mass -50000 kg
Maximum landing mass -40000 kg
M T assumed average take-off mass -45000 kg
M L assumed average landing mass -35000 kg
Maximum thrust (with re-heat) -160 kN

per engine
3 In normal taxying conditions, 90% of the total mass is carried by the main units and 10% by
the nose unit. Assumed usage is hard paved surfaces  = 1
4 Para numbers refer to Para’s of Leaflet 41.
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TOUCHDOWN VL1 = 171.6 kN
See Para 4.2.3 - To represent the torsional loads due to asymmetrical drag, 55% of each force to
be applied to one wheel and 45% to the other - alternating between wheels each landing.
ROLLER LANDINGS (see Para 8)
Repeat above load spectra once per 1000 roller landings, the ratio of roller landings to full stop
landings to be determined in conjunction with the Project Team Leader.
For correct load sequencing, the loads of each roller landing touchdown must be followed
immediately by the loads of each roller landing take-off, see Take-off Run.
Page 9 of 18
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Page 10 of 18
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Page 11 of 18
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PIVOT TURN (see Para 7)
One pivot turn to be applied per landing, alternately to port and to starboard. This will produce a
torque in each main unit once every other landing. The mass of the aircraft to be M L, on half the
occasions and M T, on the other half. The wheels on the inside of the turn to be assumed braked
so as to produce a drag co-efficient of 0.4.
Plan of a two-wheel undercarriage unit
Every four consecutive landings will result in the following differential drag forces per wheel.
0 .4 x 154.4
1, D  30.9 kN
2
2, D=O
0 . 4 x 198.6
3, D  39.7 kN
2
4, D=O
RUN-UP OF ENGINES AGAINST BRAKES (see Para 9)
In this example it will be assumed that the thrust of one engine (160 kN) is divided between the two
main units in the ratio 75% on the same side to 25% on the far side, and that the engines will not
be run up against the brakes before commencing the take-off run.
Applications per D(kN) - per u/c unit

1000 landings
10 40 (25% of 160)
10 120 (75% of 160)
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Page 13 of 18
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Vv ft/s (m/s)
FIG. 1 - VERTICAL VELOCITIES AT TOUCHDOWN
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FIG. 2 - OCCURRENCES PER FLIGHT OF SIDE ACCELERATION FACTORS MEASURED AT CG
Page 15 of 18
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Page 16 of 18
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Page 17 of 18
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TAKE-OFF RUN V T2 = 198.6kN
ROLLER LANDINGS (see Para 8)
Repeat above take-off run load spectra once per 1000 roller landings, but with aeroplane mass
equal to M L, sequenced as stated for TOUCH DOWN.
Page 18 of 18
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LEAFLET 42
DESIGN OF UNDERCARRIAGES - DIRECTIONAL CONTROL OF THE AEROPLANE ON THE

GROUND
STABILITY AND CONTROL
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives background information relating to the requirements of Clause
4.11
1.2 The objective of the directional control requirements of Clause 4.11 is to enable the
aeroplane to change course, to hold a straight course, or to execute a ground manoeuvre
smoothly without the need for constant adjustment of the controls. It is acknowledged
however that, in case of failure of any one of the systems contributing to satisfactory
directional control, the level of pilot workload necessary to achieve control may rise and the
degree of control achieved may be lower. For this purpose the requirements are expressed
in terms of levels of handling qualities used for flying qualities in Section 2 but redefined as
follows:
Level 1 - Handling qualities clearly adequate for the manoeuvre.
Level 2 - Handling qualities adequate to accomplish the manoeuvre, but with

some degradation in control or increase in the workload of the pilot,
or both.
Level 3 - Handling qualities such that the aeroplane can just be controlled, or
the total workload of the pilot is approaching the limit of his capacity.
1.3 At low speeds nose-wheel steering may be used as the only means of directional
control. Generally, however, it will be used in conjunction with and to supplement other
means of directional control. In certain dynamic situations, when taxying in gust conditions
for instance, the various directional controls may not be coordinated. They may even be
applied in opposition to each other and this can give rise to unusual stressing cases. It is
important that the design and response of the nose-wheel steering system is well matched
to that of the other means of control. To achieve an efficient solution it may be necessary to
modify some of the arbitrary requirements of Clause 4.14 In this case alternative proposals
should be submitted to the Project Team Leader.
2 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL IN TAKE-OFF
2.1 If nose-wheel steering is not provided then other means, particularly differential
braking, will be used. As speed increases during the take-off run aerodynamic control will
become increasingly effective and will be the principal directional control for the later part of
the run. Lateral forces created by the use of aerodynamic controls and crosswind will be
opposed by lateral forces on the landing gear. Those forces will be shared, in a
conventional aeroplane, between the units in contact with the ground and may therefore be
greatest for the main units at the time that the nosewheel is lifted off. As this is also a time,
when on some aeroplanes, the vertical forces on the main units may be large a critical case
may be created for these units at this time.
Page 1 of 5
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2.2 An important design case also arises where an engine failure creates a significant
turning moment which must be neutralised or corrected within the runway width limits.
2.3 In the groundborne phase, the lateral forces available through the aerodynamic
controls, and from tyres within the limits of friction for the surfaces, must be adequate to
correct the drift occasioned by the crosswind.
3 STABILITY DURING TAXYING
3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 Stability quantifies the natural tendency, or otherwise, of the aeroplane to

regain correct attitude following a disturbance. It is not directly affected by such a
disturbance, or by control actions. It is necessary to consider the stability of the
aeroplane in pitch, roll, and yaw in all ground manoeuvres, both prior to take-off and
after touchdown when landing, particularly when the undercarriage differs from the
conventional tricycle configuration.
3.2 PITCH STABILITY
3.2.1 An aeroplane with a conventional tricycle undercarriage is normally

inherently stable in pitch; before rotation due to the large pitch stiffness given by the
under-carriage, and after rotation because the neutral point is aft of the effective
pitch axis (the main wheels). Unconventional undercarriages can cause instability in
pitch. Stability calculations are advisable in such cases.
3.3 ROLL STABILITY
3.3.1 Stability in roll is relatively easily ensured by consideration of the overturning

moment at the worst combination of speed and radius of turn.
3.4 YAW STABILITY
3.4.1 Yaw (or directional) stability should be considered early in the design of any
aeroplane even when the undercarriage layout is conventional. Dangerous
instability is rare, but is possible with some unconventional layouts, particularly
those involving castoring or laterally-flexible units aft of the CG. Slight instability is
not uncommon, and is often only noticeable as a tendency to oversteer in certain
conditions. Designs possessing these characteristics increase the pilot's work-load
and should be avoided. The basic design requirement is therefore for positive
directional stability at all times; that is, the aeroplane must always tend to return to
its original yaw attitude following a disturbance.
3.4.2 The designer should also consider the effects of high and low stability on the
braking and steering systems and their fatigue spectra. Low stability causes
continual correction. High stability causes excessive use of braking or thrust to turn
and keep turning. Both of these effects increase the pilot's work load unnecessarily
and increase the heat input to the wheels and tyres.
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3.4.3 Ensuring correct yaw stability is heavily dependent on calculations, even

when a prototype exists, because some aspects of behaviour are too dangerous to
confirm by trial. Calculations are feasible at the project design stage, and can be
reasonably accurate when full details of the aeroplane are known. The calculations
may range from a simple evaluation of yawing moments about the CG, to full-scale
simulator work where pilot opinions of handling can be obtained.
3.4.4 The yawed-rolling characteristics of the tyres, particularly 'cornering power',

play a key role in determining directional stability. The lateral forces are dependent
on vertical loading and slip angle, both effects being markedly non-linear. It is
therefore necessary to consider all variations of loading and slip angle likely to be
encountered. Other factors which must be taken into account are:
(a) Castoring and Steering - A freely castoring wheel is unable to generate

significant sideforce and is therefore not contributing to the directional stability of
the vehicle. The normally destabilising contribution of a wheel forward of the CG
is drastically reduced when the wheel is allowed to castor. Engagement of nose-
wheel steering is therefore destabilising. The inverse applies to wheels aft of the
CG.
(b) Aerodynamic effects - These are generally stabilising, but intake momentum
and reversed thrust can be destabilising.
(c) Braking, particularly for its effect on vertical wheel loading.
(d) Undercarriage elasticity, particularly where lateral loading can produce

deflections in a steering sense.
(e) Steering motor stiffness. This may, in some special cases, be designed to
affect the stability favourably.
4 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL DURING TAXYING
4.1 The basic operational requirements for most aeroplanes are to be able to comer at
a reasonably high taxying speed and to be able to turn at a very low (or in some cases
zero) forward speed. The requirements must be met whether the aeroplane is conventional
or not. Turning requirements can create a major design case for a bogie undercarriage and
careful consideration must be given to the minimum radius of turn necessary for such an
aeroplane.
4.2 These requirements can be met by differential braking, differential engine power
where more than one engine is available, and nose-wheel steering if provided.
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4.3 The ability to turn an aeroplane using one main undercarriage unit, as a pivot, by
braking that unit only, is desirable operationally but it is accepted that to try to do this with
nose-wheel steering from a forward speed of any magnitude is not reasonable and it is
therefore not a firm requirement. However the consideration of a rapid transition from
forward movement to turning on one wheel is a requirement and the nose-wheel steering
angle must provide for this. Equally there is a requirement to change from forward
movement to a turn in a minimum transition distance and to sustain such a turn for a
minimum of 180°. However there is no requirement for this to be possible at any but the
lowest speeds.
4.4 If reverse thrust is provided and this can be used differentially the aeroplane may
have a capability to turn about an axis between the wheels. However it will be usual to
interpret the requirement for a 180° turn as applying to the need to have the ability to turn
about one main unit in the conventional aircraft layout.
4.5 Cornering at high taxying speeds and transition from forward translation to constant
radius cornering at high taxying speeds are likely to create stressing conditions if a lateral
rolling stability limitation does not arise first. The cases considered should therefore
include:
(a) constant radius turn at maximum taxying speed with zero bank,
(b) constant radius turn at limiting taxying speed with bank and rate of roll
effects included if these are overriding.
Note: In practice it is unlikely that turning will be executed either at constant radius or at
constant speed but for design purposes the maximum speed and minimum radius are
assumed to be constant. The arbitrary stressing case of Leaflet 43 Para. 3.2 provides for
constant radius turns in moderately gusty conditions with approximately the following
combinations of speed and radius and about 20% faster in still air conditions. The figures
are based on an assumed peak/mean ratio of 1.5.
Radius m 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 30 50
yds 1.83 2.75 3.66 4.57 9.14 13.71 18.28 27.42 45.70
Speed kt 5 6 7 8 11 14 16 20 25
km/h 9.27 11.11 12.97 14.82 20.38 25.94 29.65 37.06 46.32
4.6 Where reverse thrust or a brake parachute or an arresting hook is provided it may
affect the lateral forces applied to the aeroplane when taxying after landing, particularly the
nose gear, and secondary stressing cases to cover this should be considered.
4.7 Requirements for directional control in taxying may be met with any declared and
accepted combination of differential braking, differential engine power and nose-wheel
steering if provided. Variation of the condition of runway surface must also be considered in
these cases. Generally the effect of a reduced coefficient of friction is to reduce the
maximum usable cornering speed but most modem runway surfaces have high values of µ
at low speeds below 55.6 km/h (below 30 kt) wet or dry. They do also however vary with
tyre pressure. For assessment of performance the lower values will be required. For
assessment of strength the higher values must be used.
Page 4 of 5
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5 TAXYING BACKWARDS
5.1 When reverse thrust is provided the aeroplane will have an ability to taxi backwards.
In this case consideration will need to be given to which of the requirements of Clauses
4.11 and 4.14 should be applied in this sense. In particular the controllability of the
aeroplane and the effects of braking when moving backwards must be considered.
Particular attention should be given to the possibility that the aeroplane will tip onto its tail.
The applicability of these requirements should be discussed and agreed with the Project
Team Leader.
6 NOSE-WHEEL BRAKING
6.1 Provision of a braking system on the nose-wheel of a conventional aeroplane is not

generally favoured because of the mechanical complication of combining it with nose wheel
steering. If such a system is contemplated, special requirements will be stated in the
Aeroplane Specification and the effects on directional control will need special study.
7 MAIN WHEEL STEERING
7.1 Provision of steerable main units in a conventional aeroplane is not generally

favoured. This system has been used on aeroplanes where a particularly heavy incidence
of crosswind landings is expected. If such a system seems to be needed special
requirements will be stated in the Aeroplane Specification.
8 TOWING
8.1 It is normal practice to push or pull aeroplanes by attaching a towing bar to the
nose-wheel. (See Part 1, Section 3, Clause 3.11). For this purpose it may be necessary to
disconnect the steering mechanism. In this case automatic re-engagement of the steering
system on removal of the towbar is preferred to any "state-of-the-system" indicator in the
pilot's cockpit.
8.2 With the steering system disconnected the nose-wheel should castor at least as far
as is necessary to provide for turning about either main unit. The angle required will
normally be about ± 110° to 140°. Automatic re-engagement should be arranged to occur
when the nose-wheel first enters the steering range or at least ± 30° from ahead.
8.3 On aeroplanes fitted with arresting hooks consideration should be given to the
forces created when the hook is used for towing backwards.
Page 5 of 5
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 43

GROUND
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives arbitrary stressing cases which will normally be acceptable to
demonstrate compliance with the strength and stiffness requirements of Clause 4.11 for
taxying and take-off from Class A runways. See Leaflet 49 for definitions of runway classes.
1.2 With appropriate values of the relevant parameters they may also be used for
preliminary design for taxying and take-off from Classes B, C and D runways. However they
may not be used to demonstrate compliance with the requirements of Clause 4.13 for which
the only acceptable means of compliance is demonstration by ground tests.
1.3 These cases are intended as quasi-static cases in which the tyre and shock
absorber closures are appropriate to the conditions defined. If preferred however, they may
be used as the basis of partial dynamic analysis in which closures are dependent on
forward speed. When using this method of analysis all speeds appropriate to the conditions
defined in each case should be considered.
1.4 See Clause 4.11 for determination of the bump factor F and Clause 4.13 for
dimensions of steps, bumps and hollows. See Clause 4.11 for application of vertical, drag
and side forces.
1.5 All tyre-deflated cases are grouped together in Para 7 of this leaflet.
2 CASES APPLICABLE TO NOSE UNITS
2.1 DYNAMIC BRAKING
2.1.1 Vertical loads should be derived from a dynamic analysis of the motion of
the aeroplane at the most adverse combination of mass and CG and most adverse
pitching condition following the sudden application of all means of retarding the
aeroplane. It may be assumed that side and drag forces at the nose unit are zero
and that the nose unit is at zero castor angle. In the absence of data giving the
brake drag response of all braked units, and where wheel braking alone provides
the most critical condition, the following formulae may be used:
V = (MT.G.1m + 2HD) / (1m + 1n)
where 2D is the total peak dynamic brake drag force of the two main units to be
supplied by the Brake Designer or 0.8MT.G.1n/(1m + 1n), whichever is the less.
See Clause 4.11 and Section 4 Table 10 Case 4.3. See also Leaflet 46 Para. 8.
2.2 STEADY BRAKING WITH BUMP
Page 1 of 5
SECTION 4
2.2.1 The aeroplane is assumed to traverse a step, bump or hollow obliquely in

crosswind with the nose-wheel central. Vertical loads should be derived in the
steady state condition at the most adverse combination of mass and CG. following
application of the most adverse combination of all means of retarding the aeroplane.
The total wheel braking force on the aeroplane need not exceed MT.G/3 when
wheel brakes acting alone provide the critical condition. The nose unit loads may be
estimated from the following formulae:
 T 
V  F.G  M .1m / (1m  1n )  M T H / 3(1m  1n )  and D  S  0.25V
 L 
2.2.2 Consider also the case of Para 2.2.1 with the nose-wheel at any angle up to
20° from central and with the application of the maximum steering torque of Clause
4.14 at which the overload relief devices operate. D and S will have values derived
from the relationship of the undercarriage geometry to the bump and to the applied
steering torque.
3 CASES APPLICABLE TO NOSE AND MAIN UNITS
3.1 ASYMMETRIC BRAKING
3.1.1 For nose-wheel aeroplanes, the aeroplane is assumed to be in the normal

taxying attitude with the vertical load factor at the CG equal to 1.0. One main unit
should be assumed braked and developing a drag load at the ground equal to 0.8 of
the vertical reaction at that unit in the steady state or the peak dynamic brake drag
whichever is the less. The aeroplane is assumed to be in static equilibrium, with
side loads at the main and nose units reacting the yawing moment, and with the
vertical loads at the main and nose units reacting the pitching moment. The side
load at the nose unit will be acting at the ground, and need not exceed the vertical
reaction multiplied by a coefficient of faction of 0.8 The nose unit will be at zero
castor angle.
3.2 TURNING
3.2.1 The aeroplane is assumed to execute a turn at constant speed and constant
radius in which a vertical load factor at the CG of 1.0 is combined with lateral load
factors up to 0.5 It is assumed that the lateral acceleration is created, without the
use of wheel brakes, either by use of nose-wheel steering alone or by the use of
differential engine power alone. The range of radii of turn and forward speeds used
will be that practicable for the aeroplane. The distribution of side force amongst the
wheels will be determined by an analysis which takes account of the tyre
characteristics.
4 CASES APPLICABLE TO MAIN UNITS ONLY
4.1 DYNAMIC BRAKING
Page 2 of 5
SECTION 4
4.1.1 The aeroplane attitude is assumed to be that corresponding to the nose unit
just clear of the ground with its shock-absorber fully extended and the main unit
shock-absorber and tyre compressed to their static positions. The vertical load
factor acting at the CG should be 1.2 at the design landing mass M L and 1.0 at the
maximum design take-off mass MT. A drag reaction, at each wheel in contact with
the ground, is assumed to be acting at the ground. This will be equal to 0.8 of the
vertical reaction, or the peak dynamic brake drag, whichever is the less, and should
be combined with the vertical reaction.
4.2 REVERSE BRAKING
4.2.1 The aeroplane is assumed to be supported by main units only with the nose
gear fully extended just clear of the ground. The vertical load factor at the CG
should be equal to 1.0 at the maximum design take-off mass MT with forward acting
drag reaction at the ground of 0.8 of the vertical reaction or the peak dynamic brake
drag whichever is the less.
4.3 STEADY BRAKING WITH BUMP
4.3.1 One main unit is assumed to traverse a step, bump or hollow obliquely, after
landing or during an aborted take-off. The nose units may be assumed to be
centralised whether it is a main unit or not. See Leaflet 46 Para. 2.1.2 The total
vertical load on the main units before encountering the bump will be that appropriate
to the most adverse combination of mass and CG position following the application
of the most adverse combination of all means of retardation. The following formula
applies to a conventional design:
Total vertical load on the main units =
 
T
M . G 1n / (1m  1n )  H / 3(1m  1n
L
4.3.2 Prior to the application of the bump loads the total wheel braking force on
the aeroplane need not exceed MT.G/3 when wheel brakes are either the sole
means of retardation or when acting alone provide the critical condition. When the
total retardation from all means can exceed MT.G/3 a case should be considered for
the whole aeroplane using the appropriate forces.
4.3.3 The bump factor F should be applied separately to calculate V for each main
unit in turn. The side force for each unit will then be S = 0.25V and a revised drag
force should also be calculated from D = 0.4V.
4.4 TAKE-OFF OVER A BUMP
4.4.1 One main unit of the aeroplane is assumed to meet a bump at the maximum
take-off speed at MT with a total vertical load MT.G distributed between the relevant
main units, with aerodynamic lift L and tail load T derived from control forces and
pitching moment effects.
4.4.2 For a conventional aeroplane two cases should be considered:
Page 3 of 5
SECTION 4
(a) Total vertical load on the main units
MT.G.1n / (1m + 1n) - L
with L having a value appropriate to the normal attitude prior to initiation of

rotation.
(b) Total vertical load on main units = MT.G+(T-L) with T-L having the
smallest negative or largest positive value possible during rotation.
4.4.3 The bump factor F should be applied to each main unit in turn and all the
forces recalculated for that unit using D = S = 0.25V.
5 AUXILIARY UNITS
5.1 Units which come in this category (see Leaflet 46 Para 2.1.2) should meet both
cases of Para 3 and the appropriate cases of Para's 2 and 4 depending on the function of
the unit.
6 TRAVERSING AN ARRESTING CABLE
6.1 This condition can arise at any point during the take-off or landing run. The size of
the tyre must be adequate to provide for normal compression and the extra compression
caused by the arresting cable. If this were inadequate there could be an extra impulse load
up the leg. This should be discussed with the Project Team Leader. To cover all arresting
gears 3.2 cm is recommended for the diameter of the arresting cable. See also Leaflet 60.
6.2 This case applies to nose, main, and auxiliary units. For nose units it should be
superimposed on the cases of Para’s 2.1 and 2.2 For main units it should be superimposed
on the cases of Para’s 4.1, 4.3 and 4.4 For auxiliary units it should be superimposed on the
corresponding cases used. In each case where F is included its value will be 1.0, to avoid
super positioning of bumps.
7 TYRE-DEFLATED CASES FOR MULTI-WHEELED UNITS
7.1 GENERAL
7.1.1 Unless otherwise specified the proof and ultimate factors of Clause 4.11.33
should be achieved.
7.1.2 The deflation of any one tyre for each multiple wheel unit and the deflation of
any two critical tyres for each unit using four or more wheels per unit should be
considered.
7.1.3 The Bump Factor F may be reduced to (F+1)/2 in each applicable case.
7.2 CASES APPLICABLE TO TWIN-WHEELED NOSE UNITS
7.2.1 The conditions of Para 2 above should be met except that:
(a) The applied drag force due to wheel brakes may be reduced to 50
per cent of that in the all-tyres-inflated condition.
Page 4 of 5
SECTION 4
(b) The maximum steering torque of Para 2.2.2 may be reduced by 50

per cent.
7.2.2 For each possible case of one tyre deflated and the rest correctly inflated, all
wheel brakes should be gradually fully applied, the brakes being correctly adjusted
excepting the one on the wheel with the deflated tyre, while taxying at all aeroplane
masses up to MT. The drag force at each braked wheel should be assumed equal
to the peak dynamic brake force but need not exceed 0.8 of the vertical reaction at
the
wheel. All castored or steered positions of the nosewheel attainable during taxying
should be considered.
7.3 CASES APPLICABLE TO NOSE AND MAIN UNITS
(a) For the nose unit loads, it may be assumed that the wheel brake drag
is reduced by 50 per cent.
(b) For the main unit loads, it may be assumed that the wheel brake drag
load on each inflated tyre is not less than for the symmetrical load
distribution in the all-tyres-inflated case.
(c) In the turning case of Para 3.2 the applied side load factor at the CG
should be assumed to be the most critical value up to 50 per cent and 40 per
cent of that in the all-tyres-inflated condition for the one and two-tyres-
inflated cases respectively.
7.3.2 In all possible cases of one tyre deflated and the rest correctly inflated an
ultimate factor of 2.0 should be achieved on the loads arising when stationary in the
static attitude at the most critical mass and CG position.
7.4 CASES APPLICABLE TO MAIN UNITS
(a) The vertical load factor at the CG may be assumed to be 60 per cent
and 50 per cent of the factor with no tyres deflated for the one and two-tyres-
deflated cases respectively except that it should not be less than 1G.
(b) For the one and two-tyres-deflated cases the wheel brake drag at
each inflated tyre should not be less than for the symmetrical load
distribution in the all-tyres-inflated condition.
7.5 CASES APPLICABLE TO AUXILIARY UNITS
7.5.1 Units which fall into this category should meet the cases of Para 7.3 and the
appropriate case of Para’s 7.2 and 7.4 depending upon the function of the unit.
7.6 TRAVERSING AN ARRESTING CABLE
7.6.1 This case need not be considered with deflated tyres.
Page 5 of 5
SECTION 6
LEAFLET 44

GROUND
MANOEUVRING WITH MULTI-TYRE MAIN UNDERCARRIAGES
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The use of multi-tyre arrangements for main undercarriage units may result in
increased torques, compared with units having a single tyre, when the aeroplane is turning.
1.2 This leaflet recommends, for the guidance of designers, broad standards for design
and strength.
2 DESIGN
2.1 When an aeroplane is being manoeuvred on the ground, either by aircrew or

groundcrew, it is convenient to be able to turn the aeroplane in as small a space as
possible. Although the smallest possible space would be used when the aeroplane is
turned about a point midway between the main undercarriages, it is not usually practicable
to turn the aeroplane in a space less than that corresponding to a turn with one main
undercarriage as centre.
2.2 However, turning about one main unit as centre is the condition that induces the
highest torsional loads on that undercarriage and for multi-tyre units these loads may be
sufficiently high to require a stronger structure than that necessary to meet the other design
cases. In this event, the mass penalty may be considered too high a price to pay for
complete freedom of manoeuvre on the ground and some limitation on turning radius may
have to be imposed.
2.3 If this is accepted it is desirable to incorporate some mechanical device to ensure

that the aeroplane cannot be turned about a radius not catered for in structural design.
Such a device should be present even if it cannot be guaranteed 100 per cent effective. If,
for instance, the nose-wheel castoring range is limited by a stop, the nose wheel tyre might
occasionally skid on ice or oil and permit a turn about a smaller radius than intended. See
also Part 1, Section 3, Clause 3.11
3 STRENGTH
3.1 No attempt is made to suggest special stressing cases because conditions will vary
greatly with individual designs. The turning case of Clause 4.11 is applicable. Any special
difficulties should be discussed with the Project Team Leader.
3.2 A fatigue spectrum for each part of the unit should be prepared and a programme of
fatigue tests performed on representative critical parts. The variation of loading which is a
product of the multi-tyre design should be considered for inclusion in the fatigue spectrum
for the undercarriage units and aeroplane structure affected.
Page 1 of 1
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 45
DESIGN OF UNDERCARRIAGES - NOSE WHEEL STEERING
NOSE-WHEEL STEERING SYSTEM
1 COMPATIBILITY WITH OTHER SYSTEMS
1.1 It is a requirement that the steering system should be compatible with all other
systems which may be affected. The following should be considered:
(a) The aeroplane operational environment.
(b) The directional control response characteristics.
(c) The hydraulic system.
(d) The electrical system.
(e) The dynamic characteristics of the nose unit and of the other units (main and
auxiliary) and of the undercarriage back-up structure.
2 SHIMMY
2.1 The details of a mathematical approach required to demonstrate adequate shimmy

damping are given in Leaflet 38. This is an analysis which accounts for backlash, friction,
wheel out-of-balance, and realistic damping characteristics and also includes consideration
of non-linearities.
2.2 Excitation of shimmy may be caused by an impulse (lateral or vertical; single or

cyclic) or by an initial displacement of the nose-wheel on commencement of taxying. See
Leaflet 39.
2.3 Steering system parameters used in the shimmy analysis should be measured on
the aeroplane during early vibration tests and, if the parameters are found to be different
from those assumed, the analysis should be repeated.
3 STEERING TORQUE AND STRENGTH
3.1 When operating normally on a smooth hard runway the maximum steering torque of
a simple mechanical system would be limited by pilot effort at one end of the system and
the torsional friction between the tyre and the runway surface at the other. However,
externally applied shock loads arising from a high speed encounter with a step, bump or
hollow by an adverse combination of direction and alignment, could produce an impulse far
in excess of the normal torque. In hydraulic and electrical systems, and in some
mechanical systems, a torque limiting safety device is provided. Generally this will provide
torque relief for most normal cases but, despite this a shock load can be generated in the
wheel, parts of the nose unit, the steering system and back-up structure before the torque
limiting device has time to operate.
3.2 The requirements call for consideration to be given to these possibilities so that any
resulting limitations on operation can be brought to the attention of the Project Team
Leader.
Page 1 of 2
SECTION 4
3.3 A check should also be made to ensure that the torque and strength requirements
can be met at the highest and lowest temperatures and at the extremes of tyre and oleo
pressures specified for the aeroplane.
4 SEALING
4.1 In order to meet requirements it will be necessary to seal the system against the
ingress of dust, dirt and water (plain and salt) and to protect certain components against
snow and ice and the effects of both low and high temperature operation. When operation
in extreme environmental conditions is necessary these conditions will be included in the
environmental test schedule. When compiling the draft schedule the need for the following
specific environmental tests should be considered:
(a) High temperature tests.
(b) Low temperature tests.
(c) Temperature shock cycling tests.
(d) Mechanical shock tests.
(e) Noise and vibration tests.
(f) Humidity and fungus tests.
(g) Dust and salt fog tests.
4.2 During all tests relevant performance and endurance parameters will need to be
monitored. A list of proposed parameters should be included in the draft test schedule. See
also Leaflet 37.
5 FAILURE STATES
5.1 It is necessary to ensure the maximum possible safety in the event of failure of the
nose-wheel steering system. Should the system become inoperative during a formation
take-off the consequences could be serious unless adequate directional control remains to
maintain the aeroplane on a straight course in the specified crosswind. Similarly it should
be possible to maintain a straight path after landing in a crosswind with steering
disengaged or inoperative. Failure of the steering system should equally not cause violent
shimmy at any time.
5.2 Although a Failure Effects and Hazard Analysis is called for to ensure that the basic
design is as good as possible nevertheless it is presumed that failure of the primary system
may arise and an emergency system is demanded unless the directional control
requirements can be met with the primary system inoperative.
5.3 Where the requirements of Clause 4.14 cause excessive complication and where
provision of an emergency steering system is considered to be unnecessary the problem
should be discussed with the Project Team Leader.
Page 2 of 2
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 46
DESIGN OF UNDERCARRIAGES - LANDING
LANDING CONDITIONS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives background information, data, definitions and suggested methods
of compliance relevant to the requirements of Clause 4.11
2 BASIS OF THE REQUIREMENTS
2.1 GENERAL
2.1.1 The requirements are based on the assumption that static or quasi-static
analysis of the primary stressing cases of Para 3.1 will usually be used for initial
design and that they may need to be supplemented, either at the design stage or
later, by a few carefully defined secondary stressing cases derived by other
procedures.
2.1.2 Note that the definition of Main Unit given in Clause 4.11 implies that,
depending on the geometrical configuration of the aeroplane, a nose, tail, or wing tip
unit can also be a main unit.
2.2 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
2.2.1 This may apply both to the behaviour of the aeroplane as a whole and to the
analysis of forces acting on and in the undercarriage unit. When applied to the
aeroplane as a whole it will be used to derive the conditions at a particular point in
the landing from conditions defined at an earlier point. When applied to the
undercarriage structure it may start from one of the empirical cases or from a set of
conditions defined either arbitrarily or statistically.
2.3 ARBITRARY DEFINITION
2.3.1 The forces acting on an undercarriage unit may be derived by analysis of the
velocity and acceleration vectors starting from a set of parameters one or more of
which are considered at a specified high level considered likely to arise in service.
Recommended values are given in Section 4 Table 5. These are generally set at the
4 or 5  level and are intended to be used individually at this level. For example it
may be considered desirable to examine a case based on 10° bank angle at various
values of vertical and lateral velocity but not to design to meet the case of all three
angles at their arbitrary extreme values together or to combine this with the design
vertical velocity.
2.4 STATISTICAL DEFINITION
Page 1 of 11
SECTION 4
2.4.1 A number of parameters may be selected and varied statistically to provide a

set of combinations having a specified probability. A selection from this set will then
be used to define secondary stressing cases. If the Aeroplane Specification calls for
a statistical definition a total probability will be stated and the parameters which may
be varied will be listed. The mean and standard deviation of each parameter is
given in Section 4 Table 5. These values should be used if specific data more
directly applicable to the project is not available.
2.4.2 Where a statistical definition of any combination of parameters at a stated

probability level is attempted it is assumed that a computer will be programmed to
search the possible combinations at that level and select those which provide the
highest load in each structural member of the unit. However an acceptable
alternative in many cases will be to construct a number of cases. First, each
parameter should be considered at the appropriate probability level with the rest at
their mean values. Second, the case should be considered where the total
probability requirement is divided equally between all parameters included in the
analysis. Third, a number of intermediate cases should be considered where the
most significant parameters are taken at intermediate levels, and the rest at mean
values, to make up the total required probability.
2.4.3 Where the distribution of one parameter is dictated by another the more
significant parameter should be included in the analysis and the other held at a
selected arbitrary value. For example, there is no need to consider variations of
bank and yaw if variations of forward speed and drift velocity or crosswind provide
greater forces.
2.5 EXAMPLES
2.5.1 A dynamic analysis of aeroplane behaviour between main-wheel touchdown

and nose-wheel touchdown may be used to define a nose-wheel energy absorption
and stressing case. This might start from an arbitrarily defined maximum or
minimum pitch attitude and vertical velocity and use empirical values of drag and
side forces as necessary. See Clause 4.11
2.5.2 An arbitrarily defined set of bank and yaw angles may be necessary to
define stressing cases for an outrigger. For the same type of unit a statistical
definition of bank and yaw angles with vertical, lateral and horizontal velocities could
be used to define a number of cases having a specified probability.
2.5.3 An analysis of aeroplane behaviour starting before touchdown may be useful

in certain circumstances, particularly STOL projects and aeroplanes having
automatic landing devices, to show whether the flight handling characteristics of the
aeroplane are such as to give a high degree of confidence that the design vertical
velocity and associated attitude angles are adequate for specified pilot inputs, wind
shear effects, cross winds, gusts, or other specified disturbances.
2.5.4 Statistical analysis will be most useful for defining conditions at initial
touchdown but may also be found useful to help define an uprated version of the
aeroplane, redesign for production, or to define the loading spectrum for fatigue
analysis of a particular member.
Page 2 of 11
SECTION 4
2.6 STRUCTURAL RIGIDITY
2.6.1 In most dynamic analyses it will be adequate to assume that the aeroplane
structure is rigid. However, if the airframe or the undercarriage is flexible enough for
its response to modify the ground loads or the resulting forces in any parts of the
structure then a study of flexibility and response should be undertaken.
3 DESIGN PARAMETERS
3.1 DESIGN VERTICAL VELOCITY
3.1.1 Vertical velocity of initial contact is the principal parameter which determines
the energy to be absorbed and the landing reactions. No method of rational analysis
of a typical landing can be devised to give a design value which is high enough to
provide an adequate margin against emergencies and incidents. Equally it is not
reasonable to frame a requirement to cover the worst of all possible combinations of
all relevant parameters. The design value must therefore be set arbitrarily at some
intermediate value. 12.0 ft/sec (3.7 m/sec) is generally recommended for combat
aeroplanes and 13.0 ft/sec (4 m/sec) for trainers. When operation from rough
ground or damaged and repaired runways is required a value of 15 ft/sec (4.6
m/sec) should be used.
3.1.2 When operation from ships is required the design V v should be high enough
to cater for variation in aeroplane approach parameters and for ship motion up to
that expected in the most adverse conditions under which operation of the
aeroplane is required. A value of at least 4.6 m/s (15 ft/sec) should be used.
3.2 LANDING AT MASSES HIGHER THAN M L
3.2.1 Mandatory requirements are stated for landing at Vv at the design landing
mass ML. Non-mandatory design aims are given for landing at take-off mass MT
(this is necessary to provide an emergency reland capability) and for overload
landing masses. These requirements should not normally determine the design of
the undercarriage or back-up structure. If they cannot be met it is an indication that
the ratio of overload landing mass or take-off mass to normal landing mass is
unusually high and should be discussed with the Project Team Leader.
3.3 ANGLE LIMITS
3.3.1 Where the design geometry of the aeroplane is such that any of the
specified angles cannot be achieved before some other limit is reached (e.g. the
_
aeroplane tail hits the ground at less than  p +7°) the value to be used will have to
be agreed with the Project Team Leader and a bumper will need to be provided on
that part of the aeroplane which touches first.
3.4 DESIGN ENERGY
Page 3 of 11
SECTION 4
3.4.1 A shock absorber is normally designed to absorb a proportion of the landing

energy and to dissipate most of this energy. A tyre on the other hand will dissipate
only a small proportion of the energy absorbed and will return most of it in rebound.
The requirements stated apply to the whole of the unit (shock absorber plus tyre) in
each case and provide the rebound requirements which must be substantiated by
analysis of test results.
3.5 DESIGN REACTIONS Ra, Rn and Rm
3.5.1 These reactions will eventually be established or confirmed by drop tests but
estimates are required for initial design purposes. These estimates may be obtained
by dynamic or quasi-static calculations or from empirical formulae. In some cases
the object of the estimates will be to determine the reaction when the shock
absorber stroke and the wheel size are dictated by other considerations(available
space in particular) in other cases the object will be to establish the stroke required
when the reaction is dictated by the strength of the back-up structure.
3.5.2 In general Ra can be determined by dynamic analysis. In some cases there

may be an overriding structural limitation and the dynamic analysis will only be used
to check that performance is satisfactory. In any case no simple formulae can be
given.
3.5.3 For a conventional aeroplane having two main and one nose unit, where a
two-point landing is expected to be normal, the main unit reactions may be
estimated from:
1 M G V2
Rm  . L . v
m Sm 2 2G
and the nose unit reactions may be estimated by dynamic analysis of aeroplane
behaviour or from:
(1  0.4h)
R  2R m
n m (1  1 ) (1  0.4h)
m n
where Rm is given by the formula above.
3.5.4 For a conventional aeroplane having two main units and a nose unit, where
a three-point landing is expected to be normal and a two-point landing improbable
the three-point reactions may be estimated from:
1 M G V 2  1  0.4h 
R  . L . v . n  for each main unit
m  S 2 2G  1 +1 
m m m n
V2  1m  0.4h 
.  for the nose unit
1
R  .M G. v
n  S L 2G  1 1 
m m  m n 
Page 4 of 11
SECTION 4
3.5.5 Where both two-point and three-point landings are within the design attitude
envelope then the value of Rm or Rn used for design and stressing should be the
greater of the two given above.
3.5.6 In the above formulae  is the assumed overall efficiency of energy

absorption for the shock absorber plus tyre acting together at Vv. For conventional
tyres and efficient shock absorbers a value of 75% may be used but where a
conservative estimate is necessary 65% should be assumed.
3.5.7 Where the aeroplane is fitted with thrust reversers, a brake parachute, or an
arresting hook, the effect of the device on nose-wheel reactions must be considered
and this can usually be done only by dynamic analysis. On some aeroplanes the
nose-wheel bounces and the reaction is reapplied several times before damping
reduces it significantly. On others the nose-wheel may be held off until the
additional drag has been applied. In either case therefore the effects should be
treated as additive unless it can be shown that this is unlikely to be the case.
3.6 NOTES ON SECTION 4 TABLE 4
3.6.1 In any of the cases of Section 4 Table 4, shock absorber closure may be
determined by dynamic analysis if preferred.
3.6.2 In cases 1 and 5 of Section 4 Table 4, the value of the drag force co-efficient
must be maintained at 0.4 until spin-up is complete but may be relaxed to zero
thereafter.
3.6.3 In case 4 of Section 4 Table 4, the value of the vertical force coefficient and
of the drag force coefficient may be determined by dynamic analysis, starting from
the design vertical velocity on a surface having a coefficient of friction of 0.8, if
preferred.
3.7 OTHER DESIGN PARAMETERS
3.7.1 The values of design parameters not mentioned above are given in Section
4 Table 5. Some parameters, e.g. tyre pressure, may be taken at their nominal
value for design calculations and varied only during drop tests.
3.8 NOTES ON SECTION 4 TABLE 5
3.8.1 nz given in the table is the ratio of aerodynamic lift to aeroplane mass at the
time of touchdown. The value given may be assumed to apply throughout the
energy absorption stroke of the main units unless the analysis includes
representation of lift reduction as the vertical velocity decays.
3.8.2 All statistical distributions are assumed normal but in some cases, e.g.
aeroplane landing mass, only half the distribution is appropriate and the data given
refers to this half only.
3.8.3 Irrespective of the attitude of the aeroplane, vertical velocity is always taken
as normal to the horizontal and closing speed parallel to it.
Page 5 of 11
SECTION 4
3.8.4 Crosswind data is based on standard meteorological information collected at

a height of 10 m. For design purposes this may be interpolated to the relevant
height according to the law, V1/V 2 =(h1/h2)0.15. The standard deviation of 8kt
applies if the best runway is used. For airfields having only one runway use 11kt.
The mean for both is 8kts.
4 DIRECTIONAL FORCES IN LANDING
4.1 The primary stressing cases, of Clause 4.11, provide for the drift/yaw
conditions at main-wheel touchdown, during the spin-up phase, and during the main
energy absorption stroke.
4.2 When considering a landing in crosswind an analysis of directional forces

may be necessary. The following is a quotation from the relevant service manual on
the subject:
"These are two recognised methods of making the final approach:
(a) To counteract the drift by heading the aeroplane into wind, keeping
the wings level, so that the aeroplane tracks along the intended landing
path.
(b) To counteract the drift by banking slightly into wind and using rudder
to align the aeroplane with the intended landing path. This involves a slight
sideslip.
The first method is the one most commonly used in the Service today. However,
regardless of the method employed, considerable skill is required to counteract drift
accurately and this skill can only be gained with practice. In the final stages of the
approach there is normally less drift because the wind speed decreases near the
ground. This should be anticipated but the temptation to align the aeroplane with the
intended landing path or runway too soon must be resisted. The round-out, which is
otherwise normal, is completed with the drift correction still applied and rudder
should then be applied smoothly and firmly to yaw the aeroplane into line with the
landing path. In swept-wing aeroplanes particularly, there is a tendency for the into-
wind wing to rise as the aeroplane is yawed straight; this must be anticipated and
corrected with aileron. As soon as drift has been removed the aeroplane must be
placed on the ground.
4.3 On some aeroplanes the alternative method of landing with bank as

described at Para 4.2 (b) above may be further modified by landing from a turn
instead of using side-slip. On others it has been found preferable to land with drift;
this is acceptable where the undercarriage has been designed for this purpose but
is not generally recommended.
4.4 Whichever method is used the lateral forces generated and the lateral
energy to be absorbed will be derived from the landing speed and crosswind with
appropriate combinations of yaw and bank angle.
Page 6 of 11
SECTION 4
5 BACKGROUND TO STRESSING CASES AND SHOCK ABSORBER DESIGN
5.1 The parameters affecting landing reactions are the aeroplane landing mass,
moments of inertia, the instantaneous acceleration vector, the instantaneous
velocity vector, the attitude vector, aeroplane geometry, structural stiffness,
aerodynamic forces acting on the aeroplane, the ground surface, the shock
absorber damping and spring stiffness, the moment of inertia of the wheel, tyre and
brake assemblies, and tyre stiffness. All are significant in determining the forces in
the unit but unfortunately the most significant parameters sometimes cannot be
determined in advance.
5.2 The parameters of the shock absorber which should be considered include:
the shock absorber spring curve pertaining to the dynamic conditions under
consideration, the damping characteristics of the shock absorber, the effects of
friction in the bearings of the shock absorber and, where appropriate, flexibility and
mass distribution.
5.3 Evidence indicates that reduction of rebound of the whole aeroplane after
the first touchdown of main landing gears is important. Hence it is necessary to
maximise the energy dissipated during the compression stroke. In a fully airborne
condition at Vv the total energy dissipated by the suspension system is required to
be 67% of the total as specified in the requirements.
5.4 Drag forces on the wheels occur due to spin-up during initial touchdown but
are assumed to be negligible thereafter on hard surfaces until the brakes are
applied.
5.5 The spring-back forces are to be assumed to be equal to the spin-up drag
forces unless an analysis of the elasticity of the undercarriage unit structure shows
a lower value to be expected in all cases. The tyre and structural damping forces
should be included where necessary. A simplified analysis such as that given in
ANC-2 may be used subject to the Project Team Leaders agreement. On cantilever
units a dynamic analysis of these effects should be done to check whether a
resonant condition could be set up. On units with a high angle of rake, spring-back
forces may exceed spin-up forces and a dynamic analysis is therefore
recommended.
5.6 Side forces should be consistent with the angle between the horizontal
velocity vector at the wheel and the plane of the wheel and the appropriate side
force characteristics of the tyres.
5.7 Calculations will normally be based on the expected characteristics of new

tyres correctly inflated. Consideration should be given to the effects of growth,
incorrect inflation, and tyre wear if likely to be significant.
6 CONDITIONS AT INITIAL TOUCHDOWN OF FIRST MAIN UNIT
6.1 These conditions provide the basis for the strength, stiffness and energy
absorption requirements for the main units. The requirements apply at the design
vertical velocity which will be specified in the Aeroplane Specification. The
requirements assume that all landings are made on smooth, hard runways. Landing
on other surfaces is dealt with in Clause 4.13
Page 7 of 11
SECTION 4
6.2 Statistical definition may also be used at this stage to assess the overall
probability to be associated with a particular design case but an analysis in which all
parameters are varied is not considered desirable or practical as a basis for design.
6.3 Arbitrary definition will be required for these conditions only where the
primary stressing cases of Section 4 Table 4 are considered to be inadequate.
6.4 The principal use of an analysis of aeroplane behaviour at this point in the
landing cycle will be to make a case for extension of landing mass limits once the
landing parameters become known. A comparative simulator study could be based
on the characteristics of the aeroplane as measured in flight tests. It could start with
the aeroplane in nominal approach attitude appropriate to landing conditions, with
and without crosswind, before initiation of the flare manoeuvre. Each axis could be
considered separately. Such an analysis should be carried through to the point
where all spin-up and spring-back effects are completed and the main units have
completed their initial compression strokes.
7 CONDITIONS AT INITIAL TOUCHDOWN OF OTHER MAIN UNITS
7.1 Generally the requirements apply to the first main unit to touch down but
assume that the second main unit and the nose unit in a conventional design will in
some cases touch simultaneously and in others soon after the first. Where relevant
the conditions applicable to the second main unit can be derived from those
applicable to the first unit by an analysis of aeroplane behaviour similar to those
described below for the first auxiliary unit. Such an analysis is necessary for
aeroplanes with main units abreast of each other where rolling velocities and
accelerations at touchdown have a significant effect and for aeroplanes with main
units in line where the range of touchdown attitudes can include those in which
pitching velocities and accelerations make a significant contribution.
8 CONDITIONS AT INITIAL TOUCHDOWN OF NOSE AND AUXILIARY UNITS
8.1 The conditions at initial touchdown of each auxiliary unit cannot be defined
in the same ways as were used at initial touchdown of each main unit. Dynamic
analysis of aeroplane behaviour between main unit and auxiliary unit touchdown is
both more practical and more essential than it is prior to main unit touchdown
particularly if it is possible to define relevant pilot input programmes through the
controls and the brakes. This is particularly applicable to nose units in conventional
aeroplanes which normally land two-point and where the pilot can hold the nose unit
off the ground for some time. See Clause 4.11 Nevertheless the primary stressing
cases of Section 4 Table 4 with the assumption of a sink speed equal to that of the
main units may be adequate for some aeroplanes. The same form of analysis may
alternatively be used to determine the limits which have to be imposed on pilot
action to avoid over-stressing a nose unit which has already been designed. An
arbitrary statement of laterally disposed auxiliary unit touchdown conditions seem
logical only for those aeroplanes which can nominally land on main and auxiliary
units at approximately the same time, so that the auxiliary unit absorbs its share of
vertical energy and thus becomes a main unit. See Para 2.1.2 above. A statistical
definition is unlikely to be practical or necessary in these cases.
8.2 Particular attention should be given to the requirement to consider the most
adverse combination of mass and CG position. In some aeroplanes higher forces
than those generated in the normal cases can be generated in a nose unit following
main unit touchdown at an aft CG position associated with a lower landing mass.
Page 8 of 11
SECTION 4
8.3 If a dynamic analysis of aeroplane behaviour is required it should start from

the conditions at first main-wheel touchdown and should include consideration of
spin-up, spring-back, and crosswind effects. It should explore the behaviour of the
aeroplane up to the completion of the energy absorption stroke of the auxiliary unit.
Flexibility of structure may be considered if the aeroplane is not stiff enough for a
rigid body analysis to be sufficiently accurate. The extent to which the forces on the
unit are affected by pilot action, after first main unit touchdown, through the control
column or the brakes, must be considered but a stick-fixed analysis should also be
done. For nose units on conventional aeroplanes the pitch inertia of the aeroplane
must be included. For outriggers of the wingtip type, roll inertia must be included.
9 DROP TESTS
9.1 OBJECTIVES
9.1.1 The objectives of the Drop Test Programme are:
(a) To demonstrate the energy-absorbing capability of a landing gear

without exceeding the design reactions at design vertical velocity (Vv) and
without failure of the gear at 1.2Vv.
(b) To establish the parameters necessary to validate a theoretical

model of the unit or any part of it and to confirm the validity of design
assumptions used in performance analysis or stressing.
(c) To establish rebound characteristics of the complete unit and to show

that the design requirements have been met.
9.2 ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
9.2.1 For main units the energy input must be either the total aeroplane landing
energy divided proportionately between the units, or the energy obtained from a
rational method of predicting the energy absorbed when landing with the effects of
external forces due to the ground and the aeroplane aerodynamics including any
pilot actions. For nose and auxiliary units the input should be either the energy
appropriate to a unit load corresponding to a typical condition or the energy
obtained from a rational method of predicting the energy absorbed when landing
with the effects of external forces due to the ground and the aeroplane
aerodynamics including any pilot actions. The energy input is often an equivalent
energy using non-airborne for fully airborne conditions.
9.3 TEST SIMULATION LIMITATIONS
9.3.1 The whole of the undercarriage and back-up structure need not be included
in the drop test if it can be shown that adequate correlation between design
conditions and drop test results can be obtained by calculation. However all relevant
parts necessary for accurate assessment of energy absorption and dissipation,
design reactions, and rebound characteristics, must be included.
9.3.2 It is recognised that at most drop test velocities the exact simulation of actual
landing conditions is to some extent limited. In particular if a free-fall drop test is
done the airborneness and hence the rebound will be incorrect for an airborne or
partially airborne condition. In addition the difficulties of correcting drop test results if
both pitch and roll angles are included at the same time are appreciated.
Nevertheless, in some units, roll angle can be more important than pitch angle and
must therefore be considered for inclusion where relevant.
Page 9 of 11
SECTION 4
9.3.3 A constant friction co-efficient can be achieved by the use of an inclined

drop surface but mechanical constraints often arise with multi-wheel units and with
lever suspension systems. Friction co-efficient corresponding to wheel spin-up
achieved on test depends on the type of surface used, the tyre parameters and the
spinning velocity. Pre-spinning of the wheel also creates a difference between the
test condition where the wheel is spinning down and the actual landing where the
wheel is spinning up.
9.4 DROP TEST PROGRAMME
9.4.1 The test programme should include a number of separate conditions:
(a) Design cases - These should use an energy input corresponding to

the aeroplane design landing mass and should use velocities up to the
design vertical velocity. The actual cases selected should be those which
are critical for the design of the unit and its attachments.
(b) Ultimate cases - The aim of these tests should be to obtain data
which will enable the designer to predict the vertical velocity at which failure
will occur, unless this can be predicted from the validated mathematical
models at mean touchdown attitude and at any other attitude considered
potentially critical. Vertical velocities above Vv may be used and some
permanent deformation may therefore occur.
(c) Additional non-design cases - Variations of such parameters as tyre

pressure, shock absorber inflation pressure, shock absorber filling and
operating temperature, and mixing of new and old tyres on multi-wheel units
can occur during service. The effect of operating at other than design
conditions may be included in the test programme if practical. In particular
the variations of shock absorber pressure caused by variations of ambient
operating temperature within the limits of Part 1, Section 7, Clause 7.2
should be considered. It should be possible however to do only a limited
amount of additional testing to confirm an analysis which could then be used
for further work.
9.5 TEST MEASUREMENTS
9.5.1 Sufficient measurements should be made to determine the particular

parameters of interest:
(a) Energy absorption and dissipation - It is necessary to measure

vertical velocity at impact, drop mass travel, rebound velocity and height,
and simulated lift forces where relevant.
(b) External forces - The ground forces in the vertical, drag and side
planes should be directly measured or derived from other measurements.
(c) Landing gear parameters - The forces along and normal to the shock
absorber centreline together with the displacements of the shock absorber
and tyre and, if possible, the internal pressures in the shock absorber are all
required in order to validate a theoretical model of the shock absorber.
Page 10 of 11
SECTION 4
(d) Airframe attachment forces - It may be considered desirable to

measure forces in three mutually perpendicular axes at each of the
attachment points if those forces are to form a part of the test programme. It
should be appreciated that such measurements, or the results obtained from
such measurements, apply only to the test inputs made with the gear in the
test rig and are not necessarily representative of the aeroplane installation.
Special care will have to be taken if the test rig is to be representative of the
aeroplane structure. Alternatively a theoretical representation of the test set-
up could be used to obtain aeroplane attachment loads from the results
obtained on a drop test. In any case it may be more accurate to calculate the
three-axis forces at the attachments from measurements made at other
points on the undercarriage.
REFERENCES
1 TR 70187 - CAADRP - Hard landings encountered by sub-sonic jet aircraft by

CAADRP Special Events Working Party - 1970.
2 AGARDograph 83 - Manual on aircraft loads by J Taylor -Pergamon 1965.
3 Specification Mil-A- 8863C
4 Tech Memo Structures 844 - A review of available data on aeroplane main wheel
vertical velocity at touchdown - G W Suggett
Page 11 of 11
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 47
DESIGN OF UNDERCARRIAGES - LANDING
DESIGN OF OLEO-PNEUMATIC SHOCK ABSORBERS FOR CORRECT FUNCTIONING AFTER

LOWERING
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The design requirements imply that undercarriage shock absorbers should provide
the specified performance when the undercarriage is in the correct position for landing and
the aeroplane is about to land.
1.2 On some aeroplanes the attitude of the shock absorber unit when in the retracted
position is such that the gas and the oil of an oleo-pneumatic unit may become mixed. If
this is so the oil and gas may not resume their correct relative positions during the short
time interval between initiation of undercarriage lowering and the actual landing. The loss of
shock absorbing capacity can be considerable and may cause greatly increased loads in
the undercarriage and consequent damage to both undercarriage and airframe.
1.3 This leaflet gives general recommendations intended to prevent recurrence of this
trouble on future aeroplanes.
2 RECOMMENDATIONS
2.1 It is recommended that undercarriages employing oleo-pneumatic shock absorber

units should be designed so that:
(a) mixing the gas and oil is prevented under all conditions (e.g. by a separator
piston), or
(b) the shock absorber unit will recover the specified performance within 30
seconds after the undercarriage has locked down.
2.2 If the method of Para 2.1(b) is adopted the most adverse combination of aeroplane
attitude and duration of flight (up to the maximum endurance) should be investigated, and
in the case of flight at high altitude and of long duration it may be necessary to consider the
effects of temperature lag of the oil and gas upon the performance of the shock absorber.
Ground tests should be made to determine to what extent the gas and oil become
displaced in the most adverse circumstances, and the time needed for the gas and oil to
resume their normal positions after the shock absorber has taken up the normal landing
position. If this time is more than 30 seconds drop tests should be made on the
undercarriage about 30 seconds after the landing position has been reached in order to
demonstrate whether, notwithstanding the failure of the gas and oil to retain completely
their normal positions, the required shock absorber performance is attained.
2.3 An inert gas such as nitrogen will normally be used but the unit should operate on
air as an alternative when the inert gas is not available. Any special precautions or
limitations to be observed when using air in lieu of inert gas should be discussed with the
Page 1 of 1
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 48
DESIGN OF UNDERCARRIAGES - OPERATION FROM SURFACES OTHER THAN SMOOTH

HARD RUNWAYS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives information relating to two modes of operation which may be
adopted if a smooth hard runway is not available. These are:
(a) Operation from semi-prepared surfaces which can be either rough and
hard or rough and soft.
(b) Operation from smooth hard runways where damage caused by enemy
action has been repaired to the best standard possible under the current
operational conditions.
1.2 The Aeroplane Specification will state whether operation from hard ground, soft
ground, and damaged and repaired runways is required. Advice and information on each
of these is contained in this leaflet in relation to particular design problems.
2 EFFECTS COMMON TO ALL MODES OF OPERATION
2.1 There are certain aspects of operation from semi-prepared runways which affect
the aeroplane whether it is taking-off, landing, or taxying. These are:
(a) The effect of roughness on vibration levels applied to the crew and the
aeroplane equipment.
(b) The effect of roughness on fatigue spectra.
(c) The effects of softness on speeds and on power requirements to maintain

performance.
(d) The effects of longer wavelength roughness (undulations) on the dynamics

of the whole aeroplane.
(e) The effects of the damaged and repaired runway on the dynamics of the
whole aeroplane and on the forces in the undercarriage units.
3 AEROPLANE DESIGN
3.1 If there is a requirement to operate from short soft, rough strips the following
should be considered; wheel drag due to ground softness; aeroplane thrust to weight ratio
and flotation capability; ground effect; cushioned landings for high sink rates and high
approach angles; and aeroplane deceleration devices. Evidence available suggests that
for calculation of drag, twin wheels may be treated as separate single wheels having no
interference.
Page 1 of 4
SECTION 4
3.2 If there is a requirement to operate from damaged and repaired runways it is

necessary to define a Minimum Operating Strip (MOS) applicable to the aeroplane. This
will be in the form described in Leaflet 52. The design of the aeroplane should provide for
optimum operation from such a strip. Design principles which will improve operational
capability of the aeroplane and undercarriage are discussed in Leaflet 53.
4 TAKE-OFF
4.1 Softness increases take-off distance. However there may be a critical speed at
which whole-aeroplane dynamic behaviour prevents any further increase in speed and
hence inhibits take-off completely. Excessive free rolling wheel drag could also make
take-off from strips of limited length impossible.
4.2 Data on the effects of softness are given in the references listed in Leaflet 0.
4.3 Take-off performance on damaged and repaired runways will be affected

principally by repair mats covering craters in the critical area, where speed is high enough
to magnify undercarriage reactions and where, at the same time, lift is not yet high
enough to attenuate these reactions.
5 LANDING
5.1 Wet grassed hard clay soils may yield low µ and consequently produce long
landing runs. However if the soil is soft, appreciable rutting may occur during brake
application producing high soil drag and a reduction in landing run. Roughness and
softness may inhibit effective anti-skid braking but the importance of this will depend upon
the free rolling wheel soil drag. If the soil surface is hard and greasy, effective braking is
important, but if it is soft, free rolling wheel soil drag will assist aeroplane deceleration.
For the hard greasy case there may be a requirement for additional means of
deceleration.
5.2 Landing on damaged and repaired runways may be possible on the same MOS as
Take-Off if it can be achieved in the opposite direction. Where landing is required in the
same direction as take-off then this will create a second critical area unless the strip can
be made long enough to have this area in the middle which will produce a double ended
MOS. In service a MOS will always be selected where possible such that touchdown will
be on an undamaged section of the runway.
5.3 The recommended standard design parameters proposed by AGARD for

operation from rough ground and from damaged and repaired runways are given in Table
1. The value of Vv to be used for any particular project will be stated in the Aeroplane
Specification.
6 TAXYING
6.1 Both roughness and softness will create higher forces occasionally and a greater
frequency of the application of moderate forces. Where taxying distances are large,
fatigue damage can be significantly increased. This applies not only to the moving parts
of the undercarriage, where it may be severe, but also to more remote parts of the
aeroplane structure such as the wing root, top wing skins, flaps and tailplane joints.
Page 2 of 4
SECTION 4
6.2 Softness in particular will call for increased engine power to maintain a given
taxying speed and, on the other hand, severely limit taxying speeds on certain parts of an
airfield where repeated use creates undulations. These undulations will increase drag and
side forces.
6.3 Roughness, on hard surfaces, including damaged and repaired runways, will
create severe conditions for tyres and may give rise to large loads. Through the vibration
it causes it can have severe environmental effects on the crew and can sometimes cause
instruments to become unreadable. It can have a severe effect on the life of items of
equipment and on the accuracy of their performance.
7 MANOEUVRING
7.1 Roughness in the form of a loose hard surface will reduce the effectiveness of
normal application of wheel brakes and decrease the speed at which particular bends can
be negotiated without skidding.
7.2 Rutting caused by previous manoeuvres on soft ground can seriously increase
under-carriage reactions in all three axes. Side and drag forces could become limiting.
7.3 Ability to manoeuvre on soft ground depends on the degree of softness and
aeroplane flotation capability in the guise of tyre size and inflation pressure. In very soft
ground the aeroplane can become bogged down and may have to be recovered by
special arrangements. Limitations will be given in the form of the minimum California
Bearing Ratio (CBR) which the ground must have to enable the aeroplane to operate.
8 ARBITRARY STRESSING CASES
8.1 The formulae of Leaflet 43 may be used for calculations related to operation from
surfaces which are not smooth and hard for design only because, as the information
given in the other leaflets shows, little data is available on which firm design requirements
can be based. The main Clause 4.11 requirement for demonstration of compliance is that
tests shall be done.
9 DYNAMIC RECOIL
9.1 Dynamic recoil of internal moving parts has been a problem both in landing,
taxying and in some types of take-off. Stored energy if suddenly released can cause very
high stresses in some parts. A dynamic analysis of a wheel passing over any step down
or hollow must include an analysis of dynamic recoil.
9.2 This same problem could also occur after traversing a repair mat if the trailing
edge ramp of the repair were too steep.
9.3 It is a problem which must also be considered for all ship-borne aeroplanes. The
rapid expansion of the undercarriage legs, after a take-off where contact is maintained up
to the end of the deck, can produce forces which cause failure. See also Clause 4.11
9.4 A value of 20w has been found satisfactory for shipborne operation (See Section 4
Table 4) and is recommended for airfield operation as described in Para's 9.1 and 9.2
Page 3 of 4
SECTION 4
Case Direction Mass V v - (m/sec) Attitude

1 Symmetrical ML 4.5 All Practically possible.
2 Symmetrical ML 5.4 Average non-flared.
3 Asymmetrical ML 3.6 Yaw and Roll equal to average for

maximum crosswind.
4 Symmetrical MT 3.6 Average non-flared.
TABLE 1
LANDINGS ON ROUGH GROUND AND REPAIRED RUNWAYS

(AGARD proposed international standard)
Page 4 of 4
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 49

HARD RUNWAYS
SPECIFICATION OF CONTINUOUS GROUND UNEVENNESS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet is concerned with the specification of ground unevenness of a

continuous nature, as distinct from discrete obstacles such as steps, bumps and hollows.
The background to such a specification is discussed and a procedure which will usually be
satisfactory in relation to the requirements of Clause 4.13 is given.
2 BACKGROUND TO SPECIFICATION
2.1 The quantitative specification of continuous ground unevenness is necessary:
(a) to set a level for design which will ensure that the aeroplane can fulfil its
projected roles,
(b) to assess unevenness of ground which may be used for proving or

clearance trials, and
(c) to establish the relationship between the levels used for design or met in
trials and that of a potential operating surface.
2.2 The unevenness of ground is determined by the variation of height (h) with the
position (x, y) of a point on a reference plane. Most current descriptions of unevenness
concentrate on the profile of height along a straight line, which may be represented by a
function h(x). The requirements of Clause 4.13 necessitate the definition only of such a
profile.
2.3 Quantifiable properties of the function h(x) are required to gauge the unevenness of
the surface. The properties in current use relate either to the average level of unevenness
(as, for example, does the spectral density) or to the identification of individual features,
therefore caution is needed in their use. The specifications of the following section have
been derived from a comparison of the spectral densities of measured profiles, with
emphasis on wavelengths between 20 and 40 m. They are aimed at the establishment, for
a particular class of runway, of a profile the use of which for design purposes will permit an
aeroplane to operate on most runways of that class.
3 DETERMINATION OF RUNWAY PROFILE
3.1 The following procedure for the determination of a runway profile will usually be
acceptable.
Page 1 of 4
SECTION 4
3.2 The profile function h(x) is obtained by multiplying each of the vertical co-ordinates
of a standard profile shape by a factor dependent on the class of runway specified. See
Para 3.4 The co-ordinates of the profile shape (mm height at intervals of 1 m) are given in
Table 1. The factor to be employed will be specified by the Project Team Leader: the
following Para gives guidance on values appropriate to various types of runway.
3.3 Runways may be divided into 4 classes as regards their likely levels of unevenness:
A Paved runways laid on a stable base and regularly maintained.
B Poor quality paved runways and unpaved runways which have been fully
graded.
C Unpaved runways which have been partially graded.
D Unpaved runways on virgin ground.
3.4 Appropriate factors for the vertical coordinates for these classes are:
Class Factor
A 1.0
B 1.5
C 2.5
D 4.0
3.5 The following points should be noted:
(a) The standard profile shape has been derived from an actual runway profile,
in order to obtain a representative distribution of height variations.
(b) In deriving the standard profile shape the unevenness of the actual profile
has been attenuated at wavelengths greater that 120 m. Therefore the standard
profile shape will be unsatisfactory if significant aeroplane response would be
caused by unevenness at those wavelengths; in such a case the designer should
consult the Project Team Leader.
(c) If a runway of length greater than 1499 m (1639 yds) is required the
standard profile shape should be extended by reflection of both co-ordinates, i.e.:
h(x) = - h(2999 - x); 1499 < x  2999
h(x) = - h(3280 - x); 1639 < x  3280
Page 2 of 4
SECTION 4
Dist +0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +14 +15 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +21 +22 +23 +24
0 2 25 -19 26 -20 -13 -12 -2 -6 -3 -1 14 21 18 15 18 25 22 6 34 15 9 23 40 35
25 35 40 36 38 52 48 41 40 27 13 13 7 -2 15 17 9 17 22 19 25 37 7 5 0 -7
50 -12 7 -4 0 10 12 24 39 45 46 53 42 34 26 18 23 16 18 16 20 12 18 22 26 18
75 9 3 -2 2 5 3 -7 -17 -21 -19 -27 -31 -23 -27 -14 -14 -15 -14 -8 -10 -5 0 -5 -6 -10
100 -17 15 -20 17 -11 -6 3 6 3 5 10 -2 1 5 0 3 7 4 4 0 -7 -12 -14 -12 -17
125 -13 5 6 1 -1 -1 -5 -3 -4 -7 -7 -11 -18 -23 -24 -22 -22 -29 -29 -29 -30 -26 -28 -35 -38
150 -38 36 -28 29 -26 -16 -20 -21 -15 -14 -7 -5 -4 -2 2 3 10 11 16 18 16 16 17 10 10
175 6 8 12 11 15 18 18 7 6 5 -1 -6 -8 -5 -7 -16 -15 -16 -4 4 6 3 6 2 4
200 9 14 16 18 26 31 39 39 47 43 44 47 48 52 55 50 49 48 52 53 50 47 39 42 35
225 30 19 18 6 0 -8 -11 -21 -30 -40 -51 -58 -71 -78 -88 -94 -97 -97 -94 -92 -87 -79 -74 -74 -71
250 -58 47 -46 40 -31 -26 -20 -17 -15 -14 -16 -10 -10 -6 9 17 8 -2 -6 -12 -17 -22 -19 -18 -20
275 -16 27 -26 28 -28 -25 -25 -23 -14 -10 -18 -23 -15 -29 -31 -27 -26 -25 -9 6 2 5 5 5 -2
300 -9 17 -20 29 -38 -39 -32 -29 -24 -25 -26 -27 -23 -33 38 -35 -37 -39 -30 -24 -22 -20 -17 -15 -12
325 -23 33 -25 21 -16 -20 -22 -18 -23 -21 -18 -19 -13 -13 -12 -9 -14 -11 -16 -15 -14 9 14 9 5
350 3 2 2 1 -5 -5 -1 -10 -9 -13 -11 -15 -16 -18 -16 -19 -19 -22 -23 -26 -29 -27 -25 -21 -20
375 -19 13 -13 11 -10 -10 -6 -3 0 1 0 1 3 4 4 3 1 -4 -1 -1 -5 -6 -4 -9 -25
400 -30 34 -33 34 -37 -34 -33 -31 -35 -29 -25 -39 -35 -26 -22 -17 -19 -4 -3 -2 -4 -3 2 3 -4
425 -7 12 -13 13 -12 -17 -18 -13 -11 -10 -16 -14 -12 -10 -5 -1 -1 0 3 4 5 -1 1 -10 -18
450 -17 26 -23 24 -26 -30 -32 -32 -33 -32 -33 -36 -32 -38 -37 -40 -35 -27 -17 -7 2 12 11 12 12
475 10 9 6 6 -3 -21 -35 -37 -32 -19 -17 -18 -9 -16 -15 -24 -26 -26 -27 -19 -13 11 17 4 11
500 7 23 14 14 34 33 32 41 44 35 27 17 21 18 16 4 -4 -5 -2 -4 -3 -6 -2 12 5
525 10 13 2 3 -7 -10 -11 -7 -12 -15 -9 -8 -4 14 4 1 1 -1 3 -2 -4 -6 -11 -15 -13
550 -12 2 -1 1 -8 -15 -13 -7 -4 -7 -11 -3 6 4 5 14 5 15 0 -1 -1 5 3 5 -3
575 3 3 1 7 -8 -7 -13 -14 -4 -20 -15 -23 -30 -42 -45 -26 -20 -14 -15 -13 -10 -15 -19 -16 -20
600 -12 12 -11 8 -5 -10 -2 7 14 10 6 1 -10 -3 1 6 1 1 -11 -8 -14 -16 -21 -29 -26
625 -25 17 -15 15 -9 -9 -1 0 3 8 12 19 21 27 26 30 34 38 40 41 41 39 44 46 42
650 47 48 51 47 43 42 42 39 38 35 29 26 24 22 16 11 6 5 0 -1 -6 -7 -9 -9 -13
675 -17 14 -13 13 -7 -11 -14 -17 -24 -28 -31 -34 -34 -31 -28 -27 -15 -17 -26 -28 -28 -30 -30 -35 -34
700 -28 28 -27 29 -24 -23 -18 -16 -13 -12 -10 -6 -4 -4 2 6 9 11 12 13 12 13 12 8 8
725 9 8 8 12 9 13 9 10 7 8 1 -4 -1 -4 -2 -5 -5 -4 0 0 4 5 8 6 0
750 4 9 15 16 16 17 10 2 5 2 0 -8 -6 -14 -9 -13 -18 -19 -28 -31 -34 -41 -46 -39 -35
TABLE 1
CO-ORDINATES OF RUNWAY PROFILE SHAPE
Page 3 of 4
SECTION 4
Dist +0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +14 +15 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +21 +22 +23 +24
775 -37 -27 -29 -32 -27 -20 -11 -3 2 11 18 20 27 28 29 28 30 35 40 43 46 53 52 55 57
800 57 60 57 57 59 62 60 60 55 50 45 36 37 30 25 15 8 5 1 -5 -7 -15 -20 -18 -23
825 -29 -28 -29 -27 -27 -25 -21 -21 -23 -19 -18 -16 -17 -21 -16 -10 -8 -7 -2 -3 0 1 4 4 3
850 1 8 8 5 8 10 11 14 15 12 7 6 5 7 2 -4 -4 -7 -5 -2 -4 -4 -5 -7 -8
875 -9 -13 -12 -11 -6 1 -1 -5 -9 -17 -28 -24 -22 -29 -29 -26 -33 -36 -30 -32 -35 -18 -9 5 13
900 21 27 39 41 51 62 61 66 72 72 67 64 57 58 50 39 36 34 33 31 30 29 24 22 20
925 20 14 14 8 6 4 3 1 -8 -15 -21 -28 -32 -30 -32 -34 -37 -35 -36 -34 -30 -26 -17 -23 -31
950 -21 -15 -14 -7 -6 -3 1 3 6 12 9 12 16 14 26 30 36 39 41 45 48 57 70 61 55
975 52 48 51 55 42 32 24 20 10 18 15 10 5 3 -4 -6 -3 4 6 9 14 19 15 15 14
1000 9 9 7 6 0 -3 -3 -1 -1 -1 2 4 3 7 8 5 4 4 6 6 9 7 8 7 2
1025 2 -3 -6 -1 0 3 5 3 1 5 5 6 15 19 20 24 21 22 16 13 13 15 14 15 18
1050 20 17 20 23 24 32 31 34 38 41 42 40 40 41 36 37 35 33 37 39 36 36 31 32 32
1075 21 19 16 17 18 12 9 14 16 18 18 26 32 36 36 40 42 43 42 39 35 37 36 30 24
1100 20 12 10 8 10 8 11 5 9 5 13 15 22 21 19 19 15 10 4 10 3 5 4 5 4
1125 6 7 9 9 11 13 19 26 32 36 31 29 18 27 32 32 17 3 5 -6 -24 -36 -40 -28 -22
1150 -16 -15 -2 -8 -6 -11 -18 -26 -16 -13 -12 -18 -22 -17 -19 -18 -18 -10 -3 1 -1 11 19 15 16
1175 19 23 44 43 32 36 39 53 62 60 55 59 63 61 51 54 52 60 57 51 49 35 29 18 12
1200 15 11 32 42 47 45 48 54 63 67 66 67 62 59 53 42 35 33 30 25 19 13 10 8 7
1225 7 9 10 9 14 13 14 15 17 15 11 8 7 4 1 -1 -2 -6 -11 -17 -21 -23 -28 -34 -41
1250 -40 -42 -41 -40 -31 -26 -25 -25 -27 -29 -25 -28 -27 -14 -16 -24 -26 -28 -19 -28 -31 -35 -30 -25 -19
1275 -18 -17 -17 -14 -7 -6 -17 -18 -17 -12 -4 -4 -4 0 0 10 18 21 17 13 17 21 29 30 32
1300 20 20 19 19 21 21 27 22 21 27 41 50 56 57 56 51 49 56 46 28 30 28 36 44 42
1325 34 28 25 30 30 40 34 24 15 9 -3 -13 -14 -11 -10 -11 -17 -22 -27 -28 -27 -30 -30 -34 -34
1350 -38 -45 -45 -42 -39 -38 -43 -48 -46 -45 -39 -37 -35 -36 -37 -39 -35 -41 -48 -52 -49 -54 -50 -42 -33
1375 -30 -29 -25 -19 -27 -19 -18 -15 -10 -12 -19 -28 -33 -33 -32 -26 -22 -17 -7 -11 -14 -21 -19 -29 -52
1400 -54 -56 -47 -38 -30 -15 6 6 -5 -21 -15 -5 7 3 1 11 29 29 27 30 33 38 55 56 57
1425 63 63 57 44 47 49 45 44 33 39 37 31 25 22 5 0 7 5 -3 4 9 11 11 11 1
1450 -4 -8 3 19 27 38 42 44 45 45 30 17 9 -1 -9 -21 -28 -30 -33 -40 -44 -49 -62 -62 -63
1475 -77 -74 -73 -90 -91 -90 -88 -76 -73 -75 -73 -71 -66 -68 -64 -59 -67 -67 -58 -46 -28 -19 -16 -3 2
Distances along profile in m, elevations in mm.
TABLE 1 (cont.)
Page 4 of 4
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 50

HARD RUNWAYS
ESTIMATION OF GROUND FLOTATION
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet describes an acceptable method for the evaluation of the flotation
characteristics of aeroplanes required to operate from unpaved surfaces. For a given
aeroplane mass and undercarriage configuration it allows an estimate to be made of the
number of operations which might be achieved prior to failure of the surface where such
failure is characterised by the formation of 75 mm (3 in) deep ruts. The method is valid for
single wheel loads between 22 kN and 340 kN (5000 lb and 75000 lb), and tyre contact
pressures in range 150-2000 kPa (20-300 lb/in2). Further it is mainly applicable for
cohesive soils such as clays. In general, sandy and gravelly soils do not present a greater
bearing strength problem but may exhibit other limiting conditions such as surface dusting
and erosion.
1.2 The method is nominally identical to that of US AFSC DH 2-1 Sect 40.
2 DEFINITIONS
2.1 SORTIE OR OPERATION:
2.1.1 One complete cycle consisting of taxi from dispersal and take-off at design
take-off mass, landing and taxi to dispersal at design landing mass.
2.2 TRAFFIC PATH:
2.2.1 A strip distributed centrally on the unpaved surface such that the centre line
of the aeroplane stays within ± 1 m (± 40 in) of the centre line of the strip.
2.3 PASS OR MOVEMENT (P):
2.3.1 One traverse along a traffic path. It is assumed that 75% of passes on the
airstrip take place within the traffic path and are distributed across it uniformly.
2.3.2 The number of passes comprising a sortie will depend upon the
runway/taxiway configuration and the type of operation. The number of passes per
sortie will be stated in the Aeroplane Specification.
2.4 COVERAGE(C):
2.4.1 One application of a wheel over every point of the traffic path.
2.5 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR):
2.5.1 A measure of soil bearing strength assessed by use of the cone

penetrometer (see 'User Handbook for Penetrometer, soil, Hand- operated'. Army
Code No. 60285).
Page 1 of 7
SECTION 4
2.6 EQUIVALENT SOFT SURFACE SINGLE WHEEL LOAD (ESSSWL):
2.6.1 The ESSSWL of a group of two or more wheels is defined as the wheel load
which, applied in isolation through a tyre operating at the same inflation pressure as
the tyres on the wheels in the group, produces similar maximum stresses in the
ground equal to those produced by the group of wheels. Note this definition is not
exactly the same as that used for hard surfaces. See Clause 4.11
3 METHOD OF ANALYSIS
3.1 DETERMINATION OF SINGLE WHEEL LOAD (SWL)
3.1.1 Main landing gear - The individual static main undercarriage loads should be
determined for the specified gross mass and with the CG position giving the
maximum main undercarriage loads. The single wheel loads are determined by
dividing the undercarriage load by the number of tyres on each assembly.
3.1.2 Nose landing gear - At the specified gross mass and CG position giving the
maximum nose undercarriage load, determine the dynamic load on the
undercarriage assuming a steady braked deceleration of 0.3 G, the brake drag
being applied at the point of tyre contact. The single wheel loads are determined by
dividing the undercarriage load by the number of nose-wheel tyres.
3.2 TYRE INFLATION PRESSURE (pi) AND DEFLECTION
3.2.1 The manufacturer's tyre inflation pressure, radial load and deflection
characteristics should be used to determine tyre deflections appropriate to the
loading conditions determined in Para 4.1
3.3 TYRE CONTACT AREA (A)

3.3.1 The tyre contact area may be determined by use of the following formula:
A  2.36d (d o  d) ( w  d ) where d =  (do - df)/200
3.4 TYRE CONTACT PRESSURE (pc)
3.4.1 The tyre contact pressure (pc) is determined by dividing the single wheel
loads determined in Para 3.1 by the tyre contact area (A).
3.5 EQUIVALENT SOFT SURFACE SINGLE WHEEL LOAD (ESSSWL)
3.5.1 For multiwheel undercarriage it is necessary to determine an equivalent

single wheel load: this is obtained by increasing the single wheel load by the
percentage factor indicated in Fig. 1, the total factor applied being the sum of the
factors for each individual adjacent wheel in the group. The percentage factor is
determined by the centre-to-centre wheel spacing expressed in multiples of the
radius of a circle of area equal to the contact area (A) of one tyre. If any spacing is
greater than 5.5 contact area radii it should be considered that there is no
interaction between the two wheels.
3.5.2 In the case of a single wheel undercarriage the equivalent single wheel load
is equal to the single wheel load.
Page 2 of 7
SECTION 4
3.6 COVERAGES (C)
3.6.1 Fig. 2 should be used to determine the CBR required to support one
coverage (CBR1) by each undercarriage unit, using the ESWL and tyre contact
pressure calculated in Para's 3.4 and 3.5 above. The number of coverages that a
strip of given strength (CBR) will support prior to failure should be determined from
the relation:
 CBR  6
Coverages (C) =   which is presented graphically in
 CBR 1
Fig.3 for convenient reference
3.7 AEROPLANE PASSES
3.7.1 General - The number of passes that an aeroplane can perform on a surface
of given strength will depend on the layout of the undercarriage units and the wheel
arrangements as well as the number of coverages to failure. The method for
evaluating aeroplane passes involves determining the number of passes possible
with each undercarriage unit and then summing the damage due to multiple
trafficking arising from the particular undercarriage layout. Reference should be
made to Fig. 4 for interpretation of the undercarriage notation.
3.7.2 Passes per coverage ratio (P/C) - For the individual main and nose
undercarriages, determine the number of passes necessary to complete one
coverage of the strip:
b  T+ w
Main undercarriage assembly (P/C) m = m m
( 0.75) n w
m m
b  T w
Nose undercarriage assembly (P/C) n = n n
( 0.75) n w
n n
3.7.3 Undercarriage passes (P) - The number of passes possible with each
undercarriage unit is the product of the appropriate (P/C) ratio and the number of
coverages to failure determined in Para 3.6,
i.e. Pm = (P/C)m . Cm
and Pn = (P/C)n . Cn
3.7.4 Aeroplane passes - The number of aeroplane passes will be the lesser of
the main unit passes or the nose unit passes. That is the lesser of:
T.P m. P n T.P m. Pn
or
T.Pn (T - H ) Pn  (T  K) Pm T.Pm (T  H)Pn  (T  K)Pm
Where H = X,X  T and X = t - wm - bm

H = T,X> T Y = ½ (t-wm -wn -bm -bn)
K = Y,Y T
K = T,Y> T
Page 3 of 7
SECTION 4
3.8 SORTIES
3.8.1 The number of sorties can be estimated by dividing the number of aeroplane
passes by the number of passes per sortie.
CENTRE TO CENTRE WHEEL SPACING IN RADII (SEE PARA 4.5)
FIG. 1 - EQUIVALENT SOFT SURFACE SINGLE WHEEL LOAD ADJUSTMENT CURVE FOR MULTI-
WHEEL UNDERCARRIAGES
Page 4 of 7
SECTION 4
EQUIVALENT SOFT SURFACE SINGLE WHEEL LOAD (Kn)
FIG. 2 - RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EQUIVALENT SOFT SURFACE SINGLE WHEEL LOAD AND CBR
FOR ONE COVERAGE
Page 5 of 7
SECTION 4
FIG. 3 - RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CBR RATIO AND COVERAGES
Page 6 of 7
SECTION 4
FIG. 4 - UNDERCARRIAGE LAYOUT AND NOTATION
Page 7 of 7
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 51

HARD RUNWAYS
ESTIMATION OF AEROPLANE ROLLING WHEEL DRAG
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 To evaluate the take-off performance of an aeroplane operating from a soil surface,
a knowledge of the drag forces exerted by the deformed surface is required. There is
insufficient evidence available to define precisely the relationship between wheel drag,
sinkage, and load, over the range of aeroplane speeds likely to be encountered. See
Leaflet 0 Clause 4.13 References 1.3 to 1.7 Although schemes have been devised in the
United States predicting wheel drag these are extremely complex, of uncertain validity and
not yet generally accepted. Until the evidence from further research programmes provides
data from which analytical methods may be developed having reliable accuracy, it is
considered that only tentative guidance can be given on the magnitude of wheel drag and
its variation with speed, load and sinkage.
1.2 The aim of this leaflet is to provide guidance, based on the best currently available
experimental evidence relating to clay runway operations, for determining the drag ratio
(drag/vertical wheel load) corresponding to easily derived tyre and soil properties.
2 THE DRAG-VELOCITY RELATIONSHIP
2.1 Broadly, the shape of the drag ratio-velocity curve may be deduced from the trends
of the drag and lift forces exerted on the tyre by the soil, regarding the soil as a fluid
medium. At low speeds, where viscous effects in the soil predominate, sinkage is high and
the drag can be assumed proportional to the drag area (tyre width x sinkage) approximately
and the velocity to some power probably in the region of unity. If the sinkage were to
remain constant the drag would be expected to increase with velocity but because lift
forces are developed at the tyre/soil interface, the net, vertical load on the soil (actual
vertical load-lift) is reduced and the sinkage decreased. Initially the effect of the resulting
decrease in drag area outweighs the effect of increasing velocity and the general trend is
for the drag force to decrease with increasing velocity. As the change from viscous to
inertial regime occurs, there is a transition from drag being approximately proportional to
velocity to it being proportional to a higher power of velocity and a square law may be
appropriate ultimately. During this transition phase the velocity effect starts to outweigh the
effect of decreasing drag area, the drag reaches a minimum and starts to rise. Similarly, the
tyre lift forces can be assumed proportional to the lift area and some power of the velocity.
The lift area may be regarded as the horizontal projection of the tyre footprint area in
contact with the soil. Because the lift and drag forces acting at the tyre/soil interface are
changing continuously with velocity and the tyre and soil are both deformable there is a
complex inter-relation between the drag and lift areas and the deformation characteristics
of tyre and soil. The experimental evidence indicates that the lift force increases with
increasing velocity until it equals the actual vertical load and the phenomenon of soil
planing, similar in concept to hydro-planing, occurs. This is an asymptotic situation beyond
which no further increase in lift can occur. The rise in drag occurring following the transition
from viscous to inertial force domination continues with increasing velocity and reaches a
peak somewhere before soil planing occurs and then declines.
Page 1 of 8
SECTION 4
2.2 The experimentally measured trends of the drag ratio with horizontal velocity are
shown in Figs. 1 - 4. At low speeds (less than 5 knots) the drag ratio is high because of
viscous effects in the response of the soil, and decreases rapidly with increasing velocity to
reach a minimum generally somewhere between 5 and 20 knots. Thereafter viscous effects
tend to become insignificant and there is an increase in drag ratio with increasing velocity
as soil inertia effects become important and the tyre geometry changes. A peak drag ratio
is reached typically somewhere between 40 and 80 knots and there is then a gradual
decline in drag ratio with further increase in velocity as the condition of soil planing, where
the lift forces on the tyre approach the vertical load, is reached. There is some evidence at
even higher velocity of the drag ratio attaining another minimum and then increasing but the
physical explanation for this is obscure.
3 REDUCTION OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA
3.1 In a comprehensive study of the rolling wheel drag problem a wide range of tyre and
soil properties may be involved but for the purposes of this leaflet these have been reduced
to those which appear to be the most significant. The tyres are assumed to be
characterised solely by their inflation pressure and the soil by its bearing strength as
measured in terms of the average California bearing ratio (CBR) over the top 12 inches (0.3
m) of soil using a cone penetrometer.
3.2 The results of two series of experimental tests made on clay soils at speeds of up to
100 knots and reported in References 1.6 and 1.7 of Leaflet 0 Clause 4.13 are reproduced
in Figs. 1 - 4 as graphs of drag ratio versus velocity. Figs. 1 - 3 refer to rig tests made with
a single wheel undercarriage unit and Fig. 4 to trials made with an aeroplane having two 8-
wheel bogie undercarriages. In Figs. 1 - 3 the test data points are shown, but those for the
results summarised in Fig. 4 are not available and the precision with which they are
established is not known. The result of Figs. 1 - 3 from the single wheel tests fall into a well
defined family of curves if the ratio of tyre pressure pi to the CBR is used as a normalising
parameter. The result is shown in Fig. 5 which can be taken as defining a generalised
empirical relationship between wheel drag and speed for single wheel undercarriage units.
3.3 Unfortunately the tests with the eight wheel bogie unit have been made with only
one value of tyre pressure so that the applicability of the ratio pi/CBR as a normalising
parameter cannot be put to the test in this case. However, until further data becomes
available, it is suggested that the ratio pi/CBR is assumed to be applicable as a normalising
parameter, and that the data of Fig. 4 is interpreted in the form shown in Fig. 6.
3.4 It is evident from the available data that, although certain features of the drag-speed
relationship appear in both the single wheel and the 8-wheel bogie tests, there are
significant changes, such as the speed at which the maximum drag occurs. This makes
interpolation to other multi-wheel unit configurations difficult. These problems can only be
resolved by further tests.
4 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
4.1 Take-off distance to lift-off can be calculated from:
VLO
M
d  V
T(V)  D(V)
dV
o
4.2 Taking for the wheel drag the appropriate relationship from Fig. 5 or Fig. 6
respectively in the equation d can be readily computed. For any given aeroplane, such
calculations should be carried out for the relevant range of tyre pressures, soil states and
take off weights to obtain a take-off performance chart for use in such conditions.
Page 2 of 8
SECTION 4
4.3 The results of such calculations are unlikely to provide a high degree of precision in
establishing take-off distances from clay soils, nevertheless it is believed that as an interim
measure, pending the outcome of further research, they will provide data suitable for
evaluating the comparative performance of competing design schemes whether they
incorporate single or multi-wheel undercarriage units.
TYRE PRESSURE
o - 30 psi
? - 45 psi
 - 70 psi
MEAN DRAG RATIOS
VELOCITY - KNOTS
FIG. 1 - DRAG RATIO Vs VELOCITY FOR FREE ROLLING SINGLE WHEEL TESTS (29 x 11-10 TYRE)
ON CLAY, CBR 1.5, (REF 1).
Page 3 of 8
SECTION 4
TYRE PRESSURE
o - 30 psi
? - 45 psi
 - 70 psi
MEAN DRAG
RATIO
VELOCITY - KNOTS
ON CLAY, CBR 2.3, (REF 1)
Page 4 of 8
SECTION 4
TYRE PRESSURE
? - 45 psi
o - 70 psi
MEAN DRAG RATIO
VELOCITY - KNOTS
ON CLAY, CBR 4.4 (REF 1)
Page 5 of 8
SECTION 4
VELOCITY - KNOTS
FIG. 4 - DRAG RATIO Vs VELOCITY FOR FREE ROLL EIGHT WHEEL BOGIE TEST (32 x 11.5-15
TYRES AT 36 p.s.i. INFLATION PRESSURE) ON CLAY (REF 2).
Page 6 of 8
SECTION 4
VELOCITY (KNOTS)
FIG. 5 - GENERALISED WHEEL DRAG/SPEED RELATIONSHIPS FOR SINGLE WHEEL UNDER

CARRIAGE UNITS.
Page 7 of 8
SECTION 4
VELOCITY (KNOTS)
FIG. 6 - GENERALISED WHEEL DRAG/SPEED RELATIONSHIP FOR 8 WHEEL BOGIE

UNDERCARRIAGE UNITS.
Page 8 of 8
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 52

HARD RUNWAYS
THE DAMAGED AND REPAIRED RUNWAY
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives background information on the repair of damaged runways and
their use for aeroplane operations. See Leaflet 0 Clause 4.13 Refs 2.5 and 2.6
1.2 High rates of operational sorties are required by the Services even in the event of
extensive airfield pavement damage. These can only be achieved by:
(a) runway repair to a standard which the aeroplane can use as described in
this leaflet.
(b) design of the aeroplane, particularly the undercarriage, to a standard which

will enhance its operability from damaged and repaired runways as described in
Leaflet 53.
2 THE MINIMUM OPERATING STRIP (MOS)
2.1 For each type of aeroplane it is necessary to define a MOS (See Fig 1) so that the
Airfield Commander can determine the standard of repairs required to convert the damaged
runway to a standard which can be used by several types of aeroplane.
2.2 For this purpose it is necessary to determine for the taxiway and each zone of the
MOS, the minimum standard of repair required for craters and scabs (spalls) for operations
to proceed. It is also necessary to determine the number of craters allowable in each area
of the MOS, and the minimum allowable spacing of repaired craters.
2.3 In addition to this it may be necessary to define a minimum standard of MOS (an
evacuation strip) to enable the aeroplane to make a single take-off if evacuation of the
airfield is ordered.
2.4 The Aeroplane Designer will be required to advise on the limitations (Fig.2) to be
observed in defining these strips.
2.5 The effect of speed on the definition of a MOS is most important, so far as take-off
is concerned the variation of speed at a particular point will not be very great if the start
point is always the same. But in landing the variation of both approach speed and of touch
down point will be large. This variation will also be affected by variation of braking
technique.
2.6 If an arresting gear is in use the effect it has on vertical undercarriage loads may
also be important particularly if high loads occur when crossing a repair in the vicinity of the
hookwire. See Leaflet 60.
Page 1 of 6
SECTION 4
3 REPAIR STANDARDS
3.1 See Fig. 3 for limiting parameters applicable to repaired runways. See Table 1 for
American standards and Table 2 for values of maximum height (h) for craters
recommended for evaluation during initial design. These values have been selected to
provide maximum capability of interpolation at minimum cost.
3.2 The worst of the scabs will be repaired. To minimise the work involved it will be
necessary to establish the following limits for unrepaired scabs. (See Fig. 3).
(a) Critical limits on length (X).
(b) Maximum depth (Y).
(c) Maximum slope of ends ().
(d) Critical spacings (S).
(e) Limits on width.
4 SPACING
4.1 Dangerous overloading can develop when a second scab or repair mat is
encountered before the effects of the first are damped out. Sag can also cause the same
effect. See Fig. 4. Both can cause a reinforcing interaction greatly increasing the forces
acting on the undercarriage unit. Definition of limiting values of S for both scabs and
repaired craters at relevant points along the MOS is therefore important. See Table 1 for
American limits.
4.2 The distance between peak loads caused by the reinforcing effect will be
approximately the same as the distance between two ramps or between the ramp and the
critical slope of the sag. These distances must not be the same as the skip distance (D) of
the undercarriage unit. Figs 5 and 6 give a simple method of calculating D if the natural
frequency in the relevant mode, the initial velocity of the aeroplane, and its acceleration,
are known. Obtain D' from Fig. 5 and D" from Fig 6 then D = D' +D".
4.3 Spacing limits S1, S2 and S3 (see Fig. 3) can be given in terms of aeroplane speed
or distance along the MOS. See Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b. Limits for S2 will necessarily be
influenced by the aeroplane's response to the first pair of repairs and their spacing S1. If S2
is large enough for their effect to be damped out then S3 can be treated as the spacing of a
second pair. If however S2 is less than this then the third repair will have to be separately
considered as one of a series. A procedure to overcome this difficulty, which may be
adopted at any point along the MOS, will be to cover two craters with a single long repair
mat.
Page 2 of 6
SECTION 4
FIG. 1 - DEFINITION OF MOS
FIG. 2 - SPACING AVOIDANCE DIAGRAMS
Page 3 of 6
SECTION 4
FIG. 3 - REPAIRED RUNWAY LIMITATIONS
FIG.4 - EFFECT OF SAG ON THE NOSE-WHEEL LOADS.
Page 4 of 6
SECTION 4
FIG. 5 – D
FIG. 6 - D
FIGS. 5 and Fig. 6 - CALCULATION OF SKIP DISTANCE
Page 5 of 6
SECTION 4
Class of Maximum Peak Maximum

repair height sag Nominal sag
See Note 1 (h) (Z p ) (Z n )
A 38 25 13
B 64 25 13
C 64 64 50
D 76 64 50
E 114 64 50
TABLE 1
AMERICAN DEFINITIONS OF REPAIR CLASSES FOR CRATERS
Notes on Table 1
1. This classification must not be confused with the Airfield Runway Classification
given in Leaflet 49.
2. Dimensions in millimetres.
Standard Repair heights (h)

Minimum 38 and 52 mm
Normal 52 and 70 mm
TABLE 2
REPAIR HEIGHTS FOR CRATERS RECOMMENDED BY AGARD FOR INITIAL MATHEMATICAL

EVALUATION
Page 6 of 6
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 53

HARD RUNWAYS
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet lists those design principles which have been found to be important for
operations from rough ground and from damaged and repaired runways. See Leaflet 0
Clause 4.13 Refs 2.5, 2.6 and 2.7
2 DESIGN OF THE AEROPLANE
2.1 The principal problems to be expected on damaged and repaired runways are:
(a) High undercarriage loads and/or unacceptable handling problems for the
pilot caused by rigid body response of the aeroplane in pitch, heave or roll. See
Leaflet 52 Para. 4.2
(b) High structure loads, particularly for heavy external stores, caused by
flexible response of the structure or by incorrect rigging loads.
(c) Undercarriage loads and store loads magnified by the environment and by
the accuracy with which servicing procedures are performed. See also Para 3
below.
(d) Unacceptable cockpit accelerations and vibration transmitted through the

undercarriage and structure from ground roughness.
(e) High forces caused by tyre and/or shock absorber bottoming which become
totally unacceptable if they bottom together.
2.2 Consideration should also be given to the location of the undercarriage units on the
aeroplane in such positions as will, through mass coupling and spring coupling, minimise
the load increase in the nose unit caused by the main unit and vice versa.
3 DESIGN OF UNDERCARRIAGE UNITS
3.1 The features of a suspension system which experience has shown to be important
for operations from surfaces other than smooth hard runways are:
(a) Adequate residual oleo piston travel beyond static or braked closure to
absorb surface variations without bottoming.
(b) Low spring stiffness, in the vicinity of static closure, for taxying.
(c) Damping optimised for predicted conditions particularly taxying.
Page 1 of 3
SECTION 4
(d) Damping designed to control aeroplane response, to braking and turning, in

pitch, roll and heave.
(e) Spring rate of main units stiff enough to give adequate roll stability.
(f) Minimal internal friction.
(g) Tyres to provide sufficient residual travel beyond static or braked closure to
absorb bumps or discrete obstacles including an arresting gear hookwire.
(h) Low tyre pressure to maintain taxi capability across soft surfaces.
(i) Preload at full extension not to be so high that it gives a 'hard' landing.
3.2 Operating effects which can create ultimate limitations and should therefore be
considered by the designer, are:
(a) Increase in tyre temperature caused by rolling friction, repeated braking, and
heavy braking.
(b) Decrease in damping efficiency caused by repeated impact on ramps.
(c) Increase in friction caused by structural deformation of parts of the

undercarriage and support structure.
3.3 Effects which may cause reduced oleo efficiency are:
(a) Detonation of the oleo gas/oil mixture.
(b) Gas in solution in the oil where the two are not effectively separated.
(c) Leakage of oil past the damping piston.
(d) Gas bubbles in the oil.
(e) Cavitation in the oleo.
3.4 The effects of mis-servicing (see Clause 4.11) are particularly important and should
be considered in combination with the effects of Para's 3.2 and 3.3 above.
4 MATHEMATICAL MODEL
4.1 The following aeroplane and environmental parameters should be considered for
inclusion in the mathematical model:
(a) Aeroplane rigid body modes in pitch, roll and heave.
(b) Aeroplane elastic modes to define loads on critical components.
Page 2 of 3
SECTION 4
(c) Aeroplane horizontal translation velocity, acceleration and deceleration.
(d) Aeroplane aerodynamic forces (lift, drag and pitching moment) thrust effects
and ground effect.
(e) Handling through pilot inputs, thrust control, thrust reversal, elevator
operation, and brake operation.
(f) Wind strength and direction.
(h) Undamaged runway surface profile.
(i) Standard temperature and pressure.
4.2 The following undercarriage parameters should be considered for inclusion in the
mathematical model. Note that, if dynamic response to damaged and repaired runways is
to be accurately represented, then representation of non-linearity of undercarriage
parameters where relevant, is essential.
(a) Undercarriage unit location, mass coupling and spring coupling (main to
nose and nose to main).
(b) Undercarriage kinematics, elasticity, and active control parameters.
(c) Shock absorber stroke, forces, limit loads, airspring characteristics and
internal friction.
(d) Shock absorber damping forces, compression damping and recoil damping.
(e) Overload relief valve operation.
(f) Mass, size and number of wheels.
(g) Tyre size, pressure and static deflection; dynamic forces and deflections.
4.3 The tyre model should be of the distributed-contact type.
4.4 The following are the parameters which should be read as the output from the
model.
(a) Vertical acceleration, velocity and displacement, at CG of aeroplane.
(b) Vertical acceleration, velocity and displacement, at pilot's position.
(c) Drag and vertical loads at each landing gear unit.
(d) Forces acting on critical components.
Page 3 of 3
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 54
DESIGN OF UNDERCARRIAGES - RETRACTION AND LOWERING
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet amplifies the requirements for undercarriage retraction and lowering.
2 RETRACTION AND LOWERING TIMES
2.1 The time from selection of the relevant control position to locking of the
undercarriage and doors in the required position is required to be as short as possible
consistent with adequate handling qualities. Times considered to be acceptable maxima
under all likely operating conditions are:
Retraction time 5 seconds

Lowering time 10 seconds
3 CHOICE OF DESIGN SPEED
3.1 The normal operating mechanism should be capable of raising or lowering the
undercarriage in the required time at all speeds up to the maximum speed at which the
aeroplane needs to fly with the undercarriage down. This maximum speed usually occurs
during take-off or baulked landing; the speed attained with the undercarriage still down in
these configurations normally provides an adequate margin to meet a pilot's requirements
for lowering the undercarriage when landing. The speed may be much higher if the
undercarriage is to be used as a dive brake.
3.2 If the take-off case is critical, the real starting point in estimating this design speed is
the recommended take-off speed and to this should be added the increases in speed
occurring during the 2 or 3 seconds necessary for the pilot to be sure that he is airborne, 2
seconds while he makes control and other movements and 5 seconds while the
undercarriage actually retracts. There should be, in addition, a margin of about 5 seconds
accelerated flight after the undercarriage is locked up so that pilots inexperienced on the
type will have plenty of time for retracting the undercarriage without exceeding the limiting
speed for flight with undercarriage down when taking-off at light load or under arctic
conditions when the longitudinal acceleration is high. This means that the design limit
speed should allow for a minimum of 15 seconds accelerated flight after take-off. It is also
emphasised that the limiting speed for flight with undercarriage down should be sufficiently
high to enable a steady flight path to be achieved giving progressive build-up of speed after
take-off until the best climbing speed is reached.
Page 1 of 2
SECTION 4
3.3 If the baulked landing case is critical, the design speed should be estimated by
considering the increase in speed which will occur from the starting speed, i.e. the
recommended approach speed with flaps fully down, while the engines are opened up from
idling to maximum speed, the flaps are raised, trim changes are made and while the
undercarriage is actually retracting. The same procedure should be used as for estimating
the final design speed in the take-off case but it should be remembered that more control
movements have to be made, i.e. the 2 seconds allowances should be increased to (say) 3
seconds, and the 5 seconds overall margin should still be provided.
3.4 If use of the undercarriage as a dive brake is proposed it will be necessary to

establish the speed at which retraction and lowering will be operationally necessary for this
purpose and also the maximum design diving speed with the undercarriage in the dive
brake position.
3.5 High speed failure states, such as flapless landing or landing with swing-wings
swept, may determine the design of parts of the normal and emergency lowering systems.
4 NORMAL OPERATION
4.1 The power provided for retraction and lowering should be adequate to meet the
operating requirements including an addition of 15% to the total mass of the wheels,
brakes, and tyres to allow for the accretion of mud and ice and increase of mass during the
life of the aeroplane.
5 EMERGENCY OPERATION
5.1 Control of the emergency system for lowering the under-carriage should be as
simple as possible. Emergency systems which require resetting after each operation are
acceptable. If compressed gas or a combustible cartridge is used to supply emergency
power, all cartridges, and compressed gas bottles, together with pipes and components
through which the products of combustion have to pass, should be located so that there is
a minimum risk of contamination in the cockpit or crew stations when the system has been
operated, and if it has been damaged, and so that there is a minimum risk of damage to
normal and emergency systems due to any one cause.
5.2 The choice of design speed for emergency lowering will be dictated by the nature of
the failure. The pans of the system common to both normal and emergency lowering must
be designed to the highest speed.
Page 2 of 2
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 55
DESIGN OF UNDERCARRIAGES - RETRACTING AND LOWERING,
DOORS AND LOCKS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet draws attention to points needing attention during design to ensure that
undercarriage doors do not come open during flight or gape when subjected to load. See Clause
4.11
2 NATURE OF THE LOADS
2.1 The aerodynamic loads tending to open a door in flight can be large particularly at high
speed or when the aeroplane is manoeuvring. These loads should be estimated from the best
available evidence with due allowance for the building up of pressure inside the compartment in
flight. Consideration should also be given to the inertia loads on the undercarriage and its doors,
and to the loads introduced in the door by distortion through the deflection of the surrounding
structure under load: this is particularly important at the leading edge where a bowed edge might
act as a scoop and result in the building up of high pressure inside the compartment.
3 DESIGN CONDITIONS
3.1 The consequences of a door opening in flight at high speed are likely to be catastrophic.
Consequently it is essential that distortion of the structure which would permit doors to be forced
open or locks to become disengaged should not be possible under conditions covered by the
Permissible Flight Envelope. See Part 1, Section 2 Leaflet 3 Para 4.
3.2 The requirements of Clause 4.11 need careful consideration. They clearly embrace all
conditions within the Service Flight Envelope (see Part 1, Section 2 Leaflet 3 Para. 3) but are
also intended to cover conditions within the Permissible Flight Envelope, and in asymmetric flight.
Venting may be acceptable as a means of achieving this providing that it can be shown to be
effective.
3.3 The design requirements also permit the undercarriage doors and door locks to be used
for retaining the undercarriage in the retracted position. The undercarriage doors alone may have
to support the undercarriage when the hydraulic retracting mechanism ceases to hold the
undercarriage in its correct locked position either through failure or leakage of hydraulic fluid.
When this occurs, the door has not only to support the mass of the undercarriage but also to
withstand any dynamic effects which might arise because the undercarriage hits it. The door
should therefore have both strength and rigidity to withstand such loads without appreciable
distortion.
4 POSITIVE LOCKING
4.1 The means adopted for locking an undercarriage door must be effective under all
conditions including those which arise when the door and/or surrounding structure is distorted
under loads beyond the normal proof load. The tendency for locks to become disengaged under
deflection of the surrounding structures can be overcome by making the locks positive in action
and of sufficient dimensions to allow for such deflections. Bowing of the door can be avoided by
making it adequately stiff or by providing a sufficient number of locks.
4.2 Locking jacks and extension-retraction jacks should be sequenced in such a way that the
operation of the one does not impose loads on the other which could affect its operation.
Page 1 of 1
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 56
DESIGN OF UNDERCARRIAGES - WHEELS, TYRES, BRAKES AND BRAKING SYSTEMS
DESIGN OF WHEEL BRAKE SYSTEMS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This Leaflet contains explanations and recommendations relating to the

requirements of Clause 4.12
2 ENERGY ABSORPTION CAPACITY
2.1 In the cases 1, 2 and 3 of Section 4 Table 6 the aeroplane mass and the distance
over which the kinetic energy of the aeroplane is to be absorbed will normally be given in
the Brake System Specification in the form of Load/Speed/Time characteristics, which have
been calculated in order to achieve the requirements of the Aeroplane Specification.
2.2 BRAKES-ON SPEED
2.2.1 Where it is acceptable to lose speed by aerodynamic drag before applying

the brakes, the normal brakes-on speed will be chosen by the Aeroplane Designer
to suit the operational requirements of the aeroplane.
2.3 DRAG FORCES
2.3.1 Aerodynamic and other drag forces may in some cases contribute
considerably towards the stopping of the aeroplane during the landing run. Such
forces will differ considerably for different types and should therefore be estimated,
with any necessary allowance for the counter-effect of thrust, for the particular
aeroplane under consideration, and for the most adverse runway condition from the
point of view of energy absorption.
2.3.2 Where this calculation cannot be made with accuracy, the total kinetic
energy and engine thrust appropriate to the braking phase should be used.
2.3.3 Allowance for asymmetry of braking that may be required for steering the
aeroplane in a crosswind should be made when estimating the nominal kinetic
energy requirements of the brakes.
2.3.4 Allowance should be made for temperature rise in the use of the brakes due
to taxying prior to take-off when determining the kinetic energy requirement for the
accelerate-stop case (Section 4 Table 6 Case 3).
2.3.5 When it is proposed to provide additional retardation by other means the

extent to which they can be accepted as part of the normal or emergency braking
will depend upon their reliability and upon the practicability of their use under
operational conditions.
2.3.6 When a brake parachute is used the brakes will generally still need to have
sufficient capacity to absorb the total kinetic energy of the aeroplane because of the
possible failure of the parachute to stream and because, in a high crosswind or in a
moderate crosswind on a wet runway, it may be dangerous to use the brake
parachute.
Page 1 of 5
SECTION 4
2.3.7 Allowances for the counter-effect of thrust (Para 2.3.1), asymmetry of

braking (Para 2.3.3) and temperature rise (Para 2.3.4) shall be agreed with the
Aeroplane Designer.
3 SECONDARY POWER SUPPLIES
3.1 RESERVE POWER SUPPLY
3.1.1 The reserve power supply is defined as the alternative power supply for
normal braking following a failure of the main power source.
3.1.2 The reserve power supply should be capable of providing braking for both
normal and emergency cases detailed in Section 4 Table 6 Cases 1, 2, and 3.
3.2 HIGH TORQUE RESERVE
3.2.1 On some aeroplanes it may be necessary to provide a high pressure reserve

or a secondary supply to meet the torque requirements and stopping distance of the
accelerate-stop case as defined in the Aeroplane Specification. This supply may be
capable of supplying a greater braking force than normal.
3.2.2 Since the higher pressure reserve will only be used in emergency, it is
accepted that the brakes may become unserviceable after one stop.
3.2.3 When the power supply is at a higher pressure, or produces a greater

braking force than normal, it is essential that the pilot cannot operate it without
taking deliberate action which is different from the normal braking routine. Hence, a
separate control is required (see Clause 4.19) and the pilot will operate it knowing
the consequences of his action. This high pressure control should be spring loaded
in some way so that the brakes are released unless held on by the pilot or the
parking lock.
3.3 STAND-BY POWER SYSTEM
3.3.1 The stand-by system is defined as the totally independent system which is
called upon to operate following a failure which would result in loss of the normal
system.
3.3.2 The stand-by system need not provide differential braking or anti skid
control. If anti skid control is not provided a simple progressive action device may
help minimise damage to the brakes, wheels, and tyres.
3.3.3 The consequences of operating the stand-by system must be included in the
Pilots/Aircrew notes.
4 CAPACITY OF THE POWER SUPPLY
4.1 During the landing run, when brake systems are in action, the brake pressure may
fluctuate several times per second. The capacity of the normal power supply with the power
unit(s) working as in the landing run must be sufficient to withstand such demands without
the available braking force diminishing. The capacity of the reserve power supply must fulfil
the same requirement but with the power unit(s) out of action so that it can be called upon
in the event of failure of the normal power supply.
Page 2 of 5
SECTION 4
5 BRAKE SYSTEM CONTROL
5.1 The time lag between initiation of pilot's effort and effective braking should be as
small as possible. Where differential braking is used to steer the aeroplane this lag should
not exceed 0.3 seconds.
5.2 Brake torque should increase and decrease approximately linearly with pilot's effort.
The characteristics of the brake-control system should be as shown in Fig. 1. Brake
application should follow the line LA and brake release should remain above the maximum
lag line LR (system hysteresis and mechanical tolerances) shown.
FIG. 1 - BRAKE CONTROL CHARACTERISTIC
Page 3 of 5
SECTION 4
6 BRAKE DYNAMIC RESPONSE
6.1 At an early stage in the design of a braking system attention should be paid to the
dynamic response of the system as a whole. Time lag and hysteresis can give rise to poor
braking performance and excessive pitch response. Where differential braking is used as
the method of steering poor directional control may also result.
6.2 Many dynamic braking problems can be avoided by the use of mathematical
modelling. The model should always include the mass and pitch inertia of the aeroplane,
undercarriage flexibility, and tyre properties. Brake components may be incorporated into a
real-time model.
6.3 In modern braking systems feedbacks may exist which could cause instability
resulting in high oscillatory loads and poor performance. Feedback of this kind is possible
when anti skid frequencies fall close to structural natural frequencies, particularly of the
undercarriage, wheels, and tyres.
7 BRAKING FORCE/TORQUE
7.1 The requirement of Clause 4.12 sets a minimum for the static braking force which
the brakes must be capable of applying. Consideration should also be given to the
maximum torque which can be developed by the brakes without skidding the tyres. If the
peak torque during any braking condition, within the aeroplane speed and brake pressure
range, exceeds the product of 0.8 times the static vertical load on each braked wheel at
maximum design gross take-off mass times the static radius of the tyre, this should be
discussed with the Aeroplane Designer and the effects on the nose wheel should also be
considered.
8 PARKING AND GROUND MANOEUVRING
8.1 It should be possible to lock the brakes on for parking immediately after use without
risk of damage due to heat but where this is inadvisable suitable instructions should be
given in Pilot's/Aircrew Notes for the particular aeroplane.
8.2 Brake control should be available during towing.
9 CONTROL FORCES
9.1 Table 1 of this Leaflet contains a summary of recommended values for the control
forces under different conditions. These values should be regarded only as a guide since
the position of the toe pedals, the range of travel and the mode of operation, all of which
affect the control forces, vary considerably between different aeroplanes. Wherever
possible the best values should be determined by tests on the individual aeroplane.
9.2 The initial operation of the brake should require sufficient effort to give the pilot the
feeling that he is operating the control, while the force required to obtain maximum braking
should be within the capabilities of the weakest pilot. See Table 1 of this Leaflet.
Page 4 of 5
SECTION 4
9.3 It is recommended that the pilot's brake pedal should be positioned such that the
load is applied by the ball of the foot. Consideration should also be given to ensure that
brake pressure is not applied inadvertently during rudder operation for all pedal adjustment
positions.
9.4 In the case where operation is by a separate hand control using the throttle hand,
recommended forces for the reserve brake control have not been quoted in Table 1 (except
for initial operation forces) because the estimates are markedly different.
10 BRAKE CIRCUIT STRENGTH
10.1 A foot load of 1800 N (405 lbf) is the minimum to which all brake circuits should be
designed. It is not the maximum load that a pilot could apply when exerting his full strength
under the optimum conditions of cockpit geometry. Such conditions are obtained when the
line of action of the pedal requires a straight push with no appreciable ankle movement. At
the same time, the leg becomes almost straight at full pedal deflection and the seat and
shoulder harness must be able to provide efficient body restraint. Where such conditions
apply, it is recommended that a load of 3,000 N (675 lbf) be taken as the maximum design
load on each pedal singly in the asymmetric braining case and a load of 2,400 N (540 lbf)
applied to each pedal simultaneously in the symmetric braking case. Whatever design
pedal load is assumed, its point of application on the pedal, while consistent with the
foregoing, should be taken as that which would produce the highest stresses in the pedal
and linkage.
10.2 The loads of Para 10.1 are unfactored design maxima and do not compare with the
loads given in Fig.1 and Table 1 of this Leaflet. See Clause 4.12 for factors required.
Type of Control Recommended force to Recommended force to Estimated maximum force

produce initial operation produce maximum that can be exerted for 1
of the brakes braking effort sec by the weakest pilot
assuming the most
disadvantageous position of
the control
Toe Pedals 0 to 90 N (15.7 to 20.2 450N (101 lbf) per pedal 850N (191 lbf) per pedal
lbf) per pedal
Reserve brake 25 to 50N (5.6 to 11.2 See Para 9.4 of this See Para 9.4 of this Leaflet
control where this is lbf) Leaflet
a separate hand
control operated by
the throttle hand
TABLE 1
CONTROL FORCES
Page 5 of 5
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 57
LABORATORY TESTING OF WHEEL BRAKE SYSTEMS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives details of laboratory tests suitable for demonstrating the ability of
prototype wheel brakes and their skid control systems to meet the requirements of Clause
4.12 See Ref 1 for detailed amplification on some of these tests.
2 OPERATING PRESSURE
2.1 Some specific tests may be required with the brakes in the unused condition.
However, in order to determine the operating pressures (or loads for unpowered
mechanical systems) required for subsequent tests, some running-in stops at low energy
are permissible.
3 STATIC TESTS
3.1 At 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1.0 times the maximum pressure the static torque should be
measured with the brake cold and also at the maximum temperature appropriate to a
normal energy stop. At least four recordings of torque should be taken at each pressure,
two with pressure increasing and two with pressure decreasing.
3.2 If the design of the brake is such that the torque in the reverse sense differs from
that in the normal sense, the reverse torque should be measured as at Para 3.1 above and
should have similar characteristics, with the same limits on the design value.
4 DYNAMIC TESTS
4.1 TEST CONDITIONS
4.1.1 In cases 1, 2 and 3 of Section 4 Table 6 are a record of the following should
be made:
(a) Flywheel speed against time.
(b) Brake pressure against time.
(c) Brake torque against time.
(d) Stopping time.
(e) Description, mass, and condition, of wheel, brake, tyre and tube.
(f) Flywheel diameter, inertia equivalent, and kinetic energies.
(g) Time/temperatures relationships of: hydraulic fluid, wheel adjacent to

fusible plug, bead-ledge above each brake, and other critical components.
Page 1 of 3
SECTION 4
(h) Wheel load.
(i) Fluid displacement due to brake wear and temperature changes.
(j) Tangential force at circumference of tyre required to rotate the wheel

with brake pressure released after completion of a number of stops to be
specified by the brake designer.
(k) Time from stop to fuse plug release and energy level of stop.
(l) Ability of tubeless tyre wheels to retain air satisfactorily under braking
conditions.
4.1.2 A guide to the number of stops to wear out may be estimated by calculating
the average wear per stop during normal energy stops on test, and ratioing this
wear rate to fully worn, for the disc with the least friction material remaining at the
end of test.
4.1.3 The kinetic energy of the flywheel at the instant of brake application should
be equal to the specified kinetic energy for the case under test. The rotational speed
of the flywheel should be within ±10% of the corresponding equivalent speed for
that case. These limits on speed may only be exceeded if the test machines
available cannot be adjusted. Concurrence should be obtained from the Aeroplane
Designer in such cases.
4.1.4 The stopping time for each stop should be within ±15% of the required
aeroplane stopping time, and the instantaneous variation in torque within +50% to -
20% of the required mean torque for the particular case.
4.2 CASE 1 (NORMAL LANDING)
4.2.1 Dynamometer tests should be conducted to demonstrate that the brakes/anti

skid system will bring the aeroplane to rest in accordance with the requirements of
the Aeroplane Specifications. The brake is to be at ambient temperature at the start
of any series of tests designed to demonstrate its durability, and artificial cooling
between tests is acceptable.
4.2.2 Adjustments of a nominal servicing nature are permitted and a record of any
such adjustments should be made. Changes of friction elements should not be
made.
4.2.3 The brake should be stripped at the end of these tests and thoroughly
examined. The wear and any distortion of the friction surfaces should be measured
and recorded.
4.3 CASE 2 - RE-LAND AND CASE 3 - ACCELERATE-STOP
4.3.1 Where either one of these tests is required, by the Aeroplane Specification it
should be done on the brake unit used in Case 1 (Nominal landing) with no
replacement of any part. One stop should be made at the appropriate conditions
after which the brake, wheel, tube, and tyre need not be serviceable.
Page 2 of 3
SECTION 4
4.3.2 If both these tests are considered to be necessary then provisioning should
be discussed with the Project Team Leader.
4.4 ADDITIONAL TESTS
4.4.1 Consideration should be given to:
(a) Structural torque tests (high pressure/high torque tests of wheel and
brake).
(b) Functional and leakage tests (fluid compatibility and freedom from
leakage at above normal pressure in static and dynamic conditions).
(c) Static pressure tests (no leakage or failure to a stipulated above-

normal pressure followed by pressure increase to failure).
(d) Endurance tests (specified number of pressure cycles to be endured

without excessive leakage or malfunction).
(e) High and low ambient temperature tests.
(f) Flight, taxi, and parking tests.
REFERENCE
1. CAA Specification No 17 - Aeroplane wheel and wheel-brake

assemblies minimum performance standards.
Page 3 of 3
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 58
LABORATORY TESTING OF WHEELS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives details of laboratory tests suitable for demonstrating the ability of
wheels to meet the requirements of Clause 4.12
1.2 The loads, pressures and tests discussed below should be agreed with the
aeroplane designer. See also Ref 1 of Leaflet 56 for detailed amplification of some of these
tests.
2 COMBINED LOAD TEST
2.1 Proof and ultimate tests should be based on the critical Design Combined Loads for
both inboard and outboard directions of side load.
2.2 Consideration should be given to the necessity for proof and ultimate tests for both
side-load-inboard and side-load-outboard conditions.
2.3 The load should be applied to the wheel through a tyre initially inflated to the Wheel
Design Pressure. Water may be used for the inflation. In this case the water should be bled
off during loading to approximate the tyre deflection that would result if air were used. The
inflation pressure at any stage should not exceed the pressure at maximum tyre deflection.
2.4 The corresponding brake assembly (where applicable) should be fitted during the
proof test, to establish clearance under load.
2.5 Wheels intended for fitting with tubeless tyres should be tested with tubeless tyres.
2.6 For the ultimate load test, bearing cones and rollers may be replaced by coned
bushes.
3 RADIAL LOAD TEST
3.1 This test is only required if not covered by the Combined Load Test above.
3.2 Proof and ultimate tests should be based on the Design Radial Load.
3.3 The test procedures of Para's 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6 should be adopted.
4 BURST TEST
4.1 The wheel must be tested to a burst pressure of 4.0 times the Wheel Design
Pressure. See Clause 4.12 Water may be used for this test. The pressure relief device of
Clause 4.12 will have to be blanked off for this test.
Page 1 of 2
SECTION 4
4.2 A tyre and tube of the correct size should be fitted but need not be of the same ply
rating as fitted to the aeroplane.
5 ROLL TEST
5.1 The roll test should simulate a series of full stop landings, roller-landings, take-offs
and taxying, of the tyre and wheel assembly against a rotating fly-wheel to a programme
representing as closely as possible the predicted usage of the wheel on the aeroplane. See
Clause 4.12
5.2 Tyres should have the same size and ply rating as those to be fitted on the
aeroplane.
5.3 Before the roll test commences wheels subjected to shot peening, roll burnishing, or
any other such cold-working process, should be thermally conditioned to simulate the
temperature/time history encountered during brake qualification tests excepting the rejected
take-off test.
5.4 Consideration should also be given to the representation, by a roll-on-rim test, of a

tyre burst at ML at touchdown in landing, or at the most adverse point in an aborted take-off
at MT. The wheel should not disintegrate during the test before the aeroplane comes to a
stop.
6 WHEEL PRESSURE RETENTION TEST (TUBELESS TYRES)
6.1 The tubeless tyre and wheel assembly should be inflated to 1.5 times the wheel
Design Pressure and immersed in water. The leakage rate from the wheel should not
exceed 4 bubbles per second.
6.2 After tyre growth has stabilised, the wheel should hold the Wheel Design Pressure
for 24 hours with no greater pressure drop than 5% or 5 psi (0.3515 kg/sq.cm) whichever is
the less.
6.3 The wheel assembly should be rolled under the design static load for 25 miles (40.2
km) and then allowed to cool to the start temperature. The pressure difference between the
pressure measured at the start and end of the test should not exceed 5% or 5 psi (0.3515
kg/sq.cm) whichever is the less.
Page 2 of 2
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 59
TYRES AND TUBES
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet contains recommendations relating to the requirements of Clause 4.12
2 INFORMATION REQUIRED
2.1 The following list contains the information which should be made available by the
Aeroplane Designer for the satisfactory development of a tyre:
(a) Type of runway surface (paved, grass, matted).
(b) If the tyre is on a braked wheel.
(c) Tyre arrangement (single, twin or tandem, diabolo).
(d) Aeroplane landing and take-off masses (ML and MT).
(e) Date of latest issue of related documents.
(f) List of referenced specifications to be used.
(g) Addresses in UK where specifications may be obtained.
(h) Statement regarding precedence of specifications.
(i) Tyre performance:
(1) Aeroplane design masses and speeds.
(2) Table of design vertical, drag, side and torsional loads.
(j) Tyre load/speed/time curves.
(k) Cross wind velocity spectrum - See Section 4 Table 5 and Leaflet 46 Para.
3.8.4
(l) Envelope which the grown tyre is not to exceed.
(m) If the aeroplane is required to operate from unprepared surfaces either

covered by a mat or not. The type of mat. The California Bearing Ratio of the soil.
The aeroplane mass. The number of passes required. The method of calculating the
tyre pressure. An approved method of showing compliance.
(n) Wheel Design Pressure and Burst pressure. See Clause 4.12
Page 1 of 3
SECTION 4
(o) Balance limitations.
(p) Percentage increase in aeroplane mass below which no redesign of tyre

should be necessary.
(q) Maximum allowable increase in tyre mass.
(r) Environmental operating conditions.
(1) Maximum ground soak temperature operating.
(2) Maximum ground soak temperature non operating.
(3) Minimum ground soak temperature non operating.
(4) Minimum ground soak temperature operating.
(5) Minimum flight temperature sustained indefinitely at an altitude to be

specified.
(6) Maximum flight temperature sustained for 2 minutes at an altitude to

be specified.
(7) Maximum flight temperature at sea level and duration required.
(s) Ambient pressures and rate of change ascending and descending.
(t) Humidity - specification to be met.
(u) Contamination - test specification and contaminants.
(v) Vibration test specification.
(w) Fungus resistance, salt, fog, rain, sand and dust, accelerator and icing
test specifications.
(x) Defect rate (pressure loss, tread stripping) not to be exceeded.
(y) Shelf life required. See Clause 4.12
(z) Any special requirements for compatibility with wheels, brakes, and ant-skid
system.
(aa) Conductivity required.
(ab) Whether tubed or tubeless.
(ac) Cut resistance requirements.
(ad) Demonstration of high speed stability characteristics.
(ae) Remouldability.
(af) Identification and marking requirements.
Page 2 of 3
SECTION 4
2.2 The following list contains the information which should be made available by the
Tyre Designer to the Aeroplane Designer and if necessary to the Project Team Leader:
(a) Effect of cross wind on tyre life.
(b) Load/deflection/tyre pressure curves.
(c) Maximum tyre mass.
(d) Tread depth.
(e) Maximum tyre deflection during normal operations. Reduction in tyre life if
other deflections are used.
(f) Load/deflection curves for both static and dynamic conditions at different
pressures.
(g) Lateral stiffness at relevant radial deflections.
(h) Torsional stiffness curves for relevant radial deflections.
(i) Cornering power characteristics based on NASA TRR 64 for various loads
and tyre pressures at relevant deflections up to a stated speed on dry and NATO
Standard Good/Moderate wet runway conditions.
(j) Foot print and rolling radius against % tyre deflection.
(k) Tyre lateral rolling relaxation length characteristics based on NASA TRR 64
for speeds up to a stated maximum.
(l) Moments of inertia for nose and main wheel tyres.
Page 3 of 3
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 60
GROUND CLEARANCE
TRAMPLING OF AERODROME ARRESTING GEAR HOOK CABLES
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Arresting gear of various types are now installed on many runways throughout the
world. They consist essentially of energy absorbing devices, installed away from the
runway, and wire ropes (called the hook cable) stretched across the runway supported in a
variety of ways. A common method is to thread onto this hook cable a number of supports,
which usually take the form of rubber discs. Another method is to fix a yielding ramp-
shaped support to the runway under the hook cable at intervals across the runway. Many
aeroplanes are now fitted with arresting hooks to engage the hook cable.
1.2 This Leaflet gives information on the effects of aeroplanes trampling the hook
cables and gives recommendations, based on measurements reported in Ref 1, on the
clearances which should be provided, between the runway and items fitted to the under
surface of the aeroplane, to ensure that neither they nor the hook cable will be damaged.
2 EFFECTS OF TRAMPLING
2.1 For the type of arresting gear considered in this Leaflet the motion of the cable
during trampling is complex. When a wheel rolls over a hook cable it is depressed and
sometimes pushed forward. A wave, in the form of a kink, is propagated on both sides of
the wheel and travels outwards until it is either attenuated by the supports or reflected by a
coupling. If one of the cable supports is trampled the wave may be increased in amplitude
by the energy imparted by the support. When the cable, already in motion, is trampled
again, by the main wheels of the same aeroplane or, in a formation take-off by another
aeroplane, the new wave further modifies the motion in a way which tests show to be
random but within a definable envelope. See Ref 1. The jet blast of some aeroplanes also
has a significant effect in formation take-off operations. The results of the tests (Ref 1) are
given as recommended clearances, for the arresting gears concerned, in Table 1.
2.2 Where an arresting gear has a tie-down device the amount of hook cable movement
possible is then considerably reduced. Estimates of the clearances required for RAF RHAG
Mk 1 and for PUAG Mk 21, with and without tie-down, are given in Table 1.
2.3 For other types of arresting gear which are generally similar in configuration to one
of the gears specified in Table 1 the ground clearances of Table 2 may be used but the
Project Team Leader should first be asked if better data is available.
Page 1 of 3
SECTION 4
3 DESIGN AND TEST RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1 To ensure that the cable will not strike the aeroplane during trampling, the clearance
between the runway and the various parts of the aeroplane should be not less than the
values given in the Tables in all relevant attitudes. In assessing clearances, the attitude of
the aeroplane and the undercarriage closure should normally be that associated with
taxying at slow speeds (zero lift) at the maximum design take-off mass MT but, on some
aeroplanes, it may be necessary to consider the heavy landing cases too. Attention should
be paid to propellers, brake pipes, picketing lugs, wheel guards, undercarriage doors,
aerials, underwing and ventral fuel tanks, gun pods, bombs and missiles, particularly those
with fins.
3.2 Where the recommended clearance cannot be provided, and the part concerned
cannot easily be moved, trampling tests are essential. The tests should be done if possible
on the arresting gear expected to give the worst results. It may also be necessary in certain
cases to use a particular runway to ensure that the effects of variation of camber are
adequately represented. If the correct facilities are not available the nearest equivalent
should be used and check tests arranged at a later date.
3.3 If tests confirm that a vital part is likely to be struck by the cable or by the support it
will be necessary to consider whether the impact will cause unacceptable damage to the
hook cable (as would occur after impact with the fins of a missile, a UHF aerial or a
picketing lug) or damage to the aeroplane severe enough to affect safety or operational
effectiveness (as would occur if a brake pipe, the skin of a fuel tank, or an optical window
were fractured).
3.4 If this assessment confirms that the damage is unacceptable then consideration will
need to be given to:
(a) Provision of a suitable guard,
(b) The imposition of operational limitations such as the prohibition of formation

take-off, limitation of trampling speed, restrictions on aeroplane loading
configurations and restrictions on landing areas.
REFERENCE
1 W A K Grant Arrestor wire trampling -

Recommendations for Royal Air Force aircraft
A&AEE Report No Tech 396/Eng, March 1969
Page 2 of 3
SECTION 4
With tie down Without tie-down

Hook Cable 150 (6) dia Part of aeroplane Hook Cable 150(6) dia
Support affected Support
90 (3.5) 150 (6.0) Forward of nosewheel 90 (3.5) 150(6.0)
180 (7.0) 230 (9.0) Aft of nosewheel 230 (9.0) 290(11.5)
180 (7.0) 230 (9.0) Aft of main wheels 330 (13.0) 390 (15.5)
TABLE 1
RECOMMENDED GROUND CLEARANCES FOR RAF RHAG Mk 1 and PUAG Mk 21
Notes 1 RHAG Mk 1 is the Rotary Hydraulic Arresting Gear
2 PUAG Mk 21 is the Purpose Use Arresting Gear
3 Dimensions are given in millimetres with inches in brackets
With tie down Without tie-down

Hook Cable Support Part of aeroplane Hook Support
affected Cable
1/2 (D+d) D Forward of nosewheel 1/2 (D=d) D
(D+d) 3/2 D Aft of nosewheel 5/4 (D+d) 2D
D+d) 3/2 D Aft of main wheels 9/5 (D+d) 21/8 D
TABLE 2
RECOMMENDED GROUND CLEARANCES FOR ALL OTHER ARRESTING GEARS
Notes 1 D = diameter of support, d = diameter of hook cable.
2 Where the hook cable is provided with a fixed support of Height H, put
2(H+d) = D+d and use hook cable clearance values only.
Page 3 of 3
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 61
CREW STATIONS - GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
NOMENCLATURE
Nomenclature and legends for use on controls, panels, and displays in aircrew stations:
AGREED NATO NOMENCLATURE1
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Absolute : ABS
Accumulator : ACC
Acquire : ACQ
Aft : AFT
Afterburner : A/B
Agility : AGTY
Aileron : AIL
Air : AIR
Air conditioner : AIR COND
Aircraft : ACFT (A/C)
Air Data : AIRD
Airspeed Indicator : ASI
Air to Air Missile : AAM
Air to Air) : AAR

Refuelling) A/R
Air to Ground Missile : AGM
Air to Surface Missile : ASM
Alignment : ALGN
Alternating current : AC
Alternator : ALTNR
Altitude : ALT
Amperes : AMP
Angle of attack : AOA
Page 1 of 15
SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Antenna : ANT
Anti : ANTI
Approach : APP
Arm : ARM
Armament : ARMT
Arrester Hook : HOOK
Attack : ATTK
Attitude : ATT
Attitude and Heading Reference System : AHRS
Augment(ation) : AUG
Automatic : AUTO
Automatic Direction Finding : ADF
Automatic flight control system : AFCS
Automatic Pilot : AUTO-PLT
Auxiliary : AUX
Auxiliary power unit : APU
Azimuth : AZ
Back Beam Mode : BBM
Back Up : B/U
Bail out : BAIL OUT
Battery : BATT
Beacon : BCN
Bearing : BRG
Bomb Release Safety Lock : BRSL
Boost : BOOST
Brake : BRAKE
Breaker (circuit-) : BRK (BRKR)
Page 2 of 15
SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Bright : BRT
Built in Test : BIT
Built in Test Equipment : BITE
Bus (electrical) : BUS
Cabin/cockpit Pressure : CPR
Calibration : CAL
Canopy : CANOPY
Caution : CAUTION
Centre : CTR
Centre Line : CL (C/L)
Centre of Gravity : CG
Central Air Data Computer : CADC
Central Warning Panel : CWP
Central Warning System : CWS
Chaff : CHAFF
Channel : CHAN
Climb : CLIMB
Cockpit Voice Recorder : CVR
Command : COMD
Command and Stability Augmentation System : CSAS
Communications : COM/COM
Communications Control Systems : CCS
Communication, Navigation, Identification : CNI
Compass : COMP
Compressor : COMPR
Computer : CMPTR
Page 3 of 15
SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Connect : CON
Consoles : CONS
Constant Speed Drive : CSD
Continuous Wave : CONTW
Control : CONTR
Control Display Unit : CDU
Collision : COLL
Cooling : COOL
Course : CRS
Cylinder : CYL
Damper : DAMP
Decrease : DECR
Defroster : DEFROST
De-ice : DE-ICE
Detector : DETR
Depression : DEPR
Destination : DEST
Direct current : DC
Disconnect : DCON
Disengage : DISENG
Display : DISP
Distance : DIST
Distance Measuring Equipment : DME
Door : DOOR
Doppler : DPLR
Down : DN
Drift : DRFT
Page 4 of 15
SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Eject : EJECT
Elevate (or) (ation) : EL (ELEV)
Emergency : EMERG
Emergency Power Unit : EPU
Engage : ENGAGE
Engine : ENG
Enter : ENT (ENTR)
Exhaust : EXH
Exhaust Gas Temperature : EGT
External : EXT
Failure : FAIL
Feet : FEET
Feet per Minute : FPM
Feather : FEATHER
Fire : FIRE
Flaps : FLAPS
Flight : FLT or FLGT (FLT)
Flight Director : FD
Flow : FLOW
Formation : FORM
Forward : FWD
Forward Looking Infra Red : FLIR
Forward Looking Radar : FLR
Frequency : FREQ
Frequency Modulation : FM
Fuel : FUEL
Generator : GEN
Glide : GLIDE
Page 5 of 15
SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Glide Slope : G/S
Governor : GOV
Ground Mapping Radar : GMR
Ground Speed : GS
Gyroscope : GYRO
Heading : HDG
Head Up Display : HUD
Heater : HTR
Heating : HTG
Height : HT
Helium : HELIUM
High : HI
High Frequency : HF
Hoist : HOIST
Hold : HOLD
Home-on-Jam : HOJ
Homing/Home : HOME
Hydraulic : HYD
Icing : ICE
Identification of Friend or Foe : IFF
Inboard : INBD
Increase : INC
Indicated airspeed : IAS
Indicator : IND
Inertial Navigation System : INS
Infra Red : IR
Inlet guide vane : IGV
Page 6 of 15
SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Instruments : INST
Instrument Landing System : ILS
Internal (Interior) : INTR
Inverter : INV
Jettison : JETT
Knots : KTS or KNOTS
Knots Calibrated Airspeed : KCAS
Landing Gear : LDG GEAR
Latitude : LAT
Left : L
Level : LEVEL
Light, (s), (ing) : LTG
Limit : LIMIT
Localiser : LOC
Lock : LOCK
Longitude : LONG
Loran : LORAN
Low : LOW
Low altitude bombing system : LABS
Lower : LWR
Lower Side Band : LSB
Low Frequency : LF
Low Light Television : LLTV
Mach Number : MACH
Magnetic : MAG
Manual : MAN
Marker : MKR
Page 7 of 15
SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Master : MASTER
Master Armament Safety Switch : MASS
Maximum : MAX
Medium : MED
Memory : MEM
Microphone : MIC
Military : MIL
Millibar : MB
Miniature Detonation Cord : MDC
Minimum : MIN
Minute : MIN
Miscellaneous : MISC
Missile : MSL
Mode : MODE
Monitor : MON
Moving : MVG
Navigation/Navigate/Navigator : NAV
Navigators Hand Controller : NHC
Negative : NEG
Normal : NORM
Nose : NOSE
Nozzle : NOZZLE
Nuclear, Bacteriological, Chemical : NBC
Off : OFF
Offset : OFS
Oil : OIL
On : ON
Page 8 of 15
SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
On-Top Fixing : OTF
Open : OPEN
Operate : OPR
Out : OUT
Outboard : OUTBD
Overheated : HOT
Override : ORIDE
Oxygen : OXY
Pedestal : PED
Personal Equipment Connector : PEC
Pilot : PLT
Pilot's Display Recorder : PDR
Pilot's Hand Controller : PHC
Pitch : PITCH
Positive : POS
Pounds per hour : PPH
Power : PWR
Present Position : pp
Pre : PRE
Position and Homing Indicator : PHI
Pressure : PRESS
Primary : PRI
Propeller : PROP
Pump : PUMP
Quantity : QTY
Radar : RADAR
Radar Warning Receiver : RWR
Page 9 of 15
SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Radar or Radio Altitude : RAD ALT
Radome : RADM
Range : RNG
Rapid : RPD
Rapid Data Entry : RDE
Reconnaissance : RECCE
Receiver : RCVR
Rectifier : RECT
Reference : REF
Regulator : REG
Reheat : RHT
Release : REL
Retract : RETR
Repeat : RPT
Repeater : RPTR
Reverse : REVR
Revisionary : REVY
Revolutions per minute : RPM
Right : R
Rockets : RKTS
Roll : ROLL
Rotor : ROTOR
Route : RTE
Secondary : SEC
Secondary altitude and heading reference system : SAHR
Secondary Surveillance Radar : SSR
Section : SECT
Page 10 of 15
SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Select : SEL
Sensitivity Time Control : STC
Shut : SHUT
Sideways Looking Airborne Radar : SLAR
Single Sideband : SSB
Skid : SKID
Special Weapon : SPLWPN
Speed : SPD
Squelch : SQ
Stability : STAB
Stability Augmentation System : SAS
Standby : STBY
Static : STAT
Store : STR
Surface : SURF
Synchronize : SYNC
System : SYS
Tacan : TACAN
Tail : TAIL
Take-off : T/O
Tank : TANK
Target : TGT
Temperature : TEMP
Terrain avoidance : TER AVD
Terrain clearance : TER CLR
Terrain Following : TER FLW
Terrain following Radar : TFR
Page 11 of 15
SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Test : TEST
Time over target : TOT
Time to Go : TTG (T/G)
Thrust : THRUST
Track : TRK
Transfer : XFER
Transmission : XMSN
Transmit : XMIT
Transmit/Receive : T/R
Transmitter : XMTR
Transponder : XPDR
Trim : TRIM
True air speed : TAS
Turbine Blade Temperature : TBT
Turbine Bearing Temperature : TBT
Turbine inlet temperature : TIT
Ultra High Frequency : UHF
Unit : UNIT
Undercarriage : U/C
Universal Transverse Mercator : UTM
Unlock : UNLOCK
Upper : UPR
Upper Side Band : USB
Vacuum : VAC
Variation : VAR
Velocity : VEL
Ventilation : VENT
Page 12 of 15
SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Vertical/Short Take Off and Landing : VSTOL
Vertical Velocity : VVEl (VV)
Very High Frequency : VHF
Vibration : VIB
Volume : VOLUM (VOL)
Volts : V
Warning : WARN
Water : WATER
Waypoint : WPT
Weapon : WPN
Wheels : WHEELS
Winch : WINCH
Windshield/Windscreen : W/S
Wingspan : WGSP
Yaw : YAW
NOTE: Legend in brackets is the preferred UK abbreviation and is not Agreed NATO
Nomenclature.
ADDITIONAL UK NOMENCLATURE
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Aircraft : A/C
Accident Data Recorder : ADR
Breaker Circuit : BRKR
Centre Line : C/L
Computed : COMP
Directional Gyro : DIS/DSCT
Elevat (e) (or) (ion) : ELEV
Page 13 of 15
SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Enter : ENTR
End of Tape : EOT
Fuel Flow : FF
Free Fall : FREE
Fuel Remaining on Tank : FROT
Acceleration : G
Gas Turbine Starter : GTS
Head Down Display : HDD
High Pressure : HP
Invalid : INV
Input : I/P
Jet Pipe Temperature : JPT
Low Pressure : LP
Multifunction Display : MFD
Multipurpose Display : MPD
Outside Air Temperature : OAT
Output : O/P
Pilots Display Unit : PDU
Processor : PROC
Press to Transmit : PTT
Recording : REC
Retarded : RTD
Slats : SLATS
Starboard : STBD
Symbology : SYMB
Turbine Gas Temperature : TGT
Up Front Control Panel : UFCP
Video Cassette Recorder : VCR
Page 14 of 15
SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE LEGEND
Video Display Unit : VDU
Volume : VOL
Vertical Velocity : vv
REFERENCES
Reference ASCC Air Std STANAG
1 10/47(Obsolescent) 3647
Page 15 of 15
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 62
AUDIO WARNING SIGNALS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 In addition to those audio warning signals specified in Clause 4.15, the following audio
signals have also been agreed as international Standards.1 Whilst these signals are, at present,
not required on British military aeroplanes, they are reproduced in this Leaflet for information
only, in case they are required in aeroplanes designed for foreign governments.
2 NON-VERBAL SIGNALS
2.1 BALE-OUT SIGNAL
2.1.1 The audio bale-out signal for use in troop carriers, cargo transport etc., aeroplanes
shall be a bell. The bell shall strike at a rate of 5 beats per second ± 1 beat and shall be
audible during flight throughout the compartment.
2.2 WHEELS-UP SIGNAL
2.2.1 The audio wheels-up signal shall have the following tone:
250  50 Hz interrupted at 5  1 Hz with a
50 ± 10% on-off cycle.
3 VERBAL SIGNALS
3.1 Verbal warning signals are audible signals in verbal form indicating the existence of a
hazardous or imminent catastrophic condition requiring immediate action and may only be used
to complement other forms of warning signal. Verbal warning signals are to be presented at the
operator's ear at a significantly higher level above the ambient noise. There shall be provision for
overriding and re-setting the signals. The signal when activated shall be presented until:
(a) the causative condition is corrected,
(b) a warning of higher priority is presented, or
(c) the signal is silenced by the over-ride switch.
3.2 The structure of verbal warning signals shall be:
(a) general heading, i.e., the system or service involved,
(b) specific sub-system or location, and
(c) nature of the emergency.
REFERENCES
Reference ASCC Air Std STANAG
1 61/116/5M -
Page 1 of 1
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 63
AIRCREW ANTHROPOMETRY
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet contains dimensions and weights to be used when designing
aeroplanes and cockpit installations.
1.2 Figures 1-4 consist of information taken from Ref 1 which contains a
Surrogate Aircrew population of 1,901 men and women extracted as a subset of
the 2007 Tri-Service Anthropometric Survey, capturing 117 body
measurements, detailed in Ref 2 (see Clause 4.15).
1.3 Figure 5 contains information taken from Ref 3 which contains 2,000
RAF Aircrew that were measured in 1970/71, capturing 88 body measurements.
Note: Anthropometric data is known to alter. For more information contact

DESJSCTLS-HFI-Pol@mod.uk.
2 DIMENSIONS
2.1 A pictorial index of the measurements in Ref 1 is reproduced in Figs. 1

to 4 together with the 3rd and 99th percentile values.
2.2 The measurements are based upon nude body dimensions so

allowances must be made for clothing, harness restraint systems and seat
geometry.
2.3 The four most critical body dimensions for cockpit workspace govern
aircrew selection. These limitations (1982) and their relation to the 3rd and 99th
percentile measurements from the Surrogate Aircrew population are:
Minimum Maximum
Sitting Height 864mm (6 mm > 3%ile) 1010mm (15 mm  99%ile)
Buttock-Knee Length 560mm (1 mm  3%ile) 660mm (3 mm  99%ile)
Buttock-Heel Length 1000mm (10 mm  3%ile) 1200mm (24 mm > 99%ile)
Functional Reach 740mm (2 mm < 3%ile) 900mm (6 mm  99%ile)
Note: The small differences between the 3rd and 99th percentile and the critical
measurements quoted give some flexibility in selection and growth of aircrew
after selection.
Page 1 of 8
SECTION 4
3 WEIGHTS
3.1 Weights for the 3rd, 50th and 99th percentile range of aircrew are given
below:
PERCENTILE
VALUES
% Kg
3 61.4
50 81.0
99 110.6
3.2 These values are for the nude body, so allowances must be made for
clothing and aircrew equipment. Both the minimum and maximum aircrew
equipment assembly weights must be considered. Typically these are given by
the summer/land clothing assembly and the winter/sea assembly respectively.
Specialist advice should be sought in the definition of appropriate clothing
assemblies and additional aircrew equipment such as maps, CBRN protection,
personal weapons, body armour, survival equipment and Night Vision Goggles
(NVGs).
4. EFFECTS OF CLOTHING AND SEAT GEOMETRY ON NUDE DIMENSIONS
4.1 EYE POSITION
4.1.1 The relationship between the seat reference point and the
eyeball position of subjects strapped into aeroplane seats is complex.
Detailed information has been published (Ref 4).
4.2 SHOULDER BREADTH
4.2.1 The clothing assemblies will add 10-20 mm to the nude Bideltoid
breadth (min and max respectively).
4.3 BUTTOCK-KNEE LENGTH
4.3.1 The clothing assemblies will add 10-20 mm to the nude Buttock-
Knee length (min and max respectively).
5 POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY (CG)
5.1 Where, for design purposes, the position of the CG of the complete body
is required, it may be assumed to be at Elbow rest height sitting (Fig 1
dimension “N”) and 100 mm (small) to 150 mm (large) forward of the
buttock/shoulder tangent line.
Page 2 of 8
SECTION 4
REFERENCES
No. Title
1 Outcome of the Tri-Service anthropometric database validation study for

aircrew applications, and the adjustment to data values representing the
2007 surrogate aircrew population – Connett CA and Marston P,
February 2009
2 Anthropometry Survey of UK Military Personnel 2006-07 – Tyrrell A and

Pringle R, QinetiQ/07/01821, June 2007
3 An Anthropometric Survey of 2,000 Royal Air Force Aircrew 1970/71 –

RAF/IAM Report 531/PAE Technical Report 73083/FPRC Report
1327/HMSO R&M 3372
4 The Relationship between the Seat Reference Point and the Eyeball
Position of Subjects Strapped into Aircraft Type Seats – Beeton DG,
September 1975; published as University of London MSc thesis
Page 3 of 8
SECTION 4
PERCENTILE PERCENTILE PERCENTILE

3rd 99th 3rd 99th 3rd 99th
A Bideltoid breadth 457 603 G Shoulder height, sitting 584 712 L Functional reach 742 906
B Biacromial breadth 333 446 H Sitting eye height 752 902 M Cervicale height, sitting 599 742
C Hip breadth, sitting 338 428 I Sitting height 858 995 N Elbow rest height, sitting 192 329
D Stool height 365 471 J Vertical functional reach, O Stomach depth 206 342
E Thigh clearance height 118 195 sitting 1211 1466 P Buttock - knee length 559 663
F Acromial height, sitting 524 678 K Knee height, sitting 489 607 Q Buttock - heel length 990 1176
Figure 1: Surrogate Aircrew Population 3rd and 99th percentile values (mm)
Page 4 of 8
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A Neck circumference 341 439 H Calf circumference 344 453 P Axilla - cervicale length 154 222
B Vertical trunk I Ankle circumference 211 276 Q Cervicale - crotch length 613 765
circumference (mean) 1576 1906 J Eye height, standing 1559 1811 R Shoulder height, standing 1352 1574
C Chest circumference (bust) 845 1186 K Axilla height 1246 1452 S Cervicale - vertex length 231 287
D Waist circumference (NI) 718 1121 L Axilla - wrist length 434 557 T Cervicale - waist length 333 474
E Buttock circumference 912 1173 M Crotch height 753 942 U Waist height 1026 1240
F Wrist circumference 151 196 N Waist to waist over shoulder 700 1040 V Cervicale height 1418 1641
G Thigh circumference 518 718 O Crotch length 719 1069 W Stature 1665 1908
Page 5 of 8
SECTION 4
PERCENTILE
3rd 99th
A Inter - elbow span 883 1078
B Hand length 178 228
C Elbow functional reach 368 460
D Elbow, fully bent circumference 309 418
E Knee, fully bent circumference 390 510
F Heel - instep circumference 316 389
Page 6 of 8
SECTION 4
PERCENTILE
3rd 99th
A Head breadth 146 171
B Head circumference 539 614
C Head length 185 218
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A Bitragion - coronal arc 330 385 I Tragion to pupil, vertical 3 36 P Foot breadth 87 106
B Bitragion diameter 129 152 J Nasion to menton, vertical 110 140 Q Ball of foot circumference 228 278
C Menton to vertex 210 252 K Tragion to brow ridge, horizontal 85 112 R Instep-sole circumference 228 273
D Tragion to vertex 118 145 L Tragion to back of head 88 118 S Foot length 244 297
E Tragion to menton, vertical 81 120 M Tragion to menton, horizontal 81 117
F Nasion to vertex 88 128 N Menton to back of head 179 224
G Tragion to nasion, vertical 6 45 O Maximum head diagonal from
H Pupil to vertex 97 130 menton 247 280
Figure 5: 1970/71 Anthropometric Survey of 2,000 Royal Air Force Aircrew 3rd and 99th percentile values (mm)
Page 8 of 8
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LEAFLET 64
GUIDELINES FOR THE DESIGN OF CREWSTATION LIGHTING AND DISPLAYS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Crewstation lighting and displays (CL&D) should be designed such that they:
(a) Permit satisfactory transfer of visual data from the crewstation instruments
and displays under all relevant lighting conditions.
(b) Permit satisfactory view of crewstation controls.
(c) Permit satisfactory transfer of visual data from the outside world (where the
outside world constitutes all vision external to the aeroplanes crewstations).
(d) Achieve the above without increasing the probability of detection by the
enemy.
1.2 This leaflet gives general guidelines for the legibility of displays and controls under a
wide range of ambient illumination levels and partially implements STANAG 3224 Annex
B.1
1.3 Three methods for specifying display legibility are discussed. These are the
Mathematical Modelling technique that is specified by ARINC 725 and the ‘conventional’
method. The Mathematical Modelling technique is the preferred method whilst the ARINC
725 method may only be used where the Mathematical Modelling technique cannot be
used (Para. 2.2). The 'conventional' method, although detailed in Para's 3 to 5, is not
recommended and should only be used where expressly permitted by the Project Team
Leader.
2 GENERAL
2.1 DISPLAY LEGIBILITY
2.1.1 The suitability of crew station lighting and displays is dependent on several
factors including;
(a) Crewstation configuration
(b) Mode of operation Day (with unaided vision) or Night (with

or without NVIS)
(c) Ambient lighting conditions Location and characteristics of ambient

light.
(d) Characteristics of the display Emission from active and inactive parts
of crew station displays and diffuse and
specular reflectivity of crewstation
display surfaces.
Page 1 of 11
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(e) Crewmember Performance Performance of Crewmember with

respect to visual tasks.
2.1.2 The conventional method of specifying the adequacy of display lighting

(which specifies colour, luminance and luminance contrast) has failed to fully
represent the effect that the above factors have on display legibility. Para’s 3 to 5
define the conventional method of defining display performance, Para 2.1.3
describes the Mathematical Modelling Technique and Para 2.2 details the preferred
method for specifying display performance.
2.1.3 Predictive Sunlight Legibility Mathematical Modelling Techniques3
(a) Mathematical modelling techniques have been developed which

utilise the above factors (Para. 2.1.1) to quantify, and thereby facilitate the
prediction of, display legibility (as perceived by the crewmember) under
extreme lighting conditions. This allows the acceptability of a display, in
terms of sunlight legibility, to be precisely specified.
(b) The level of display legibility (as expressed quantitatively using the
mathematical modelling technique described in Para. 2.1.3(a)) that is
required by a particular display is dependent on the ambient lighting
condition to which that display will be exposed. Displays which are
positioned in the crewstation such that they are exposed to a severe ambient
lighting environment will require a higher level of display legibility than those
displays exposed to a less severe ambient lighting environment. The
mathematical modelling technique may also be utilised to identify,
unambiguously, the most suitable display technology where the available
display technologies have not progressed sufficiently to achieve the required
level of display legibility.
(c) The basis of these techniques is illustrated in Fig 1. In essence the

spectral emission of the display foreground (active part of display) and the
spectral emission of the display background (inactive part of display) are
mathematically combined with the specular and diffuse ambient illumination
which enters the eye directly and which enters the eye through diffuse and
specular reflection from the display (see Fig 2).
(d) The resulting power spectra represent the total light energy entering
the pilot’s eye from the display foreground and background. These spectra
are then analysed further to simulate the eye response. The result of this
analysis is expressed in terms of "chrominance just noticeable difference"
(CJND) and the "luminance just noticeable difference" (LJND).
(e) The chrominance just noticeable difference (CJND) is the smallest

chrominance difference that would normally just be noticed when there is no
illuminance difference (i.e. iso-luminance). Similarly the luminance just
noticeable difference (LJND) is the smallest luminance difference that would
normally just be noticed when there is no chrominance difference (i.e.
isochromatic). Both CJND and LJND relate to a detection probability of 50%
as determined through subjective evaluation by Standard observers. The
CJND and LJND are combined to give the Perceived Just Noticeable
Difference (PJND). The PJND difference represents the smallest
combination of luminance and chrominance difference (between active and
inactive parts of the display) which would just be noticeable. (See reference
No. 4 for detailed description.)
Page 2 of 11
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(f) For a display to be adequately sunlight legible it must have CJND,

LJND and PJND values above a given value. The given value, i.e. the
design criteria, should be defined by the Project Team Leader. Consequently
the complete visual aspects of a display may be fully specified by specifying
PJND, CJND and colour (where colour is as defined in Para 3.5). (It is not
necessary to specify LJND. This is because LJND can be derived from
PJND and CJND.)
(g) This techniques is applicable to, and allows direct comparison

between, emissive, transmissive, transflective and reflective displays.
2.2 PREFERRED METHOD OF SPECIFYING DISPLAY PERFORMANCE
2.2.1 A predictive Mathematical Modelling technique should be implemented

where possible. Where implementation of predictive Mathematical Modelling
techniques is not possible due to the complexities of these techniques (i.e.
specification of acceptable LJND, CJND and PJND and specification of the
spectrum of the prevailing ambient lighting conditions) then the Discrimination
Index, as specified in ARINC 725 (Electronic Flight Instruments (EFI)), or Mil-S-
22885/108(Inactive See Mil-Prf-22885), should be used to define display legibility.
The 'conventional' (luminance contrast) method of defining display legibility is
inferior to both the Discrimination Theory and Mathematical Modelling technique
and should only be used where expressly specified by the Project Team Leader.
Para 3 to 5 describe the 'conventional' method in more detail.
2.3 NIGHT VISION IMAGING SYSTEM (NVIS)
2.3.1 The design criteria for NVIS compatible crewstation lighting and displays is
beyond the scope of this document. Refer to STANAG 3224.
3 DESCRIPTION OF TECHNICAL TERMS
3.1 AMBIENT ILLUMINATION LEVEL RANGE
3.1.1 The range of naturally occurring levels of illumination typically encountered

in a crewstation (and to be considered by this leaflet) is between 10-4 lux equivalent
to obscured starlight) and 105 lux (measured at altitudes above cloud).
The illumination should be considered to be diffused (i.e. equal energy from all
directions in the superior hemisphere) up to at least 104 lux; between 104 lux and
105 lux the distribution becomes predominately directional from the sun. "Day" is
considered to be between 102 and 105 lux; "night" is between 10-4 and 102 lux.
Levels of artificial illumination will fall well within these values and will be
predominantly directional.
3.2 CONTRAST
(a) Contrast can be defined as either;
C1 = measured character luminance

background luminance
or as;
C2 = measured character luminance - background luminance

background luminance
Page 3 of 11
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Both C1 and C2 are in common use however it is evident that:
C 2 = C 1 -1
Consequently the method of calculation should be specified where ever contrast is

specified. It is also essential that the ambient lighting illumination is also specified.
Where ambient illumination is non zero then the luminance values should be
inclusive of ambient light reflected from the display.
(b) For Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs), or other displays which produce a video
type display, the display modulation at a specific spatial frequency should be
specified.
L max - L min
modulation = (at a specific spatial frequency).
L max + L min
L max = maximum display luminance when a sinewave modulated

pattern, with a pre defined spatial frequency, is displayed.
L min = minimum display luminance when a sinewave modulated

pattern, with a pre defined spatial frequency, is displayed.
Both L max and L min should be measured under conditions of zero ambient
illumination (i.e. below 0.3Cd/m2).
(Chromate contrast can also play a large part in overall display legibility. Chromatic
contrast, however, requires methods similar to the Discrimination Index, or
Mathematical Modelling Technique, to quantify its contribution to display legibility.)
3.3 EMISSIVE DISPLAYS
3.3.1 These are displays relying on internally generated luminance emission

throughout the expected ambient illumination.
3.3.2 Direct emissive displays directly modulate the luminance at source (e.g.,
CRT). Indirect emission displays modulate a fixed source by interference (e.g.,
projector map).
3.4 PASSIVE DISPLAYS
3.4.1 These are displays relying on reflected natural luminance supplemented as

required by artificial luminance sources.
3.5 COLOUR
3.5.1 All colours should be defined in chromaticity co-ordinates related to

Publication CIE No 2.2 (TC-1.6) 1975 "Colours of Light Signals" or the 1976 CIE-
UCS "u" - "v" colour co-ordinates.
(Chromatic separation falls with increasing ambient illumination (i.e. colours

desaturate). Only Mathematical Modelling techniques provide a means of defining
colour separation under these ambient lighting conditions.)
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3.6 AUTOBRILLIANCE
3.6.1 Autobrilliance is the automatic control of the brightness of CL&D based on

ambient conditions. It is important to monitor both the illumination level falling on the
crewstation displays and the ambient illumination level falling into the pilot’s eyes.
Monitoring both the display and the pilot’s eyes will allow the "flying into the sun"
condition, where the displays are in sharp shadow whilst the pilot’s eyes are
adapted to the solar disk, to be identified by the autobrilliance control which shall
then select the maximum display brightness.
3.6.2 The illumination level range over which autobrilliance has control should be
102 to 105 lux.
3.6.3 The time response of the autobrilliance control (i.e. how quickly the
autobrilliance function should respond to rises or falls in ambient illumination) shall
be in the range of 0.5 to 2 seconds.
4 REQUIREMENT FOR PASSIVE DISPLAYS
4.1 CONTRAST
4.1.1 Displays exposed to illumination levels in the "day" range should exhibit a
contrast of 10 to 20 between white markings and the black background. Appropriate
correction factors must be applied to coloured areas, either markings or as
background.
4.1.2 Displays exposed to illumination levels in the "night" range will require
supplementary lighting, either integral to the display or by floodlighting. The
contrast, for displays being illuminated by supplementary lighting, should comply
with that specified in Para. 4.1.1 During night operation some background
illuminance should be provided to prevent auto-kinesis. (Auto-kinesis is a
phenomena by which brightly lit displays, which are seen against a dark
background, appear to drift.)
4.2 LUMINANCE
4.2.1 The generally accepted normal illuminance of white markings with the
illumination sources operating at rated voltage is 3.43 ± 1.72 cd/m2 (from STANAG
3224). There appears to be little purpose in amending this figure for the majority of
military applications except, possibly, for aeroplanes frequently operating in brightly
lit civil airports.
4.2.2 These values are applicable to all aircrew stations, however, the luminance
range may be reduced if the range of ambient illumination is restricted (Note: errors
in reading will start to increase at levels below 0.35 cd/m2 - 10% of nominal
luminance at rated voltage).
4.2.3 The illumination sources must be capable of being dimmed to produce

display luminance typical of that required for night operations. This is in the region
of 1cd/m2 (see Royal Aerospace Establishment, FS(F) Working Paper 6, Para.
7.9.3). Dimming to levels much lower than this will not be utilised by crewmembers
and may constitute design criteria which is not achievable by some display
technologies.
Page 5 of 11
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4.2.4 CL&D inside the crewstation should have a uniformity of illumination better
than 2:1 throughout the entire dimming range.
4.2.5 CL&D should be designed, through careful control of stray light, such that
CL&D are not reflected in crewstation glazing into the field of view of the
crewmember. Where the crewstation is configured such that reflections cannot be
eliminated in this way then those parts of the instrument panel which cause
reflections in the glazing should be capable of being dimmed independently from
those parts of the instrument panel which are not reflected in the glazing. Side
consoles and panels adjacent to glazing are particularly prone to causing such
reflections. Separate dimming of "CL&D prone to reflection in the crewstation
glazing" and "CL&D not prone to reflection in the crewstation glazing" may, in some
instances, be more desirable than left side/right side dimming of crewstations.
4.2.6 Areas, in the crewstation instrument panels and consoles, of very low
luminance (i.e. 'black holes') should also be avoided (see Para. 4.1.2).
4.3 COLOUR
4.3.1 The ideal illuminant colour, to ensure that any coloured segments, markings
etc., retain their true colour, is equal energy white, x = 0.333; y = 0.333. These
colour co-ordinates apply at the light sources rated voltage. The colour temperature
shift experienced when tungsten lamps are dimmed (i.e. operating in the "orange"
band of the spectrum) is less significant when the lamps are blue filtered than when
the lamps are unfiltered (Refer to SAE-AS25050 (Colors, Aeronautical Lights and
Lighting Equipment, General Requirements For.) and Annex A to STANAG 3224
(Edition 5)).1
4.3.2 If multicolour displays are used, colour should be reserved as follows in

accordance with Clause 4.152.
Red Dangerous conditions (e.g., enemy action, out of

tolerance conditions, severe weather).
Yellow/Amber Cautionary information.
Green/White Normal conditions.
Note: Other colours, if available, may be used to enhance information presentation

and to minimise clutter.
4.3.3 Where night vision imaging systems (NVIS) are likely to be used in the
crewstation then the colour of crewstation lighting and displays that are operating
whilst the NVIS are being used shall be dominated by NVIS design criteria. (See
Part 1, Section 6, Clause 6.2.6)
4.3.4 With Gen II NVIS this will generally mean that crewstation lighting and
displays will be blue-green only with the possibility of yellow captions or warnings.
Visual white and three colours CRT displays will be prohibited by Gen II NVIS
criteria. Gen III crewstations utilising current filters may be paler blue-green (if
required), and can include 3 colour CRT displays and probably red as well as amber
and yellow warning captions. The above statements assumes the use of those
filters specified in FS(F) Working Paper 6: "Cockpit Lighting Standards and
Techniques for use with Night Vision Goggles".
Page 6 of 11
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4.4 STRAY LIGHT
4.4.1 It is essential that aircrew do not see illumination sources either directly or by
reflection; this applies equally to floodlights or displays with integral lighting. It is
difficult to lay down quantitative data but displays with integral lighting should cater
for viewing at angles up to 60° to the normal. The amount of stray light from displays
with integral sources, and from floodlights and spotlights, requires control to
minimize general aircrew station illumination and to ensure that the sources are not
visible from outside the aeroplane. This may be achieved with floodlights by shading
the floodlight to ensure that only the essential areas are illuminated. Where the
location of the floodlight is such that stray light cannot be eliminated through
shading then the floodlight should be replaced with a spotlight (spotlights utilise a
lens and aperture systems in order to precisely control the area being illuminated.)
5 REQUIREMENTS FOR EMISSIVE DISPLAYS
5.1 CONTRAST
5.1.1 Contrast for monochromatic displays can be defined in accordance with the
definition stated in Para 3.2. However, when multicolour displays are considered, it
is necessary to quantify colour contrast as well as luminance contrast. Colour
differences can be measured in terms of 1931 CIE x and y chromaticity co-ords and
transformed to 1976 USC u' and v' chromaticity co-ords. When the u' and v' values
of the display background and the various colours of the display foreground are
plotted on the CIE 1976 CIE diagram the distances between chromaticity
coordinates will represent equal colour contrast irrespective of the area of the
diagram used. Monochrome displays, except these which consist of a white on a
black background, will contain an element of colour contrast which may be
significant when the luminance contrast is low.
5.1.2 Colour contrast and its effect on sunlight legibility are more realistically dealt
with by the Mathematical Modelling technique (refer to Para 2.1.3). ARINC 725
provides a similar but much simplified method for defining colour contrast.
5.2 CONTRAST FOR MONOCHROMATIC EMISSIVE DISPLAYS
5.2.1 Where the definition for contrast given in Para 3.2 is used then the
quantitative data listed below should be adhered to:
(a) CRT displays - Contrast, under an ambient illumination of 103 and

105 lux, should be greater than 6.5. The contrast specified is C1 Para 3.2(i).
(To achieve sunlight legibility under high ambient illumination the display
contrast under low ambient (i.e. 200 lux) should be greater than 70.)
The required contrast should be verified with the Project Team Leader prior
to commencement of the Project (this is necessary in order to allow the
current rapid development in CRT technology to be fully exploited).
Maximum peak line brightness (applies to both cursive and raster drawn
displays) should exceed:
Page 7 of 11
SECTION 4
 maximum ambient illumination (in lux) cd/m2

300
e.g., in 105 lux:
100,000
300 = 330 cd/m2
Peak line brightness should be measured using a slit whose dimensions are
such that the area being measured on the display surface is equivalent to, or
greater than, the Active Measured Area (AMA). The AMA is the area of the
base of a cone which has a full angle of 4 minutes of arc and which has a
'base to apex’ distance which is equal to the 'pilot eye to display surface”
distance. (NB. 4 minutes of arc has been specified because even though the
eye can detect lines finer than 1 minute of arc it can only distinguish
brightness in lines which are greater than 4 minutes of arc.)
All filters, implosive shields, EMI coatings and anti reflection coatings shall
be in place during the above measurements.
(b) LED displays - Although the requirements stated above for CRTs
would be ideal, current large, dot matrix, arrays achieve only C>4 in 105 lux;
but the requirements of C>9.5 in 103 lux and below can be met. A high
degree of contrast enhancement filtering is required because the LED
junctions are extremely reflective. Circular polarising filters are particularly
effective in this application. LED luminance should be used as stated for
CRTs above when viewed through the filter.
(c) Hidden Legends - Hidden legends in illuminated push buttons and

Central Warning Panels (CWP) captions etc., must achieve C>0.6 to 105 lux.
Although this contrast appears low, it is the highest that is achievable with
existing technology. Increasing the intensity of the illumination sources to
improve the contrast results in excessive operating temperatures. Currently
only tungsten filament lamps can provide sufficient light to achieve sunlight
readability.
5.2.2 The modulation of monochrome CRT's shall be greater than 0.2 inside a
central circle with a diameter equal to the width or height (which ever is smallest) of
the display area. The contrast should be greater than O.1mm over the entire display
area. This contrast should be achieved whilst a sinusoidal test pattern with a spatial
frequency of 600 lines per tube height is being generated on the display. The
required contrast should be verified with the Integrated Project Team Leader prior to
commencement of the Project (this is necessary in order to allow the current rapid
development in CRT technology to be fully exploited.)
5.2.3 Para 4.2.3 to 4.2.6, 4.3.2 to 4.3.4 and 4.4 also apply to emissive displays.
6 REQUIREMENTS FOR FLOODLIGHTS
6.1 Because of the wide variety of floodlighting requirements, it is difficult to define

quantitative data except for the specific applications listed below:
Page 8 of 11
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(a) Anti-Dazzle Lights - Where the primary flight instruments are of the passive
type display, anti-dazzle lights should provide 1,000 lux minima over the area
occupied by the primary flight instruments. Colour of illumination should be white.
(Anti-Dazzle lights (refer also to Clause 4.15) are switched on when a high
brightness flash (such as a lightning flash) is anticipated. The Anti-Dazzle light
allows the crewmembers to adapt their eyes to the anticipated high brightness
environment. Anti-Dazzle light could be used to reduce the effect of an unexpected
high brightness flash.)
(b) NVIS Lights - Where there is a requirement for aircrew to use NVIS's, infra-
red free floodlights will be required. Typical illumination levels would be 10 lux.
REFERENCES
Reference ASCC Air Std STANAG BAe
1 61/113/2L 3224 -
2 61/116/5M) 3370 -
3 - - GENODOC.408
4 - - BAe-WSE-RP-EFA-CPT-056
Page 9 of 11
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FIG 1 - PREDICTIVE SUNLIGHT LEGIBILITY MATHEMATICAL MODELLING TECHNIQUE
Page 10 of 11
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FIG 2 - DISPLAY LIGHTING CONDITIONS SIMULATED BY THE PREDICTIVE SUNLIGHT LEGIBILITY

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING TECHNIQUE
Page 11 of 11
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LEAFLET 65
REQUIREMENTS FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE TO NOISE AND VIBRATION IN COCKPITS AND

CABINS
FACTORS GOVERNING THE EFFECT AND EVALUATION OF NOISE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This Leaflet gives advice on factors governing the acoustic levels experienced by
aircrew, protected by an aircrew helmet. This advice is given in support of the requirements
and aims of Clause 4.15 in this regard. The advice is given under the following headings:
(a) Speech and Noise Paths.
(b) Relationship between Speech and Noise.
(c) Operating Considerations.
(d) The Target Noise Levels.
2 SPEECH AND NOISE PATHS
2.1 SPEECH
2.1.1 The ‘noise’ that reaches the crew's ear consists of ground to air or air-to-air
transmitted communications and the surrounding unwanted environmental noise in
which the crew operates. Further, the communications will consist of the required
speech imbedded within a background of the noise which exists where the speech
is generated. This background noise may be further added to by the noise created
by the equipment chain during transmission.
2.1.2 The spectrum of the original spoken speech is distorted by a number of

elements in the transmission chain by the time it reaches the crew's ear. For
instance, considerable distortion takes place at the oxygen mask and in order to
transmit maximum power in the main bands of the speech spectrum, frequency
limits and peak clipping are designed into the characteristics of the radio
transmitters and receivers. The evaluation of the optimum value of these factors in
relation to intelligibility is complex and has not yet been fully researched.
2.2 NOISE
2.2.1 The environmental noise within the cockpit has four main sources, namely
the cockpit air conditioning system, avionic equipment, engines and aerodynamic
turbulence. These noises arrive at the ear directly by means of the speech
microphone as discussed above, and directly through the flying helmet.
3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPEECH AND NOISE
Page 1 of 2
SECTION 4
3.1 Flight measurements have shown that normally the main acoustic loading at the ear in
terms of hearing damage results from the speech component. This has been established
by examining the A-weighted speech and noise spectra, together with their durations, in
typical flight missions. Clearly, for speech to be intelligible it has to be detected within the
noise background and this is usually taken to mean that the speech/noise ratio must be
positive for they both have broadband spectra. Ideally, this ratio has a minimum value of 10
dB. During parts of a flight it might not be possible to achieve this ratio. For instance, in a
slam acceleration engine noise can reduce this ratio, and some noisy dentist systems have
reduced the ratio to close to one. In examining typical sorties however, it is found that
speech usually dominates in loudness and from an examination of communication patterns,
it has been taken in this specification that the aircrew are exposed to speech at 50% of the
sortie time. This is used as the basis for evaluating the permissible noise levels at the
crew's ears within any one 8 hour period.
4 OPERATING CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 If the main acoustic loading at the ear is due to speech, then clearly its loudness
should be kept to a minimum consistent with intelligibility. It should be noted here that
INTELLIGIBILITY IS NOT INCREASED BY INCREASING THE VOLUME IF THE
SIGNAL/NOISE RATIO IS KEPT CONSTANT. The requirement therefore is to adjust the
gain controls only enough to give an adequate signal/noise ratio above the environmental
noise that comes through the helmet. Further increase in gain increases the signal
(speech), but also the noise coming down the microphone line in the same ratio.
Accordingly intelligibility is not increased, indeed it may reduce, and additionally the hearing
damage risk is increased.
5 THE TARGET NOISE LEVEL
5.1 The target noise level of 85 dBA Leq (8 hour equivalent) quoted in Clause 4.15 is
based upon the UK recommended value for the long-term effects of noise on hearing
damage in industry (Reference 1). The assumptions behind this requirement is that hearing
damage is an accumulative process so that noise energy levels can be traded for the
duration of the noise. That is, the permissible dBA level can be increased by 3 dBA for
each halving of the duration. For a mission time of one hour within an 8 hour period
therefore, where the exposure to speech will be one-half hour, the maximum permissible
overall A-weighted noise at the ears is 97 dBA. However, at all times the observation about
minimising gain values, discussed above, applies.
5.2 Intelligibility is preserved by the requirement for an Articulation Index (Al) of not less
than 0.5. This is evaluated by comparing the speech and noise-without-speech spectra, in
certain frequency bands and allotting a figure of merit of each band according to the
amount by which the speech in the band exceeds the noise in that band and adding up the
total. It has been established that 95% intelligibility is achieved for a value of 0.5 Al when
using military jargon phrases.
REFERENCES
1. HEALTH and SAFETY CONSULTATIVE DOCUMENT. Prevention of damage to Hearing

from Noise at Work. Draft proposal for Regulation and Guidance. ISBN 011 883495 9,
Pub HMSO 1987.
Page 2 of 2
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LEAFLET 66

CABINS
GENERAL PROCEDURES FOR ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This Leaflet recommends a general procedure for the measurement of the acoustic
environment experienced by aircrew and passengers. These measurements are required to
demonstrate compliance with the requirements and aims of Clause 4.15
1.2 The recommendations are given under the following headings.
(a) Protected Aircrew - This section addresses the necessary measurements

needed to establish the acoustic environment experienced by aircrew protected by
an aircrew helmet.
(b) Unprotected Aircrew and Passengers - This section addresses the

necessary measurements to establish the acoustic environment experienced by
aircrew not protected by an aircrew helmet and passengers.
1.3 Annex A of the Leaflet gives assistance in the interpretation of the measurements
for protecting aircrew. It also presents an example of how the measurements can be used
to identify and quantify the various elements of the acoustic noise chain. When any
consideration may be given to the extrapolation of measured noise data from one condition
to another reference can be made to the remarks made in Part 1, Section 2 Leaflet 61
Para. 3.2.3
2 PROTECTED AIRCREW
2.1 In designing the communications system, the aim will be to ensure that at all points
of the mission profile over which communications are required, an Articulation Index (A.I.)
of 0.5 will be achieved within the limits of the hearing-damage criterion of 85 dBA (8 hr
Leq). Accordingly, the flight measurement programme should include the relevant parts of
all the possible mission profiles in which the environmental noise is greatest. This will
obviously include maximum airspeed (see Leaflet 67), maximum engine power, and full
cockpit air-conditioning including demist. Any noisy equipment which could be used in
these missions for more than five minutes in an hour should also be operated. It is possible
that most of these conditions could also be required for the flight vibration survey described
in Leaflet 32, so that the two tests could be integrated if necessary.
2.2 Clause 4.15 requires that the overall acoustic level at the ear be measured and the
A.I. be calculated. This means that noise-plus-speech be measured and also noise-only in
the absence of speech. The A.I. calculation should be done in accordance with ANSI S3.5
1969 (1973) which uses the 20-band method, or by means of the 1/3rd octave method.
Page 1 of 8
SECTION 4
2.3 A miniature microphone with a performance not less than the Knowles type XL9073
will be needed for the ear measurement and this should be calibrated for use within an ear
and helmet cavity. The microphone should have a dynamic range which spans the
expected acoustic pressure range and the complete measuring system should have a flat
frequency response over the frequency range of interest. In most cases this is 100 Hz to
8kHz. The measuring system should normally consist of the microphone, an interface
matching circuit, amplifier and tape recorder. These should be to precision standards and
should conform to the relevant sections of EEC 651 Type 1 (BS EN 61672) and/or ANSI
S1.4 Type IS. If only noise measurements are to be made, then a miniature man-carried
recording system has been developed by RAE Farnborough, which does not involve any
installation work.
2.4 It has been found to be prudent to carry out a test measurement in flight, which
checks the self-noise of the measuring system, with the microphone installed but switched
out of the circuit. The need for this precaution arises because speech, environmental noise
and equipment self-noise have similar spectra and one can be mistaken for another in
analysis. After all the measurements have been taken the microphone calibration should be
checked.
2.5 When recordings are to be made for the purpose of spectral analysis, the recording
time should be set to give a good statistical accuracy. The ideal is a 97% confidence level
in the 3-sigma value of the data down to a frequency of 100 Hz. This ideal recording time,
(of about 30 sec), cannot always be achieved in a flight because of changing conditions so
that the confidence levels and recording times should be quoted where possible for the
results of the measurements. General information on data analysis is given in Part 1,
Section 2 Leaflet 63.
2.6 Any acoustic treatments of the aeroplane should be fitted and intact and the interior
furnishings should be as designed for the production aeroplane.
2.7 Certain minimum flight conditions should be noted or recorded to relate with the
acoustic measurements:
(a) Indicated airspeed.
(b) Indicated height.
(c) Engine power settings.
Obviously, if particular manoeuvres are required for the acoustic measurements, then
relevant information about the conditions of the flight and/aircraft should be noted. For
STOVL aeroplanes information such as fuel state or nozzle angle should be obtained
sufficient to characterise the state of the power lift system.
2.8 Assistance in the interpretation of the results of the measurements can be obtained
by reading Annex A to this Leaflet. Annex A sets out in tabular form likely acoustic values
for the various elements of the communication chain and expected speech and
environmental noise values. In the event of a noise problem the tables can be used as an
aid in identifying the elements involved.
Page 2 of 8
SECTION 4
3 UNPROTECTED AIRCREW AND PASSENGERS
3.1 For unprotected crew and passengers, the same criteria as specified in Clause 4.15
must apply as for protected crew regarding long-term hearing damage and the ability to
hear any communication and audio signals. Accordingly, noise measurements must be
made at the ear of each crew member in the same way as for protected crew to establish
the 8 hour Leq level.
3.2 For unprotected crew and passengers, the requirements of Clause 4.15 are also to
enable non aided voice communications to be heard over a distance of 0.6m (2 ft) with a
shouted voice. A 95% sentence intelligibility is likely to result from the criterion that the
Speech Interference Level (SIL) at the passenger stations, is not to exceed 80dB. SIL must
be calculated by averaging the sound pressure levels (SPLs) in the 500, 1000, 2000 and
4000 Hz octave bands in accordance with ANSI S.3 14-1977. The measurements should
be done with passengers absent. In the absence of specific information, the noise field can
be assumed to have random incidence. If the microphone is handheld, then any data which
is available for correcting the measurements for the presence of the person holding it
should be applied.
3.3 For both unprotected crew and passengers, any acoustic treatments of the
aeroplane should be fitted and intact and the interior furnishings should be as designed for
the production aeroplane.
3.4 For these measurements the possible flight variations that have to be encompassed
for protected crew, as discussed in Para 2.1, are unlikely to be necessary. The most
important part of the flight mission is likely to be the cruise condition. In this case, a
minimum of two samples of the noise data must be made during the notional cruise period
of two hours. Any flight condition where the noise levels increase significantly for five
minutes above those during cruise and during which important communications or audio
monitoring are required, must be included.
Page 3 of 8
SECTION 4
ANNEX A
EVALUATION OF ARTICULATION INDEX AND ACOUSTIC LOADING AT THE EAR
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This Annex illustrates the procedures necessary to establish if the criteria of 85 dBA
(8 hr Leq) and an Articulation Index (A.I.) of more than 0.5 are achieved. These criteria are
specifically applicable to aircrew protected by an aircrew helmet. It is assumed in the
example used that one-third octave spectra of the cabin noise for a particular mission have
been measured. The elements of the procedure are given in Table A1 with explanations of
each of the components of the table given in Table A2, (using matching letters a, b, c, etc.).
Table A1(a) contains the basic data for the various computations given in Table A1(b) to
A1(f). i.e.: In using the Tables the following should be noted as regards the data in Table
A1(a):
(a) The cabin noise spectrum is based upon the cockpit noise in current fast
jets. The flight condition at which the spectrum was measured is assumed to be
adverse in terms of communications and hearing damage.
(b) The speech spectrum in the mask has been taken from Reference 1
(Attwood) and is that of a male and again taken when flight conditions are adverse
in terms of communications and hearing damage.
(c) The normalised microphone response data are taken from recent
measurements on current equipment (Reference 2).
(d) The communications system gain value used in these calculations is a

notional one which is composed of the setting of the Crew Communication System
(CCS) output level control (the level which the aircrew judge to provide comfortable
and efficient listening conditions) adjusted to incorporate the sensitivities of the
microphone and telephones.
(e) The normalised telephone response data and the mask and helmet (Type
Mk 4) attenuation data are from recent measurements on current type equipment
(References 3 to 4). The attenuation data shown are the mean minus two standard
deviations.
(f) A notional mask attenuation is included (shown as 'mask attn 2' in Table A1)
to be used in the computations to illustrate the effects of changing the
characteristics of an element in the equipment chain. In this case, extra attenuation
has been built into the hypothetical mask, over the main speech frequency range of
400 Hz to 3 kHz.
(g) The Active Noise Reduction (ANR) (Reference 5) is typical of the additional
attenuation produced by the device, which is incorporated into the flying helmet, and
which may be regarded as increasing the helmet attenuation, especially at the low
frequencies, where helmet attenuation itself is poor.
Page 4 of 8
SECTION 4
(h) The duration of the hypothetical flight has been assumed to be two hours,
during which the aircrew will be exposed to the speech levels at the ear for one
hour. An 85 dBA Leq-8 hr will therefore lead to an overall permissible A-weighted
level of 94 dBA.
2 INITIAL CALCULATION
2.1 The speech spectrum in the mask in Table A1(a), is modified by the response of the
microphone and the helmet telephone, which are also shown in Table A1(a). The result is
then normalised to give an overall level of less than 94 dBA at the ear. The result, shown in
Table A1(b), is equivalent to the speech spectrum which may be observed in flight if the
aircrew have adjusted the CCS gain, so as to achieve a level at the ear which meets the
criterion of 85 dBA Leq-8 hr. The difference between this spectrum and that of speech in
the mask, is the sum of the contributions of the microphone and telephone sensitivities and
responses and the CCS amplifier gain, as shown in Table A1(b).
2.2 The acoustic level at the ear due to noise alone, arrives from two sources, namely
the cockpit noise picked up by the mask microphone and thence transmitted by the CCS
and telephone, and the cockpit noise directly transmitted through the flying helmet. These
can be summed to give the noise-alone level at the ear. The steps are shown in Table
A1(c). It is interesting to note that the main contribution is due to the noise transmitted
through the helmet and justifies any proposal to use ANR. Note also, that the A-weighted
sum of the noise at the ear is less than that due to speech given in Table A1(b) (speech-
ear), confirming the dominant role of speech as a hearing damage hazard.
2.3 The Articulation Index can now be calculated using the speech spectrum in Table
A1(b) (speech-ear) and Table A1(c) (noise-ear S). The 20-band method described in ANSI
S3.5 1969 (R1973) yields an A.I. of 0.47; the quicker, but less accurate One-Third octave
band method gives a value of 0.5
3 CALCULATIONS USING DIFFERENT EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS
3.1 In the above computations, the A.I. does not achieve the requirement to exceed 0.5
The most obvious solution to this is to lower the cabin noise. However, if this is impractical,
then alternative means of achieving the criteria may be employed. Calculations have been
made here using HYPOTHETICAL improvements to the passive attenuation of the oxygen
mask and typical values for the extra attenuation of Active Noise Reduction techniques.
However, other changes to the system may also prove to be beneficial, such as alternative
specifications to produce a more efficient combination of mask, microphone, CCS and
telephones.
4 CALCULATION WITH ANR
4.1 Using the ANR data in Table A1(a) as an addition to the helmet attenuation data,
produces a reduced level of noise at the ear. The component derived by direct transmission
through the helmet is reduced from that shown in Table Al(c) (Noise (ear A)), to that shown
in Table A1(d) (Noise (ear A1)). When recalculation's of the A.I. are performed, they may
be seen to now exceed the 0.5 value, as required.
Page 5 of 8
SECTION 4
5 HYPOTHETICAL MASK ATTENUATION
5.1 As a further illustration of the effects of changes in the equipment specifications of

the A.I., calculations have been made using the attenuation spectrum of a HYPOTHETICAL
improved oxygen mask. Applying the row of data labelled Mask Att (2) in Table A1(b),
instead of the previous row which contains observed data from current equipment, causes
an adjustment to the noise at the ear which is derived from the communications system.
5.2 The noise at the ear from this source is now as shown in Table A1(e). This
improved noise (Noise(ear B1)) has been combined with the improved (by ANR) data from
Table A1(d) to produce a noise at the ear which, combined with the speech level at the ear,
gives an A.I. of 0.64, by the 20-band method, and 0.6, by the One-Third Octave band
method.
REFERENCES
1. On the Specification of Maximum Noise Levels in Aircraft. H.C.

Attwood, RAE Technical Report TR72089, June 1972.
2. An Investigation of the Spectral and Amplitudes Effects of a Military

Oxygen Mask on Free Field speech with Particular Reference to Fast
Jet Aircraft. S. Ball Dept of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College
of Science and Technology, June 1986.
3. An Investigation of the Acoustic Attenuation of Oxygen Masks and

Related Aspects. S.H. Lucas, Polytechnic of the South Bank, Institute
of Environmental Science and Technology, London 1986.
4. Measurement of Telephone frequency Response of the Mk 2/3 Series

and Mk 4 Flying Helmets, and Correlations Between Semi-Objective
and Objective Measurement Techniques for the Mk 4 Telephone.
G.M. Rood and S.H. Lucas, Technical Memorandum FS(F)518, RAE,
October 1983.
5. Evaluation of an Active Noise Reduction System for the Mk 4 Flying

Helmet During Laboratory and Helicopter Trials. G.M. Rood and S.H.
Lucas, RAE Technical Report TR85035, Flight Systems Dept, RAE,
April 1985.
Page 6 of 8
SECTION 4
Frequency (Hz)
Overall Overall
Sound Sound
Pressure Pressure
Level Level
50 63 80 100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1K 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.5 3.1 4 5 6.3 8 10 dB dBA
Cabin noise 77 70 77 78 78 77 80 83 83 81 81 81 80 79 79 71 73 77 76 76 74 74 73 72 92 89
Speech (mask) 105 103 106 116 111 116 113 115 115 114 113 110 102 94 91 87 82 82 85 78 77 78 74 74 125 116
Mic response -31 -30 -27 -25 -23 -19 -18 -15 -13 -11 -9 -8 -5 -2 0 3 10 19 16 10 11 4 -1 -3 * *
CCS gain -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 -40 * *
Tels response 10 14 18 22 26 26 26 27 27 27 28 28 16 26 17 17 2 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 * *
Mask atten. -3 -1 -1 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -3 -3 -3 0 6 11 11 8 9 13 11 20 15 15 14 14 * *
Mask att (2) -3 -1 -1 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -3 6 11 12 13 15 14 8 21 29 19 21 15 15 14 14 * *
Helmet atten. 1 1 2 3 3 2 2 3 5 16 21 19 23 28 23 21 26 33 33 37 36 36 35 35 * *
ANR 3 7 9 12 15 16 18 18 18 18 19 18 11 5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * *
Table A1(a)
Speech (ear) 44 47 57 73 84 83 81 87 89 90 92 90 73 78 68 67 54 73 61 48 48 42 33 31 97 93
CCS+Tels+Mic -61 -56 -49 -43 -37 -33 -31 -28 -26 -24 -21 -20 -29 -16 -23 -20 -28 -9 -24 -30 -29 -36 -41 -43 * *
Table A1(b)
Noise (mask) 80 71 78 80 80 79 82 85 86 84 84 81 74 68 68 63 64 64 65 56 59 59 59 58 93 87
Noise (earB) 19 15 29 37 43 46 50 57 60 60 63 61 45 52 45 43 36 55 41 26 30 23 18 15 68 65
Noise (earA) 76 69 75 75 75 75 78 80 78 65 60 62 57 51 56 50 47 44 43 39 38 38 36 37 86 76
Noise (earS) 76 69 75 75 75 75 78 80 78 66 65 64 57 54 56 51 47 55 45 39 39 38 36 37 86 76
Table A1(c)
Noise (earB)) 19 15 29 37 43 46 50 57 60 60 63 61 45 52 45 43 36 55 41 26 30 23 18 15 62 65
Noise (earA1) 73 62 66 63 60 59 60 62 60 47 41 44 46 46 54 50 47 44 43 39 38 38 36 37 75 61
Noise (earS1) 73 62 66 63 60 59 60 63 63 60 63 61 48 53 54 51 47 55 45 39 39 38 36 37 76 66
Table A1(d)
Noise (ear B2) 19 15 29 37 43 46 50 57 59 51 49 49 38 48 42 43 24 39 33 25 30 23 18 15 62 57
Noise (ear A1) 73 62 66 63 60 59 60 62 60 47 41 44 46 46 54 50 47 44 43 39 38 38 36 37 75 61
Noise (ear S2) 73 62 66 63 60 59 60 63 62 52 50 50 47 50 54 51 47 45 43 39 39 38 36 37 76 63
Table A1(e)
Speech (ear) 33 35 44 59 69 68 65 69 71 71 71 68 50 54 43 41 27 45 32 18 17 10 0 0 * *
Noise (earS) 66 57 63 61 61 59 61 63 60 47 44 42 34 31 32 24 20 28 16 9 8 6 3 3 * *
Noise (earS1) 63 50 54 50 46 43 44 46 45 42 42 39 25 30 30 24 20 28 16 9 8 6 3 3 * *
Noise (earS2) 63 50 54 50 46 43 44 46 44 34 29 28 24 26 30 24 20 17 15 9 8 6 3 3 * *
Table A1(f)
Page 7 of 8
SECTION 4
Articulation Articulation
Index (1/3 octave) Index (20-band method)
* * Cabin noise (measured during peak level in-flight during mission) Cabin noise
* * Speech response in mask as measured by mask microphone Speech (mask)
* * Typical response of mask microphone relative to Bruel and Kjaer condenser microphone Mic response
* * CCS adjusted to give speech at ear less than 85 dBLeq-8hr CCS gain
* * Typical response to helmet telephones Tels response
* * Mask attenuation - 2 standard deviations Mask atten.
* * Mask attenuation - 2 standard deviations; Hypothetical Mask att (2)
* * Typical helmet attenuation - 2 standard deviations Helmet atten.
* * Feasible response of Active Noise Reduction system Attenuation additional to that ANR
provided by flight helmet
Table A2(a)
* * Speech spectrum in mask summed with the microphone response, the CCS gain and the Speech (ear)
telephone response
* * Sum of responses and sensitivities of CCS, microphone and telephone CCS+Tels+Mic
Table A2(b)
* * Cabin noise less mask attenuation Noise (mask)
* * Noise (mask) plus CCS+Tels+Mic Noise (earB)
* * Cabin noise less helmet attenuation Noise (earA)
0.50 * Sum of pressures of Noise (earA) and Noise (earB) Noise (earS)
Table A2(c)
* * Noise (mask) plus CCS+Tels+Mic (as above) Noise (earB)
* * Noise (earA) less ANR Noise (earA1)
0.59 * Sum of pressures of Noise (earA1) and Noise (earB) Noise (earS1)
Table A2(d)
* * Noise (earB) less improvement Hypothetical Noise (earB2)
* * Noise (earA) less ANR (as above) Noise (earA1)
0.64 * Sum of pressures of Noise (earA1) and Noise (earB2) Noise (earS2)
Table A2(e)
* Spectrum level of Speech (ear) - see (b) Speech (ear)
* 0.47 Spectrum level of Noise (earS) - see (c) Noise (earS)
* 0.57 Spectrum level of Noise (earS1) - see (d) Noise (earS1)
* 0.63 Spectrum level of Noise (earS2) - see (e) Noise (earS2)
Table A2(f)
Page 8 of 8
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 67

CABINS
SOURCES OF COCKPIT NOISE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 It is not yet possible to lay down a set of design rules that will ensure that the noise
level in a cockpit is always limited to some ideal low value. For this reason the relevant
requirements laid down in Clause 4.15 have not been made mandatory. However, noise
measurements and investigations have served to show that common-sense approaches
can be adopted which will in general be expected to produce a quiet rather than noisy
cockpit environment. To assist the designer in his consideration of the problem, some of
the sources of noise, and their mechanisms are discussed in this Leaflet.
2 SOURCES
2.1 AERODYNAMIC BOUNDARY LAYERS
2.1.1 Pressure fluctuations exist within a boundary layer inducing vibrations in the
structure beneath which, in turn, radiates noise. Little actual acoustic noise is
generated by a boundary layer itself. For practical purposes the intensity of the
pressure fluctuations can be taken to be proportional to the dynamic pressure 'q'
and their spectrum related to the aeroplane speed and the thickness of the
boundary layer, (more exactly they are related to the shear stress in the fluid and
the spectrum to the displacement thickness). Accordingly, the intensity of noise from
this source, which is always present, will be at maximum when the aeroplane is
flown fast at low altitude. The intensity of the pressure fluctuations and their
spectrum are easily calculated by such methods as are given in Reference 1.
2.1.2 If the main airflow around the front of the aeroplane, and especially over the
cockpit canopy is essentially that of an attached and classical boundary layer, it is
found that the noise in the cockpit is acceptably low. This aspect is discussed
further in Leaflet 62.
2.2 AERODYNAMIC DETACHED FLOW
2.2.1 Once the air-flow becomes detached, the level of the pressure fluctuations
increases markedly above those of a boundary layer and the proportion of energy in
the lower frequencies increases. Of greater significance is the fact that the size of
the eddies in the flow increases considerably. As a result they fit in more effectively
with the dimensions of the lower order modes of the structure and with the
requirements of phasing for more efficient excitation of the modes. The total result is
a pronounced increase in the noise radiated by the structure.
2.2.2 The implications of the above observations are two fold. The eddy size,
which is important in affecting the structural response, is a function of the boundary
layer thickness. If the thickness can be kept to a minimum, then more energy will
exist at the higher frequencies. These do not excite the structure so efficiently, and
moreover, the higher frequencies in the cockpit are more effectively absorbed by the
flying helmet, so reducing noise at the ear. In overall terms, the noise at the pilot's
ear will be less if the aeroplane is smooth and slender at the front.
Page 1 of 3
SECTION 4
2.2.3 The second point, which is a corollary of this, is that where possible,
detached flow should be avoided around the cockpit. The design of a canard for
instance, should include consideration of whether any vortices generated by it could
impact on the cockpit area. The same applies to the siting of radio aerials.
2.3 SHOCK WAVES
2.3.1 An oscillating shock wave in the presence of turbulent flow is a strong

source of noise radiation and additionally significant response is induced in the
structure below the oscillating shock. It is important therefore to ensure that any
shock waves generated on the cockpit canopy are firmly ‘anchored’. This problem is
likely to show itself in the transonic range or where critical flow occurs over the
canopy, and where the curvature of the canopy is 'weak', resulting in an indefinite
positioning of the shock wave. A single-seat aeroplane being re-designed to a twin-
seat, could for instance, experience this problem.
2.4 ENGINE INTAKE NOISE
2.4.1 The nearer the engine is to the cockpit, the more cockpit noise levels will be
influenced by engine noise radiated from the intake or transmitted through the
fuselage structure. This is a particular feature of some vectored-thrust STOVL
aeroplanes. Noise produced by the forward lifting jets of STOVL aeroplanes is
another source, which will be accentuated when the jets come into contact with the
ground during a vertical landing. When air is being ducted out of an intake as part of
air-management procedures, attempts should be made to keep such ducting away
from the immediate cockpit area and to consider acoustic lining of such ducts; these
have been found to be somewhat flimsy in the past.
2.5 AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
2.5.1 On some aeroplanes this can be a dominant source of noise in some

modes, for instance, on de-mist. Sufficient research has been done to show that this
is now avoidable. Guide-lines are laid down in Reference 2 for designing a quiet
and efficient air-conditioning system. The principle involved in reducing the noise is
to use low velocity air and especially for duct intersection to be at low air-velocity
points.
2.6 NOISY EQUIPMENT
2.6.1 Pilots complain that equipment installed in cockpits can be unduly noisy. The
most common complaint is that some equipment cannot be switched off even when
not in use during a flight. The contribution of noise from any equipment should not
be such as to result in the cockpit noise levels, specified in Clause 4.15, to be
exceeded. Where possible effort should be made to keep discrete-frequency noise
emissions to a minimum. A constant whine from a piece of equipment can be
subjectively disturbing to crew.
Page 2 of 3
SECTION 4
3 COCKPIT NOISE ENVIRONMENT
3.1 On some aeroplanes it has been found that the noise field at the pilot’s head is
dominated by the noise radiated by the canopy and on others by that radiated by the
sidewalls of the cockpit structure. In general, a cockpit having a large canopy will be of the
former type. The quietest cockpits have been found to be those with the stiffest canopy.
Ideally, from the acoustic stand-point, the canopy should be massive and heavily damped.
This is of course impractical, but this ideal is minimized in importance if the aeroplane
design ensures that a clean attached flow exists in transonic flight. Care should also be
taken that the seal between the canopy frame and cockpit structure is good because an
imperfect seal can be a strong source of higher frequency noise.
3.2 In the cases where the cockpit noise is dominated by the side wall radiation, it is
usually because of undue vibration caused by large frequency-scale turbulence in the
outside airflow grazing the sidewalls. For instance, a boundary-layer diverter in front of the
engine intake can create a standing horse-shoe pattern vortex upstream of the intake
(Reference 3), which may efficiently excite the side-wall structure especially if the structure
is rather flat. In such cases damping of the cockpit structure can be effective (Reference 4),
and may, in any case, be considered to be a prudent aspect for the design of all cockpit
structures. This can be accomplished by the generous use of jointing
compound/adhesives/sealing compound at the frames and stringers, and/or by the use of
added damping material glued to the inner side walls of the cockpit panels as in Reference
4. Ideally, this should be applied at an early stage before equipment is installed.
3.3 In the worked example given in the Annex to Leaflet 66 it is shown that the
dominant source of noise from the hearing damage aspect is not cockpit noise, but speech
coming over the communication system. The purpose in reducing cockpit noise is to allow
the crew to reduce the volume (or Gain) of the Crew Communication Systems (CCS), but at
the same time to maintain an adequate Articulation Index.
REFERENCES
1. Estimation of the Surface Pressure Fluctuations in the Turbulent

Boundary Layer of Flight Vehicles, ESDU Data Item Number 75021.
2. Guide to Design Practice for Cockpit Air Conditioning Systems. M.

Charlton, BAe Report YSM 1035.
3. Measurement of the Fluctuating Pressures on a Model Simulating the

Boundary Layer Diverter of an Aircraft Intake, L. Gauder, RAE Tech
Memo 1778, Sept 1978.
4. The Effects of Added Damping on the Cockpit Noise Levels in Hawk

T Mk1 D.R.B. Webb, RAE Tech Report 79003, Jan 1979.
Page 3 of 3
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 68

CABINS
FACTORS AFFECTING MANUAL AND VISUAL PERFORMANCE OF CREW IN THE

AEROPLANE VIBRATION ENVIRONMENT
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet describes likely factors affecting the performance of aeroplane crew due
to the effects of the aeroplane vibration environment. These factors are described under
the following headings:
(a) Factors affecting the use of manual controls.
(b) Factors affecting visual performance.
1.2 Procedures to evaluate the actual effects on crew and passengers of aeroplane
vibration are given in Leaflet 69. These procedures include methods to assess the effects
on manual and visual performance of the crew.
2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE USE OF MANUAL CONTROLS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.1.1 Vibration produces involuntary motion and force in the limbs which can
restrict the accuracy of manipulative and control actions. Tasks requiring the highest
control precision are usually performed by hand controls. For this reason the affect
of vibration on the use of such controls is of prime concern and dealt with at length
in this section. In comparison foot controls are used where considerably less
precision is required, and so the effect of vibration on such controls is only given
cursory consideration in this section.
2.1.2 A portion of the error in positioning hand controls consists of involuntary

control activity directly induced by the vibration. Where the dynamics of the
controlled system involve first or higher order lags a large proportion of this higher
frequency activity will be filtered out (References 1 to 5). The overall effect of
vibration on a manual control system may therefore be less in higher order systems
than in simple positioning tasks. In some circumstances it may be advantageous to
introduce lags into position control tasks (such as cursor controls) in order to reduce
the effects of the vibration. However, it should be borne in mind that such
measurements will tend to reduce overall tracking accuracy, particularly of fast
moving targets (Reference 3). Further guidance on the effects of system dynamics
may be found in Reference 6.
Page 1 of 7
SECTION 4
2.2 CONTROL FORCE AND RESISTANCE
2.2.1 Joy-stick type controls should always incorporate some resistance

proportional to applied force. The control gain or control sensitivity should then be
specified as control output per applied force. There is generally an optimum range
of control sensitivities for the performance of a particular task (References 7 and 8).
Decreasing the control sensitivity will tend to reduce the level of vibration-induced
control activity and so reduce the effect of vibration on control performance as
illustrated in Fig 1. Decreasing the control sensitivity beyond the optimum range will
also reduce the overall control performance; however the optimum range of control
sensitivity will probably be a little lower in moderate to severe vibration
environments. The optimum control sensitivity will depend on the bandwidth of the
control task, higher control gains being more appropriate when higher frequency
responses are necessary.
2.2.2 Non-linear control resistance such as static and coulomb friction have a
damping effect on the control which tends to reduce vibration-induced control
activity. However, when the friction is large the overall control performance is likely
to be significantly degraded. Pure force controls, which have no frictional damping,
perform particularly well when no vibration is present, but tend to be susceptible to
vibration effects (References 1 and 2).
2.2.3 For rate control applications in the vibration environment it may also be
advantageous to implement or increase breakout forces or backlash in a control, but
care should be taken in order to ensure that the control efficiency is not impaired.
Further guidance on control variables may be found in Reference 6.
2.3 CONTROL TYPE AND LIMB RESTRAINTS
2.3.1 Joy-stick controls may be operated by the whole arm, hand, finger or thumb.
Which is appropriate depends on such factors as the bandwidth of the task, the
control forces and what is being controlled. In each case the designer should
ensure that adequate support is given to the controlling limb. If the control is a hand-
operated side-arm joy-stick, a suitable armrest should be provided. In the case of a
thumb operated control, a hand support may be provided to be gripped by the
fingers. In each case considerable care should be taken in the design of the support
to ensure that the transmission of vibration from the aeroplane structure to the
controlling limb is minimized (References 3 and 9).
2.3.2 The advent of fly-by-wire control systems has made it possible to implement
primary flight controls by miniature, side arm joy-sticks. A miniature side-arm stick
may perform as well as conventional centre stick provided that adequate limb
support is provided (References 5 and 10).
2.3.3 Rolling ball controls may be particularly suitable for positioning tasks (such
as cursor control) in vibration environments provided that the response speed is not
critical. They are not, however, suited to continuous tracking tasks. Other forms of
rotary controls, such as knobs and wheels, do not necessarily provide advantages
over joy-sticks in the vibration environment (Reference 8).
Page 2 of 7
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2.4 FOOT CONTROLS
2.4.1 There are some data which indicate that the principles affecting the use of
hand controls also apply to the effects of vibration on foot control movements.
However, foot controls are not usually used for tasks requiring high control
precision; hence vibration effects are of considerably less importance.
3 FACTORS AFFECTING VISUAL PERFORMANCE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.1.1 Motion of the visual image across the retina of the eye causes retinal blur
which degrades the ability of the aircrew member to see fine detail. The eye is
reflexly stabilised against angular movements of the head so that retinal blurring is
minimal for targets that are static with respect to inertial space.
3.1.2 In conditions where a visual target rotates with the head, as with a helmet
mounted display, the reflex is inappropriate and cannot be suppressed at
frequencies above 1-2 Hz. Moreover, vibration at the seat results in both angular
and linear head motions whose amplitude and phase are dependent on the
transmissibilities of both seat and the body. Significant phase lags occur above 2
Hz. The effect of differential linear motion between the eye and near objects, such
as cockpit instruments, is worse than for objects at or near optical infinity.
3.1.3 Consideration should be given to seat back vibration in aeroplane

applications. This is necessary because relatively high x-axis (fore-aft) acceleration
magnitudes can occur. There is experimental evidence to show that, when
transmitted via the seat-back, this can have a significant effect on visual
performance (Reference 19).
3.2 VIEWING DATA
3.2.1 Under no circumstances should the viewing distance be less than 0.25m.
Where large translational motions of the head may occur, greater viewing distances
will be advantageous provided that the angular size of the display subtended at the
eye is not reduced. A viewing distance of 0.5 to 0.75m is advisable for optimum
visual performance, particularly where the aircrew are frequently looking out of the
aeroplane. The angular size of the characters should be determined for the
maximum possible viewing distance which can occur under operational conditions
(References 12 to 14). For further guidance on the effects of viewing distance see
Reference 15.
3.3 CHARACTER SIZE
3.3.1 Alphanumeric characters on the instruments and displays should not be

smaller than the minimum size defined by the limit in Fig 2. If the viewing conditions
are not optimum, as discussed in subsequent paragraphs, it may be necessary to
increase the character size to avoid reading difficulties. Detailed non-alphanumeric
symbols on displays shall be treated in the same way as alphanumeric characters.
Page 3 of 7
SECTION 4
3.3.2 If instruments are normally used during short periods of high magnitude
vibration, the symbols and characters on those instruments should be larger than
those on other instruments, in accordance with Fig 2. Any character or symbol
which is not necessary for the safe operation of the aeroplane under the particular
vibration conditions need not conform to these standards.
3.4 CHARACTER SEPARATION
3.4.1 The vertical separation between alphanumeric characters and non-

alphanumeric symbols should be not less than half the recommended height for
alphanumeric characters. It is recommended that alphanumeric characters and
symbols should be separated horizontally by a distance of greater than quarter of
the maximum width of the characters; large horizontal separations (i.e. greater
than 3/4 of the maximum character width) between associated alphanumeric
characters may not be conducive to good legibility. Further guidance on
character separation may be found in Ref 15.
3.5 FONT SHAPE
3.5.1 The alphanumeric font should be such that confusion between the most
important and most frequently used characters is minimized for optional visibility
under vibration conditions. On dot matrix displays the characters should be at least
nine elements high by seven elements wide. The Huddleston and Lincoln-Mitre
fonts both produce acceptable results under vibration (Reference 16). Cursive
displays may require separate consideration: there is currently little experimental
data to define a recommended form. For further guidance on font design see
Reference 15.
3.6 LUMINANCE AND CONTRAST
3.6.1 The optimum luminance of characters on an electronic display will depend

on the ambient illumination. For optimum visibility under vibration conditions the
luminance should be such as to produce a contrast ratio for the characters over the
background of between 4:1 and 16:1, although higher contrast ratios may be
acceptable in some applications. It may be necessary to vary the display luminance
over a wide range to maintain acceptable contrast levels where the display face can
be illuminated by direct sunlight or where other bright objects may cause reflection
or glare problems (References 17 and 18). Further guidance on luminance and
contrast may be found in Reference 15.
REFERENCES
1. ALLEN, R.W., JEX, H.R. and MAGDALENO, P.E. (1973). Manual control performance
and dynamic response during sinusoidal vibration. Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, AMRL-TR-73-78.
2. LEVISON, W.H. (1976). Biochemical response and manual tracking performance in

sinusoidal, sum of sines and random vibration environments. AMRL-TR-75-94.
Page 4 of 7
SECTION 4
3. LEWIS, C.H. and GRIFFIN, M.J. (1978). A review of the effects of vibration on visual
acuity and continuous manual control, Part II: Continuous manual control. Journal of Sound and
Vibration 56, 415-457.
4. LEWIS, C.H. (1980). The interaction of control dynamics and display type with the effect
of vibration frequency on manual tracking performance. In: Proceedings of UK Informal Group
Meeting on Human Response to Vibration held at the University College, Swansea, 11th to 12th
September.
5. TORLE, G. (1965). Tracking performance under random acceleration: effects of control

dynamics. Ergonomics 8, 481-486.
6. McLEOD, R.W. and GRIFFIN, M.J. (1986). A design guide for visual display and manual
tasks in vibration environments. Part II: Manual tasks, ISVR Technical Report No.134, University of
Southampton.
7. GIBBS, C.B. (1962). Interaction of controlling limbs, time lags and gains in positional and
velocity systems. Ergonomics, 19, 385-402.
8. LEWIS, C.H. and GRIFFIN, M.J. (1977). The interaction of control gain and vibration with
continuous manual control performance. Journal of Sound and Vibration 55, 553-562.
9. SHOENBURGER, R.W. and WILBURN, D.C. (1973). Tracking performance during whole-
body vibration with side-mounted and centre-mounted control sticks. AMRL-TR-72-120.
10. SINCLAIR, M. and MORGAN, M. (1981). An investigation of multi-axis isometric side-arm

controllers in a variable stability helicopter. National Aeronautical Establishment, Ottawa, CR-606.
11. International Organisation for Standardisation (1984). Guide to the evaluation of human
exposure to whole-body mechanical vibration and repetitious shock: revision of ISO 2631, Draft
No. 5, Committee Document.
12. BANBURY, J.R., SCHMIDT, V.P., GIBSON, C.P. and WHITFIELD, F.B. (1983). Visual
performance of direct view and collimated displays under vibration. Royal Aircrat Establishment,
TR 83040.
13. GRIFFIN, M.J. and LEWIS, C.H. (1978). A review of the effects of vibration on vision and
continuous manual control, Part 1: Visual acuity. Journal of Sound and Vibration 56,383-413.
14. LEWIS, C.H. and GRIFFIN, M.J. (1979). The effect of character size on the legibility of
numeric displays during vertical whole-body vibration. Journal of Sound and Vibration 67.
15. MOSELEY, M.J. and GRIFFIN, M.J. (1986). A design guide for visual display and manual
tasks in vibration environments. Part I: Visual displays, ISVR Technical Report No. 133, University
of Southampton.
Page 5 of 7
SECTION 4
16. MOSELEY, M.J. (1982). The legibility of dot matrix character fonts viewed under
conditions of whole-body vibration. In: Proceedings of UK Informal Group Meeting on Human
Response to Vibration held at Occupational Medicine and Hygiene Laboratories, Cricklewood,
London, 16th to 17th September.
17. BEHAR, I. and JOHNSON, J.C. (1982). The effects of whole-body vibration on static and
dynamic visual acuity with a video display. In: Proceedings of Aerospace Medical Association, 53rd
Annual Meeting.
18. MOSELEY, M.J. (1983). The effect of contract variation on the legibility of a CRT display
during observer and whole-body vibration. In: Proceedings of the UK Informal Group Meeting on
Human Response to Vibration held at NIAE/NCAE, Silsoe, Bedford, 14th to 16th September.
19. LEWIS, C.H. and GRIFFIN, M.J. (1980). Predicting the effects of vibration frequency and
axis, and seating conditions on the reading of numeric displays. Ergonomics, 23,485-501.
FIG 1 - Relationship between Weighted Root-Mean-Square Acceleration Magnitude and Tracking

Error
Page 6 of 7
SECTION 4
FIG 2 - Relationship between Weighted Root-Mean-Square Acceleration Magnitude and the Minimum
Character or Symbol Sizes on Instruments and Displays (The precise values are based on a 9 by 7
font)
Page 7 of 7
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 69

CABINS
THE EVALUATION OF HUMAN EXPOSURE TO AEROPLANE VIBRATION
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet describes methods for evaluating the effects of human exposure to
aeroplane vibration. These procedures are detailed under the following headings:
(a) Evaluation of crew and passenger discomfort due to aeroplane vibration.
(b) Evaluation of risk of injury to crew and passengers due to aeroplane

vibration.
(c) Evaluation of the effects on the operation of hand controls of aeroplane

vibration.
(d) Evaluation of the effects of whole body vibration on visual performance.
In addition Annex A contains the requirements for the measurement and analyses of
vibration data suitable for use in the above evaluations. In the case of propeller aeroplanes
Part 1, Section 2 Leaflet 66 contains additional information on how the output of the
evaluation procedures, presented in this leaflet, are influenced by the particular vibration
characteristics of that type of aeroplane.
1.2 The vibration environment in a fixed wing aeroplane may impair the working
efficiency of the crew member both indirectly, due to discomfort and general dissatisfaction
with the aeroplane and by direct interference with certain visual and manipulative tasks.
Prolonged exposure to high magnitudes of aeroplane vibration may also be detrimental to
the long term health of the crew member.
1.3 The guideline's given in this leaflet are based wherever possible on the results of
experimental studies. The effects of vibration on comfort, health and performance are
mediated by a complex interaction of a number of factors. Some simplification has been
necessary in order to make the procedures described in the leaflet simple to apply. Where
other variables are likely to be important they have been identified. In some areas current
knowledge is still incomplete. In these cases the probable relative importance of the
relevant variables has been indicated, based on current scientific opinion.
1.4 The relevant translational vibration in a fixed-wing aeroplane typically comprises a

broadband random spectrum extending from below 1 Hz to 20 Hz or more. The vibration
magnitudes at low frequencies increase with atmospheric turbulence, especially in the
vertical axis. Particularly high magnitudes occur during low altitude, highspeed flight, due to
ground-effect turbulence and pilot-induced acceleration (Reference 1).
Page 1 of 18
SECTION 4
2 EVALUATION OF DISCOMFORT DUE TO VIBRATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.1.1 This section is concerned with the evaluation of the effects of vibration other
than those which directly interfere with human activities. The degree to which a
particular vibration condition is considered to cause unacceptable discomfort is
dependent upon many factors, including the circumstances of the mission and the
nature of the task being performed. The extent to which discomfort will interfere with
the performance of a particular task is also dependent on similar factors. When the
task being performed is not demanding, a moderate amount of discomfort due to
vibration may enhance performance by maintaining the level of arousal of the
aircrew. However, if the aircrew are well motivated and aroused discomfort may
prove to be an unacceptable additional stress. This section does not, therefore,
present a vibration limit for comfort, but requires that an equivalent comfort value be
reported for comparative purposes. (References 2 to 6).
2.2 EVALUATION PROCEDURE
2.1 The weighted root-mean-square acceleration value in each of the three

translational axes on the seat, along with optional measurements on the seat back
and the floor, should be computed with the following weightings:
x-axis on supporting seat surface weighting W2

y-axis on supporting seat surface weighting W2
z-axis on supporting seat surface weighting W1
x-axis on the seat back (optional) weighting W3
z-axis on the floor (optional) weighting W1
The weighting functions W 1 , W 2 , and W 3 are defined in Annex A.
2.2.2 The weight root-mean-square acceleration magnitudes in each axis should

be reported separately but may also be expressed in the combined form:
a s = (a sx 2 + a sy 2 + a sz 2)1/2 ms-² rms
where, a sx a sy and a sz are the weighted root-mean-square acceleration magnitudes

measured on the seat surface in the x, y and z-axis respectively. Where
measurements are also made on the seat back and floor the combined weighted
root-mean-square acceleration magnitude is expressed as:
a s = (a sx 2 + a sy 2 + a sz 2 + 0.8a bx 2 + 0.4a fx 2)1/2 ms-2 rms
where a bx and a fz are the weighted root-mean-square acceleration magnitudes in

the x-axis on the seat back and in the z-axis on the floor respectively.
2.2.3 Procedures also exist for evaluating accelerations in other axes, but they are
not considered important here (References 4 and 6). The likely degree of discomfort
produced by any weighted value may be estimated by reference to Table 1.
Page 2 of 18
SECTION 4
2.2.4 The weighted root-mean-square acceleration magnitudes should be reported

and documented for each flight mode in a typical mission.
3 EVALUATION OF THE RISK OF INJURY DUE TO VIBRATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.1.1 There are currently no firm data to show how the risk of injury is related to
the duration of exposure to vibration. A time dependency is defined in this section
as a relationship between vibration magnitude and duration which appears to be
consistent with current information (References 7 to 9). No absolute limits are set for
vibration exposure, as the acceptable risk, particularly in the military context, is
somewhat dependent upon the nature of the task being performed. However it is
required to report vibration magnitudes which exceed the defined time dependency,
as these may indicate an increased risk of injury due to long-term vibration
exposures.
3.2.1 The evaluation of the risk of injury due to long-term exposure to vibration is
based on the z-axis acceleration on the supporting seat, weighted by W1, as in the
earlier evaluation of discomfort. The design aim should be that the weighted root-
mean-square acceleration amplitude should not exceed the boundary defined in Fig
1 for the expected daily exposure. The root-mean-square acceleration boundary is a
function of time:-
 = 10.7 / t ¼
where t is the flight duration in seconds. The weighted z-axis root-mean-square

acceleration values obtained in typical flight modes, and the typical flight duration
which would exceed the above boundary, should be reported to the project
authority.
4 EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF VIBRATION ON MANIPULATION OF HAND

CONTROLS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.1.1 Vibration produces involuntary motion and force in the limbs which can
restrict the accuracy of manipulative and control actions. Tasks requiring the highest
control precision are usually performed by hand control. Foot control is not
considered in this section for this reason, and because there is paucity of
experimental data concerning control by the feet.
4.1.2 The procedures outlined in this section define the maximum accuracy of
hand movement or force which can normally be expected with a given vibration
input. The extent to which the performance of a control task is affected by the
movement or force at the hand is determined by a number of factors which are
discussed in Leaflet 68.
Page 3 of 18
SECTION 4
4.2.1 The weighted root-mean-square acceleration magnitude in the three

translational axes on the seat, and in the x-axis on the seat back, should be
computed with the following weightings:
x-axis on supporting seat surface weighting W2

y-axis on supporting seat surface weighting W2
z-axis on supporting seat surface weighting W3
x-axis on the seat back weighting W3
4.2.2 This evaluation procedure takes into account seat-back vibration. It is evaluated
because x-axis vibration may occur at relatively high acceleration magnitudes, and when
transmitted via the seat back, this can affect control performance (Reference 10).
4.2.3 The minimum position or force error between the hand and control should be
determined separately from Fig 2 for the weighted root-mean-square acceleration
magnitude in each of the above axes. If a particular task demands greater accuracy than
that indicated by the relationship in Fig 2, further precautions such as those outlined in
Leaflet 68 should be taken to ensure that the task is not significantly degraded by vibration.
5 EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF VIBRATION ON VISUAL PERFORMANCE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.1.1 Motion of the visual image across the retina of the eye causes retinal blur
which degrades the ability of the aircrew member to see fine detail. The eye is
reflexly stabilised against angular movements of the head so that retinal blurring is
minimal for targets that are static with respect to inertial space.
5.1.2 In conditions where a visual target rotates with the head, as with a helmet
mounted display, the reflex is inappropriate and cannot be suppressed at
frequencies above 1-2 Hz. Moreover, vibration at the seat results in both angular
and linear head motions whose amplitude and phase are dependent on the
transmissibilities of both seat and the body. Significant phase lags occur above 2
Hz. The effect of differential linear motion between the eye and near objects, such
as cockpit instruments, is worse than for objects at or near optical infinity.
5.1.3 The procedures outlined in this section define minimum values for the sizes
of characters or symbols on cockpit displays. The values represent the size of the
smallest character or symbol which can be read without increased risk of error due
to either whole-body or instrument vibration. They assume otherwise favourable
viewing conditions, and the minimum character size may need to be increased if this
is not the case. Factors which may affect the extent to which visual performance is
degraded by vibration are discussed in Leaflet 68.
5.2 EVALUATION PROCEDURE FOR WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION ON VISUAL

PERFORMANCE
Page 4 of 18
SECTION 4
5.2.1 The weighted root-mean-square acceleration magnitude in the three

translational axes on the seat, and the x-axis on the seat back, should be computed
with the same weightings as defined for the evaluation of the effects of vibration on
hand control.
5.2.2 Seat-back vibration is evaluated because x-axis vibration may occur at

relatively high acceleration magnitude in aeroplane and there is experimental
evidence to show that, when transmitted via the seat-back, this can have a
significant effect on visual performance (Reference 13).
5.2.3 Alphanumeric characters on the instruments and displays in aeroplanes

should not be smaller than the minimum size defined by the limit in Fig 3 for the
highest weighted root-mean-square acceleration magnitude in the above axes. If the
viewing conditions are not optimum, as discussed in Leaflet 68, it may be necessary
to increase the character size above the minimum limit to avoid reading difficulties.
5.2.4 Detailed non-alphanumeric symbols on displays should be treated in the

same way as alphanumeric characters, but consideration should be given to the
factors discussed in Leaflet 68.
5.3 EVALUATION PROCEDURE FOR INSTRUMENT VIBRATION ON VISUAL

PERFORMANCE
5.3.1 The weighted root-mean-square acceleration magnitude in the vertical and

lateral horizontal (side to side) axes on the instrument panel or instrument face
should both be computed with weighting W 2 .
5.3.2 The relationship between minimum character or symbol size and the
weighted root-mean-square acceleration magnitude in each axis should be
determined in the same way as for whole-body vibration, as outlined above.
REFERENCES
1. SPEAKMAN, J.D., BONFILI, HILLE, H.R. and COLE, J.N. (1971) Crew exposure in
the F4C aeroplane during low altitude, highspeed flight. AMRL-TR-70-99. Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base, Ohio: Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory.
2. CORBRIDGE, C. and GRIFFIN, M.J. (1982) Experimental studies of discomfort

produced by vertical and lateral vibration in the range 0.5 to 5.0 Hz. Final Report prepared for ORE
Committee B-153.
3. DONATI, P., GROSJEAN, A., MISTROT, P. and ROURE, L. (1981) The subjective
equivalence of sinusoidal and random whole-body vibration in sitting position (An experimental
study using the 'floating standard vibration' method). Institute Nationale de Recherche et de
Securite, INRS Rapport No. 1065/RE.
4. GRIFFIN, M.J., WITHAM, E.M. and PARSONS, K.C. (1982) Vibration and comfort:
IV Application of experimental results. Ergonomics 25, 721-739.
Page 5 of 18
SECTION 4
5. INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION for STANDARDISATION (1984) Guide to the

evaluation of human exposure to whole-body mechanical vibration and repetitious shock: revision
of ISO 2631 Draft No. 5. Committee Document.
6. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION (1987) British Standard guide to the

evaluation of human exposure to whole-body mechanical vibration and shock. BS 6841.
7. GRIFFIN, M.J. and WITHAM, E.M. (1980) Time dependency of whole-body

vibration discomfort. Journal of the acoustical Society of America 68, 989-990.
8. GRIFFIN, M.J. (1982) The effects of vibration on health. Report prepared for the
Health and Safety Directorate of the Commission of the European Communities. ISVR
Memorandum No. 632, University of Southampton.
9. GRIFFIN, M.J. (1986) Evaluation of vibration with respect to human response.

Society of Automotive Engineers Paper SAE 860047.
10. ALLEN, R.W., JEX, H.R. and MAGDALENO, R.E. (1973) Manual control
performance and dynamic response during sinusoidal vibration. Aerospace Medical Research
Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, AMRL-TR-73-78.
11. INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION for STANDARDISATION (1974, 1978) Guide

for the evaluation of human exposure to whole-body vibration. ISO 2631.
12. INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION for STANDARDISATION (1982) Guide for the

evaluation of human exposure to whole-body vibration: Amendment 1. ISO 2631 - 1978/A1-1982.
13. LEWIS, C.H. and GRIFFIN M.J. (1980) Predicting the effects of vibration frequency
and axis, and seating conditions on the reading of numeric displays. Ergonomics, 23, 485-501.
< 0.315 ms-² rms Not Uncomfortable
0.315 - 0.63 ms-² rms A Little Uncomfortable
0.5 - 1.0 ms-² rms Fairly Uncomfortable
0.8 - 1.6 ms-² rms Uncomfortable
1.25 -2.5 ms-² rms Very Uncomfortable
> 2.0 ms-² rms Extremely Uncomfortable
TABLE 1 - Degrees of Discomfort Produced by Frequency-Weighted Vibration Magnitudes (a s ).
Page 6 of 18
SECTION 4
FIG 1 - The Relationship between Weighted Root-Mean-Square Acceleration Magnitude and Duration
of Exposure Defining a Boundary for Increased Risk of Vibration Injury
Page 7 of 18
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FIG 2 - Relationship between Weighted Root-Mean-Square Acceleration Magnitude and Tracking

Error
Page 8 of 18
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FIG 3 - Relationship between Weighted Root-Mean-Square Acceleration Magnitude and the Minimum
Character or Symbol sizes on Instruments and Displays (The precise values are based on a 9 by 7
font)
Page 9 of 18
SECTION 4
ANNEX A
REQUIREMENTS FOR VIBRATION MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS SUITABLE FOR HUMAN

EXPOSURE EVALUATION
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This annex details procedures for the measurement and analysis of vibration in a
manner suitable for the evaluation of human exposure. The measurements will normally be
acquired as part of the flight vibration survey detailed in Leaflet 32. That leaflet also gives
advice on the appropriate flight conditions during which the measurements should be
made.
1.2 The vibration should be measured at the interface between the aircrew member and
the seat back in each of the orthogonal translational axes defined in Fig A1 Measurements
should be made on both the pilot's and co-pilot’s seats and on other crewseats within the
aeroplane. Vibration measurements should also be made on the instrument consoles and,
wherever practicable, on the floor or foot pedals close to the pilot's and co-pilot’s feet. The
axes and methods of vibration measurement are discussed under the heading
Accelerometer mounting details.
1.3 Where possible the acceleration time histories should be recorded in a storable
format (e.g., on magnetic tape in either analogue or digital form). Performance
requirements for the transducers, recording and analysis equipment are given in this
annex.
1.4 When the data are analysed, the acceleration time histories should each be band
limited at 0.4 Hz and 100 Hz. Different frequency weightings are required for each
application, as specified in the main body of this leaflet and summarized in Table A1. The
weighting filters are described under the heading frequency weighting procedures and their
response is illustrated in Fig A2. The derivation of these weightings and their application
are presented in References A1 to A3. The overall root-mean-square acceleration
magnitude for each axis and weighting function should be computed for each flight mode in
a typical mission. In each case the root-mean-square acceleration magnitude should be
computed over more than twenty seconds, or a period appropriate to the duration of an
event.
2 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR MEASUREMENT AND RECORDING

EQUIPMENT
2.1 The accelerometers, signal conditioning and recording apparatus should all be
capable of reproducing acceleration signals in the frequency range for less than 0.4 Hz to
above 100 Hz with an accuracy better than 0.5 dB. The noise level in the system, including
accelerometer cable noise, should be less than 0.1 ms-2 rms at frequencies within the
measurement bandwidth and the system should be capable of capturing the largest peak
accelerations without saturation or distortion.
3 CALIBRATION
3.1 Care should be taken to ensure the accurate calibration of the measurement system
and if acceleration time histories are recorded, calibration signals of known acceleration
amplitude should be recorded on the same medium, via the same signal conditioning
system, immediately before and after the recordings are made.
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4 ACCELEROMETER MOUNTING DETAILS
4.1 MEASUREMENTS ON THE SEAT AND SEAT BACK
4.1.1 Vibration measurements on the seat and seat-back should be made by

accelerometers mounted in an SAE pad or SITBAR (References A4 and A5).
Details of the SAE pad and SITBAR are given in Fig A3. For the vibration
measurements on the seat the pad should be placed between the crew member
and the seat with the accelerometers orientated in the x-, y- and z-axes as defined
in Fig A1. The pad should be placed such that the ischial tuberosities of the
crewmember are located centrally on the pad. For the vibration measurements on
the seat-back the pad should be placed between the highest part of the back of the
crew member in contact with the seat and the seat-back, with the accelerometer
orientated in the x-axis as defined in Fig A1.
4.2 MEASUREMENTS ON INSTRUMENTS AND DISPLAYS
4.2.1 For measurements of display vibration the accelerometers shall be rigidly

attached to the instrument console, or to the face of an instrument. The
accelerometers shall be orientated in axes approximately parallel to the z- and y-
axes as defined in Fig A1. For equipment mounted on side consoles the x-axis may
also need to be relevant and may necessitate measurements in that axis also.
4.3 MEASUREMENTS ON THE FLOOR
4.3.1 For measurements of floor vibration an accelerometer shall be fully attached

either to the cockpit floor near to the feet of the aircrew or on the floor near the
pedal controls on which the feet are placed. The accelerometer shall be orientated
along an axis approximately parallel to the z-axis as defined in Fig A1.
5 BAND LIMITING FILTERS
5.1 The recorded signals should be passed through band limiting filters to give an
attenuation of 3 dB at 0.4 Hz and 100 Hz and an attenuation rate of at least 12 dB per
octave outside those limits. The response at frequencies between 1 Hz and 80 Hz should
vary by less than ±1 dB.
6 FREQUENCY WEIGHTING PROCEDURES
6.1 The frequency weighting may be accomplished either by filtering the signal, in the
time domain, using analogue or digital circuitry, before computing the root-mean-square
acceleration amplitudes, or by frequency domain techniques. These two approaches are
detailed in the following paragraphs.
6.2 TIME DOMAIN PROCEDURE
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SECTION 4
6.2.1 If a filter is used the modules of the filter transfer function should not depart
from that defined in Table A2 by more than ±1 dB within the frequency range of 0.5
Hz to 80 Hz. The root-mean-square amplitude of the filtered acceleration time
history should preferably be computed by means of true integration over the entire
length of the time history (for statistical accuracy this should be more than 20
seconds duration or for the period of each flight mode). An alternative method would
be to use an instrument giving a running rms indication. If the latter technique is
used the averaging time constant should be at least 10 seconds and the duration of
the acceleration time history should be long enough for the output to reach a steady
state.
6.3 FREQUENCY DOMAIN PROCEDURE
6.3.1 If suitable frequency analysis equipment is available the weighted root-

mean-square acceleration magnitude may be computed from the following
relationship:
8OHz
a w (rms) = (  Gaa(f)  H(f)  ² df)½
0.5Hz
where G aa (f) is the power spectral density of the acceleration time history and H(f) is
the frequency weighting function. In this case the idealised frequency weighting
function defined in Fig A2 and Table A3 may be used. The resolution of the
frequency analysis should be 1 Hz or less.
REFERENCES
A1. CORBRIDGE, C. and GRIFFIN, M.J. (1982) Experimental studies of discomfort

produced by vertical and lateral vibration in the range 0.5 to 5.0 Hz. Final Report prepared for ORE
Committee B-153.
A2. GRIFFIN, M.J., WITHAM, E.M. and PARSONS, K.C. (1982) Vibration and comfort:
IV Application of experimental results. Ergonomics 25, 721-739.
A3. GRIFFIN, M.J. (9186) Evaluation of vibration with respect to human response.
Society of Automotive Engineers Paper SAE 860047.
A4. WHITHAM, E.M. and G M.J. (1977) Measuring Vibration on soft seats. S.A.E.Paper
No. 770253.
A5. S.A.E. (1974) Measurement of whole-body vibration of the seated operator of

agricultural equipment. S.A.E. J1013, S.A.E. Handbook Part II.
Page 12 of 18
SECTION 4
WEIGHTING FUNCTION
Transducer Location
Supporting Seat Seat Floor Instrument Panel

Back Near
Feet
Evaluation
Procedure for Axis Axis Axis Axis
X Y Z X Z Y Z
Discomfort W2 W2 W1 W3* W1* - -
Injury - - W1 - - - -
Operation of hand W2 W2 W3 W3 - - -
controls
-
Visual performance W2 W2 W3 W3 W2 W2
TABLE Al - Application of Weighting Functions in Evaluation Procedure
* Optional measurement locations
Frequency weighting function W 1 is equivalent to a four pole filter with the transfer function:
s. 3
K . (1 + s 1 )(1 + Q2 + s22 3 )
H(s) =
s. 2 s. 4
(1 x + s2 2 2 )(1 + + s2 2 4 )
Q1 Q3
Frequency weighting functions W 2 and W 3 are equivalent to two pole filters with the
transfer functions:
K . (1 + s 1 )
H(s) =
s. 2
1 + s2  2 2
Q1
The coefficients of the above expressions are tabulated below:
Page 13 of 18
SECTION 4
W1 W2 W3
K 0.40 1.00 0.42
 1 (seconds) 0.00995 0.0796 0.107
 2 seconds) 0.00995 0.0796 0.0300
 3 (seconds) 0.0633 - -
 4 (seconds) 0.0400 - -
Q1 0.63 0.63 0.68
Q2 0.80 - -
Q3 0.80 - -
TABLE A2 - Definition of Frequency Weighting Functions
* s is the Laplace operator and is equivalent to j, where j=  -1 and  is the

forcing frequency in rad.s-1
Page 14 of 18
SECTION 4
Weighting Factors (dB)
Frequency (Hz) Weighting W 1 Weighting W 2 Weighting W 3
0.5 -8 0 -6
1.0 -8 0 -6
1.25 -8 0 -5
1.6 -8 0 -4
2.0 -8 0 -3
2.5 -6 -2 -2
3.15 -4 -4 -1
4.0 -2 -6 0
5.0 0 -8 0
6.3 0 -10 0
8.0 0 -12 0
10.0 0 -14 -2
12.5 0 -16 -4
16.0 0 -18 -6
20.0 -2 -20 -8
25.0 -4 -22 -10
31.5 -6 -24 -12
40.0 -8 -26 -14
50.0 -10 -28 -16
63.0 -12 -30 -18
80.0 -14 -32 -20
TABLE A3 - Definition of Straight Line Approximations to Weighting Functions
Page 15 of 18
SECTION 4
FIG A1 - Measurement Axes for Seat Acceleration
Page 16 of 18
SECTION 4
Frequency weighting defined in Table A1

- - - - - - - - - - - Straight line approximation: see Table A2
FIG A2 - The Frequency Weighing Functions used in the Evaluation of Vibration Effects
Page 17 of 18
SECTION 4
FIG A3 - Suggested Designs for Accelerometer Mounts for

Making Vibration Measurements at the Seat and Seat-Back Interface
Page 18 of 18
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 70
VIEW AND CLEAR VISION

STANDARDS OF RAIN
1 The content of this leaflet has been moved to Part 13 Section 2 Leaflets, Leaflet 01.
Page 1 of 1
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 71
VIEW AND CLEAR VISION

METHODS OF RAIN CLEARANCE FROM WINDSCREENS
1 The content of this leaflet has been moved to Part 13 Section 2 Leaflets, Leaflet 02.
Page 1 of 1
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 72
OPTICAL TRANSPARENT COMPONENTS
DESIGN, INSTALLATION AND TESTING

LABORATORY TEST SCHEDULE
1 TEST NO.1 - CONTRACTION AND EXPANSION TEST
(a) Cool the specimen to 50 below the lowest temperature expected in the air or on the
ground, taking account of kinetic heating relevant to minimum aeroplane flying speed but
making no allowance for alleviation by:
(1) solar radiation, or
(2) the effect of any aeroplane system.
(b) Maintain the cooling unit until a uniform temperature distribution is achieved and
hold this temperature for a minimum period of one hour to ensure stable conditions.
(c) Maintain the cooling medium and switch the aeroplane de-ice/de-mist system to the
appropriate level for the maximum period designated for continuous use.
(d) Switch off the de-ice/de-misting system and remove the cooling medium: allow the
specimen to regain room temperature.
(e) heat the specimen to the highest temperature expected in the air or on the ground
taking into account the effect of:
(1) solar radiation,
(2) kinetic heating, and
(3) any aeroplane system.
(f) Maintain the heating until a stable uniform temperature is achieved. Maintain this
uniform temperature for a minimum period of one hour if the design condition is derived
from a ground soak, or for a time equal to the maximum endurance of the aeroplane if the
design condition is derived from a flight condition.
(g) Remove the heating medium and allow the assembly to return to room temperature.
(h) For specimens incorporating an electrical method for de-misting or de-icing

purposes, check this feature for correct operation.
(i) Repeat the cycle (a) to (h) twice more.
(j) Inspect the specimen. The specimen shall exhibit no failure or optical defect of any
kind due to the tests including delamination, peel, splintering or crazing. An improvement in
design must be considered if the specimen fails to meet the above requirements.
Page 1 of 4
SECTION 4
Then for pressure cabin components only:
(k) Repeat (a).
(l) Apply pressure up to the unfactored maximum cabin pressure differential.

Maintain this pressure for at least 5 minutes before relaxing it and allowing the
specimen to regain room temperature.
(m) Repeat (h) and (j).
2 TEST NO.2 - FULLY FACTORED TEST
2.1 This test is designed to check the strength of the transparency in all operating
conditions and comprises two stages. The loading conditions and total factors to be
achieved in both test stages are summarized in Section 4 Table 18.
Note: Throughout this test, strict safety precautions must be observed so as to avoid the
possibility of injury to personnel in the event of failure of the transparency, particularly
during inspection of a panel under load.
2.2 STAGE 2A
(a) Bring the specimen to the unfactored design thermal condition relevant to
the test and stabilize the surface temperature. If the critical case is a transient
thermal condition (with the exception of the cases stated in Clause 4.18), the
unfactored design thermal condition relevant to the test will be the steady state
thermal condition immediately preceding the transient thermal condition.
(b) Apply a factored load to the specimen at a representative rate (or, if more
convenient, at 0.3515kgf/cm2/min (5 lbf/in2/min). The factor shall be 1.5 times the
Variability Factor in Section 4 Tables 16 or 17.
(c) Maintain this condition for a period equal to three-quarters of the maximum
endurance of the aeroplane or for two hours whichever is the longer, except when
the non-thermal loading is transient in which case the condition need only be
maintained for five minutes.
(d) Where feasible, inspect the specimen at the end of this period while
maintaining steady conditions. (See Note above on the need for safety precautions).
The criteria for rejection are the same as those specified in Test No.1(j). If the state
of the specimen is satisfactory on completion of the inspection, do not relax the
loading condition but continue into Stage 2B.
(e) Where it is not possible to carry out a visual inspection for reasons such as
masking by the rig, the loading and thermal conditions may be completely relaxed to
enable this to be achieved. If satisfactory, reload the specimen to the conditions of
(a), (b) and (c) and continue into Stage 2B.
2.3 STAGE 2B
Page 2 of 4
SECTION 4
With the specimen still under the temperature and loading conditions of Stage 2A:
(a) (1) If the critical case is a steady state thermal condition, maintain the
temperature conditions of Stage 2A and load the specimen at a rapid
uniform rate until double the Variability Factor in Section 4 Tables 16 or 17 is
attained, or
(2) If the critical case is a transient thermal condition (with the exception
of the cases stated in Clause 4.18), maintain the pressure loading at double
the Variability Factor in Section 4 Tables 16 or 17 and at the same time
adjust the rate of heating and cooling of the specimen to obtain a factor of
1.2 on the thermal stress distribution.
The transparency temperature should not deviate excessively from the design
temperature at the fully factored condition.
(b) On attaining the above test condition, relax all loading and temperature
conditions completely.
(c) Inspect the specimen. All specimens subject to Test No.2 are required to
sustain the conditions without any failure of material designed to be load bearing.
3 TEST NO.3 - CYCLIC RELIABILITY TEST
3.1 This test is intended to investigate the reliability of the assembly under
representative environmental conditions, not to establish the fatigue life of the
transparency.
3.2 It is to consist of the repeated application of unfactored thermal stresses, inertia

loadings and pressure loadings appropriate to the normal flight plan of the aeroplane and,
in addition, to include the application of a number of special conditions.
3.3 The content of the normal test cycle, the special conditions and the stages at which
they are to be considered should be agreed with the Project Team Leader.
3.4 NORMAL CYCLE
3.4.1 The conditions are to include:
(a) normal cabin pressure differential,
(b) external aerodynamic pressure loads and flight loads, and
(c) all thermal effects.
3.4.2 Each cycle of loading is to represent, as closely as is practicable, the

transient flight phases for normal ascent, descent, acceleration and deceleration as
well as the 'steady state' cruise. The cruise condition, in respect of time, is to be
represented by:
(a) the normal cruise time, or
Page 3 of 4
SECTION 4
(b) the time needed for the temperature conditions in the assembly to
reach equilibrium,
whichever is the shorter, with the proviso that the time is to be not less than 30
minutes.
3.4.3 Between each cycle, after the specimen has reached ground temperature, a
'rest' period of at 30 least minutes is required. Ground temperatures are those
appropriate to the areas in which the aeroplane is designed to operate.
3.5 EMERGENCY AND SPECIAL CONDITIONS
3.5.1 The following should be considered:
(a) cabin over-pressurisation to emergency relief valve pressure,
(b) maximum limits of the design flight envelope,
(c) the operation of any relevant aeroplane system under extreme

environmental conditions which are not represented in the normal cycle,
(d) thermal shock and any additional effect due to flight into rain, hail
etc.,
(e) shortened rest periods representative of 'quick turn-round' time,
(f) long flight periods when flight refuelling is a requirement,
(g) opening and closing of the transparency,
(h) ground manoeuvring and wind loading sustained by the transparency

in open position on the ground.
3.6 TEST RESULTS

An acceptable level of reliability will have been demonstrated if, after completion of
the full cyclic test programme, the specimen is still considered serviceable. Failure
of the specimen during this test does not necessarily mean rejection of the design.
Both the criteria for the assessment of serviceability and also the complete test
results are to be discussed with the Project Team Leader.
Page 4 of 4
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 73
REQUIREMENTS FOR SATISFACTORY VISION DEFINITIONS, CATEGORIES OF

TRANSPARENCIES AND LIMITING ACCEPTABLE VALUES OF PARAMETERS ASSOCIATED
WITH ACCURATE VISION
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Because of Misunderstandings which have occurred in the past it is essential that
there should be clear definitions of the qualities which can influence vision through a
transparency. These are given in Para 2 of this leaflet. It is furthermore expedient to
distinguish the various transparencies used in aeroplanes according to their function.
Limiting values may then be placed upon the qualities associated with good vision, and the
tolerances adjusted to suit the nature of each category of transparency thereby effecting
economies in manufacture and inspection.
1.2 In Para 4 the categorisation of transparencies is discussed, and in Para 5 the

limiting values which have been allocated are explained.
2 DEFINITIONS
2.1 The qualities which determine vision through a transparency are listed and, where
necessary, defined below. It is recognised, as will be seen later (Para 5.7), that depending
on the function of a particular transparency, not all of these parameters need be specified
for every class of transparency.
2.1.1 In-line visual light transmission: this may be defined as the intensity of an
emerging beam of light compared with that of the incident parallel beam falling upon
the transparency under examination. Losses are due to absorption and scattering
within the specimen and reflection occurring not only at the outer surfaces, but also
at interferences within which there are changes of refractive index.
2.1.2 Haze or halation: an obscuration of view or the spreading of an image

beyond its proper limits caused by the scatter of light from tiny particles within the
material or defects on the surface of the material, e.g. lack of polish.
2.1.3 Absolute deviation: the angular deviation of an emergent beam of light

compared with the incident beam. A ray of light emerging at an angle other than
normal from a transparent specimen with perfectly parallel faces suffers a linear
displacement compared with the incident beam. If the faces are not parallel, the
emergent beam also suffers an angular deviation compared with the incident beam.
2.1.4 Optical resolution: the ability to distinguish clearly between two objects which
subtend a small angle at the eye. The ability to distinguish fineness of detail (acuity)
is strongly influenced by the contrast in brightness of the object compared with the
brightness of the background.
2.1.5 Binocular deviation: the difference in deviation of two parallel incident rays
which, for this application, are considered to be 64mm (2.519in) apart in a horizontal
plane, this being the average spacing of the human eyes. Visions through a panel
having binocular deviation can result in eye strain.
Page 1 of 5
SECTION 4
2.1.6 Visual distortion: over the area of specimen, local variations of deviation (or
'wedge') can occur which result in distortion of the image; known straight lines
become crooked or curved and the effects are magnified in the case of thick panels.
Curved panels can be particularly susceptible to optical distortion in some areas.
2.1.7 Secondary image separation: in an oblique view through a panel, secondary

image formation can appear because of internal reflections at interfaces where
there are changes of refractive index. The effect is particularly disturbing, when
manifest in the appearance of multiple images of landing lights. Two factors
contribute to the appearance of double images, namely the extent of separation of
the secondary image from the primary, and the contrast between the secondary
image and the background illumination. The separation is increased by increased
thickness of the panel and by increased angle of obliquity.
2.1.8 Scratches and inclusions: panels may be accidentally scratched during

manufacture and inclusions may be present in the materials used or may arise in
lamination. Both types of defects can be disturbing under some conditions of
illumination; the detection of such defects relies very much on the method of
illumination and the eye of the inspector.
2.1.9 Angle of incidence: this is defined as the angle between the incident beam of
light and the normal to the panel at the point of incidence.
3 CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH THE REQUIREMENTS APPLY
3.1 Many of the properties listed change markedly as the angle of incidence varies and
a satisfactory assessment of these can only be made for the correct viewing position. The
optical qualities can suffer severe deterioration in the case of a highly raked windscreen
where the angle of incidence can be 60° or more.
3.2 One further condition is that certain optical qualities be checked when de-misting
and de-icing equipment associated with the transparencies is operating under normal
control conditions thereby ensuring that no further deterioration of vision occurs when flying
conditions are likely to be poor due to bad weather etc. Where flight loads are likely to
affect the optical quality, this should be checked under the appropriate conditions.
4 CATEGORISATION OF TRANSPARENCIES
4.1 It is important to grade transparencies or areas thereof (see Clause 4.18) according
to the function which they perform; for example a pilot's forward windscreen panel or area
thereof associated with some weapon aiming device must have higher quality and accuracy
associated with it than for example a side screen provided to give a pilot a much wider
angle of vision.
Page 2 of 5
SECTION 4
4.2 For reasons of economy designers should take care not to specify higher optical
quality for transparencies than is required to satisfy the end use. To achieve this, the most
critical requirements should be confined to limited areas of the panel. As an example the
critical area of a weapon aiming transparency would be limited to the area covered by the
weapon aiming system, but the surrounding areas could be reduced from Category I to
Category III.
4.3 While significant improvements beyond the defined optical qualities are highly
desirable for improved performance and their attainment is to be the aim of the designer,
due regard must be paid to any excessively high cost of manufacture or inspection likely to
be incurred by their achievement.
5 ACCEPTABLE LIMITS FOR PARAMETERS ASSOCIATED WITH VISION
5.1 In Section 4 Table 18 acceptable limits of the various parameters (see Para's 5.3-
5.8 below) are stated, these being considered as limiting values consistent with safe
operation. In many cases improvements in the quality of vision are possible thereby
increasing the effectiveness of the operator using the transparency. The aeroplane
specification should therefore state the values agreed by designer and manufacturer and
justification provided when improved requirements demand abnormally high quality
materials or control in fabrication; should any degraded standard of optical quality be
required in the aeroplane specification, justification for this must be provided.
5.2 The vision area normally covers the whole area of the panel to within 25mm
(0.984in) of the edge except in areas as agreed necessary for the inclusion of sensors,
busbars etc. Critical areas of panels having special requirements (e.g. for weapon aiming)
shall be defined on the drawing or in the specification.
5.3 IN-LINE VISUAL LIGHT TRANSMISSION
5.3.1 For transparencies of Categories I, II and III it is necessary not only to

stipulate minimum acceptable values of in-line light transmission from the pilot's or
user's normal eye position in the horizontal plane (when the aeroplane is in
horizontal flight), but also in the area where there is the lowest light transmission.
The latter would normally occur at the lowest part of the panel (i.e. where angle of
incidence from the user's eye position is at a maximum) so that specification of the
transmission in this area ensures the best vision under critical flight conditions (e.g.
on landing). The most forward parts of highly raked panels suffer severe reduction
in light transmission at the high angles of incidence incurred there.
5.3.2 The quoted minimum acceptable in-line light transmission values for
Category I and III transparencies (i.e. 60% and 55% respectively in the horizontal
plane) are effectively controlled by the need for thick panels to achieve bird strike
protection. The transmission decreases with increasing angle of incidence and 40%
transmission is quoted as a just acceptable value where the angle of incidence to
the pilot's or user's eye is at its maximum. For Category II transparencies, as used
in reconnaissance and search roles, the maximum possible transmission is required
and, for such panels, bird strike requirements do not normally exist and angles of
incidence are usually low so that high values of light transmission are achievable.
Page 3 of 5
SECTION 4
5.3.3 For Categories IV and V in-line light transmission of 80% is achievable when
heating films are not required. However the customer may choose designs of lower
in-line visible light transmission in which case the minimum acceptable value in the
installed position should be 55%.
5.3.4 Transmission measurements are normally made using a standard light

source and every care must be taken to ensure that heating films do not significantly
affect the spectral distribution of the light reaching the observer's eye.
5.4 HAZE OR HALATION
5.4.1 The effect of haze in a transparency is very similar to a deterioration in

optical resolution. The maximum allowable value for haze of 3.0% of the total visible
light transmission is measured normal to the panel since it is impracticable to
measure haze at angles of incidence other than normal; the difference is in any
case negligible. The value of 3.0% is normally readily obtainable with glass
laminates but may cause problems with plastic materials due to their susceptibility
to abrasion and scratching.
5.5 ABSOLUTE DEVIATION
5.5.1 In the extreme case, imprecise definition of the requirement for optical
deviation could lead to inaccuracy in weapon aiming or in the positioning of an
aeroplane approaching a runway. The requirements are defined to minimise these
effects and weapon aiming will always demand special requirements; for Category I
a variation of 5 minutes from a specified value is quoted as a guide, the real value
would be determined by the weapon system tolerance.
5.5.2 For Category II the maximum acceptable value of 10 minutes is determined

by the reconnaissance role. Relaxation to 15 minutes and 25 minutes is allowed for
Categories IlI and V respectively in view of the less stringent need for accuracy of
position in their associated roles.
5.6 OPTICAL RESOLUTION
5.6.1 The generally accepted practical limit of resolution of the human eye is about
1 minute of arc and it is considered that the transparencies used in operational
flying of an aeroplane should not significantly impair this resolution. Conditions of
test must be made under standardised conditions of contrast and illumination. For
Category II transparencies which are frequently used in conjunction with binoculars
the resolution afforded by the panel must not cause deterioration of vision. Since 7 x
50 binoculars are in common usage, a criterion of 10 seconds of arc imposed upon
Category II vision areas ensures adequate performance when binoculars are used.
5.7 VISUAL DISTORTION, BINOCULAR DEVIATION AND SECONDARY IMAGE

SEPARATION
Page 4 of 5
SECTION 4
5.7.1 It should be noted that if the absolute deviation is rigorously specified as is

required for the highest quality screens, and the tolerance is achieved over a
sufficiently fine lattice covering the transparency or area thereof, these dependent
parameters (i.e. visual distortion, binocular deviation and secondary image
separation) are automatically controlled and need not be further specified.
5.7.2 In normal circumstances however and especially in the case of curved

panels, visual distortion needs to be specified and assessed in order to show that
undistorted vision is provided. Thus it is a requirement that panels of Categories II,
III, IV and V be assessed for visual distortion. It is usual to quantify distortion in
terms of the slope and/or divergence of the image lines of a grid projected through
the panel, or obtained by an equivalent method.
5.7.3 Similarly panels of Categories III and IV must be assessed for binocular
deviation which must not exceed 10 minutes of arc. Thicker panels having areas of
Category I quality may need to be checked for binocular deviation, particularly in
vision areas where Categories I and III adjoin. For Category II a special additional
requirement arises from the possible use of binoculars. Because the eyes have less
ability to compensate for deviations in the vertical plane than in the horizontal plane,
binocular deviation in the vertical direction must not exceed 2.5 minutes of arc, that
in the horizontal direction remaining at not greater than 10 minutes of arc.
5.7.4 Separation of secondary images normally becomes serious only under

certain circumstances and specification of acceptable limits is necessary only in
such circumstances. Thus, if on the preliminary viewing of such a panel the images
of bright lights (as on a runway) become separated and move about on slight
movement of the head, then specification and assessment of this parameter is
required. No limits have been quoted as it is impossible to eliminate entirely double
imaging except at the cost of very high optical quality. Should specification be
required however, then 5 minutes separation would be a recommended value.
5.8 VISIBLE INCLUSION, SEEDS, HAIRS, FIBRES AND SCRATCHES
5.8.1 Considerable problems are associated with formulating requirements for

inclusions etc. as certain conditions of illumination can render a small defect
intensely irritating whereas it might normally be invisible.
5.8.2 The eye, normally focus on the distant scene rather than upon the
transparency unless this exhibits some disturbing (or interesting) feature. The
guiding principle is therefore to avoid such disturbances by specifying their size to
be less than the limit of resolution of the eye and their colour to be unattractive.
Page 5 of 5
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 74
REQUIREMENTS FOR SATISFACTORY VISION RECOMMENDED METHODS FOR THE

DETERMINATION OF OPTICAL QUALITIES
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Suitable methods for determining the various properties are described in the following
sections. Alternative methods, or the combination of two or more of the inspection processes,
may be acceptable provided that adequate inspection for each of the included parameters can be
demonstrated; in either case advice should be sought from the PTL or MOD Quality Assurance
Authority before extensive use is made of such an alternative procedure.
1.2 LIST OF SECTIONS
(a) In line visual light transmission,
(b) Haze,
(c) Absolute deviation,
(d) Optical resolution,
(1) Categories I, III, IV and V transparencies,
(2) Category II transparencies only,
(e) Visual distortion,
(f) Binocular deviation,
(g) Secondary image separation,
(h) Visible defects.
Page 1 of 23
SECTION 4
SECTION (a) - SPECIFICATION OF A METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF IN-LINE VISUAL

LIGHT TRANSMISSION
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 A photometric method is used employing a defined light source and a photocell matched
to the response of the human eye. Because this method deals with materials which are basically
colourless certain deviations from the ideal conditions are allowable and these are indicated.
2 APPARATUS (see Fig. 1)
2.1 LIGHT SOURCE
2.1.1 For the purposes of this specification the light source is deemed to be illuminant A
of the International Commission on Illumination i.e. a tungsten filament lamp operated at a
colour temperature of 2855.5K (see Note below). For practical purposes the colour
temperature tolerance may be 10% and this will be attained by employing a gas filled
tungsten filament lamp operated at its rated voltage.
2.1.2 The light source is combined with an optical system to produce a parallel beam.
Note: Although source 'A' does not correspond to solar radiation temperature, it has
been chosen for simplicity in use, and ease of maintaining a standard. Practical tests
have shown that measurements made with a photometer corrected to approximate eye
response did not reveal a change in transmission of more than 0.5% when the illuminant
was changed from 'A' to 'C'. These tests were made on a selection of nearly colourless
materials of 50 -95% transmission.
2.2 POWER SUPPLY
2.2.1 The power supply to the lamp should be stabilised. The short term change in
voltage output should be not more than ± 0.1%.
2.3 PHOTOMETER – GEOMETRY
2.3.1 The photometric measurements may be made either with a photocell or

alternatively with a photometric integrating sphere.
2.3.2 The photocell should be fitted with a diffusion screen and should be of sufficient
dimension to cover the whole of the parallel light beam.
2.3.3 The integrating sphere should conform to the requirements of BS 354:

Photometric Integrators. It should have an aperture of 70 mm (2.755 in) diameter for the
light beam and an aperture for fitting the photometer. There should be baffles fitted so that
direct light does not reach the photometer from the aperture or the area on the sphere
where the light beam falls. The diameter of the sphere shall be approximately 500 mm
(19.685 in).
2.3.4 The distance of the photometer from the illuminated area of the transparency
should not be less than 250 mm (9.842 in).
Page 2 of 23
SECTION 4
2.4 PHOTOMETER-SPECIAL RESPONSE
2.4.1 The spectral response of the photocell shall be corrected to approximate that of
the human eye.
2.5 PHOTOMETER-ACCURACY
2.5.1 The output response of the photometer shall be linear within 0.5%. The output
shall be capable of being read to a discrimination of 0.5%.
3 CONDITIONS OF TEST
3.1 The sample shall be cleaned on both surfaces before measurements are made.
3.2 The measurements shall be made with respect to the pilot's or user's normal eye position
and with the windscreen at the installed angle.
3.3 The area of the parallel light beam shall be at least 1 cm2 (0.155 in.2).
3.4 Precautions shall be taken to ensure that no other light by reflection or other means
except that from the source shall reach the photocell.
4 METHOD
4.1 The light source is set up at a convenient distance from the photometer with both items
rigidly mounted.
4.2 The apparatus is allowed appropriate time to reach thermal equilibrium before
measurements are made.
4.3 A measurement is made without the transparent specimen (a) and a second
measurement (b) with the specimen interposed between the lamp and the photometer. The
100b.
percentage light transmission is then given by
a
4.4 When testing thick panels at angles of incidence other than normal, there is a substantial
displacement of the light beam after passing through. This may be accommodated with the
integrating sphere photometer if the aperture is large enough. When using a photocell alone, a
lateral movement of the light source or photocell will be necessary to ensure that the exit beam is
fully received by the photocell.
5 CALIBRATION
5.1 Each of the parameters specified in Para 2 (i.e., (a) colour temperature of light source, (b)
stability of power supply, (c) spectral response of photocell and (d) linearity of photometer), may
be qualified by submission to a British Calibration Services Approved Laboratory.
5.2 Alternatively, the MOD Quality Assurance Authority may approve equipment after
appropriate interchange of measurements between the applicant and an approved laboratory.
Page 3 of 23
SECTION 4
Page 4 of 23
SECTION 4
SECTION (b) - SPECIFICATION OF A METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF HAZE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 A photometric method is used employing a defined light source, an integrating sphere and
a photometer matched to the response of the human eye. Because this method deals with
materials which are basically colourless, certain deviations from the ideal conditions are
allowable and these are indicated.
2.1 LIGHT SOURCE
2.1.1 For the purpose of this specification the light source is deemed to be Illuminant A
of the International Commission on Illumination, i.e. a tungsten filament lamp operated at
a colour temperature of 2855.5K (see Note below). For practical purposes the colour
temperature tolerance may be 10% and this will be attained by employing a gas-filled
tungsten filament lamp operated at its rated voltage.
2.1.2 The light source is combined with an optical system to produce a parallel beam 50
mm (1.968 in) diameter.
Note: Although source 'A' does not correspond to solar radiation temperature, it has
been chosen for simplicity in use, and ease of maintaining a standard. Practical tests
have shown that measurements made with a photometer corrected to approximate eye
response did not reveal a measurable change in haze measurement when the illuminant
was changed from 'A' to 'C'. The tests were carried out on a selection of nearly colourless
transparent materials.
2.2 POWER SUPPLY
2.2.1 The power supply to the lamp should be stabilised. The short term change in
voltage output should be not more than ±0.01%.
2.3 INTEGRATING SPHERE
2.3.1 The integrating sphere should conform to the requirements of BS 354:

Photometric Integrators. It should have an aperture of 70 mm (2.755 in) diameter for the
light beam and an aperture for fitting the photometer. There should be baffles fitted so that
direct light does not reach the photometer from the aperture or the area on the sphere
where the light beam falls. The diameter of the sphere shall be approximately 500 mm
(19.685 in).
2.4 PHOTOMETER - SPECTRAL RESPONSE
2.4.1 The spectral response of the photocell shall be corrected to approximately that of
the human eye.
2.5 PHOTOMETER – ACCURACY
Page 5 of 23
SECTION 4
2.5.1 The output response of the photometer shall be linear within ±0.5%. The output
shall be capable of being read to a discrimination ±0.5%.
2.6 WINDSCREEN HOLDER
2.6.1 There shall be provided a holder for the windscreen panel capable of holding the
windscreen in a plane at right angles to the light beam and capable of moving the
windscreen along the light beam a distance equal to the diameter of the sphere.
3.1 The sample shall be cleaned on both surfaces before measurements are made.
3.2 The measurements shall be made with the light beam normal to the surface of the
transparency.
3.3 The light source, (i.e. parallel light beam), must be as free as possible from inherent light
scatter and must be provided with adequate baffles and the lenses kept clean.
3.4 The haze is expressed as the percentage light scattered of the transmitted light and is an
average of readings from three randomly chosen areas.
4 METHOD
4.1 The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram. It is essential that all components are
rigidly held in relation to one another.
4.2 The apparatus is allowed appropriate time to reach thermal equilibrium before
measurements are made.
4.3 A measurement is made of the total transmission with the transparency in contact with the
sphere aperture (a). A second measurement is made with the transparency moved away from the
aperture a distance equal to the diameter of the sphere (b). The scattered light in the second
measurement will fall outside the sphere aperture and will not be measured. The percentage
100( a  b)
haze will therefore be
a
5 ALTERNATIVE METHOD
5.1 An alternative method is given in American Standard Test Methods ASTM D1003-52 and
this method is acceptable but the general measurements of light beam diameter and sphere
diameter outlined above should be maintained.
6 CALIBRATION
6.1 Each of the parameters specified in Para 2 (i.e. (a) colour temperature of light source (b)
accuracy and stability of power supply (c) spectral response of photocell and (d) linearity of
photometer), may be qualified by submission to a British Calibration Services Approved
Laboratory.
Page 6 of 23
SECTION 4
6.2 Alternatively, the MOD Quality Assurance Authority may approve equipment after appropriate
interchange of measurements between the applicant and an approved laboratory.
Page 7 of 23
SECTION 4
SECTION (c) - SPECIFICATION OF A METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF ABSOLUTE

DEVIATION
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 In this method a collimator and telescope are aligned and measurements of absolute
deviation are made from the pilot's eye position.
2 APPARATUS
2.1 The collimator shall have an object glass of at least 50 mm (1.968 in) diameter and a focal
length of not less than 500 mm (19.685 in). In practice it is convenient to choose a much larger
collimator (i.e., with an object glass of 150 mm (5.905 in) diameter and a focal length of 1m
(39.37 in)), as this makes:
(a) the alignment much easier,
(b) allows a binocular system with a single collimator, and
(c) eliminates any need for any correction for beam displacement.
2.2 The collimator graticule shall be a black cross on a transparent ground; the angular
dimension of the thickness of the graticule in the focal plane of the collimator objective shall be
one minute.
2.3 The telescope shall have an object glass of 12 mm (0.472 in) diameter or greater and a
focal length of approximately 500 mm (19.685 in). The magnification shall be approximately 15.
2.4 The telescope graticule shall consist of a centre black cross with a black concentric circle
on a transparent ground. The angular dimensions of the graticule in the focal plane of the
telescope objective shall be: thickness of line ¼ minute, length of cross lines 5 minutes, diameter
of circle equal to the limit of deviation being measured. Where more than one limit is specified for
different areas of the transparency more than one circle can be marked on the graticule.
2.5 The collimator and telescope shall be mounted on solid supports and aligned so that the
graticule of the collimator when illuminated appears in the telescope eyepiece superimposed on
the telescope graticule.
2.6 The transparency shall be held in a support which can rotate about vertical and horizontal
axes, both axes passing through a point which will be the designed eye position.
3.1 The whole vision area of each panel as defined by the drawing shall be examined.
3.2 The panel shall be supported at such an angle that the axis of the viewing telescope is
identical with a line of sight from the designed eye position, as shown on the appropriate
drawings, to a central area of the panel.
Page 8 of 23
SECTION 4
3.3 The area of the panel shall be examined by scanning along a series of traverses, the
separation between adjacent traverses having been agreed to adequately scan the area of the
panel for optical quality.
4 METHOD
4.1 The aperture of the telescope is limited to 12 mm (0.472 in). With no panel in position, the
centres of the two graticules are brought into coincidence.
4.2 The panel to be tested is mounted in the appropriate position on its holder and any
change in position of the image of the collimator cross in the telescope noted.
4.3 The panel is then scanned by suitable movement of the holder and relationship of the two
graticules observed. The centre of the image of the collimator graticule cross shall not extend
beyond the concentric ring of the telescope.
4.4 When the panel is inserted between the telescope and the collimator, the image of the
collimator graticule in the eyepiece of the telescope may become blurred or indistinct. This may
also occur as the panel is scanned. Such areas should be identified and examined for optical
resolution (Section (d)).
Note: When testing thick panels there is a substantial displacement of the light beam after
passing through but this can be accommodated if the diameter of the collimator is large enough.
If, however, the collimator is not large enough a correction will have to be made. This can be
achieved by mounting the collimator or telescope on a precision parallel movement or by fitting a
compensating thick parallel glass plate in front of the telescope and correcting the light beam by
setting the angle of the parallel plate.
5 CALIBRATION
5.1 The angular subtense of the graticule may be qualified, either by submission to a British
Calibration Approved Laboratory or by measurement with a certified instrument.
5.2 Alternatively, the MOD Quality Assurance Authority may approve equipment after
appropriate interchange of measurements between the applicant and an approved laboratory.
Page 9 of 23
SECTION 4
SECTION (d) - SPECIFICATION OF A METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF OPTICAL

RESOLUTION (d)1 FOR CATEGORIES I, III, IV AND V TRANSPARENCIES
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 In this method a collimator and telescope are aligned and the optical resolution assessed
from the plot's eye position.
2 APPARATUS
(39.37 in)), as this makes the alignment much easier and eliminates the need for any correction
for beam displacement.
2.2 The telescope shall have an object glass of 12 mm (0.472 in) diameter or greater and a
focal length of approximately 500 mm (19.685 in). The magnification shall be approximately 15.
2.3 The collimator graticule shall consist of a black double-lined cross with vertical and
horizontal lines on a transparent background. The angular dimension of the thickness of the
graticule line in the local plane of the collimator objective shall be one minute and the space
between the lines shall be one minute.
image of the collimator graticule, when illuminated, appears in the telescope eyepiece.
3.1 The area to be examined will have been identified from observations during the
measurement of absolute deviation Section (c).
identical with a line of sight from the designed eye position, to a central area of the panel, as
shown in the appropriate drawings.
3.3 The panel shall be rotated, vertically or horizontally, about the designed eye position until
the area to be examined appears on the axis between the collimator and telescope.
4 METHOD
4.1 The aperture of the telescope is limited to 12 mm (0.472 in). With no panel in position, a
clear image of the collimator graticule should be visible in the telescope eyepiece.
4.2 The panel to be tested is mounted in its appropriate position and the area to be examined
brought on the optical axis of the telescope. The quality of the image is examined.
Page 10 of 23
SECTION 4
4.3 The image of the collimator graticule is considered resolved if the image can be identified
as being made up of two parallel lines, (i.e. the two lines should not have blended together to be
indistinguishable from a single line).
4.4 An unresolved image which can be improved and made acceptable by refocussing the
telescope may be considered resolved providing the refocussing is within the range ±0.1 dioptre.
passing through, but this can be accommodated if the diameter of the collimator is large enough.
If, however, the collimator is not large enough the collimator or telescope may have to be moved
to compensate.
5 CALIBRATION
5.1 The angular subtense of the graticule lines may be qualified, either by submission to a
British Calibration Approved Laboratory or by measurement with a certificated instrument.
Page 11 of 23
SECTION 4
SECTION (d) - SPECIFICATION OF A METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF OPTICAL

RESOLUTION (d)2 FOR CATEGORY II WINDSCREENS ONLY
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 In this method a target and a pair of 7 x 50 conventional prismatic (not roof prism type)
binoculars are aligned and the resolution assessed from the user's eye position.
2 APPARATUS
2.1 The target shall consist of a black double-lined cross with vertical and horizontal lines on
a white background. The angular dimension of the thickness of the lines and the space between
the lines from the viewing position shall be 10 seconds of arc (1 mm at 20m) (0.039 in at 65.618
ft). The angular dimension of each arm of the cross shall be not more than 1 minute.
2.2 The binoculars shall have a magnification of seven times and an objective lens diameter
of 50 mm (1.968 in) (7 x 50).
2.3 The target and binoculars shall be mounted on solid supports 20m (65.618 ft) apart (other
distances may be used providing the binoculars focus satisfactorily and that the target makes the
correct angular subtense).
3.1 The whole vision area as defined by the drawing shall be examined.
3.2 The panel shall be supported at such an angle that the axis of the viewing system is
identical with a line of sight from the designed eye position, to a central area of the panel, as
shown in the appropriate drawings.
3.3 The area of the panel shall be examined by scanning along a series of horizontal
traverses, and then a series of vertical traverses, the separation between adjacent traverses
having been agreed to adequately scan the area to be examined.
4 METHOD
4.1 With no panel in position a clear image of the target shall be visible through the
binoculars.
4.2 The panel to be tested is mounted in its appropriate position and the quality of the image
examined.
4.3 The image of the target is considered resolved if the image can be identified as being
made up of two parallel lines, (i.e. the two lines should not have blended together to be
indistinguishable from a single line).
Page 12 of 23
SECTION 4
4.4 The panel is then scanned by suitable movement of the holder and the quality of the
image observed.
4.5 An unresolved image which can be improved, and made acceptable, by refocussing the
binoculars may be considered resolved. Alternatively, if the image is resolved by one eye, it may
also be considered resolved.
Page 13 of 23
SECTION 4
SECTION (e) - SPECIFICATION OF A METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF VISUAL

DISTORTION
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 In this method the image of a grid is projected on to a screen to assess the visual
distortion through a transparency as seen from the normal viewing position.
2.1 A graticule consisting of equally spaced parallel lines in two directions at 90° to one
another on a clear ground shall be rigidly held in the slide carrier of a 50 mm x 50 mm (1.938 in x
1.968 in) lantern slide projector.
2.2 The spacing of the lines of the graticule shall be such that the sides of each square form
an angular dimension of 30 minutes in the focal plane of the projector, the lines being one minute
thick.
2.3 The projector, fitted with a 150 mm (5.91 in) focal length lens shall be firmly mounted 5
metres (5.47 yards) from a screen, (see Fig. 3).
2.4 The screen approximately 1.5m (1.64 yards) wide and 1m (1.094 yards) high shall be
constructed of a translucent material so that the image can be viewed from the opposite side of
the screen to which it is projected. The screen shall be marked with a grid of lines which exactly
superimposes upon the projected image. There shall be a facility for a parallel adjustment of the
grid lines to make the superimposing possible.
3.2 The panel shall be supported at such an angle that the optical axis of the projector is
3.3 The transparency support shall be in a position between the projector and screen such
that the pilot's eye position is 4m (4.376 yards) from the screen.
3.4 The area of the panel shall be examined by rotating the panel horizontally or vertically in
its support to cover the area to be examined.
4 METHOD
4.1 The projector and screen are set up with no panel in position and the projected image and
grid are brought into coincidence.
Page 14 of 23
SECTION 4
4.2 The panel to be tested is mounted in the appropriate position on its holder. A movement
of the lines is noted and the position of the grid may be moved in any direction parallel to the grid
lines to restore coincidence. Any regular or curved lines on the projected image may then be
noted.
4.3 Any area showing distortion shall be brought to the middle of the screen for
measurement. The slope shall be measured by laying a straight edge on the projected line if
straight, or tangential to it if curved. The slope is expressed as the ratio of the vertical and
horizontal intercepts made by the straight edge with the lines on the screen.
Note: In using this method a camera may be substituted for the projector and a grid board
substituted for the screen. The geometrical distances remain unchanged. Photographs may be
taken and measured to give the slopes.
Page 15 of 23
SECTION 4
Page 16 of 23
SECTION 4
SECTION (f) - SPECIFICATION OF A METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF BINOCULAR

DEVIATION
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 In this method a collimator and telescope are aligned and measurements of binocular
deviation are made from the pilot's eye position.
2 APPARATUS
2.1 The collimator or collimator system may consist of one of the following alternatives:
(a) Collimator having an object glass of at least 150 mm (5.905 in) diameter and a
focal length of 1m (39.37 in).
(b) Two collimators each having an object glass of about 50 mm (1.968 in) diameter
and a focal length of 500 mm (19.685 in), placed with their optical axes parallel and 64
mm (2.519 in) apart in a horizontal plane.
(c) One collimator having an object glass of about 50 mm (1.968 in) diameter and a
focal length of 500 mm (19.685 in) fitted with a beam splitter to convert the single optical
axis into two parallel optical axes 64 mm (2.519 in) apart in a horizontal plane.
2.2 The collimator graticule shall consist of an opaque disc placed at the centre of a cross on
a transparent ground. The graticule shall be placed in a plane through the principal focus of the
collimator, perpendicular to its optical axis. The angular dimension of the disc in the focal plane of
the collimator objective shall be 10 minutes diameter and the lines of the cross one minute thick.
For Category II panels the opaque disc should be elliptical, 2.5 minutes vertical and 10 minutes
horizontal.
2.3 The telescope or telescope system may consist of either of the following:
(a) A telescope having an object glass of at least 120 mm (4.724 in) diameter and a
focal length of about 500 mm (19.685 in). The magnification shall be approximately 15.
The object glass shall be provided with a mask in which two apertures 12 mm (0.472 in)
diameter and 64 mm (2.519 in) apart have been placed equally disposed horizontally
about the centre.
(b) A telescope having an object glass 12 mm (0.472 in) diameter or more, but
stepped down to that dimension, and a focal length of about 300 mm (10.911 in). The
magnification shall be approximately 15. The telescope shall be fitted with a beam splitter
to receive the two (nearly) parallel lines of sight, and then to superimpose them along a
single line of sight.
2.4 The telescope graticule shall consist of a centre black cross on a transparent background.
The angular dimensions of the graticule in the focal plane of the telescope objective shall be;
thickness of line ¼ minute; length of arms of cross lines 10 minutes.
Page 17 of 23
SECTION 4
images of the illuminated graticule or graticules of the collimator system appear superimposed
upon each other and in line with the telescope graticule.
Note: Any combination of telescope and collimator system described can be used but when
testing thick panels there is a substantial displacement of the light beam after passing through;
this can be accommodated if the diameter of the collimator is large enough. If, however, the
collimator is not large enough a correction will have to be made. This can be achieved by
mounting the collimator or telescope on a precision parallel movement or by fitting a
compensating thick parallel glass in front of the telescope and correcting the light beam by setting
the angle of the parallel plate.
traverses, and then a series of vertical traverses, the separation between adjacent traverses
having been agreed to adequately scan the area of the panel, for optical quality.
4 METHOD
4.1 The centres of the two graticules are brought into coincidence with no panel in position.
4.2 The panel to be tested is then mounted in the appropriate position on its holder and the
images observed in the eyepiece of the telescope. The two images from binocular view through
the transparency will superimpose on each other if there is no difference between the deviation in
each view. Any difference will be shown as two images overlapping. When the specified
tolerance is exceeded, separation of the two images occurs.
4.3 The panel is then scanned by suitable movement of the holder and any separation of the
collimator image noted.
Page 18 of 23
SECTION 4
SECTION (g) - SPECIFICATION OF A METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF SECONDARY

IMAGE SEPARATION
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 In this method a collimator and telescope are aligned and measurements of secondary
image separation are made from the pilot's eye position.
(39.37 in)) as this makes:
(a) the alignment much easier,
(b) allows the same collimator to be used for measuring absolute deviation and
binocular deviation, and
(c) eliminates the need for any correction for beam displacement.
2.2 The collimator shall be provided with a beam splitter to allow two graticules to be
superimposed upon one another.
2.3 One graticule shall consist of a clear spot on a dark background. The angular dimension
of the diameter of the spot in the focal plane of the collimator shall be one minute. The second
graticule shall consist of concentric circles producing angular dimensions in the focal plane of the
collimator of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10 and 20 minutes. The graticule shall consist of clear lines on a dark
ground. The individual components of the collimator are shown in Fig. 4.
2.4 The telescope shall have an object glass of 12 mm (0.472 in) diameter or greater, and a
focal length of approximately 500 mm (19.685 in). The magnification of the eyepiece shall be
approximately 15.
2.5 The telescope graticule shall consist of a centre black spot on a transparent ground. The
angular dimension of the spot in the focal plane of the telescope objective shall be 1½ minutes.
centre spot of the collimator when illuminated appears in the telescope eyepiece superimposed
on the centre of the telescope graticule. The image of the second graticule shall also be
superimposed and concentric with the other graticules. The visible contrast of the image may be
enhanced by introducing a red filter behind the collimator spot graticule and a green filter behind
the concentric ring. It is advisable to have a dimmer control on the concentric rings graticule to
increase the contrast between the bright centre spot and the measuring graticule.
Page 19 of 23
SECTION 4
3.1 The area to be examined shall be defined by the drawing.
identical with a line of sight from the designed eye position as shown on the appropriate
drawings.
traverses, the separation between adjacent traverses having been agreed to adequately scan the
area of the panel for optical quality.
4 METHOD
4.1 The panel to be tested is mounted in the appropriate position on its holder.
4.2 The panel is then scanned by suitable movement of the holder. The position of the
primary and secondary images are observed.
4.3 When a definite measurement is required the scanning is stopped at the appropriate
position and the position of the telescope adjusted until the collimator and telescope graticules
are brought into coincidence. The angular difference between the primary and secondary images
may then be observed.
passing through but this can be accommodated if the diameter of the collimator is large enough.
If however, the collimator is not large enough a correction will have to be made. This can be
achieved by mounting the collimator or telescope on a precision parallel movement or by fitting a
compensating thick parallel glass plate in front of the telescope and correcting the light beam by
setting the angle of the parallel plate.
Page 20 of 23
SECTION 4
Page 21 of 23
SECTION 4
SECTION (h) - SPECIFICATION OF A METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF VISIBLE DEFECTS

IN AIRCRAFT TRANSPARENCIES
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This specification shall apply to the visible defects in the vision area of any optical
transparency for which this needs to be defined as stated in Clauses 4.18.17 to 4.18.20. Panels
are initially examined for the presence of defects by viewing against an evenly illuminated
background. Identification and measurement of the defects is subsequently carried out under
strong oblique illumination.
2.1 A suitable apparatus (Fig. 5) consists of a horizontal matt white screen large enough to
accommodate the area to be examined and provided with even illumination. A convenient
arrangement is afforded by two 40W fluorescent lights set just below the panel and on each side
of it and shaded so that the screen is illuminated without direct line of vision between the viewer
and these lights. Provision is made for the panel under examination to be supported parallel to
the screen and at a convenient distance from it.
2.2 The white screen is replaced by a matt black screen and the shading of the light is
adjusted so that the viewer can examine the panel against the strong oblique illumination
provided by the lights but again without direct line of vision into them. A method of measurement
is provided by a microscope of magnification approximately 10 fitted with a graticule graduated in
0.1 mm (0.0039 in). Where necessary the area of each defect shall be assessed by
approximating to the nearest simple geometrical shape.
3 METHOD
3.1 The panel under examination shall be cleaned on both surfaces before examination and
measurement.
3.2 The panel shall be examined against the white background and the defects marked.
3.3 The panel shall be examined against the black background with oblique illumination and
only additional visible defects marked.
3.4 The defects shall be measured and counted against whichever background should be
most revealing. Suitable masks delineating the circles of specified radius are helpful in
determining the density of defects.
Page 22 of 23
SECTION 4
Page 23 of 23
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 75
CRASH LANDING, DITCHING AND PRECAUTIONARY ALIGHTING ON WATER
DESIGN FOR CRASH LANDING AND DITCHING
1 DESIGN
1.1 In amplification of Clause 4.22 the priority requirements are:
(a) for Category A aeroplanes, the crew should survive the specified impact
conditions and be able either to use their ejection seats, or evacuate the aeroplane
without assistance from the seats.
(b) for Categories B and C aeroplanes, the crew and occupants should be able
to survive the specified impact conditions and be able to evacuate the aeroplane.
1.2 Referring particularly to Para's 1.2 (a) and (b) the probability that the occupants of
the aeroplane will survive a crash landing or ditching will be improved by the inclusion, at
the initial design stage, of the following design features:
(a) design of the airframe as a protective shell,
(b) provision of high strength for the retention of massive parts,
(c) evaluation of accelerations and consequent movements of each occupant,
(d) consideration of hazards to each occupant during the crash,
(e) consideration of hazards to each occupant during the escape and

afterwards.
1.3 The energy of impact will be absorbed partly by the impacted structure but some
energy will be absorbed by the seat, its local structure, and the energy absorbing devices
provided for the purpose. The objective of good design for crashworthiness is to make the
force-extension diagram for each relevant part, or essential element of the aeroplane, as
rectangular as possible and spread over as long a time as possible, thus reducing to a
minimum the forces generated in the structure. To this end either the structure must be
designed to absorb energy by progressive collapse, or impact-peak-reducing energy-
absorbing mechanisms must be built into the load paths, or both. Leaflet 0 Clause 4.22
Reference 1 gives some examples of how this can be done. Provision of high static
strength alone may result in excessively massive structure which will adversely affect its
force-limiting and energy-absorbing capacity and cause considerable reduction in
performance without necessarily giving any real guarantee of improved integrity in a crash
landing or ditching.
1.4 On the other hand the uncontrolled partial absorption of energy which can arise
from the bending of structural members within elastic limits can cause an increase in
accelerating forces at points remote from the impact point. (The whiplash effect or dynamic
overshoot). Care must be taken, therefore, to ensure, by proper design and testing of
energy absorbers in all cases, that this does not occur. See Clause 4.22
Page 1 of 6
SECTION 4
l.5 The requirements of Clause 4.22 would be adequate on their own to determine all
the crash landing and ditching forces in all parts of the airframe if dynamic analyses and
tests were wholly accurate. As they are not, it is necessary to supplement them with the
arbitrary minimum static strength requirements given in Clause 4.22
1.6 Where the aeroplane has been designed to meet the normal alighting requirements
of Clause 4.11, the undercarriage, provided it has not been retracted, will provide some
attenuation of peak loads, within its limitations, for vertical and near vertical crashes, but
not for ditching or for horizontal crashes. See Clause 4.22 and this Leaflet, Para 9 below.
1.7 In amplification of Clause 4.22 it should be noted that the accelerations transmitted
through a conventional structure in ditching may be more severe than in crash landing
where the forces are reacted largely by the frames. In a ditching the panels may fail and the
frames penetrate the water with little vertical resistance creating considerable horizontal
deceleration. With proper design for energy absorption this problem can be avoided.
Section 4 Table 31 Case 7 in conjunction with Table 38 may be used as a minimum
ditching case for preliminary design.
2 TESTS
2.1 STRUCTURE TESTS
2.1.1 Compliance with the dynamic requirements of Clause 4.22 cannot be

established by static tests alone. Individual elements in the systems concerned (e.g.
seats), can be dynamically tested to demonstrate adequate energy absorption and
these tests will give some indication as to whether the pulse shape and size at
specified points are acceptable. The frangibility of the support structure and its
capacity to absorb energy by progressive deformation and collapse can only be
substantiated by similar tests.
2.1.2 Consideration should be given to the provision of a fully instrumented test

vehicle, fitted with masses representing the relevant elements, with the connecting
structure, with all energy absorbing elements, and with essential systems, which
can be tested in an appropriate manner. See Clause 4.22
2.1.3 Details of suitable static and dynamic tests are given in References 4 and 5
of Leaflet 0 Clause 4.22. However the manner in which these documents specify the
requirements creates additional design cases. These are combined loading cases
and are included in Section 4 Table 31.
2.2 DITCHING MODEL TESTS
2.2.1 The behaviour of the aeroplane in Ditching and during a Precautionary

Alighting on Water should be investigated in ditching model tests unless the design
can be accepted by comparison with satisfactory earlier designs. Scoops, flaps,
projections and other features likely to affect the hydrodynamic behaviour of the
aeroplane should be simulated. The tests should also ensure, as far as is practical,
that the doors and windows are capable of withstanding the probable water
pressure they will experience.
Page 2 of 6
SECTION 4
3 REPAIRABILITY
3.1 In amplification of Clause 4.22 and to reduce cost of repair after the following low
energy survivable accidents:
(a) heavy landing undercarriage up, or heavy landing followed by undercarriage

failure,
(b) inadvertent undercarriage retraction (static or during landing/taxiing),
(c) landing with one or more undercarriage units retracted,
(d) any undercarriage unit running off the landing surface into a ditch or other
obstruction,
the design should provide for modular replacement of the energy absorbers and of the
energy absorbing structure affected whenever possible.
4 WINDSHEAR EFFECTS AND EJECTION
4.1 In amplification of Clause 4.22 the main object of this requirement is to ensure that
the ejection seat in Category A aeroplanes will function correctly after a heavy landing
wheels up or down. A dynamic analysis of aeroplane behaviour in relation to the worst
possible effects of windshear should be done to calculate a value of VV to be associated
with normal landing speed and/or maximum emergency landing speed to establish crash
vectors. Alternatively a value (for the undercarriage-up case) of VV = design VV or (for the
undercarriage-down case) of VV = 1.7 x design VV may be used.
5 SUPPLEMENTARY DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
5.1 In addition to the Dynamic Analysis of Clause 4.22 necessary to meet the
requirements for crash landing and ditching, an analysis of any of the following events may
be required by the Aeroplane Specification:
(a) Barrier entry.
(b) Landing on runway at design VV with any practical combination of one or

more undercarriage units retracted.
(c) Main wheel running off runway into ditch or obstruction. See Para 3 above.
(d) Nose wheel running off runway into ditch or obstruction. See Para 3 above.
(e) Aeroplane nose hitting a solid wall.
5.2 The speeds considered should cover the practical range for each case between
zero and the maximum emergency landing speed.
5.3 The analyses should be conducted to show, as far as is practical, whether any of
these cases indicates a need for additional structural strength or energy absorption
capability or special operating procedures.
Page 3 of 6
SECTION 4
6 TRADE-OFF STUDIES
6.1 In amplification of Clause 4.22, where trade-off studies on the evacuation of

occupants from a crashed or ditched aeroplane are undertaken to establish evacuation
time, it may be found that static strength factors higher than those specified in Clause 4.22
are necessary.
7 ATTACHMENT AND RESTRAINT OF COMPONENTS, EQUIPMENT, CARGO AND

FREIGHT
7.1 In amplification of Clause 4.22, where the static strength of the item, its attachments
or local support structure, does not meet the requirements, it may be restrained by the
provision of a bulkhead, or by the addition of strops or anchors, to provide the same inertia
factors as required. Energy absorbers may be included if advantageous.
8 STRENGTH OF ENERGY ABSORBERS
8.1 In amplification of Section 4 Tables 32, 33 and 35, where acceleration factors are
given as "bottomed" in the forms 35 (30-15) the first figure is the estimated acceleration
without energy absorber and the pair in brackets are the maximum initial and final values to
which the energy absorber is required to reduce the acceleration. These figures are then
the acceleration factors for minimum static strength of the energy absorber and associated
parts.
9 VERTICAL IMPACT
9.1 The design features recommended in support of Clause 4.22 are:
(a) locate massive items as low as possible and so that they will not intrude into
occupied areas during a crash,
(b) design structure to prevent it buckling inwards and crushing occupants,
(c) provide energy-absorbing structure below cockpit and cabin floors and below
massive parts,
(d) provide energy-absorbing undercarriage, and
(e) provide energy-absorbing seats for all occupants.
10 UNDERCARRIAGE LAY-OUT AND DESIGN
10.1 In an aeroplane with three undercarriage units (whether nose or tail) the distance
between the main auxiliary units is of considerable importance in the near vertical crash
case and must be chosen carefully to maximise energy absorption and minimise the forces
created.
10.2 The undercarriage and its support structure should be designed to collapse in a
controlled energy-absorbing manner so that it does not penetrate the cabin, or any space
occupied by crew or other personnel, or the fuel cells.
10.3 The undercarriage should be designed to absorb energy after the fuselage touches
the ground to improve survivability.
Page 4 of 6
SECTION 4
10.4 Skid type undercarriages should be designed not to snag on rough ground or such
obstacles as tree roots.
11 EARTH SCOOPING
11.1 The impact conditions of Clause 4.22 (low level approach to ploughed soil) are likely
to lead to roll-over should any significant amount of earth scooping occur. Design features
which should be considered to prevent this occurring are:
(a) provide a large flat undersurface to increase the tendency to slide over the
ground,
(b) minimise inward local buckling of this area.
12 BUCKLING OF STRUCTURE
12.1 In amplification of Clause 4.22 and to minimise hazards to occupants the structure
of the protective shell should be designed to:
(a) provide adequate strength to prevent inward bending or buckling,
(b) position passengers and crew away from likely fracture areas,
(c) buckle outwards if possible.
13 HEAD STRIKE ENVELOPE (See also Clause 4.16)
13.1 The head is the most vulnerable part of the body and the head strike envelope
should be established in all axes. Design of the Protective Shell should incorporate the
following features:
(a) No solid parts or structural members should be within the envelope.
(b) Any parts which must encroach into the head strike envelope should be
smooth and made of frangible or ductile materials, or be suitably rounded and
padded. See Para 14 below.
(c) Frangible parts should break away at a force not exceeding 1335 N (300 lbf).
(d) Visionic equipment, should be padded and should also collapse or break
away at a force not exceeding 1335 N (300 lbf).
14 FLAILING OF ARMS AND LEGS
14.1 The occupant's immediate environment should be designed so that, when parts of
the body do flail and contact structure or equipment, the injury suffered is minimised.
14.2 Ductile materials, frangible parts, and energy absorbing padding should be provided
to protect flailing arms and legs. Frangible parts should break away at a force of 3563 N
(800 lbf).
14.3 Space between pedals and structure surrounding the feet should be designed so
that failure will not trap them.
Page 5 of 6
SECTION 4
14.4 Data for constructing flailing envelopes is given in Leaflet 63, and in Reference 1 of
Leaflet 0 Clause 4.22
15 PADDING
15.1 Where padding is provided in accordance with Para’s 12 and 13 above, it should
meet the following requirements:
15.1.1 The padding should reduce the velocity of the head from 7.6 m/s (25 ft/sec)
to zero without it exceeding a deceleration of 150G. The mass of the head should
be assumed to be 5 kg (11 lb).
15.1.2 Suitable stress-strain characteristics for padding are given in Leaflet 0

Clause 4.22.
15.1.3 Edges and corners to be padded should have a radius of not less than 13
mm (0.5 in).
15.1.4 Padding should not tear or shear until it has served its purpose.
16 CONTROL COLUMNS
16.1 Control columns should be designed not to impale the pilot or co-pilot. Separation,
telescoping, frangible joints or padding may be used.
16.2 Centre sticks should break flush with the floor.
16.3 Any separating or telescoping mechanism used should not be capable of premature
actuation.
16.4 Frangible parts should break cleanly.
16.5 Control columns which pass longitudinally through the instrumental panel should not
be used. If unavoidable they should be collapsible.
17 WINGS
17.1 The Aeroplane Specification will state whether wings should be frangible or not.
17.2 Wings used to support external stores should allow the stores to separate.
However, the wing should break off before the fuselage collapses.
18 RELIABILITY OF SEATS
18.1 In amplification of Clause 4.22 the reliability analysis should include a Failure Mode,
Effects and Criticality Analysis.
18.2 Except for fabric parts, the minimum life should be 5000 hrs of Rotorcraft life and
5000 adjustments.
18.3 Fabric parts should meet strength requirements after 5 years and have a minimum
shelf life of 30 years.
Page 6 of 6
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 76
CRASH LANDING, DITCHING AND PRECAUTIONARY ALIGHTING ON WATER, SEATS AND

1 ALL SEATS AND STRETCHERS
1.1 The energy absorption and strength requirements of Clause 4.22 and Section 4
Table 31 are applicable to all seats and stretchers. Section 4 Table 30 gives the maximum
accelerations a human body can tolerate and these must not be exceeded.
1.2 Specific static strength requirements are given in Clause 4.22 These are intended
as additional arbitrary minima which apply if greater than the accelerations measured in
dynamic tests.
1.3 Notwithstanding the minimum requirements for static strength and the maxima
allowable in Section 4 Table 30 the designer should aim at limiting the vertical acceleration
at the base of the occupant’s spine to 15G if possible.
1.4 A further design aim should be to restrain all occupants throughout the crash and
provide the maximum support in the most likely direction in the most severe cases allowing
for operation of energy absorbers and the buckling of structure.
1.5 All seats and stretchers should be as comfortable as possible but comfort should
not compromise safety. Submarining should be impossible.
1.6 Any part of a seat or stretcher which could be bumped or kicked, or used as a step
or handhold should be designed accordingly. See Clause 4.22
1.7 Covers for floor depressions, or wells necessary to provide for seat stroking should
be covered with frangible material which will allow the seat to stroke through the cover at a
force not exceeding 667 N (150 lbf).
1.8 Design of the attachment of all seats and stretchers should allow for bulging and
warping of structure. A movement of any single seat attachment in any direction by 10o, or
the relative movement of any pair of attachments by 5o each, in opposite directions, should
be possible and the seat should still meet the static strength and energy absorption
requirements.
1.9 Seats and stretchers may be attached through their local structure to the ceiling in
addition to the floor, to help react crash forces, provided that the ceiling can be shown to be
strong enough for this purpose without creating an additional hazard for the occupants. See
Clause 4.22.13
1.10 The Aeroplane Design Organisation and the Seat Designer should jointly define the
Operating Environment for all seats. See Part 1, Section 7, Leaflet 2.
1.11 The design of seats should be co-ordinated and interfaced with the design of other
areas to achieve a completely integrated and efficient crashworthy design.
Page 1 of 4
SECTION 4
2 CREW SEATS
2.1 Note on Section 4 Table 32. On crew seats the requirements of Reference 4 of
Leaflet 0 Clause 4.22 are framed to provide high static strength with small deflections
except in the downward direction where an energy absorber is specifically required to
attenuate the peak accelerations, caused by the 42 ft/sec (12.8 m/s) velocity change
requirement of Section 4 Table 31, to 25G maximum (15G preferred, see Para 1.3 above)
within the stroke of the energy absorber, which should be at least 12 ins (30.5 cm).
2.2 The energy absorber should be capable of providing for the range of effective mass
of the aircrew (see Leaflet 75 Para. 8 and Tables 1.3 and 4 of this Leaflet) in three
increments or by being continuously variable. Its strength must be adequate to resist the
forces it generates without premature failure.
2.3 The seat motion should be parallel to the seat back tangent line within ±10o.
2.4 Unless otherwise stated in the Aeroplane Specification the seat should provide for
the 5th female (minimum) to 95th male (maximum) percentile mass and dimensions of fully
clothed and equipped aircrew. See Tables 1 and 2.
3 PASSENGER, INFANTRY AND AIRBORNE INFANTRY SEATS
3.1 Note on Section 4 Table 33. On seats for passengers, infantry and airborne infantry
static, strength is specified in Reference 5 of Leaflet 0 Clause 4.22, to meet the
requirements of Section 4 Table 31, in only two directions. In the other three directions
energy absorbers are specifically required to attenuate the peak accelerations to
“bottomed” value given, within the stroke of the energy absorber. The strength of the
energy absorber must be adequate to resist the forces it generates without premature
failure.
3.2 Unless otherwise stated in the Aeroplane Specification the seats should provide for
the 5th female (minimum) to 95th male (maximum) percentile mass and dimensions of fully
clothed and equipped infantrymen. See Table 3.
3.3 The preferred alignment of the seats (forward, aft, lateral) is to as stated in Part 5.
(Not yet published advice is to be sought from the Project Team Leader).
3.4 Individual (single) seats are preferred to units of 2 or more for ease of application of
energy absorbers particularly of a multi-seat unit being occupied by only one person.
3.5 Provision should be made against whiplash effects of the head.
3.6 The energy absorber should include a snubber against rebound and some
indication of energy absorber stroking, even partial, so that maintenance crew checking the
effects of a heavy landing would notice.
Page 2 of 4
SECTION 4
4 STRETCHERS (LITTERS)
4.1 Stretchers should be aligned laterally if possible. If not then special attention should
be given to the design of the harness.
4.2 A structural pan should be provided if conventional (low strength) stretchers are to
be used.
4.3 There should be adequate clearance beneath the lowest stretcher in a stack and
the floor below it to allow for deflection in the 25G vertical case. The minimum should be 20
cm (8 in).
4.4 Attachments of stretchers to the airframe should be designed so that it is easy to

see if they are properly locked.
4.5 Two straps should be provided with each stretcher each capable of taking 8900 N
(2000 lbf) in pure tension. At this load elongation should be not more than 10 cm (4 in) in
122 cm (48 in). Straps should be automatically self-adjusting for length and fitted with
quick-disconnects.
Page 3 of 4
SECTION 4
Item Pilot Rear Crew

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
Nude Body 57.6 103.4 57.6 103.4
Clothing & Equipment 4.8 31.3 3.0 33.2
Total Mass 62.4 134.7 60.6 136.6
Effective Vertical 49.4 109.9 47.5 111.7
Mass*
TABLE 1
MASS OF ROTARY WING AIRCREW
(Source; 2007 MILITARY SURROGATE AIRCREW)
Item Pilot Rear Crew

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
Nude Body 57.6 103.4 57.6 103.4
Clothing & Equipment 3.7 31.0 3.7 33.2
Total Mass 61.3 134.4 61.3 136.6
Effective Vertical 48.3 109.6 48.3 111.7
Mass*
TABLE 2
MASS OF FIXED WING AIRCREW
(Source; 2007 MILITARY SURROGATE AIRCREW)
Item Minimum Maximum

(kg) (kg)
Nude Body 54.6 103.3
Clothing & Equipment 2.8 69.8
Total Mass 57.4 173.1
Effective Vertical 44.5 150.1
Mass*
TABLE 3
MASS OF INFANTRY OR AIRBORNE INFANTRY PASSENGER
(Source; ANTHROPOMETRY SURVEY OF UK MILITARY PERSONNEL 2006–7; ARMY AND ROYAL

MARINE POPULATION (ISSUE 3)
*Effective Vertical Mass (predicted force acting on the seat) calculated as follows:
Total combined body, clothing & equipment mass excluding an allowance for lower leg
components resting on the floor
Page 4 of 4
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 77
CRASH LANDING, DITCHING AND PRECAUTIONARY ALIGHTING ON WATER
OPERATIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CARGO AND FREIGHT
1 GENERAL
1.1 These recommendations concern the restraint of cargo and freight and amplify the
mandatory strength and energy absorption requirements of Clause 4.22
1.2 They are derived from Para 5.3.1 of Reference 2 of Leaflet 0 Clause 4.22
2 OPERATIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
2.1 If the structure of the fuselage or floor is not strong enough to withstand the forces
arising from the velocity changes of Section 4 Table 31 energy absorbers and space to
operate them, additional to those required by Clause 4.22, should be provided.
2.2 Nets should be constructed of stiff material to reduce dynamic overshoot (see
Leaflet 75 Para. 1.4) to a minimum.
2.3 Restraining lines (chains, strops etc) used for large cargo (over 3 ft cube) should be
arranged so that maximum load in each is reached simultaneously. Restraining lines having
different force/extension characteristics should not be used on the same piece of
equipment or cargo.
2.4 If load limiting energy absorbers are used restraining lines used on the same piece
of equipment or cargo should be of low force/extension characteristics to ensure efficient
energy absorption.
Page 1 of 1
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 78
EMERGENCY ESCAPE
JETTISONING OF HOODS, HATCHES AND DOORS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This Leaflet gives additional information on the subject of emergency escape to
assist Contractors in meeting the requirements of Clause 4.23 These requirements deal
with emergencies of all types and involve escape by parachute in the air, and escape after
an emergency alighting on land or sea. The problem of getting out of the aeroplane usually
includes getting rid of an emergency exit door, hatch or cockpit hood and when these are
jettisonable outwards a number of problems arise and elaboration of the requirements
appears to be necessary.
2 PROBLEMS OF HOOD JETTISONING
2.1 The conditions under which a hood may require to be jettisoned are specified in
Clause 4.23 Under some of these conditions hood jettisoning becomes the major problem
of emergency escape mainly because the aerodynamic forces on the hood may no longer
be sufficient to get the hood into the attitude most favourable to separation from the
aeroplane. In some of the cases also, the hood is probably shielded from these
aerodynamic forces by the body itself.
3 JETTISONING AT LOW SPEED AND WHEN STATIONARY
3.1 Since there is little, if any, aerodynamic force on a hood under the conditions of an
emergency alighting, some form of power should be supplied to move the hood clear of the
cockpit if the requirements of Clause 4.23 are to be met. The power supplied should be
enough to throw the hood sufficiently far from the cockpit so that when it comes to rest
there is no risk of its impeding the escape of the aircrew.
3.2 It should be noted that whereas in flight the hood should fall clear of the aeroplane
when jettisoned, on the ground it is sufficient that the hood falls clear of the crew
compartment and damage to the aeroplane will be acceptable.
3.3 The external jettison control should be so positioned that the hood, when jettisoned
will not injure the operator.
4 JETTISONING IN A SPIN
4.1 Since the spin is a manoeuvre at high incidence and high rate of descent, the
cockpit hood in a spin is in a region which is shielded by the body. Aerodynamic force alone
is unlikely to be able to open the hood and some form of power must be provided to open
the hood and get at least the front of the hood outside this shielded region. It is considered
that the power supplied should be sufficient to get the hood into the release attitude (see
Para 10) and this should ensure that separation will be completed under the action of the
aerodynamic and centrifugal forces.
Page 1 of 4
SECTION 4
4.2 With some aeroplane designs, when spinning, the canopy may interfere with the
ejection seat path for a considerable period after jettison. If a design assessment of any
new aeroplane's spinning behaviour indicates such a liability, suitable alternative means of
ejection path clearance, such as ejection through the canopy should be used.
5 JETTISONING IN SUPER STALLED FLIGHT
5.1 This is a new condition of flight which has already been met by some swept wing
and delta aeroplanes. It arises because on this type of aeroplane the lift curve is flat topped
hence instead of the sudden loss of lift when the stall is reached, the lift remains
substantially constant and the aeroplane flies at an increasing angle of incidence and drag
until a stable condition is attained.
5.2 The problem presented by this manoeuvre is similar to that in the spin except that
shielding is possibly more serious than in the spin. In fact, there is evidence from wind
tunnel tests that it will not be sufficient only to get the hood into the release attitude and the
power supplied must be sufficient to throw the hood clear of the aeroplane as in the
stationary case (see Para 3.1).
6 JETTISONING AT HIGH SPEED
6.1 Hood jettisoning at high speed only presents difficulty when it is attempted under
conditions of high normal acceleration or when the pressure distribution over the hood is
adverse. Under these conditions, the aerodynamic forces on the hood are not always
sufficient to get the hood from the closed position to the attitude at which separation will
take place and power must be provided to get the hood into this attitude. On some
aeroplanes, particularly those on which the pressure distribution over the hood is
favourable for jettisoning the hood, the aerodynamic forces can be adequate for the whole
jettisoning operation. Hence study of this flight condition alone is often not a sufficient guide
as to the amount of power needed in the hood jettison arrangements.
6.2 If the power necessary in the most adverse condition to start the hood moving is
less than the aerodynamic force tending to open the hood once the hood has started
moving, the power sources should not constitute a restraint preventing aerodynamic force
completing the jettisoning.
7 METHOD OF JETTISONING AND POWER NEEDED
7.1 The source of power for jettisoning the hood should be independent of the normal
electric, hydraulic or pneumatic services in the aeroplane. Power may be supplied by
cordite jacks, springs, etc. but such devices should be activated mechanically and should
not need some secondary power circuit to set them in motion, e.g., cordite should be fired
by percussion and not by a separate electrical system. It is essential that the hood release
mechanism should have operated and the hood be free for jettisoning before power is
supplied for forced jettisoning of the hood.
Page 2 of 4
SECTION 4
7.2 Since hood jettisoning is required under all conditions of symmetric and asymmetric
flight within the specified flight envelope, the amount of power supplied should be adequate
to enable the hood to jettison satisfactorily in the most adverse flight condition likely to be
encountered and which is appropriate to the role of the aeroplane. In general, however, this
power supplied should get the hood into the correct attitude for separation in the level flight
cases. A check should be made that this is sufficient to meet the spin, super stall, low
speed and stationary case.
8 FLYING CHARACTERISTICS WITH HOOD JETTISONED
8.1 Jettisoning of a cockpit hood should not render the aeroplane uncontrollable at
normal cruising speeds after the hood has left the aeroplane. Difficulty in controlling the
aeroplane with the hood jettisoned would be acceptable at high speed provided adequate
control could be regained when speed is reduced. The airflow over the cockpit region after
the hood has been jettisoned should be studied and protection for the crew provided where
necessary.
9 CONTROLS
9.1 The operating load on the control for hood jettisoning is required by Clause 4.23, to
be between 111N and 178N under all conditions likely to be achieved in flight or on the
ground. When forced jettisoning is not a requirement, this can usually be achieved by a
manual release when the total air and inertia loads under all conditions of flight are less
than 1360 kg. Power operation of the release mechanism is recommended when the total
load under any condition of flight is above 1360 kg.
9.2 Simple mechanical arrangements are recommended in both release and jettisoning
mechanism so that maximum reliability combined with minimum servicing is achieved. The
sliding and jettisoning mechanism on a sliding hood should also be independent such that
failure of the one does not impair operation of the other.
10 FLIGHT PATH CONTROL
10.1 Experience has shown that the type of attachment for a cockpit hood most likely to
give satisfactory jettisoning characteristics is one permitting release at the forward end first,
the hood being constrained to rotate about a rear hinge through a small angle before final
release. The best angle for each particular design should be determined by wind tunnel
tests, and should be that angle which gives the best chance of a successful jettisoning
under all conditions of flight. On many aeroplanes a compromise may be necessary
between the conflicting requirements appropriate to the various flight conditions. In general,
however the angle chosen should be that giving the best results in high speed flight since
jettisoning is more likely to be required under these conditions than in (say) the spin, super-
stall or during an emergency alighting. The position of the centre of gravity of the hood
relative to the centre of pressure is extremely important and likely to affect the attitude
taken up by the hood immediately it is released; this factor should be taken into account
when making model tests (see Leaflet 79).
Page 3 of 4
SECTION 4
10.2 The design of the rear hinge(s) should prevent the hood leaving the aeroplane in
any direction, including forwards, until the selected angle is reached; the hood should then
be free to leave the aeroplane. The effective width of the hinge(s) should be sufficient to
hold the hood steady about its longitudinal axis during its period of controlled rotation; the
hinge should be fitted at the rear of side rails when these are present.
10.3 A hood should be designed to have the minimum number of attachment points and
means should be adopted to ensure that all attachments (except the rear hinge or hinges
which are released later) are freed simultaneously. It is recommended that the rails should,
if practicable, jettison as part of the hood. After jettisoning, all parts should remain attached
either to the hood or the aeroplane in such a way that they cannot do damage.
11 COCKPIT PRESSURE
11.1 In pressure cabin aeroplanes, the jettisoning mechanisms of hoods or hatches

designed to provide a clear ejection path should be so designed that they can operate with
the full pressure differential in the cabin and in the seals in addition to the most adverse air
loads. There should be no possibility of hood pressure sealing strips sticking after the
jettisoning mechanism has been operated. The hood should also jettison satisfactorily
when the cabin is unpressurised, and when there is suction inside the hood due either to a
shattered hood or, where twin or tandem hoods are fitted, to one hood being jettisoned
before the other.
11.2 Where doors or hatches are provided for the escape of crew members without
ejection seats, from pressurised aeroplanes, some means must be provided to prevent the
opening of the doors or hatches until the internal pressure has fallen to a safe value.
12 SERVICING
12.1 To check hood serviceability, periodic ground functioning tests will be required.
Consideration should therefore be given in the design to quick and easy resetting of the
mechanism without special tools or the removal of panels in the fuselage. The use of
special test rigs may, however, be required for aeroplanes having hoods released by forced
jettisoning.
12.2 The use of cable should be avoided in view of its liability to maladjustment which
may lead to inadvertent operation of the release control. When the use of cable cannot be
avoided, it should be used without means of adjustment and should be enclosed in a
protective conduit.
12.3 When explosives are used for jettisoning, means should be provided for testing the
continued serviceability of the system without damage to the hood.
Page 4 of 4
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 79
EMERGENCY ESCAPE
GROUND TEST SCHEDULE FOR JETTISONABLE HOODS, HATCHES AND DOORS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This Leaflet describes the ground tests required by Clause 4.23 which are
necessary to ensure that hoods, hatches and doors cannot be jettisoned inadvertently in
the air or on the ground and that they release when required and, when released, both
separate from the aeroplane and pursue paths endangering neither the aeroplane nor its
occupants.
2 SCOPE OF GROUND TESTS
2.1 Because of the widely variable conditions under which aeroplanes operate, the tests
should be as comprehensive as possible covering every foreseeable condition to which the
hood, hatch or door might be exposed in service either on the ground or in the air. It is
recognised that such tests, whether made on models or complete aeroplanes, can in
general, be made to simulate actual conditions only very approximately, but if the tests are
made sufficiently searching and faults uncovered by them are rectified, then confirmatory
test flights can be undertaken with some confidence.
3 TESTS FOR POSITIVE ATTACHMENT OF HOODS, HATCHES AND DOORS
3.1 A series of tests should be made to check that:
(a) the required strength factors are achieved by the hood, batch or door and
the adjacent structure,
(b) the strength and stiffness of the looking mechanism are adequate to prevent
inadvertent loss of the hood, hatch or door under the most adverse combination of
loads that can be sustained in flight due to:
(1) aerodynamic effects,
(2) cabin pressurisation, and
(3) Inertia forces due to flight manoeuvres.
In the above test, account should be taken of structural distortion due to the
most adverse temperature conditions to be expected, and the most adverse
combination of component tolerances on assembly of the complete
mechanical system in the aeroplane.
(c) the hood, hatch or door cannot be engaged without fully locking the
mechanism and without adequate warning to the crew or that during periods of
vibration or buffeting, the moving parts of the toggle or other locks will not:
(1) creep into an unsafe position, or
Page 1 of 4
SECTION 4
(2) disengage altogether.
3.2 The tests under Para 3.1 (a) will normally be possible during the full scale strength
tests of the airframe structure. If possible the test of Para 3.1 (b) should be carried out in a
climatic chamber. In making vibration and buffeting tests of Para 3.1 (c) it is preferable to
use the pressure cabin section of an actual aeroplane, but a representative rig may be
used provided it is possible to produce in it a reasonably close approximation of the
vibration that would have been set up in the aeroplane.
3.3 During the tests, close examination of the components of the locking mechanism
should be made at intervals when the structure is unloaded, to ascertain:
(a) whether any uneven distribution of loads on the locking members has
occurred,
(b) whether all locking members have remained adequately and correctly,
engaged throughout the test. (Recording measuring devices should be fitted for this
purpose),
(c) whether deformation or maladjustment of the locking members has

occurred, and
(d) whether any of the moving parts show signs of wear that might lead to
eventual failure.
4 HOOD OR HATCH JETTISONING TESTS
4.1 Three series of ground tests should be made to check that the hood or hatch will
jettison with certainty and safety when required to do so. These tests are:
(a) model tests in a wind tunnel to obtain preliminary data as to:
(1) the form of hood or hatch necessary to take up a satisfactory attitude

on release,
(2) the best angle of release (see Leaflet 78, Para. 10), and
(3) whether the hood or hatch will follow a path clear of all parts of the
aeroplane when released at this angle under all conditions of flight (see
Clause 4.23).
(b) full scale tests under load on the ground with the hood or hatch locked to the
aeroplane or representative structure to demonstrate that:
(1) the release functions correctly from all stations both free and under
load,
(2) the release functions correctly from all stations both free and under
load after a cycle of vibration and buffeting (see Note to Para 3.1 (c)),
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(3) the release functions correctly at high and low temperatures, taking
account of temperature lag,
(4) the power supplied for forced jettisoning under all these conditions is
adequate, and
(5) the release control loads are within the limits specified.
(c) full scale release tests in the blower tunnel as under (b) (1), (2) and (4).
4.2 Under certain conditions. especially when more than one escape hatch is fitted,
there is likely to be suction in the cockpit which will adversely affect the jettisoning of the
remaining hatch or hatches. This effect should be allowed for in model tests in the wind
tunnel, as well as in full scale tests in the blower tunnel. Where there is doubt as to the
maximum value of this suction, flight measurements under the worst conditions should be
made at an early stage of the flight tests of the prototype.
5 MODEL TESTS IN A WIND TUNNEL
5.1 A specification of the model tests is given in Para 4.1 (a) and the technique to be
followed in making these tests is dependent upon the type and range of the wind tunnel to
be used. In general, the speed limitations of the tunnel may prevent the whole range of
conditions from being covered. With some reservations however, tests under conditions
outside the range of the tunnel may be done using relaxed conditions of dynamic similarity.
When accelerated flight conditions are represented by a stationary model, a calculated
allowance for the acceleration of the aeroplane should be applied.
6 FULL SCALE TESTS ON THE GROUND
6.1 Ground tests should be made on the aeroplane or representative structure to check
the release mechanisms under loads representative of those in flight.
6.2 RELEASE TESTS
6.2.1 In checking the operation of the mechanism under various conditions,

means should be included of measuring the operating load to make sure that it falls
within the limits set out in Leaflet 78 at all stations. When the hood, is of the sliding
type, tests should be made in the fully closed, fully open and at least one
intermediate position.
6.2.2 After each release test called for under Para 4.1 (b), the whole of the
mechanism and the hood or hatch structure should be examined for deformation or
other damage and for signs that inadvertent release when under load in flight might
be possible.
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6.3 POWERED JETTISONING
6.3.1 Tests of powered jettisoning should be made and the hood or hatch should
at least reach the angle at which separation will take place against the action of the
most adverse combination of inertia and aerodynamic loads that can arise from the
conditions enumerated in Leaflet 78, Para's 3, 4, 5 and 6.
6.3.2 A test of the powered jettisoning of the hood or hatch should also be made
under conditions simulating the aeroplane at rest at the end of the landing run and
also in the worst attitude for jettisoning which may be expected to result from a
crash landing or barrier entry. In this test which should be made in a wind of 30
knots, the hood or hatch should fall clear of the crew station.
7 BLOWER TUNNEL TESTS
7.1 As soon as possible after the completion of a new aeroplane or new or modified
hood or hatch and before the first test flight, the hood or hatch should be jettisoned from the
closed position in the blower tunnel under the following conditions:
(a) at the lowest speed required for escape path clearance, with the aeroplane
set up in an attitude appropriate to that speed,
(b) as (a) but yawed to the air stream at an angle not less than 5°,
(c) at the design diving speed of the aeroplane or the maximum blower tunnel
speed, whichever is the less, and on the appropriate attitude,
(d) as (c) but yawed to the air stream at an angle not less that 5°,
(e) at the minimum speed of the tunnel with the aeroplane set at the highest
incidence and the largest angle of yaw at which a reasonable flow of air can be
obtained over the hood or hatch, and,
(f) at various speeds with the hood partly or fully open. Test (e) and (f) should
only be done if the conditions they simulate are appropriate to the role of the
aeroplane.
7.2 When jettisoned, the hood or hatch should remain in one piece until well clear of the
escape path and its path should be such that injury to the crew or damage to the aeroplane
is avoided under all conditions of flight tested.
7.3 Tests should also be made to ensure that after jettisoning, escape is possible
through all escape hoods, hatches, doors, etc. under all conditions of flight appropriate to
the aeroplane.
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LEAFLET 80
EMERGENCY ESCAPE
EJECTION THROUGH CANOPIES
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 In order to meet the requirements for emergency escape at low altitude, it may be
desirable to make provision for seat ejection through the cockpit hood.
1.2 This Leaflet gives recommendations, based on tests made by A. & A.E.E., for the
design of frangible canopies and the associated ejection seat installation.
2 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 The ideal design would be one which provides a method of breaking up the area of
canopy necessary for the unobstructed passage of the seat and occupant and which
disperses the canopy fragments before the seat and occupants emerge.
2.2 Subject to suitable canopy material and thickness, consideration should be given to
advantages offered by a canopy fragmentation system. Such a system provides a method
of breaking up part or all of the canopy necessary for the unobstructed passage of the seat
and occupant and which disperses the canopy fragmentation before seat and occupant
emerge.
2.3 When canopy breakers (shaped pieces of metal fitted to the top of the ejection seat)
are used, the area of canopy broken up should comply with the ideal of Para 2.1. If the area
is not sufficient, additional breaking of the canopy will be done by other parts of the seat
and/or by the occupant. The additional breaking should not cause injury to the occupant or
unacceptable damage, e.g., any damage to the seat which could possibly result in
malfunction of the seat after ejection or any damage to personal equipment necessary for
survival after ejection would be unacceptable (see also Clause 4.23).
3 DESIGN OF FRANGIBLE CANOPIES
3.1 There should be no metal or other strengthening in the canopy within the immediate
vicinity of the ejection path of the seat and its occupant.
3.2 If the canopy breakers are used, the material of which the canopy is made should
break cleanly rather than tear, because the latter break-up pattern interferes with the
passage of the seat and its occupant during penetration.
3.3 The results of tests so far made indicate that to ensure a safe ejection through
Perspex canopies, the thickness of the Perspex should not be greater than 12.70mm and
should be much thinner than this if possible.
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3.4 The construction of the canopy is, however, primarily determined by the strength
requirements for flight conditions and an alteration to the construction or a reduction in the
thickness of the material to meet the above recommendations on any particular design may
not be possible.
4 DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF EJECTION SEATS
4.1 The design and installation of the ejection seat should be such that the first object to
strike the canopy is the canopy breaker(s). This condition should be fulfilled when a tall
occupant, wearing a protective helmet (or pressure helmet where appropriate) is seated at
the highest position he will use during flight or landing, so that lowering the seat before
ejection will be unnecessary.
4.2 The position of the seat within the cockpit should allow as much seat travel as
possible before the top of the canopy breaker(s) make contact with the canopy. The
minimum travel should be taken as 25.40 mm.
4.3 The canopy breaker(s) should not cause any possible interference with drogue and
parachute withdrawal. Their position and shape should be chosen so that as large an area
as possible is broken after initial impact and the least amount of seat energy is expended; a
compromise may be necessary between these conditions.
4.4 The results of tests indicate that to minimize the energy expended, the area of initial
contact between the canopy breaker(s) and the canopy should be small (e.g. a rounded
point or chisel edge contact). The tests have also indicated that with the correct positioning
of the breaker(s), it should be possible for cracks to be generated from the initial contact
point(s) to cover the area necessary for the passage of the seat and its occupant. The initial
contact point should be approximately above the occupant’s head. If this point is further aft
and near the rear edge of the canopy, in some canopy designs the edge attachment of the
Perspex will fail and the canopy will then break up into large heavy and dangerous pieces.
5 TESTS
5.1 Canopy penetration tests should be made to obtain the position and shape of the
canopy breaker(s) which give the least energy requirements and the best possible area of
break-up of the canopy. In these tests, the seat should be operated by hydraulic, pneumatic
or some convenient mechanical means to facilitate the measurement of the forces involved.
Consideration should be given to the effects of the most adverse temperature and pressure
gradients likely to be achieved by the canopy in flight and, where applicable, underwater,
and if considered to be critical they should be simulated in these tests.
5.2 The ground test called for in Clause 4.23 must be carried out finally to ensure that a
safe ejection can be made. Impact gauges, approved by A. & A.E.E., should be used in this
test to assess the injury to be expected from any blow on the occupant’s head, shoulders or
knees. The significance of the results of these tests should be discussed with IAM (RAF)
before clearance is given.
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LEAFLET 81
EMERGENCY ESCAPE
HOOD, HATCH AND DOOR LOCKING MECHANISMS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This Leaflet points out some of the disadvantages inherent in hood, hatch and door
locks which employ the principle of geometric locking. It is recommended that in future
designs of this sort, a means of preventing the movement of the linkage under any
conditions that are likely to be encountered in flight should be incorporated.
2 THE GEOMETRIC OR TOGGLE LOCK
2.1 A geometric lock is obtained when the pieces of a four bar linkage are moved into
such a position that the force producing motion passes through at least two moving and
one fixed centre. In this position the system is said to be at dead centre and its
configuration may be either a triangle or a straight line both figures are stable structures
and there is no tendency to move the linkage further.
2.2 It is common practice however, to allow the crank, i.e. a link with one fixed and one
moving centre, to go over dead centre so that there is a resultant force opposing any
movement of the crank in the opposite direction. In some designs a spring is added to
assist in keeping the crank on the safe side of dead centre.
3 THE ADVANTAGES OF GEOMETRIC OR TOGGLE LOCKING SYSTEMS
3.1 The most important advantages of the geometric type of lock are the lack of
complication and the fact that locking and unlocking forces can be kept low and can easily
be made to conform with the specified requirements for the magnitude of the operating
force in a given system.
3.2 Under static conditions, a system of locking based on this principle is extremely
stable and only the actual shearing or the bending of links can cause the device to unlock
inadvertently when correctly adjusted.
4 THE DISADVANTAGES OF GEOMETRIC LOCKS
4.1 The main disadvantage of such a device is the fact that the lock is not positive. In
certain applications a device of this kind may be subject to high accelerations, vibration,
fluctuating loads or relative movement between different parts of the locking system and if
this happens, slight movements of the crank may result either from inertia forces or from on
and off loading. If the movement of the crank is over dead centre to the unsafe side, the
resultant force from the loading on the lock will eventually cause it to open.
5 HOOD OR HATCH LOCKING SYSTEMS IN AEROPLANES
5.1 In hood or hatch locking systems installed in aeroplanes there may be a number of
hooks and latches, all of which have to be operated from any one of three stations. These
are:
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(a) the ejection seat handle.
(b) a second station from which the hood or hatch only is jettisoned, and
(c) a station outside the aeroplane from which the hood or hatch can be
released in an emergency.
The locking mechanisms have therefore to be connected to the control points by means of
a chain of rods, cranks, etc. which set a problem in tolerances and the means of
adjustment.
5.2 The adjustment of a geometric lock is very critical, since the actual position of the
dead centre is precise and strictly speaking there can be no tolerance on the crank position
either way. However, it is common practice to adjust the linkage so that the crank is
stopped slightly over dead centre and a small tolerance of -0 to +  can be allowed. The
angle of the crank over dead centre cannot be permitted to be too great, otherwise the
resultant force due to the loading on the hook or latch will result in unduly high operating
forces for unlocking. Also it will be necessary to employ stronger pivots and stops.
5.3 The large number of parts usually involved in the system, connecting the locks or
latches with their control prints, means that the build up of tolerances of assembly must be
carefully controlled. Otherwise it may not be possible to adjust the crank in the locking
mechanism within the correct over dead centre tolerance.
5.4 In some installations a number of linking mechanisms are connected together in

series with their control rods so that the tolerance build up one way or the other is critical.
This arrangement does not make for easy adjustment of the over dead centre positions of
the cranks, since any adjustment carried out on one lock is passed through the series
connecting rods to the others. An easier arrangement to manage is one in which the control
rods are run in parallel with the locks, for then adjustments can be made to each lock
separately without disturbing the others.
6 MALFUNCTIONING OF LOCKING SYSTEMS
6.1 The arc through which cranks in a system employing geometric locks must rotate to
produce catastrophic failure is obviously small. Its magnitude will depend on two things.
(a) Use over dead centre adjustment, and
(b) the friction in the whole system.
The friction must not be too great, otherwise the operating forces will be unduly high. On
the other hand, if it is very low only a small movement of the crank to the unsafe side of
dead centre will be significant.
6.2 Conditions most likely to produce malfunctioning of geometric locks are:
(a) relative movement between different parts of the system produced by flexing
of the airframe,
(b) on and off loading produced by changes in the cabin pressure differential,
(c) expansion and contraction of the airframe, linkage system, etc. due to wide
temperature changes, and
(d) low frequency vibration.
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Any or all of these conditions are likely to produce failure, since the locking system is not
positive and gradual creep of the cranks to the unsafe side of dead centre can take place.
7 THE PREVENTION OF FAILURE THROUGH CREEP
7.1 In principle the solution to the problem of creep from any cause is simply to fit a
retractable stop in the path of the crank which cannot then move into an unsafe position
until the stop is removed.
7.2 Practically, this could only be done at the expense of some extra complication, since
the withdrawal of the stop would have to form part of the sequence of operations involved in
unlocking the system. In addition the stop itself would have to be insensitive to all those
conditions which could cause disturbance in a geometric lock. On the other hand the
physical dimensions of such a stop could be relatively small since the shearing force due to
the crank would be low.
8 OTHER CAUSES OF FAILURE
8.1 Other failures of hood, hatch and door locking mechanisms are mainly brought
about by:
(a) incomplete engagement,
(b) inaccurate adjustment, and
(c) poor maintenance.
In general such failures could be made less likely by making the whole locking circuit as
accessible as possible and by fitting visual indicators at each locking point in addition to a
central warning system.
9 INSPECTION OF LOCKING MECHANISMS (see also Leaflet 79 Para. 3.3)
9.1 As part of the development flight test programme, close and critical inspection of the
hood and hatch locking mechanisms should be made after every flight, as required by
Clause 4.23, to find out whether:
(a) there has been any tendency for the moving parts of toggle or other locking
devices to creep into unsafe positions,
(b) there has been any distortion or malfunction of the connecting links under
load, or
(c) there are any signs of wear that could cause failure if allowed to progress.
9.2 Wherever possible recording measuring devices should be fitted to the locking
mechanism since visual checks may not always be reliable due to the inaccessibility of
parts of the mechanical system.
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LEAFLET 82
EMERGENCY ESCAPE
ESCAPE SYSTEM TESTING
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet defines principles and methods to be used to conduct tests of escape
systems to demonstrate their performance for a specific aeroplane. The leaflet is not
applicable to crew module (separable cockpit) escape systems.
2 SCOPE
2.1 The tests prescribed by this leaflet are intended to be conducted after completion of
applicable system component test, analytical verification of system performance, and
system and sub-system qualification tests. Although these tests may be conducted as an
integral part of an escape system qualification test programme, they do not constitute, by
themselves, a complete escape system qualification test programme. The tests are
intended to demonstrate the performance of the escape system for a specific aeroplane’s
configuration and its unique performance requirements. To achieve this end the tests
should be designed to meet specific objectives that should include:
(a) To ensure that the escape system and its associated equipment function
correctly within the confines of the aeroplane cockpit, the ejection envelope, canopy
or hatch jettisoning system, and the aerodynamic flow around the aeroplane within
the escape system pathway.
(b) To obtain measurements of the seat trajectory and behaviour, so that

calculations of escape system performance can be accomplished for all flight
conditions. Such calculations will generally include assessment of fin clearance
escape system performance under adverse aeroplane attitude, altitude and sink
rate conditions.
(c) To determine that the operation of the escape system does not impose
conditions (e.g., accelerations, aerodynamic loads, etc.), that will exceed acceptable
physiological limits.
(d) To determine the suitability of the aircrew equipment assembly of the escape
system.
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 SYSTEM INTEGRATION TESTS
3.1.1 System integration tests are those tests conducted on the complete escape
system to demonstrate that all sub-systems and components will function properly
and in the correct sequence when integrated with the aeroplane. These tests
include the functioning and operation of those sub-systems and components which
are utilized in the normal or none-emergency mode of the aeroplane, e.g., operation
of the inertial reel, donning and egress from the restraint harness, actuation of
aeroplane controls within the confines of the restraint system and seat geometry,
etc.
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3.2 SYSTEM STATIC TESTS
3.2.1 System static tests are those tests conducted to demonstrate proper
operation, structural integrity, and function of the complete escape system and
interrelated vehicle components and systems from the initiation of the escape
sequence to ground recovery. These tests are conducted from the aeroplane or
from a suitable jig or test vehicle which simulates the structure and duplicates the
dimensions of the aeroplane.
3.3 SYSTEM OF TRACK TESTS
3.3.1 Track tests are those tests conducted to demonstrate the proper functioning
of the escape path clearance system, ejection and separation, stabilization, and
recovery sub-systems and components at velocities representing the complete
dynamic pressure range of the aeroplane or escape system design.
3.4 SYSTEM FLIGHT TESTS
3.4.1 Flight tests are those tests conducted to demonstrate and functionally verify
ejection and separation, stability, flight characteristics, and recovery sub-systems
and components. The tests are conducted from an aeroplane.
3.5 SEAT REFERENCE POINT
3.5.1 The seat reference is located within the plane of symmetry of the escape
system/crewmember (mid-sagittal plane) at the intersection of the plane of the
compressed seat back and the compressed seat cushion.
4 CLASSIFICATION OF TESTS
4.1 SUCCESSFUL TEST
4.1.1 A successful test is a test in which all the data that are required to permit
analysis of the performance of the escape system are obtained and all functional
and sequencing requirements are accomplished. The test data should indicate that
a crewmember would have ejected and landed on the earth’s surface without
exceeding the human tolerance.
4.2 UNSUCCESSFUL TEST
4.2.1 An unsuccessful test is a test in which the test results demonstrate that the
escape system is incompatible with the aeroplane configuration, cannot provide
safe escape over the selected increments of the aeroplane performance envelope
or fails to meet the overall performance requirements of the escape system and its
associated aircrew equipment.
4.3 NO TEST
4.3.1 A " no test" is a test that does not meet the requirements of the specific test
that has been planned and must be repeated. While the overall test may be judged
invalid, any data obtained from such a test may be used in assessing the
performance of the escape system if it is valid data. A test should be declared a "no
test" if:
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(a) The test vehicle speed was not within the acceptable speed range (±
10 percent of the target speed) for the test run from the time the
escape sequence was initiated until the time that escape system/sled
separation occurred.
(b) The escape system fails to operate as a result of a nonescape

system (e.g., sled, test initiated system) malfunction.
(c) A failure occurs in either the data collection system or the

photographic coverage resulting in insufficient data or coverage to permit
adequate and satisfactory analysis of the test, even if there is no other
evidence of an obvious failure.
5 TEST PLAN
5.1 A complete test plan should be prepared prior to commencement of tests stating the
test objectives, description of each test, equipment and facilities to be used, data to be
recorded, and the proposed test procedures.
6 TEST FACILITIES
6.1 TEST APPARATUS
(a) Track Test Vehicles - The track test vehicle should be identical, insofar as
practical to the external configuration of the actual aeroplane in the area of the
canopy or hatch. The structure of the test vehicle forward of the canopy or hatch
should be contoured in such a manner that the aerodynamic flow pattern over the
test section closely approximate that of the actual aeroplane. The cockpit of the test
vehicle should also duplicate the crew station configuration of the actual aeroplane
as far as representing critical ejection clearances. The test vehicle should be
capable of being propelled along a test track at the required speeds and should be
high enough above the track to minimize ground and rocket blast effects.
(b) Flight Tests - Flight tests if required to supplement track tests, should be
conducted from an aeroplane modified to accommodate the escape system by
installation into a cockpit within the aeroplane fuselage or modified to carry a test
structure simulating a cockpit from which an ejection can be accomplished.
(c) Simulated Crewmember - The crewmember should be simulated by use of

anthropometric dummies whose centres of gravity under static load are
representative of the crewmembers' centres of gravity under static load. Ejection
seat and extraction seat system tests should be conducted using dummy percentile
ranges specified in the aeroplane escape system specification. The dummy should
be configured with the personal equipment and clothing as required for the
aeroplane's operational use. The dummies should be used to demonstrate safe
ejection under critical centre of gravity variations and critical cockpit clearances. The
dummies' limbs should be articulated to approximate the articulation of the human
limbs. Limb joints of the dummies should be set in the same manner for each test
and the procedure described in the escape system test report. The following
procedure is recommended:
(1) The limb joint torque should be set at 1 g, barely restraining the
weight of the limb when extended horizontally.
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(2) Leg joints should be adjusted with the torso in the supine position.
(3) Articulated neck, and torso joints should not move at a horizontal
acceleration load of 1 g, in the test position, but not be so tight that they will
fail to move at a horizontal acceleration load of approximately 2 g.
(d) Simulated Crewmember Restraint - The dummy should be secured to the

seat by means of the restraining harnesses normally used and the seat adjusted to
that position considered to be most critical insofar as safe ejection is concerned.
Breakaway tethering of the dummy's hands to the ejection controls should be used
to simulate the grip strength of the ejectee. Each hand should be tied separately to
the ejection control handle by a single break cord. The procedure and breaking
force of the cord should be documented in the test report. It is recommended that
the cord breaking force shall be 61.4 ± 8.5 kilograms for each ejection control
handle in the case of side arm or face curtain handles and 81.8 ± 8.5 kilograms for
single, seat pan ejection initiation handles. Tethering or restraining of the legs
should be provided only when such devices are an integral part of the system
design.
6.2 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION
6.2.1 Electronic instrumentation should be provided to record data for all tests
prescribed in this standard which will subject the escape system crew-member to
acceleration during the escape process, such as pre-escape positioning, separation
from the test vehicle, entry into airstream, escape system deceleration, and
recovery system actuation. Measurements should be made with instruments whose
accuracy has been verified. Complete data and information describing the
performance characteristics of the data collection system including transducers,
signal conditioning, filtering, recording and playback equipment should be included
in the escape system test report.
(a) Instrumentation of Escape System - Data should be taken from

instruments mounted on the primary structure to measure the linear and
angular motion of the escape system. The location of the instruments should
be described in terms of an x, y, z co-ordinate system (see sketch)
established with respect to the seat reference point and the place of the
compressed seat back or other reference points on the escape system
structure that can be defined with respect to the seat reference point. The
following data should be provided to completely describe the motion of the
escape system:
(1) Vertical acceleration (G Z )
(2) Lateral acceleration (G Y )
(3) Longitudinal acceleration (G X )
(4) Pitch acceleration (R Y )
(5) Roll acceleration (R X )
(6) Yaw acceleration (R Z )
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The angular acceleration may be measured directly with angular

accelerometers or determined by calculations from angular rate
measurements or calculations from a second set of linear accelerometers
located at precise distances from the first set of linear accelerometers.
Angular acceleration data should be corrected to eliminate the linear
acceleration component of the measurement.
(b) Instrumentation of Test Dummies - For extraction seat escape

systems or for ejection seat systems where unconventional methods of seat-
man separation or parachute opening sequences are being evaluated, the
following data should be taken from instruments mounted on the test
dummies:
(1) Longitudinal acceleration of the chest (G X )
(2) Lateral acceleration of the chest (G Y )
(3) Vertical acceleration (G Z )
(c) Extraction System Crewmember be instrumented to measure

extracting forces in the lifting pendants at the attachments to the crewman
and the acceleration input to the crewman at the harness/crewman interface
in the area of the buttocks.
(d) Instrumentation System Characteristics - The instrumentation system

should have the following performance characteristics to assure accurate
data:
(1) The transducers, data transmission and recording equipment

used to measure the escape system performance should have a
minimum overall frequency response which is flat, with ±5 percent,
from 0 to 100 Hertz.
(2) If the equipment used in (1) above has a higher overall

frequency response than the minimum specified, then filtering of the
recorded data, if required, should be accomplished using a low pass
filter which is flat, with ±5 percent from 0 to 100 Hertz and has a
terminal slope of 6db/octave.
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6.3 PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTATION
6.3.1 Photographic instrumentation should be provided for all tests prescribed in

this standard for the observation of the functioning of the escape system/man
assembly, trajectory determination and velocity calculation. Trajectory
measurements should be made using a kinetheodolite system or by an arrangement
of cameras and markers. In addition, documentary and special event cameras
mounted on the ground or within the test vehicle should be provided to record the
complete test sequence and the behaviour of pertinent or critical components or
events of the escape system during pre-ejection, separation, and free-flight
sequences. Still photographic coverage should be provided to document test article
installation and post-test condition. Particular attention should be given to
components suspected to have malfunctioned or failed.
6.4 IMPACT INDICATORS
6.4.1 Special dye coatings should be used to indicate if and where impact has
occurred between the dummy and the cockpit or canopy structure during escape.
6.5 TIMING CORRELATION
6.5.1 Master timing systems should be utilized for data reduction and analysis.
The master timing should be a single timing source for both the photographic
coverage as well as electronic data recording systems. Visual event initiation
signals should be incorporated on both the test vehicle and the escape system.
7 TEST CONDITIONS
7.1 EJECTED WEIGHT
7.1.1 The weight of the ejected (or separated) portion of the escape system
should be determined by the testing activity. The weight should be representative of
that planned for use under service conditions and should include the weight of the
items of personal equipment specified and the weight of the crewmember.
7.2 CONFIGURATION
7.2.1 The crewmember should be simulated by use of a dummy which should

have full anthropometric centre of gravity representation. The dummy should be
secured to the seat by means of the restraining harnesses normally used and the
seat should be adjusted to that position considered to be most critical insofar as
safe ejection is concerned. All static, track and flight tests should be conducted with
final production configuration hardware for the complete escape system.
7.3 CENTRE OF GRAVITY VARIATIONS
7.3.1 Escape system static, track and flight tests should be conducted under those
simulated service weight conditions which have been determined to be most critical
for centre of gravity/rocket thrust alignment.
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8 TEST REQUIREMENTS
8.1 ESCAPE SYSTEM INTEGRATION TESTS
8.1.1 The system integration test should validate operational compatibility of the
crewmember equipped with survival kit, parachute and the associated restraint
system and personal leads with composite disconnect interfaces. These tests
should be as follows:
(a) Ejection Control Linkage Tests - Demonstrate the functioning and

operation of the linkage from the ejection control to the actuation of system-
sequencing of multiplace escape systems if included in the vehicle.
(b) Adequacy of Component Performance - Demonstrate and

individually determine the adequacy of all system components to perform as
specified herein (e.g., demonstrate the adequacy of the restraint system to
properly restrain the crewmember in the ejection position, etc.).
(c) Functioning of the Manual Egress Handle - Evaluate positive

functioning of the ejection or extraction seat's emergency egress handle to
automatically release the man from the seat for ground emergency
conditions.
(d) Tripper Mechanism - Verify proper functioning of escape system

tripper mechanisms as the seat is raised up the rails.
(e) Services Disconnect - Demonstrate adequacy of the seat services

disconnect adapters while the seat is being raised and verify positive
actuation of the emergency bailout oxygen supply.
(f) Ejection Distress Signal - Demonstrate adequacy of the mechanical

system that actuates the emergency bailout distress signal and actuates, if
installed, the chaff dispersal system.
(g) Seat/Man Separation - Evaluate the functioning and time-sequencing

of the restraint system release and seat/man separation.
(h) Parachute Actuation - Demonstrate adequacy of parachute

deployment actuation.
8.2 GROUND ESCAPE PATH CLEARANCE TESTS
8.2.1 Canopy clearance and hatch jettison tests should be conducted to determine
compliance with Clause 4.23 Acceptable ground jettisoning or testing of other
methods of clearing the escape path of the canopy, escape hatch, or other
obstacles to escape for each crew station should be conducted from the aeroplane
or from a suitable jig simulating the aeroplane structure. The canopy or hatch
should be fired from the fully locked position only and should be jettisoned/fractured
by means of the control normally employed by the crewmember. Modifications to
the mechanism which do not affect the operation are permissible. Testing of the
ground crew control may be accomplished by firing the canopy or hatch thruster
only if all other portions of the jettisoning or escape path clearance systems have
been tested as above; canopy fracturing and dispersal systems should be similarly
tested.
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SECTION 4
8.3 ESCAPE SYSTEM STATIC TESTS
8.3.1 Two tests should be conducted from the test vehicle at zero speed, if escape
at zero speed and zero altitude is an operational requirement. The tests may be
accomplished either from the aeroplane or from a suitable jig simulating the
aeroplane structure. One test should be accomplished with the aeroplane canopy or
hatch jettisoned in conjunction with the escape system sequence. One test should
be conducted through the canopy unless this is not feasible due to canopy
construction. In this case, the ejection system should be fired in such a manner as
to demonstrate that the seat will not eject until the canopy has been jettisoned or
the escape path has been cleared.
8.4 ESCAPE SYSTEM TRACK TESTS
(a) Single Crew Station Test - For aeroplanes with only one crewmember, a
minimum of 6 tests, in addition to the static tests, should be conducted. Two tests
each should be conducted at three test speeds ranging from minimum speed to
maximum design speed. The intermediate speed test conditions should be selected
to provide the maximum data on escape system performance.
(b) Multicrew Station Tests - The tests required by Para's 8.3 and 8.4 (a) above
should be accomplished for each added crew station.
(c) Blast Protection - For the tandem configuration and the side-by-side
configuration, the tests of Para 8.4 (b) above should demonstrate that ejection of
the first crewmember will not injure the other crewmember. One test should be at
minimum flight speed and the other at maximum speed for each configuration. The
seat catapult should be fired by direct actuation of the catapult firing mechanisms or
by operation of the normal ejection firing control. Provisions should be made for
automatic operation of the post ejection equipment normally provided for the
crewmember.
(d) Escape Path Clearance Tests - Canopy clearance and hatch jettison tests
should be conducted to determine compliance with Clause 4.23 on escape path
clearance in conjunction with the escape system track tests. Jettisoning of the
canopy or hatch should be accomplished by direct actuation of the jettison control.
Modifications to the mechanism which do not affect the operation are permissible.
8.5 ESCAPE SYSTEM FLIGHT TESTS
8.5.1 Flight tests should be conducted at various speeds and altitudes if data is
required on the following:
(a) Critical design points in the ejection envelope that cannot be

simulated by other test methods.
(b) High altitude ejection conditions (above the aneroid controlled

altitude).
(c) Sink rate and adverse attitude ejection conditions. These tests may
be accomplished from a platform dropped from an aeroplane.
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SECTION 4
8.6 FLIGHT TESTS - EJECTION SEAT AND DUMMY RECOVERY
8.6.1 Provision should normally be made for the recovery of the dummy and seat
by means of parachutes. Damage to the dummy and seat from parachute landings
should be a minimum to permit an evaluating examination.
9 RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION
9.1 The eight escape system ejection tests should be consecutively successful to
demonstrate a reliability of 75 percent at the 90 percent lower confidence limit when the
escape system is integrated with the aeroplane.
10 TEST REPORTS
10.1 Reporting requirements for the test procedures and materials as well as the test
results should be clearly defined prior to initiation of the escape system test programme.
REFERENCES
Reference ASCC Air Standard STANAG
1 61/3 -
Page 9 of 9
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 83
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
HEATING REQUIREMENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet provides details of some of the current heating methods available and
gives guidance on their use.
1.2 Sufficient heating capacity should be provided for occupied compartments and for
compartments housing cold sensitive equipment to achieve an even distribution of
temperature throughout the compartment and having the capability of stabilising within five
minutes of starting or as stated in the Aeroplane Specification.
1.3 The aeroplane source of heat may be:
(a) Combustion heater.

(b) Engine exhaust heater.
(c) Engine bleed air.
(d) Electric heater.
(e) Auxiliary power unit.
(f) Engine driven compressor.
(g) Or any other method approved by the Project Team Leader.
On multi-engine aeroplanes more than one similar source may be used. In general, the
auxiliary power unit(s) is/are provided to compliment the main heating source, and in
general, a degree of redundancy should be provided.
1.4 When the heating system used for de-icing the wings and tail surface is combined
with the cabin heating system that pertaining to the thermal de-icing should conform to the
2 HEATING EQUIPMENT (Combustion)
2.1 The combustion heater and associated fuel pump must be approved and meet the
fire protection requirements of Clause 4.26
2.2 The combustion heating system should be designed and constructed so that it will
ignite and operate continuously under any conditions of flight from sea level to the service
ceiling of the aeroplane or to such limitations as the Project Team Leader may specify.
2.3 When installed in aeroplanes with cabin pressurisation, the ventilating air passages
only of the heater and the space within the heat exchanger should be subject to increased
pressures developed by the pressurising system.
2.4 The space within the heater combustion chamber and controls as well as the
ignition and fuel system should not be subjected to the pressure developed by the cabin
pressurising system.
Page 1 of 2
SECTION 4
2.5 Provision should be made to ventilate adequately and continuously the

compartments in which combustion-type heaters are installed in order to prevent the
accumulation of fuel vapours in the event of fuel leakage. The ventilation rate, which should
be related to the volume of the compartment as well as the capacity of the heater, should
exceed 0.076 kg of air per minute per kilowatt rated thermal capacity of the heater.
3 HEATING EQUIPMENT (Engine Exhaust)
3.1 Suitable means should be provided to permit the flow of sufficient air through the
heat exchanger at all times to prevent premature failure due to overheating. The valves
used to control the flow of heated air should be of such construction and ruggedness as to
preclude warpage or leakage for any reason during the life of the heating system.
3.2 If a secondary air-to-air heat exchanger is used, means should be provided for
regulating the flow of the air being used in the secondary exchanger. The design and
construction of a primary exhaust-to-air heat exchanger should be such that vibration or
expansion and contraction due to rapid heating and cooling should not cause cracking of
the heat exchanger or the exhaust stack.
4 HEATING EQUIPMENT (Engine Bleed Air)
4.1 Temperature regulation of cabin inlet air may be accomplished by a suitable air-to-
air heat exchanger, although other methods may be acceptable if approved by the Project
Team Leader.
4.2 On multi-engine aeroplanes, the conditioning system should be capable of

maintaining operation within design limits with loss of air supply from one of the engines. In
the case of a duct or component failure, a means should be provided which will prevent air
extraction from the engine at a flow rate greater than that allowed by the engine
manufacturer.
5 HEATING EQUIPMENT (Electric)
5.1 Electric heaters may take the form of radiant heaters or heating mats.
5.2 Overheat protection should be provided for all electric heaters. This should be in
addition to the primary temperature control systems.
5.3 Surface temperatures exceeding 250°C will only be permitted where possible
contamination from ignitable vapours does not exist.
5.4 Where radiant heaters are located in air ducts, flow detectors or temperature limiters
(i.e., thermostats or thermal fuses) should be provided to prevent over-heating.
Page 2 of 2
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 84
CONTAMINATION
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet details some of the methods to avoid contamination of the atmosphere
in occupied compartments.
1.2 The system should prevent the concentration of harmful or irritating substances in
the occupied compartment atmosphere.
2 CONTAMINATION REQUIREMENTS
2.1 The aeroplane manufacturer should consider the adverse effect of smoke
concentration with regard to vision and the viewing and operation of essential flight controls
when locating inlet and extraction devices.
2.2 The air intake(s) should be so arranged that in normal or any fault conditions,
contaminated air will not be supplied to occupied compartments or to other regions to such
an extent as to create a hazard.
2.3 The air supply to occupied compartments should be ducted when passing through
compartments that are inaccessible in flight.
2.4 Precautions should be taken to preclude the contamination of air in occupied

compartments resulting from the operation of the aeroplane in normal and emergency
conditions. In particular:-
(a) Carbon monoxide concentrations should not exceed 50 parts per million by
volume for any period exceeding 5 minutes.
(b) Carbon dioxide concentrations should not exceed 30,000 parts per million by
volume for any period exceeding 5 minutes.
(c) Hazardous concentrations of fire extinguishing agents should not be liable to

occur either as a result of intentional use of a fire extinguishing system or portable
extinguishers, or as a result of any failure which might lead to unintentional
discharge of the extinguishant.
(d) Systems employing fluids liable to give off noxious or toxic vapours or
substances (e.g., some de-icing and hydraulic fluids) should not be installed in such
a manner as to risk hazardous contamination of the cabin air either by leakage or by
use.
Page 1 of 2
SECTION 4
(e) No materials which give off noxious fumes when heated should be used in
such a way that they may become heated in normal or failure conditions to the
extent that the cabin air would become dangerously contaminated.
(f) Electrical equipment should be so constructed and installed that in the event
of failure, no dangerous quantities of toxic or noxious products will be distributed in
the crew compartment.
2.5 No failure having a probability of occurrence greater than 1x10-7 per flying hour
(unlikely failure condition) should result in leakage into the air supply (e.g., from a cabin air
heat exchanger), which would hazard the aeroplane or its occupants.
2.6 In normal operation or after a failure in the power-plant, it should be shown that
dangerous concentrations of harmful substances cannot occur (or in the case of power-
plant failure can be prevented from occurring) in occupied compartments, e.g., where the
cabin air supply is obtained from a direct tapping on a turbine engine.
2.7 Where a recirculating ventilating system could cause hazardous contamination of

compartment air in either normal or fault conditions, it should be possible to stop the
recirculating system and still show compliance.
2.8 Where the air supply is used, for example, to cool devices, it should be free from
any contamination which could adversely affect their functioning.
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SECTION 4
LEAFLET 85
CONTROLS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet amplifies the control requirements of Clause 4.24
2 CONTROL CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 Independent control of compartments other than crew compartments is not required
if all of the following conditions are met:-
(a) The total volume of the flight crew and passenger compartments is 25m3 or
less.
(b) The air inlets and passages for air to flow between flight crew and passenger
compartments are arranged to provide compartment temperatures within 3°C of
each other and adequate ventilation to occupants in both compartments.
(c) The temperature and ventilation controls are accessible to the flight crew.
2.2 The controls for the ventilating system should be of such design and construction
that a minimum of leakage results when the system is closed.
2.3 Means should be provided for operating the heating system at partial output.
Suitable, concise, clear instructions for the operation of the heating system should also be
incorporated in a nameplate or mounted adjacent to the heating system controls. If the
ventilating system controls are combined with the heating controls, suitable instructions for
the operation of this system also should be incorporated.
2.4 Combustion heating systems should incorporate a suitable automatic control

located in the fuel line as near to the fuel take-off from the main fuel system as possible, to
stop the flow of fuel if the pressure in the fuel line downstream of this point is reduced by
leakage or by being broken.
2.5 For any system condition causing flow disturbances, flow overshoot or undershoot
should be not greater than ten per cent of the value existing immediately before the
disturbance and the flow should be within five per cent of the final control level within two
cycles or ten seconds, whichever is less, following completion of the condition causing the
disturbance.
2.6 The temperature selector for automatic cabin temperature control should be
designed for the range of 25°C above and below the comfort zone. The aim should be to
maintain the temperature in each compartment within ±2°C.
Page 1 of 1
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 86
FIRE PRECAUTIONS
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet gives recommended or acceptable methods of meeting certain of the
basic requirements stated in Clause 4.26
2 DESIGNATED FIRE ZONE ISOLATION (See Clause 4.26)
2.1 Firewalls should be made from stainless steel or titanium at least 0.4 mm (0.016 in)
thick, and their outer surfaces should not be painted.
2.2 Firewalls may distort severely under heat and hence access doors and joints should
be avoided. If this is not practical then closely spaced fasteners should be used. High
strength fasteners with aluminium parts are not recommended.
2.3 Firewalls should be capable of sustaining loads likely to be experienced during their
service life.
2.4 Attention is drawn to the difficulties in handling light gauge material which may be
specified for firewalls and to the chances of damage during servicing particularly where
there is any appreciable unsupported area.
2.5 Air ducts passing through a firewall might give a fire the opportunity to travel from
one fire zone to another or to the rest of the aeroplane and may also allow a high air mass
flow to enter the fire zone and feed the fire. It is recommended that such air ducts be made
of stainless steel or titanium not less than 0.40 mm thick or equivalent material for a
sufficient distance beyond the fire barrier to ensure that any fire can be contained within the
duct. Shut off means should be provided to prevent air being fed into the designated fire
zone.
2.6 Precautions should be taken to limit the consequences of an explosion in a fire

zone. Compartment walls should be strong enough to withstand a pressure differential and,
if natural relief is not provided, pressure relief panels should be considered. Ducts inside a
fire zone, e.g., intake duct, exhaust pipe, should be capable of withstanding an explosion
without hazarding the safety of the aeroplane.
3 FLAMMABLE FLUID TANKS
3.1 Where possible flammable fluid tanks should be located so that they will not be
damaged by an uncontained failure of an engine, or so that a collapsing undercarriage
does not cause a major tank leak.
3.2 For protection against lightning see Clause 4.27 and Def Stan 59-113.
Page 1 of 4
SECTION 4
4 FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEM
4.1 The means by which the effectiveness of the fire extinguishing system can be
demonstrated will be agreed with the Project Team Leader, but should normally be
confined to the measurement of the rate of discharge of the extinguishant and distribution
of the discharged extinguishant. In certain circumstances rig tests or a fire tunnel test
including the extinguishing of representative engine fires may be required by the Project
Team Leader. Acceptable methods of establishing the adequacy of the fire extinguishing
system are given in FAR Advisory Circular 20-100.
4.2 Fire extinguishing systems must be installed so that:
4.2.1 No extinguishing agent likely to enter personnel compartments will be

hazardous to the occupants.
4.2.2 No discharge of the extinguisher can cause structural damage.
4.2.3 The extinguishing agent shall have thermal stability over the temperature
range likely to be experienced in the compartment in which it is stored.
4.3 The capacity of the fire extinguishing system must be adequate for any fire likely to
occur in the compartment where used, considering the volume of the compartment and the
ventilation rate.
4.4 Fire extinguisher bottles are likely to burst if subjected to high temperatures and will
normally have a pressure relief device fitted to prevent bursting of the container by
excessive internal pressures. Great care should be given in their installation to ensure that
there is minimum risk of this occurring before the system has operated.
4.5 Chemical reaction between the extinguishant and the materials used in the fire
extinguisher system should not degrade the system.
4.6 A visual indicator should be provided to indicate to maintenance personnel that the
extinguishant has been discharged.
5 FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS
5.1 Fire detection systems should only respond to a fire and the mis-interpretation of a
lesser hazard such as engine overtemperature, harmless exhaust gas and bleed air
leakage should not be possible. If indication of a lesser hazard is desirable, an independent
system should be installed. A fire detection system should be reserved for a condition
requiring immediate measures such as engine shutdown, fire extinguishing etc. Detection
systems should not be combined with other systems, which if faulty, could prevent normal
operation of the detector system. Diodes should not be used to separate detector systems.
5.2 The fire detection system should be designed so that it will:
(a) Indicate fire immediately after ignition and show the compartment in which
the fire is located.
Page 2 of 4
SECTION 4
(b) Remain 'ON' for the duration of the fire.
(c) Indicate when the fire is out.
(d) Indicate re-ignition of a fire.
5.3 Temperature sensing fire detector elements should be located as close as

practicable to sources of flammables such as fuel/hydraulic components and ignition
sources such as electric generators and alternators, where the proximity of these
flammables and ignition sources constitute a possible source of fire. They should also be
located at points where the ventilation air leaves the compartments so that temperature
indication can be obtained with a minimum length or minimum number of sensing elements.
5.4 Radiation detectors should be located so that any flame within the compartment is
sensed, bearing in mind the scope of vision of the sensor and that reflected flames may be
sensed depending on the reflective surface and sensor wave length. Detectors should not
be located directly adjacent to combustion sections or any area where in the event of 'burn
through' the high temperature would incapacitate the system prior to providing alarm. They
should be located so that they will indicate the 'burn through'. The need to shield detectors
from seeing reheat flames/weapon flames/engine wet start flames should be considered,
also possible changes in performance characteristics at elevated environmental
temperatures.
5.5 Acceptable test methods to demonstrate the adequacy of continuous wire type of
fire and overheat systems are given in US Mil Spec F-7872(Inactive) Para 4.6
6 DRAINS AND VENTS
6.1 Drain outlets should be located to avoid any resultant adverse differential pressure
that would prevent effective drainage. Drain lines should not normally be manifolded
together except at points of overboard drainage. In cases where manifolding is necessary,
pressure differentials in drained compartments, or equipment cavities and their possible
cause of a fire or explosion, and the ability to identify drained fluids should be carefully
considered. Drained fluids which are manifolded should be compatible. All drain line sizes
should be such that accumulation of flammable liquids is prevented at the highest leakage
rate caused by a single failure.
6.2 Consideration should be given to the possibility of accidental drainage into the jet
zone following a false start. Ideally:
(a) the jet pipe or jet pipe shroud if fitted, should protect aft beyond the nacelle.
(b) the shroud should be sealed to the pipe and to the nacelle and should be
separately drained, and,
(c) the internal and external airflows around the jet pipe zone should always be
in a rearward direction.
Page 3 of 4
SECTION 4
6.3 Consideration should be given to the elimination of the blockage of vents and drains
by ice or snow which may give rise to a fire hazard during engine start-up.
6.4 Drains, vents and fill points should be identified with external markings (see DAP119A-
0601-Series.)
7 CLASS D CARGO COMPARTMENTS: VENTILATIONS
7.1 The rate of ventilation and leakage into and out of Class D cargo compartments
(see Clause 4.26) should be as low as practical and should not exceed the value obtained
from:
W = 56.6 - V
Where W = ventilation and leakage airflow in m3/hour.
V = compartment volume in m3.
Note: Compliance with the ventilation rate should be shown by flight tests in both
pressurised and unpressurised flight.
7.2 When the volume of the compartment is greater than 28m3 it should be
demonstrated by a full scale test that a fire can be contained. The fire test may be waived if
the cargo in the compartment is limited to container cargo and the containers are so
constructed that they, in themselves, are individual Class D compartments.
7.3 The design of the compartment should be such that its mechanical integrity,
including sealing, will be maintained when the compartment is exposed to those
temperatures and pressures resulting from a fire within it and also in service.
8 ACCESS PANELS
8.1 The access panels for the engine designated fire zone and, where applicable, the
APU designated fire zone (see Clause 4.26) should be located in a cowling in such a
position that when the nozzle fitted to the standard Service ground fire fighting equipment is
inserted the extinguishant will effectively reach the engine fuel system and the engine
combustion area of the APU.
8.2 Each access panel should be approximately 100 mm square (see also BS C6) and
should be so designed that a sharp blow with the nozzle will give immediate entry of the
nozzle (e.g., a hinged panel split horizontally or vertically and lightly spring loaded in the
closed position or a frangible hood of transparent material).
9 APU EMERGENCY STOP
9.1 If an APU is operated without ground crew attendance it is recommended than an

emergency stop button be provided for a rapid shut-down.
Page 4 of 4
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 87
FIRE PRECAUTIONS
COMBAT INDUCED FIRES
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This leaflet amplifies the requirements relating to combat induced fire precautions in
Clause 4.26
2 COMBAT INDUCED FIRE HAZARDS
2.1 A large part of a military combat aeroplane is used for the storage of fuel. It is, therefore,
important to assess the risk of ignition of the fuel from combat action and the fire and explosion
that could arise.
2.2 It is fundamental to ignition that fuel be vaporised either by expansion following high
shock pressures or by the thermal energy of the ignition source. The impact area and the
ammunition used are important factors in obtaining the appropriate spark or incendiary initiation.
A distinction is drawn between a primary fire which is a direct consequence of projectile impact
and a secondary fire which follows flammable fluids leaking into those regions of the aeroplane
containing ignition sources. The likelihood of a primary fire in combat depends on parameters
such as the type of fuel, fuel and air temperatures, degree of void ventilation, ammunition used
and the aeroplane configuration.
2.3 Fluid systems are vulnerable to primary fires in compartments and voids adjacent to fuel
tanks or the risk of an internal fuel tank explosion.
2.4 The mechanisms of ignition relative to inert fragments/bullets and incendiary/high

explosive projectiles impacting a metal airframe is summarised below:
2.4.1 INERT FRAGMENTS AND BULLETS - The fragments or bullet penetrates the
aeroplane structure and a spray of incandescent metallic particles appear at entry and
exit lasting approximately 2 milliseconds, the temperature of the flash is about 2300°C.
Fragments traverse the intervening air gap penetrating the metal tank wall and producing
further incandescent particles. Very high shock pressure is generated in the fuel adjacent
to the projectile in fractions of a millisecond. The existence of sub-atmospheric pressure
in the wake of the projectile leads to a rapid phase from liquid to vapour. Thus the initial
ejection pulse at the tank wound discharges vapour with such rapidity that it can arrive
within the adjacent dry bay during the period when incandescent particles from the initial
impact flash have sufficient heat energy to cause an immediate ignition and development
of a fire ball.
2.4.2 INCENDIARY AND HIGH EXPLOSIVE PROJECTILES - In this form of attack

there is considerable ignition energy available to vaporise the fuel and this increases the
fire risk period up to approximately 20 milliseconds. The fire ball associated with the
vaporising of the fuel can stabilise into a fuel fed fire, the suppression of which
necessitates discharge of the extinguishant within 10 milliseconds of the ignition and the
concentration held at least 20 milliseconds. Projectile penetration of the fuel tank can give
rise to in-tank explosion when the stoichiometric ratio of fuel/air in the ullage space attains
the appropriate conditions compatible with a rapid rise in pressure and flame front travel.
Page 1 of 3
SECTION 4
2.5 The use of composites modifies the mechanism of ignition due to the reduction of
incandescent particles following penetration of the structure. Whilst there is no flash generated
when a projectile impacts composite structures, the embodiment of numerous structural
fastenings, usually manufactured in titanium, arid the possibility of encountering multiple fragment
strikes may not be significantly different to the probability of ignition associated with metallic
structures. Projectiles incorporating incendiary products will generate internal fires irrespective of
the type of structural material selected for the airframe.
2.6 Thermal effects from nuclear weapons on the cockpit area makes the crew vulnerable to
thermal effects exceeding a level of 5 to 10 cal/cm2. Additionally a fire hazard may exist due to
the ignition of inflammable materials within the crew compartment and from the discharge of toxic
combustion products from smouldering plastics and paints. Higher levels of thermal radiation can
have a damaging effect on aeroplane structures and may give rise to integral fuel tank explosions
due to the ignition of flammable vapours.
3 PRECAUTIONS: COMBAT INDUCED FIRES
3.1 In the majority of aeroplanes the following installations and areas will normally be
designated as fire zones although it is accepted that in special cases this may not be so:
(a) Piston and Turbine Engine Installation - including reheat installations.
(b) Auxiliary Power Plant Installations.
(c) Combustion Heater Installations.
There is however, the risk that a severe danger of fire may be present in other regions due to the
combat environment involving the high probability of a projectile strike. Special consideration
should be given to threat induced fire protection with emphasis on the optimum location and
shielding of flammable fluid systems and components to threat characteristics and the data
derived from aeroplane vulnerability studies. (See Part 13, Section 3, Clause 3.9).
3.2 A relocation of equipment could reduce the need for fire precaution due to projectile strike
(See Part 13, Section 3, Clause 3.9).
4 FIRE DETECTION
4.1 If optical detection is used for warning of combat induced fires in dry bays the following
should be considered:
(a) Minimising the effects of contamination of the detector heads by oil, dirt etc.
(b) Locating the detector head and any associated high voltage cables so that a
turbine blade, compressor blade, or disc failure could not result in any malfunctioning of
the fire detection system.
(c) Shielding the optical detector head from spurious stimuli associated with the
aeroplane's operational role.
(d) Ensuring that the polar diagram relevant to the field of view of the detector or its
degradation by the intrusion of components and/or structures within the dry bay will not
result in the inability to detect a fire.
Page 2 of 3
SECTION 4
4.2 QinetiQ (formerly DERA) studies have shown that severe fires can develop in 4-5
seconds and that the optimum time to extinguish a combat fire is within 1-5 ms of its initiation.
Sensors based on detecting ultra violet and/or infra-red radiations emitted from flames have been
developed for use in combat fire protection systems. These detectors can respond to impact
flash, incendiary products and hydrocarbon fires. They also offer rapid response to fire (1-2 ms)
and have a low probability of producing a false warning for a wide range of stimuli.
5 FIRE AND EXPLOSION SUPPRESSION
5.1 EXPLOSION SUPPRESSANT FOAM
5.1.1 If it is decided to use explosion suppression foam to DTD 5627 (Obsolescent) in

fuel tanks consideration should be given to:
(a) Provision of gauze shielding around fuel pumps, level switches, inlet and
outlet ports etc., to prevent malfunction due to fouling by the foam, and to
minimise the difficulties in removing the foam during maintenance.
(b) Filling the tank with foam will depend on the tank geometry and type of
foam used. Where shaped blocks are used it is recommended that the fill be 110%
by volume; for sphere or small cubes a high percentage fill is recommended to
eliminate voids.
(c) Explosion suppressant foam in fuel tanks will attenuate the output signal
from any in tank pressure sensor used to operate suppression systems fitted in
adjacent dry bays. It may be necessary to amplify the output signal to a level
suitable for the fire suppression system.
5.2 Where passive fire suppression foam material to DTD 5624 (Obsolescent) is used in a
congested dry bay area adjacent to fuel tanks, a minimum thickness of 75 mm of foam should be
attached to the outer surface of the fuel tank walls and retained in place to ensure the void is
completely filled and that close contact is maintained between the foam and the tank walls.
5.3 ACTIVE FUEL TANK EXPLOSION SUPPRESSION
5.3.1 Active fuel tank/vent pipe explosion suppression systems rely on the limitation of
oxygen concentration in a fuel-air mixture by dilution with an inert gas for the prevention of
an explosion or the limitation of explosion pressures. The maximum allowable oxygen
concentration in a hydrocarbon fuel-air mixture depends on the total pressure of the
mixture before ignition and on the maximum tolerable pressure rise after ignition.
5.3.2 The in-flow of any inerting agent to the fuel tank or vent-pipe should be such that
the oxygen content in the ullage or vent-pipe is maintained at a value below 9% under all
conditions of flight when the aeroplane is operating in a combat environment. The oxygen
evolution rate is low from a quiescent-. fuel, but increases rapidly with agitation.
5.3.3 The inerting gas (see Clause 4.26) when entering the tank should be free of
harmful amounts of water, corrosive material, and material which contaminates the fuel or
fuel systems. The gas should not adversely affect pumpability and the burning and
electrical characteristics of the fuel.
5.4 The response time of explosion suppression systems from initiation of the explosion to
quenching of burning should be such that a safe pressure in the protected tank or pipe is not
exceeded.
Page 3 of 3
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LEAFLET 88
THE EFFECT OF MACHINING ABUSE ON ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Most aluminium alloys for airframe construction are heat treatable
alloys used in the solution treated and artificially aged condition. The specific
heat treatment given is dependent upon the material composition and the
desired properties. The artificial ageing treatment is normally carried out at
temperatures between 1200 and 200'C and may be optimised to give
balanced properties for strength, stress or exfoliation corrosion resistance etc.
1.2 Incorrect machining operations can result in the generation of local

temperatures of sufficient magnitude to adversely affect the local properties of
the material by negating the beneficial effects of the material's prior heat
treatment.
1.3 The prime causes of machining abuse are tool wear, lack of coolant,
pauses in cutter traverse and inappropriate feeds and speeds.
2 EFFECTS OF MACHINING ABUSE
2.1 Machining abuse takes the local temperature above the ageing
temperature and as the abuse severity increases the material will become
progressively overaged, annealed, solution treated and even surface melted,
with areas of intermediate effects. Deformation of the surface may occur, and
even cracking in very severe cases.
2.2 The strength, fatigue and corrosion resistance may be reduced as the
abuse becomes more severe. These local areas have differing metallurgical
structures and conductivities and are potential sites for electrolytic corrosion
effects, which can be exacerbated by internal residual stresses.
3 DETECTION OF DAMAGE
3.1 Two principle methods for the detection of machining abuse on

aluminium are used.
3.2 USE OF ANODISING PROCESS
3.2.1 As part of a corrosion protection scheme most aluminium

alloys are subjected to chromic or sulphuric acid anodising after
machining. The pre-clean and anodising treatments will reveal areas of
machining abuse by a local change in colour or shade of an otherwise
uniform anodised surface. The effect is easiest to detect on a flat surface.
Page 1 of 2
SECTION 4
3.3 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY TESTING
3.3.1 Machining abuse changes the metallurgical state of the

aluminium alloy and hence its conductivity. A conductivity survey on a
machined part can reveal abused areas. In performing a survey,
particular attention should be paid to pockets, recesses etc, and any
other area there may be reason to suspect.
3.3.2 Local changes in conductivity are more significant than the

actual conductivity obtained.
3.3.3 When performing conductivity testing after machining care

must be taken not to be misled with 'apparent" rather than "real"
conductivity changes.
3.3.4 Apparent changes, but in which the material properties are

unaffected may be the result of material thickness, probe to edge, hole,
or corner distance effects.
4 VULNERABLE AREAS
4.1 Whilst machining abuse can occur anywhere on a component, it is

most likely to occur during operations such as machining of deep pockets. In
such cases, the material thickness remaining at the bottom of the pocket can
be thin and the "heat sink" reduced, thus the formation of "hot spots" can
occur with incorrect practice.
4.2 Similarly, incorrect programming for Numerically Controlled (NC)

machining can cause the cutter to plunge into the work, travel too quickly, or
to dwell too long. This can result in a degradation of the desired material
properties.
5 AVOIDING MACHINING ABUSE
5.1 The probability of machining abuse occurring can be reduced by the

use of optimum settings for feeds, speeds, and tool cutting angles. Optimum
settings and usable tool life can be determined, and NC tapes programmes
can be checked. Further, the delivery of adequate quantities of coolant to the
tool tip should be ensured.
5.2 The careful inspection, using methods such as those described in

Paragraph 3, can establish the absence of machining abuse.
5.3 Regular checking of vulnerable types of components is recommended

to verify that good machining practices are established and maintained.
Page 2 of 2
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 89
BONDING AND SCREENING
BONDING OF CONTROL SURFACES
1 The continuous or regular passage of electric currents through a ball or roller bearing will
cause excessive pitting of the contact surfaces and thus considerably shorten the efficient life of
the bearing apart from increasing the mechanical effort required to overcome the increased friction.
This would mean that any moving surface carrying electricity consuming devices would require the
provision of flexible bonding jumpers across the bearings. However, electrical equipment is not
usually mounted on control surfaces themselves, so that there is no requirement here for bonding
jumpers.
2 It is also known that electrostatic discharges will cause pitting of bearings, but this is a long
term effect and is not fatal. The use of a single bonding jumper would cure this pitting as also
would the use of a graphitic grease. It is considered that the amount of pitting is insufficient to
justify the additional weight involved by bonding across the bearings.
3 A control surface is the part most frequently struck by lightning, and in consequence the
bearings have to carry the discharge currents. This is known to cause considerable pitting of the
bearings such that these can be temporarily locked, but no cases are known of these seizures not
being overcome by the operation of the controls. The conclusion is that the torque required to free
bearings locked by lightning discharge currents would be insignificant. This is more or less
confirmed by assimilated tests in the laboratory.
4 The use of bonding, jumpers across the bearings of control surfaces is therefore not made
a requirement. Further it could not be guaranteed that such jumpers would effect a cure, since
there is no guarantee that the discharge currents would follow the path of the jumper, which path
must of necessity be longer and more tortuous in shape than the bearing itself. Also each and
every bearing would need an associated local jumper.
5 It is however recommended that, subsequent to any lightning strike, control surface

bearings tie examined and any pitted bearings replaced.
Page 1 of 1
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 90
BONDING AND SCREENING
RECOMMENDED LIGHTNING TESTS
Note: This Leaflet has been deleted by JAC paper 1366.
See Def Stan 59-113
Page 1 of 1
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 91
RESISTANCE TO FIRE IN DESIGNATED FIRE ZONES
Note: This leaflet contains information extracted from BS 3G 100 Part 2 Section 3
Subsection 3.13 dated December 1973. It has been generated to retain previous reference
material following some parts of BS 3G 100 being declared obsolescent.
1. SCOPE
This leaflet specifies requirements for all components and equipment (contained in
designated fire zones) designed and constructed to provide a level of fire resistance not less
than a specified minimum. It does not relate to flammability requirements.
2. DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this standard, the following definitions apply:
(a) Designated fire zone. A region of an aircraft designated as such by the aircraft
designer in accordance with appropriate civil or military requirements e.g.: BCAR's,
AvP 970, FAR's, etc.
(b) Standard flame. A flame having a nominal temperature of 1100 °C and the
characteristics specified in Table 1.
(c) Torching flame. A flame, intended to simulate a combustion chamber burn
through, having characteristics appropriate to the type of engine under consideration
(see Table 1).
(d) Resistance to fire. The ability to withstand satisfactorily a given flame for a given
time.
3. GRADES OF RESISTANCE TO FIRE
Components and equipment installed in designated fire zones shall, where necessary,
conform to the requirements selected from the following grades of resistance to fire. The
relevant specification shall state the required grade.
3.1 Fire resistant. Components and equipment to this grade shall be capable of
withstanding for a period of at least 5 minutes the application of heat by a standard flame
without any malfunction that would jeopardise the safety of the aircraft, or failure that would
aggravate an existing hazard.
3.2 Fireproof Components and equipment to this grade shall be capable of withstanding
for a period of at least 15 minutes the application of heat by a standard flame without any
malfunction that would jeopardise the safety of the aircraft, or failure that would aggravate an
existing hazard.
Page 1 of 21
SECTION 4
NOTE. It is appreciated that the term ‘fireproof’ could be ambiguous; discussion is

currently in progress with the aim of agreeing a number of grades of fire-resistance. At the
first revision of this standard, account will be taken of these agreements.
3.3 Torching flame resistant. Components and equipment to this grade shall be capable
of withstanding for a period of at least 2 minutes, the application of heat by a torching flame
without any malfunction that would jeopardise the safety of the aircraft, or failure that would
aggravate an existing hazard.
4. TEST EQUIPMENT
4.1 Standard flame burners. The Type A standard flame shall be produced by one of the
following burners.
(a) 19 mm (0.75 in) nominal diameter nozzle propane* gas burner, similar to that
described in Appendix A and having the characteristics specified in Table 1.
(b) 180 mm (7 in) nominal diameter propane gas burner, similar to that described in
Appendix B and having the characteristics specified in Table 1.
Type B standard flame shall be produced by a 150 mm (6 in) nominal diameter propane gas
burner, similar to that described in Appendix C and having the characteristics specified in
Table 1. This burner produces a flame more severe than that produced by the Type A
standard burners.
NOTE. Other burners demonstrated to have the same characteristics may be permitted
by agreement with the Approving Authority†.
4.2 Torching flame burner. The torching flame shall be produced by a burner possessing
characteristics consistent with a typical combustion chamber burn through in an engine of the
type under consideration with the engine operating under its most critical conditions.
The details of the burner to be employed for a series of tests shall be acceptable to the
Approving Authority. Guidance for the design of suitable burner equipment is given in Table 1
and Appendix D.
Page 2 of 21
SECTION 4
Burner Burner dia. Nominal flame Flame intensity ‡

nominal temperature
Type mm in C kW/m2 CHU/ft2/s
Standard A 19.0 0.75 1100  50 470  20 231

Flame (see
5.1.4)
180 7 1100  50 530  20 26
B 150 6 1100 minimum 630 31 minimum

minimum
Torching flame 18.0 0.70 1725 max § § §
TABLE 1 - BURNER CHARACTERISTICS
4.3 Calibration of standard flame burner. The standard flame burner shall be calibrated
before the start of individual flame tests. To confirm that the burner complies with the
characteristics required by 4.1, it shall be calibrated as described in Appendix E.
5. TESTS
5.1 Test conditions. The following conditions shall apply to all fire resistance and fireproof
tests.
5.1.1 Laboratory conditions. The test shall be conducted in substantially still air
conditions.
5.1.2 Vibration. Unless otherwise stated in the relevant specification, all units shall
be vibrated at an amplitude of 0.4 mm (0.015 in) at the nearest non-resonant
frequency to 50 Hz. Flexible hose assemblies shall be vibrated at an amplitude of ±
1.25 mm (0.05 in) at a nominal frequency of 50 Hz.
5.1.3 Mounting. The component or equipment shall be mounted on a test rig in a

manner that is no less critical than in the aircraft installation, e.g.: in the simulation of
heat sink characteristics, etc.
5.1.4 Use of the standard flame burners. During the fire tests the critical portions of
the component shall be enveloped in the test flame from the appropriate direction.
5.1.4.1 Type A standard flame burners. This type of burner will be the
standard to be normally employed using the following arrangements of burner
or burners.
‡
The values stated here have been determined by using the calorimeter described in Appendix F.
§
The precise characteristics for the torching flame burner relate to fuel flow, nozzle pressure ratio etc. (See
Appendix D).
Page 3 of 21
SECTION 4
Components which present a small area to the test flame, e.g.: small groups
of electrical cables or pipes up to 25 mm (1.0 in) diameter would require the
use of the 19 mm torch as described in 4.1.(1). On some components a
number of 19-mm torches (up to a maximum of 3) can be used and arranged
in a pattern to suit the shape of the component. Components or equipment
presenting a large surface area to the flame would require the use of one 180-
mm burner as described in 4.1 (2).
The nominal axial distance between the burner nozzle and the face of the item
under test shall be as follows:
19-mm burner: 50 mm
180-mm burner: vertical axis 100 mm
horizontal axis: 50 mm
5.1.4.2 Type B standard flame burner. This burner may be used as an

alternative to the Type A burners, but it should be noted that its use imposes
more severe test conditions. The airflow conditions within the fire zone of a
particular installation may require tests using a Type B standard flame burner
only; this requirement shall be stated in the relevant equipment specification.
The nominal axial distance between the burner nozzle and the face of the item
under test shall be 100 mm.
5.2 Test method. Tests to determine resistance of equipment to fire shall be conducted
as follows:
5.2.1 Standard flame tests. To demonstrate compliance with the requirements for
fire resistant and fireproof components and equipment, the item shall, unless
otherwise agreed by the Approving Authority, be subjected to the heating effects of a
standard flame under the following conditions:
(a) for an initial period of one minute whilst being subject to the most critical
operating conditions that are appropriate, e.g.: pressure, temperature, fluid flow,
voltage etc.
(b) and for the remaining period of time (i.e.: 4 minutes for fire resistant, and 14
minutes for fireproof) the critical conditions prevailing in (1) shall be changed to take
account of conditions that would exist on completion of engine fire drill, e.g.: engine
windmilling.
The relevant specification shall state the appropriate operating conditions.
5.2.2 Torching flame test. To demonstrate compliance with the requirements for
torching flame resistance, the components and equipment shall be subjected to the
effects of a torching flame for a period of not less than 2 minutes when mounted and
located in a manner representative of the aircraft installation.
Page 4 of 21
SECTION 4
5.3 Test criteria. On completion of the test the components and equipment shall comply
with the defined grade of resistance to fire. The relevant specification shall state the required
grade of resistance, other relevant test conditions and any other criteria during and after the
test.
6. INFORMATION REQUIRED IN THE RELEVANT SPECIFICATION
When a test for resistance to fire is specified in the relevant specification the following
information shall be stated, as far as applicable:
Relevant
Paragraph
(a) grade of resistance to fire 3

(b) period of time exposed to torching flame 3.3
(c) type, size, number and arrangement of standard flame burners, if applicable 5.1.4
(d) details of special burner, if required 4.1 (Note) or 4.2
(e) vibration requirements, if different from that stated 5.1.2
(f) special mounting conditions, if known 5.1.3 and 5.2.2
(g) critical operating conditions 5.2.1 (a)
(h) post fire drill operating conditions 5.2.1 (b)
(i) required test criteria 5.3
Page 5 of 21
SECTION 4
APPENDIX A
DETAILS OF 19 mm NOMINAL DIAMETER STANDARD FLAME BURNER
A.1 General. Figure 1 gives details of a suitable burner having the characteristics given in
Table 1. It consists of a gas jet and a venturi for inducing the necessary airflow, which can be
adjusted to give the optimum flame (flame temperature and heat intensity values quoted in
Paragraph 4 and Table 1).
A.2 Details of burner. Figure 1 shows only the essential details of the burner assembly. It
comprises a gas injector * , complete with venturi and a No. 25 jet, steel burner tube and
gauze filter, which are made as illustrated in Figure 1.
As received the jet assembly in the body of the gas injector, is normally fitted with fibre
washers. These washers should be removed and new light alloy washers fitted in their place.
These washers must be bedded in carefully on both sides to form gas-tight joints. The jet
must be checked to ensure that it is clean; also that it is firmly tightened in its holder, by
means of the jet-key supplied with the jet.
A.3 Burner installation. The following items will be required for use in conjunction with the
burner assembly:
(a) cylinder of propane gas.
(b) gas pressure regulator.
(c) pressure gauge of suitable range.
(d) copper and flexible tubing, together with the necessary couplings.
Special care must be taken to ensure gas-tight joints in the pipeline.
The gas pressure should be adjusted to 24.0 kPa (gauge) with the torch alight, and with the
air adjusting nut set to give clearly defined blue cones in the flame, with the tips of the cones
almost level with the end of the burner tubes. The best setting is usually that at which the
conical bore in the rear end of the adjusting nut is in line with the tip of the jet (see Figure 1).
During calibration the torch should be used in substantially still air in standard atmospheric
conditions. It should be noted that if the ambient temperature is above the range, the flow of
gas will be greater. Conversely, a lower ambient temperature or higher ambient pressure or
both will result in a reduced flow of gas.
*
The gas injector shown in Figure 1 may be obtained from Amal Ltd, Holdsford Road, Witton, Birmingham 6
(References: gas injector type 354/27). It is comparable to the torch of similar design given in ‘Technical
Memorandum No.Mech.Eng 12’, prepared by Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough (no longer available).
Page 6 of 21
SECTION 4
Failure to obtain a satisfactory flame may be caused by a partly choked jet or filter or by a
leak at the inner washer of the jet holder or between the jet and its sealing in the holder. The
latter condition is usually indicated by a smell of gas, flashing back, or a weak discoloured
flame.
When the torch is satisfactorily adjusted, the air-adjusting nut and end nut shall be locked.
A.4 Setting up the flame. After the burner has been ignited, the flame stabilised and the
torch adjusted, a blue inner cone will extend up to 20 mm from the plane of the nozzle. The
total length of the flame will then be of the order of 200 mm.
The ignited burner shall not be calibrated or used for a test until a warm-up period of at least
5 minutes has elapsed to ensure flame stabilisation.
A.5 Calibration. (See Appendix E)
A.6 Safety precautions. Care is essential in the positioning and use of the gas cylinders.
They should be placed where they will not be subjected to excessive heat. Since, in the
event of leakage, the relatively heavy gas tends to collect at floor level; the area in which the
cylinders are stored should be well ventilated.
Page 7 of 21
SECTION 4
Figure 1 - Details of 19-mm nominal diameter standard flame burner
Page 8 of 21
SECTION 4
APPENDIX B
B.1 General. Figures 2 and 3 show the assembly of a suitable propane gas burner *
having the characteristics specified in Table 1.
NOTE. The remarks in the Foreword relating to the use of millimetre dimensions apply
particularly to Figures 2 and 3.
B.2 Details of the burner. Air and propane gas is supplied to the burner through orifice
chambers and a mixer chamber in the burner base. Burning takes place above the top plate
of the burner grill. Secondary air is admitted to the burner from the cooling orifice chamber
through four 1/8 G tapped holes, to BS EN ISO 228-1&2: 2003, located between the plates of
the burner grill (see Figure 3). This air passes upwards through the 2.6 mm dia. drilled holes
in the top plate and provides for controlling the overall temperature of the flame.
It is important to ensure that the four tapped holes are located directly in line with the centre
row of 3.18 mm copper tubes in each of the four quadrants. (Incorrect location of these
connections will result in an unequal radial distribution of cooling air and will-correspondingly
affect the distribution of the flame temperature.)
Figure 2 shows details of the burner base. When the two 8.80-mm diameter holes in the
burner plug are drilled, care should be taken to ensure that the centre line connecting these
holes will be at right angles to the centre lines connecting the two 7.60-mm diameter holes in
the base. When the former holes are correctly located, the latter holes cannot be seen when
one looks vertically downward into the burner base. This misalignment of holes aids in the
mixing of the gas and air before they ascend to the burner ring.
B.3 Setting up the flame. The recommended starting procedure is as follows. Turn on the
mixing air supply; turn on the gas supply; ignite the mixture at the burner plate. The
secondary air should then rapidly be provided, and the flow of these supplies adjusted to the
appropriate differential pressure drops across the mixing chamber orifices, as listed in Table
2. At these settings, the burner will consume approximately 1.32 m3/h of gas. For the burner
to produce the correct amount of heat, the differential pressures of the gas and mixing air
should be accurately controlled. A slight readjustment of the secondary air differential
pressure may, however, be necessary to provide the proper temperature.
In order that heating conditions may be stabilised the apparatus should be allowed to run for
at least 1 minute before commencing the test.
*
The burner shown in Figures 2 and 3 is that specified in United States specification MIL-W-20538B (Inactive),
and SAE 410, but uprated in accordance with the above.
Page 9 of 21
SECTION 4
Chamber orifice kPa
gas mixing 0.8

air mixing 5.2
secondary air 3.0
TABLE 2 - CHAMBER ORIFICE DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE DROP

FOR 180 MM BURNER
B.4 Calibration (see Appendix E)
B.5 Safety precautions. When shutting down it is essential to turn off the gas before
stopping the mixing air. Care is essential in the positioning and use of the gas cylinders.
They should be placed where they will not be subjected to excessive heat. Since, in the
event of leakage, the relatively heavy gas tends to collect at floor level; the area in which the
cylinders are stored should be well ventilated.
Page 10 of 21
SECTION 4
Figure 2 - Details of 180 mm nominal diameter (SAE) standard flame burner
Page 11 of 21
SECTION 4
Figure 3 - Enlarged detail of upper and lower plates showing interconnecting ports
Page 12 of 21
SECTION 4
APPENDIX C
C.1 General. Figure 4 shows a suitable propane gas burner  having the characteristics
specified in Table 1.
C.2 Details of burner. Air supplied to the burner through an inlet duct in the burner outer
jacket, passes downwards between the outer jacket and the inner tube, and is thereby
injected into the inner tube through four 25 mm (1 in) holes in the inner tube base plate.
The gas inlet pipe is connected to the gas nozzle through a banjo fitting. The upper end of
the gas nozzle terminates in a long metering jet 12.5 mm (0.5 in) long drilled with a 4.8 mm
(0.188 in) dia. hole. The metering jet is protected from debris by a mushroom shaped guard
mounted on supports on the inner tube base plate. The air and gas are mixed at the bottom
of the inner tube, through which they are fed to the burner nozzle.
A flame holder is fitted in the burner tube. This flame holder comprises a steel disc, 152 mm
(6 in) diameter and 50 mm (2 in) deep, drilled with 217 holes 6.35 mm (0.25 in) diameter.
The upper face of the flame holder is 100 mm (4 in) below the upper end of the burner
nozzle.
A pilot flame maybe used for ignition purposes.
Air total head is measured by a pitot tube in the air stream below the inner tube base plate,
and gas pressure is tapped by a 6 mm (0.25 in) bore connection inserted in the wall of the
gas inlet pipe. The tappings are coupled to suitable flow meters through fire resistant
connections.
Liquids, which may collect in the burner, can be drained through a pipe whether the burner is
in the vertical or the horizontal position. The burner is supported so that it can be set to any
desired angle in one plane by remote control.
C.3 Burner installation. Airflow, regulated by an inlet throttle plate, is delivered by a

centrifugal compressor. Four cylinders supply propane gas at a gauge pressure of 23 kPa,
which is maintained by a reducing valve to ensure uniform feed.
C.4 Setting up the flame. The recommended starting procedure is to ignite the pilot flame
and then introduce the air supply at low throttle setting. Gas should then be supplied at
maximum flow and the rich mixture ignited. Immediately combustion is established the air
throttle should be opened to the maximum setting.
In order that heating conditions may be stabilised, the apparatus should be allowed to burn
for at least 3 minutes before the test.

The torch shown in Figure 4 has been developed by Messrs Rolls Royce (I 97 1) Ltd. Derby Engine Division, Derby, from whom further
details may be obtained.
Page 13 of 21
SECTION 4
The air consumption of the burner, when operating at a differential pressure of 187 Pa at
entry, should be approximately 112 m3 /h measured at NTP.
The gas pressure shall be adjusted to 23.0 kPa for a consumption of approximately 7.25
m3/h in order to produce the required heat output.
C.5 Calibration (see Appendix E).
C.6 Safety precautions. When shutting down it is essential to turn the gas off before
stopping the airflow.
Care is essential in the positioning and use of the gas cylinders. They should be placed
where they will not be subjected to excessive heat. Since, in the event of leakage, the
relatively heavy gas tends to collect at floor level; the area in which the cylinders are stored
should be well ventilated.
Page 14 of 21
SECTION 4
Figure 4 - Schematic diagram of 150-mm nominal diameter standard flame burner
Page 15 of 21
SECTION 4
APPENDIX D
GUIDANCE ON THE DESIGN AND USE OF TORCHING FLAME BURNER
A flame breakout from the combustion section of an engine could be a serious hazard to an
installation. An incident of this nature can produce a very intense torching flame with
characteristics approaching the full combustion chamber pressure and temperature within
the engine.
When assessing the potential hazard of the test flame, or the suitability of protective barriers,
the mass flow from a burn-through at the combustion chamber temperature is extremely
important, since it directly influences both erosion and oxidisation.
The simulated torching flame should therefore possess the characteristics appropriate to the
engine under consideration.
To obtain the realistic torching flame characteristics of flame temperature, pressure and heat
flow, it is considered that an aviation fuel/air burner should be utilised. A typical test rig layout
is illustrated in Figure 5. The burn-through nozzle should be not less than 18-mm diameter.
For current jet engines, the torching flame would have a temperature of 1725 °C maximum
with a pressure ratio up to 25:1
Page 16 of 21
SECTION 4
Figure 5 - Diagram of typical torching flame test rig
Page 17 of 21
SECTION 4
APPENDIX E
CALIBRATION PROCEDURE FOR STANDARD FLAME BURNERS
E.1 Operation and temperature measurement. The standard flame burners described in
Appendices A, B and C should be calibrated prior to each test. The burners should be ignited
in accordance with the recommended procedure and the air and gas supplies adjusted to the
specified values. The burners should be run for the prescribed warm up period to allow the
flame temperatures to stabilise. Flame temperatures should be measured at the centre of the
test flame and at the appropriate axial distance from the burner (see 5.1.4) with a 1 mm
diameter (19 S.W.G.) Ni - Cr/Ni - Al thermocouple as shown in Figure 6. Minor adjustment to
the airflow may be necessary to set the flame temperature at the required level (1100 ±50
C).
E.2 Flame intensity measurements. When new burners are manufactured, it is

recommended that they be subjected to a flame intensity check. This test is to ensure that
each burner produces a flame which is within the specified limits, and can be carried out by
using the flame intensity calorimeter described in Appendix F. Other means of checking the
flame intensity are permissible, provided that the test device has been calibrated against the
calorimeter described in Appendix F*. Once a burner has been checked in this manner,
temperature calibration prior to each working test is sufficient. If the required temperature is
not obtained with the specified air and gas settings, the burner should be stripped and
examined. Additional flame intensity calibrations should be carried out as and when required.
Although alternative types of burners may be approved by the Approving Authority, the test
flames will be required to conform to the minimum flame intensity limits given in 4.2 (see
Table 1).
Figure 6 - Enlarged detail of Ni-Cr/Ni-Al thermocouple
Page 18 of 21
SECTION 4
APPENDIX F
DETAILS OF CALORIMETER AND CALCULATION OF FLAME INTENSITY
F.1 Calorimeter. The principal features of the calorimeter shown in Figure 7  for
determining flame intensity are a spiral coil of stainless steel hypodermic tubing through
which passes a high-velocity water flow and two sheathed chrome/alumel thermocouples,
connected ‘back-to-back’, located close to the tube inlet and outlet. The thermocouples
measure the water temperature difference, and the resulting e.m.f. is registered on a pen
recorder.
A vessel pressurised by a 700 kPa (gauge) mains airline, through a regulator and filter,
supplies distilled water to the hypodermic tube. Water flow through the tube varies with air
pressure as determined by the air regulator, and can thus be kept stable throughout a test.
Water flow is measured accurately by means of a 0.4 mm (0.16 in) orifice plate downstream
of the calorimeter spiral tube. The orifice is calibrated for flow versus pressure drop and
provides corresponding flow indications through an electrical read out system comprising a
pressure transducer and a pen recorder.
A platinum/platinum rhodium thermocouple attached to the spiral tube is used for measuring
the flame temperature.
To ensure that heat leakage from the barrel of the calorimeter does not effect the
thermocouples used for sensing the water temperature, a water-cooled jacket is fitted. The
jacket is supplied from the domestic water main and provided with a baffle to ensure efficient
circulation.
F.2 Calculation of flame intensity or heat transfer values. Heat transfer values are
obtained from readings of water temperature difference and water flow rate by means of the
following derived relationship:
Q
R
 T  Ti 
C o
where
Q = heat transfer rate (kW/m2)

R = calorimeter water flow rate (1/h)
T o = water outlet temperature (C)
T i = water inlet temperature (C)
C = a constant, of value 0.3992, which includes the specific heat of water and the area of the
calorimeter spiral tube exposed to the flame.
It should be noted that the calorimeter does not allow the determination of absolute intensity
but does provide a method of comparison between burners.

The calorimeter shown in Figure 7 has been developed by Messrs Rolls Royce (1971) Ltd, Derby Engine
Division, Derby, from whom further details may be obtained.
Page 19 of 21
SECTION 4
Figure 7 - Flame intensity calorimeter
Page 20 of 21
SECTION 4
APPENDIX G
CONVERSION TABLES
The following conversion tables, (Tables 3 and 4 below), are provided for the assistance of
readers of this leaflet. More exact conversion may be effected by referring to BS 350.
kPa (kN/m2 mbar mmHg mmH 2 0 lbf/in2 inH 2 0 inHg
23.0 230 173 - 3.25 - 6.8

24.0 240 180 - 3.48 - 7.1
700 7000 - - 100 -
0.19 1.9 - 19 - 0.75 -

0.8 8 - 81.5 - 3.2 -
3.0 30 - 305 - 12.0 -
5.2 52 - 535 - 21.0 -
TABLE 3 - PRESSURE CONVERSIONS
m3/h ft3/h
112 3960
7.25 256
1.32 46.6
TABLE 4 - FLOW RATE CONVERSIONS
Page 21 of 21
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 92
EXPLOSION-PROOFNESS
Note: This leaflet contains information extracted from BS 3G 100 Part 2 Section 3
Subsection 3.5 dated June 1972. It has been generated to retain previous reference material
following some parts of BS 3G 100 being declared obsolescent.
1. SCOPE
1.1 This leaflet specifies design require merits for aircraft equipment that may come in
contact with flammable fluids and vapours. It also specifies test requirements to demonstrate
that the equipment meets these requirements.
1.2 The leaflet does not relate to potentially dangerous environments occurring as a
result of leakage from goods carried on board by passengers or as part of their baggage, or
cargo which may be the subject of separate regulations.
1.3 The leaflet refers to normal and fault conditions occurring in categories of equipment
in five types of environment.
2. DEFINITIONS AND TERMS
For the purposes of this leaflet the following apply:
2.1 Explosion proof: Equipment is explosion proof when there is negligible risk that it will
cause an explosion of a flammable gas or vapour within the declared environment.
2.2 Enclosure: A box or casing, including any ducting, which is part of the equipment and
not an aircraft compartment.
2.3 Intrinsically safe: Equipment is intrinsically safe when any spark or thermal effect
produced normally (e.g.: by making or breaking a circuit) or accidentally (e.g.: by a short
circuit or earth fault) is incapable, under prescribed test conditions, of causing ignition or a
prescribed gas or vapour.
3. EQUIPMENT DESIGN
3.1 Equipment design and construction: Equipment that may come into contact with
flammable fluids or vapours and which:
(a) in normal operation * may produce arcs, sparks or hot surfaces, shall be so
designed, having regard to its likely manner of installation, as to be explosion proof,
(b) under fault conditions* may produce arcs, electrical sparks, friction sparks or hot
surfaces, shall be so designed and installed as to reduce to an acceptable minimum
the overall risk of a fault occurring such as to ignite the flammable vapours.
3.2
Integrity of protection: The required degree of protection under any condition of operation
shall be achieved by means that are not dangerously affected by wear of the equipment and
are not unduly dependent upon dimensional tolerances or accuracy of assembly.
*
The risk of explosion occurring under normal and fault conditions is referred to in paragraph 4.
Page 1 of 13
SECTION 4
NOTE. Appendix A gives recommendations for the installation of wiring and connections, and
the ventilation of equipment in areas that may be contaminated with flammable vapours.
4. CATEGORIES OF EQUIPMENT AND ENCLOSURE FOR VARIOUS

ENVIRONMENTS
4.1 General. This paragraph details the basic requirements for explosion-proof
equipment, discusses the risk of explosion in different environments and provides for various
categories of enclosure (see Table 1).
4.2 Environments. The five environments recognised by this standard are as follows:
(a) Environment I. An atmosphere in a space in which uncovered flammable

fluids or vapours exist, or can exist either continuously or intermittently by intention;
e.g.: in fuel tanks or within fuel systems.
(b) Environment IIa. An atmosphere in which flammable mixtures can be

expected to occur only as a result of spillage or leakage, and where an explosive
environment is likely to occur at a rate greater than one hour per hundred thousand
flying hours; e.g.: in the vicinity of fuel systems.
(c) Environment IIb. An atmosphere in which flammable mixtures can be

expected to occur as a result of spillage or leakage, and when an explosive
environment is likely to occur at a rate less than one hour per hundred thousand flying
hours; e.g.: where the use of flammable fluids is limited and well contained.
(d) Environment III. An atmosphere where the probability of flammable mixtures

arising from aircraft systems is sufficiently low to be disregarded; e.g.: within passenger
cabins and well ventilated areas not containing flammable fluids.
(e) Environment IV. An atmosphere within a designated fire zone.
4.3. Categories. The various categories of enclosure shall be as detailed in Table 1.
5. EXPLOSION-PROOFNESS REQUIREMENTS
The requirements for explosion proof equipment or enclosures shall be as follows:
5.1 Environment I. The equipment shall he either contained in an enclosure to the

standard of explosion-proof Categories AI, BI or D listed in Table 1 or shall meet the
intrinsically safe Category ISA requirements of BS EN 50014, 50018, 50020, 60079-7 and
BS 5501-9, 6941, as applicable . It should not be possible for any fault to:
(a) adversely affect the integrity of the enclosure, or
(b) raise the temperature of any external surface to a level capable of causing

ignition .
5.2 Environment IIa. The equipment shall be either contained in an enclosure to the
standard of any one of the explosion-proof categories listed in Table 1 or shall meet the
intrinsically safe Category ISA or ISB requirements of BS EN 50014, 50018, 50020, 60079-7
and BS 5501-9, 6941, as applicable. It should not be possible for any fault to:

Guidance information and the characteristics of various fluids will be given in a British Standard Specification
currently being prepared.
Page 2 of 13
SECTION 4
(a) adversely affecting the integrity of the enclosure, or
ignition*.
5.3 Environment IIb: The equipment shall be either contained in an enclosure to the
standard of any one of the explosion-proof categories listed in Table 1 or shall meet the
intrinsically safe Category ISA or ISB requirements of BS EN 50014, 50018, 50020, 60079-7
and BS 5501-9, 6941, as applicable). There shall be a low probability of any fault:
(a) adversely affecting the integrity of the enclosure, or
ignition.
5.4 Environment III. There are no requirements for equipment to be explosion proof under
normal or fault conditions.
5.5 Environment IV. Equipment that may spark under normal conditions shall be enclosed
to the standard of any one of the categories of explosion-proofness listed in Table 1 or be
intrinsically safe to Category ISA or ISB of BS EN 50014, 50018, 50020, 60079-7 and BS
5501-9, 6941, as applicable).
There are no additional requirements for equipment to be explosion-proof under normal or

fault conditions.
5.6 Alternative requirements: When individually specified, alternative requirements may

be acceptable for items of equipment which, because of their construction or environment, do
not fall within any of the other categories of explosion- proofness given in Table 1. In this
instance, Category X requirements (see 6.4.5) shall be complied with, in order that the
probability of an explosion is reduced to an acceptable low level.
6. TESTS
6.1 General requirements: Table 1 gives details of the basic requirements in relation to
the explosion hazards. In order to be assured that equipment will fulfil these requirements
one or more of the following types of tests are required to determine:
(a) gas tightness,
(b) strength,
(c) intrinsic incendivity of the equipment (without its enclosure),
(d) the probability that an explosion in the enclosure will produce incendive
flames outside it,
(e) intrinsic safety.
The applicability of these tests for the various categories is given in 6.4.
The effects of environmental temperatures shall be taken into account when specifying the
appropriate test conditions particularly in relation to intrinsically safe equipment (see 6.4.4).
Page 3 of 13
SECTION 4
6.2 Test specimens: The selection of test specimens shall take account of manufacturing
variations and the effects of ageing or wear (e.g.: of bearings, commutators or contacts) in so
far as these may affect the explosion-proof properties of the equipment.
6.3 Test mixtures. Unless otherwise stated in the relevant specification the test mixtures
used in the following tests shall be in accordance with Table 3.
6.4 Acceptance tests: Tests for the acceptance of equipment to the requirements of this
leaflet shall be conducted on test specimens in accordance with the requirements of Table 1
and the following sub- paragraphs relevant to the appropriate category of enclosure.
6.4.1 Category A enclosures. Equipment having Category A enclosures shall be

tested for gas tightness and strength as follows.
6.4.1.1 Gas tightness. The enclosure shall be accepted as being sufficiently

gas tight if it withstands an approved method of test for hermetically scaled
equipment using the pressure conditions given in Table 1.
6.4.1.2 Strength test: The strength of the enclosure shall be accepted as

sufficient if it is shown to be so by calculation, by a pressure test or by an
appropriate internal explosion test.
6.4.2 Category B enclosures. Equipment having Category B enclosures shall be

tested for gas tightness and strength as follows.
6.4.2.1 Gas tightness. A series of tests with the venting system attached
shall be made to determine the maximum pressure attained, when an internal
explosion is created by using a charge of Test Mixture No.1 inside the
enclosure. The equipment shall then be tested for gas tightness using a
suitable test that may be specified by the relevant equipment specification.
6.4.2.2 Strength test. The strength of the enclosure shall be accepted as

sufficient if it is shown to be so by calculation, by a pressure test or by an
appropriate internal explosion test as specified in Table 1.
NOTE: Equipment with Category B enclosures are only acceptable for use with
the types of ducting with which they have been tested.
6.4.3 Category C and D enclosures: Equipment having Category C and D

enclosures shall be tested for strength by filling with, and surrounding in, Test Mixture
No.2. The mixture within the enclosure shall be exploded.
The enclosure shall be acceptable if ten repetitions of this test procedure produce no
explosion in the ambient atmosphere and no permanent distortion of the flange gap or
hole dimensions beyond the limits specified in Table 2.
NOTE: When flame traps are fitted to the enclosure, and evidence is available to
confirm that the performance of these flame traps is equivalent to the protection given
by the flange gap and hole dimensions specified in Table 2, the equipment may be
acceptable as being Category C. The preferred test apparatus for this test is
described in 6.5.1.
Page 4 of 13
SECTION 4
6.4.4 Intrinsically safe equipment. Tests shall be conducted in accordance with

BS EN 50014, 50018, 50020, 60079-7 and BS 5501-9, 6941, as applicable).
Confirmation that the standard of intrinsic safety has been met shall be obtained from
an appropriate specialist test establishment acceptable to the approving authority‡.
6.4.5 Category X enclosures: This category comprises all equipment for which the
requirements of the foregoing categories cannot be met. In these cases acceptability,
or otherwise, can only be decided by taking into account the following factors:
(a) the intended environment (as enumerated in paragraph 4),
(b) the number of items to be installed,
(c) the frequency of operation of each item,
(d) the probability (hours/flying hour) of explosive conditions within any enclosure
supplied as part of the equipment,
(e) the frequency with which the equipment produces incendive sparks,
(f) the probability that an explosion in the enclosure will produce incendive
flames outside it.
The factors (a), (b) and (c) will normally be determined by the application, whereas
factors (d), (e) and (f) will generally have to be determined by tests in explosive
atmospheres. The amount of such testing required to establish acceptability may vary
from a few tens of hours testing to, in extreme cases, thousands of hours testing.
Considerations that may have a large effect on the amount of testing (factors (a), (b)
and (c) having been determined) are first the test mixture used and secondly how
many of the factors (d), (e) and (f) are available for separate assessment.
When it is proposed to demonstrate the suitability of Category X equipment by test,
then unless otherwise agreed by the approving authority, the factor P, calculated by
the numerical procedure given in Appendix B, shall not be greater than 10-10
6.5 Test equipment and test procedures:
6.5.1 Equipment. The preferred test equipment, in which the test mixture is
continuously replenished through flow meters, is shown in Figure 1.
6.5.2 Conditions. Unless otherwise specified the tests shall be made at normal
temperature and pressure.
6.5.3 Procedure. During all explosion tests the equipment shall be set up in the
chamber with its enclosure connected to the inlet of the charging blower. The
charging blower shall be run for long enough to fill the enclosure with the test mixture.
The test mixture in the enclosure shall then be exploded by sparks arranged to occur
near the position or positions where ignition is likely to be initiated in normal use.
Means shall be provided to verify the occurrence of an internal explosion.
Between tests the charging blower shall run for a time long enough to scavenge the
enclosure and recharge it with pure mixture.
The enclosure will be considered satisfactory if no explosion is produced in the
chamber, and for Categories C and D if following the tests the clearances or
diameters of the flanged gaps or holes do not exceed those given in Table 2.
Any attachments to the enclosure for test purposes shall not significantly affect the
explosion development in the test volume.
Page 5 of 13
SECTION 4
7. INFORMATION TO BE STATED IN THE RELEVANT

SPECIFICATION
7.1 When explosion proofness is a requirement in the relevant equipment specification

the following information shall be stated, as far as is applicable.
Relevant paragraph
(a) The required category of the 4.3
enclosure (e.g.: Category A3)
(b) The environment in which the 4.2

equipment will be operating
(e.g.: Environment IIb)
(c) Special environment conditions 6.1
(d) Special test mixture for Category Appendix B

X test, if required, and the
corresponding factor M
(e) Special pressure test details for 6.4.2.1

Category B enclosure, if required
Page 6 of 13
SECTION 4
Suitability of enclosure
Type of explosion proof enclosure Explosion Requirements For equipment that For For For For For
surrounding the unit proof may contain environ. environ. environ. environ. environ
category flammable fluids I IIa IIb III .IV
of that may leak into
enclosure the enclosure
Metal enclosures sealed to an acceptable A.1 Shall be sufficiently gas tight and sufficiently strong Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
standard such as by soldering, brazing or to withstand without leakage or damage a differential * * * * *
welding, or possible enclosures made from pressure of either seven times the normal absolute
materials having similar dimensional pressure inside the enclosure plus 1 atm or 8 atm,
stability and sealing (or a unit made up of a whichever is the greater.
number of such enclosures).
Sealed enclosures irrespective of types of A.2 Shall be sufficiently strong and sufficiently gas tight No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
construction. to withstand without leakage or damage a differential
pressure inside the enclosure of 93 kN/m2 (700
mmHg).
Enclosure sealed by means other than A.3 As for A.1 Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
those under category A.1
Metal enclosures, or other possible B.1 With a duct system attached the enclosure shall be Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
materials having similar dimensional sufficiently gas tight and sufficiently strong to
stability, containing units, singly or grouped withstand without leakage or damage the maximum
and vented overboard by a system of ducts pressure attained when by an internal explosion
sealed to an acceptable standard with using a charge of Test Mixture No. 1 described in
respect to the aircraft by means such as Table 3 at the normal absolute pressure inside the
soldering, brazing or welding. enclosure with the minimum pressure outside.
Enclosure, vented overboard by a system B.2 With the duct system attached the enclosure shall be No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
of ducts sealed with respect to the aircraft sufficiently gas tight and sufficiently strong to
by means other than those acceptable withstand, without leakage or damage, 1.25 x the
under category B.1. normal maximum pressure differential encountered
in Service or a pressure differential of 1 atm,
whichever is the greater.
B.3 As for B.1. Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
TABLE 1 - BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR EXPLOSION-PROOF EQUIPMENT

* For these environments, not containing flammable fluids, equipment that satisfies approved hermetic sealing tests is suitable.
Page 7 of 13
SECTION 4
Suitability of enclosure
Type of explosion proof enclosure Explosion Requirements For equipment that For For For For For
surrounding the unit proof may contain environ. environ. environ. environ. environ
category of flammable fluids that I IIa IIb III .IV
enclosure may leak into the
enclosure
An enclosure with holes or with flanged C Shall be sufficiently strong to withstand internal No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
joints made from metal, or materials explosions using a charge of Test Mixture No.2
having similar dimensional stability and described in Table 3.
having the dimensions specified in Table
2.
Enclosures containing equipment that D As for C. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
does not normally produce sparks, with
holes or with flanged joints made from
metal, or materials having similar
dimensional stability, and having the
dimensions specified in Table 2.
(See 6.4.4) ‘Intrinsically (See 6.4.4) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
safe’
equipment to
category
ISA.
(See 6.4.4) ‘Intrinsically (See 6.4.4) No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
safe’
equipment to
category
ISB.
Enclosure or construction of a type to be X (See 6.4.5) No No As agreed with the appropriate approving
agreed with the appropriate approving authority
authority where an assessment is based
upon the factors given in 6.4.5.
TABLE 1 - continued
Page 8 of 13
SECTION 4
Breadth of flanged gap or length of

hole between environment and
enclosure
3 to 6 6 to 12.5 >12.5
Flange gap  0.15  0.25  0.38
Hole diameter  0.22  0.38  0.57
TABLE 2 - ACCEPTABLE FLANGE AND HOLE DIMENSIONS FOR ENCLOSURE, CATEGORIES

C AND D
All dimensions in mm
Test mixture Composition Remarks

No.1 A mixture of air and propane vapour, Represents fuel mixtures that could
96% and 4% respectively, by volume occur under Service conditions.
No.2 5.7% propane vapour  More powerful than Mixture No. 1.
9.0% oxygen  by Used mainly for strength tests.
85.3% air  volume


TABLE 3 - COMPOSITION OF TEST MIXTURES
Page 9 of 13
SECTION 4
Figure 1 - Apparatus for testing in explosive atmospheres
Page 10 of 13
SECTION 4
APPENDIX A
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INSTALLATIONS IN AREAS WHERE AN EXPLOSION

HAZARD MAY ARISE
A.1. General: Pending the inclusion of requirements in an appropriate publication, the

following recommendations are made for the guidance of aircraft constructors and operators
when installing electrical wiring and electrical connections and ventilated equipment in zones
that may be contaminated with flammable vapours.
A.2. Ventilated equipment: In designing the air supply system for forced ventilated
equipment, account should be taken of the possibility of contamination of the air by
flammable vapours. If the equipment and its ducting, including joints, are in an area that can
be so contaminated they should be capable of meeting the conditions appropriate to the
environment.
A.3. Electrical wiring and connections: Electrical wiring and electrical connections situated
in zones that may be contaminated by flammable vapours should be so designed and
installed that the risk of causing a fire or explosion is reduced to an acceptable minimum,
taking account of normal and fault conditions.
A.3.1. Wiring and connections within Environment I (see 4.2 (1)) should either be
carrying currents and at voltages that are incapable of igniting flammable vapours,
i.e.: meet the requirements outlined in 6.4.4 (for intrinsic safety), or they should be
so isolated, e.g.: by conduits and sealed covers, that even under fault conditions
they are incapable of igniting the vapours present.
A.3.2. Wiring and connections within Environment IIa (see 4.2 (2)) should meet the
requirements of A3.1 or should be limited to those necessary for the operation of the
equipment in that zone, and the connections should be adequately locked. Electrical
cables should preferably be carried in insulated ducts or conduits, and should be so
supported that there is no possibility of chafing between cables or of short circuits or
earths.
A.3.3. The number of electrical connections in Environment IIb (see 4.2 (3)) zones
should be kept to a minimum and the cables adequately protected, e.g.: by insulated
ducts, etc. The possibility of short circuits or earths should be reduced to a
minimum.
Page 11 of 13
SECTION 4
APPENDIX B
NUMERICAL PROCEDURE FOR CATEGORY X ENCLOSURES
B.1. The factor P, referred to in 6.4.5, should be the enclosure expressed as a fraction of
an hour calculated from the following expression:
P=E x N x F x M x P 1 x P 2 x P 3 ,
where E is the environmental factor,

e.g.: 10-3 for environment II a,
10-5 for Environment II b,
Zero for Environment III (i.e.: no need to test),
10-1 for Environment IV
N is the number of Category X items fitted per aircraft;

F is the fraction of an hour per flying hour during which the equipment is operated;
M is a factor dependent upon the test mixture used. Test Mixture No.1 would normally
be used and factor M would then be unity. Other test mixtures may be used provided
evidence of the appropriate factor to use is available;
P 1 is the probability of explosive conditions in the enclosure expressed as a fraction
of an hour per flying hour;
P 2 is the probability of the occurrence of an incendive spark in the equipment;
P 3 is the probability that an explosion inside the enclosure will produce incendive
flames outside.
B.2. Unless otherwise agreed with the approving authority, P 1 should be taken as unity
and the following procedure should be used to determine the number of hours testing to
establish P 2 and also the number of internal explosions necessary to establish P 3 .
If T is the number of hours testing of continuously operating equipment for the incendivity of
any sparks produced and S is the number of explosion trapping tests conducted, then
1 1
P2  x K and P3  x K,
T S
where K is the factor related to confidence level depending upon the number of explosions
that occur during repeated tests calculated indirectly from the expression
KY K Y 1 K Y 2 
Q  1    ..... ,
 Y ! Y  1 ! Y  2 ! 
Q being the desired confidence level and Y the number of chamber explosions that occur
throughout the repeated tests. For convenience, values of K to a 95% confidence level are
given below in the range Y = 0 to Y = 3, but values for greater numbers of explosions may be
obtained by tabulating K in whole numbers and calculating and plotting the confidence level
for Y = 4, Y = 5, etc. in turn and subsequently finding by interpolation the value of K for which
Q = 0.95 in each case.
Page 12 of 13
SECTION 4
Number of chamber explosions Y that

K
occur during T hours or S tests
0 3.0
1 4.8
2 6.4
3 8.7
Since the factor P depends upon the product P 2 , P 3 , the minimum testing time will be
required if the times spent on ‘T’ and ‘S’ tests are approximately equal.
1 1
If either or is less than 10, the method of assessment ceases to be valid and the item
P2 P3
is not acceptable under Category X.
Page 13 of 13
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 93
EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTION
Note: This leaflet contains information extracted from BS 3G 100 Part 2 Section 1 dated
November 1973. It has been generated to retain previous reference material following some
parts of BS 3G 100 being declared obsolescent.
1. SCOPE
1.1 This leaflet specifies mechanical construction requirements relating to all types of
equipment intended to be installed in aircraft.
2. CONSTRUCTION
2.1 All equipment should be designed for minimum mass and bulk consistent with
reliability and maintainability.
2.2 If equipment has a mass greater than 25 kg, or is of large, irregular shape, provision
should be made for handles or slinging points.
2.3 The equipment shall be suitable for its purpose as defined in the manufacturer’s
declaration, and capable of withstanding normal conditions of storage and handling.
Limitations affecting handling of the equipment shall be stated in the drawings, manuals and
other appropriate documents. Delicate equipment shall be labelled ‘FRAGILE’.
2.4 Equipment fitted into racks or on to other equipment shall be designed to prevent
incorrect assembly. The design and layout of electrical or mechanical connections shall be
such as to prevent incorrect assembly. If detachable connections are provided for
components in fluid systems, appropriate markings shall be applied adjacent to such
connectors to indicate the direction of flow and limitations of pressure.
2.5 The design of equipment shall take into account the need for testing. When
appropriate, testing facilities, service points and connections should be arranged so that they
can be made without disturbing either the equipment or its connections from their normal
positions in the aircraft. The need for special to type test equipment or tools shall be kept to a
minimum.
2.6 Equipment shall be designed for the use of Unified threads complying with the
requirements of BS 1580 or BS A 346, or ISO metric threads complying with the
requirements of BS 3643 * , unless the design requirements render other thread forms
essential.
The types of thread form employed shall be declared.
3. MATERIAL
3.1 All materials shall comply with the requirements of the appropriate British Standards
or other specifications acceptable to the Approving Authority. Such materials shall be
capable of maintaining their essential properties in service and storage.
3.2 All materials shall, when practicable, be either resistant to corrosion or so treated as
to resist chemical corrosion.
*
The preparation of a BSI publication listing the preferred restricted range of ISO metric threads selected from
BS 3643 for aerospace fasteners is currently under consideration.
Page 1 of 3
SECTION 4
Dissimilar metals in contact or juxtaposition shall be protected against electrolytic corrosion

in an adequate manner. These requirements may be modified in specifications for
hermetically sealed equipment.
NOTE. A BSI publication 'Notes on corrosion at bimetallic contacts is currently in course
of preparation.
3.3 Solid materials shall be of low flammability and be self-extinguishing.

NOTE: Tests to determine flammability are stated in British Standard BS 6F 100 and ARB
Specification No. 8 (Issue 2), which is available from the Civil Aviation Authority,
Airworthiness Division, Redhill, Surrey.
Individual equipment specifications may specify special flammability tests.
3.4 Equipment to be installed in crew or passenger cabins, or in an air supply to a cabin,

shall be so designed, by the selection of materials or the manner of its enclosure, that under
any conditions of overheating possible within the limits of its associated protective
equipment, the following requirements are met:
(a) no harmful concentrations of toxic products shall result;
(b) any noxious emanation (e.g.: smoke) shall be so small that it could not
dangerously embarrass the operation of the aircraft.
The aircraft designer shall specify which equipment is to comply with this requirement.
4. MOUNTING AND FASTENING
4.1 Methods of mounting and parts used in fastenings shall comply with the requirements
of the appropriate British Standards wherever practicable.
4.2 All fasteners shall be securely locked to prevent movement under vibration.
Mechanical means shall be used, as far as possible, to secure all pins, screws, nuts, etc,
against working loose under vibration, and they shall not unduly abrade the surface or
produce loose pieces of material.
4.3 If parts of units are liable to be removed for maintenance and inspection purposes,
they shall be provided with locking devices and means for preventing the loss of the fastener
and the locking device from the parts removed. Suitable features shall be incorporated to
prevent incorrect re-assembly of such parts.
4.4 Parts liable to be disturbed during servicing shall be durable, e.g.: metal inserts
should be used for small tapped holes in plastic materials.
5. PROTECTION AGAINST MECHANICAL DAMAGE AND DETERIORATION
5.1 Internal components shall be fixed in such a manner that any distortion by
connection, mounting or operation does not affect the performance of the equipment.
5.2 Essential protective covers shall not restrict access to mounting bolts or external
connections.
6. CONTAMINATION
6.1 Precautions should be taken in the design of the equipment to minimise the possibility
of failure being caused by condensation or the ingress of foreign matter, e.g.: fluids, vapours
and dust, etc, which may be encountered in service.
Page 2 of 3
SECTION 4
7. PRESSURE DEVICES
7.1 Pressure indicators and other devices using pressure sensitive elements mounted in
the crew compartment shall be vented so that failure due to an overload of pressure does not
cause breakage of the case or displacement of the cover glass. The vent shall be such as to
exclude foreign matter likely to affect the operation of the device.
7.2 Devices directly connected to pressure systems. E.g. pressure switches, shall be
designed so that the system does not leak if the device fails.
8. PERMISSIBLE TEMPERATURE RISE
8.1 The temperatures attained by any part shall be lower than that at which any
deterioration is liable to affect adversely the declared life of the equipment or its
performance.
8.2 The temperature of any component part of equipment, which may normally be
accessible to, or inadvertently touched by, occupants of the aircraft under operating
conditions, shall not exceed 70 °C at maximum ambient temperature.
8.3 The temperature rise of any part which is necessarily handled and which is made
from, or covered with, material which is a poor thermal conductor, shall not exceed 20 °C. If
such a part is made from a material which is a good thermal conductor the temperature rise
shall not exceed 10 °C.
9. MICROWAVE RADIATION
9.1 Equipment shall be designed so that the leakage of any microwave radiation does not
exceed the limits stated in the relevant equipment specification.
10. OXYGEN EQUIPMENT
10.1 It is essential that special care be taken in the design and manufacture of equipment
used in oxygen systems. The requirements of British Standard BS 4N 100 shall be applied.
11. LIFE AND OVERHAUL PERIOD
11.1 When applicable, the minimum safe operating life and/or overhaul period for the
equipment shall be specified in the relevant individual specification.
11.2 Component life should preferably be ‘on condition’ or condition monitoring basis, but
where equipment has specified overhaul periods, e.g.: to cater for wear out of brushes,
bearings etc, designers should aim at periods which are not less than 4000 unit hours, one
year or 100,000 duty cycles, whichever is applicable.
NOTE. The figures quoted for the life or overhaul period will be derived from tests and
applicable past experience of the equipment and will be accepted by the aircraft
manufacturer and the operator as a guide to its performance. Where applicable, the actual
life or overhaul period will be determined by experience in each particular installation and will
be stated in the aircraft maintenance schedule.
Page 3 of 3
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 94
CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Note: This leaflet has been relocated to Part 1 Section 6 as Leaflet 35.
Page 1 of 1
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 95
MAGNETIC INFLUENCE
Note: This leaflet has been relocated to Part 1 Section 6 as Leaflet 36.
Page 1 of 1
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 96
REINFORCEMENT OF METALLIC STRUCTURES USING BONDED PATCHES
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 For many applications, adhesively bonded patches can offer cheaper,
quicker, more structurally efficient and more durable repairs than are possible using
mechanically fastened patches. Moreover, in some circumstances bonded patches
may be the only alternative to component replacement. Thus, detailed repair
procedures have been developed [1, 2, and 3] covering the bonding of both
composite and metal patches to a wide range of metallic components.
1.2 The guidance provided in this leaflet is limited to bonded patch reinforcement
of metallic structures that, in the unpatched state, can be shown to satisfy the
inspection dependant requirements of Part 1, Section 3, Clause 3.2 and Section 3,
Leaflet 36. The objective is to enhance the remaining fatigue life of a structure by
reducing stresses in regions containing cracks or damage, or where stress levels are
relatively high and fatigue cracks are expected to develop.
2 CONDITIONS GOVERNING THE USE OF REINFORCEMENTS
2.1 The damaged component, in the absence of the repair, shall have a margin of
safety on strength above the minimum permissible (in accordance with Part 1,
Section 3, Clause 3.2 and Leaflet 36). The residual strength requirement is given in
Def Stan 00-970 Section 3 clause 3.2 fatigue sub clause 3.2.16 i.e. 1.2 x Design limit
Load. The bonded reinforcement shall be used to increase durability but shall not be
considered to contribute to the structural integrity of the structure.
2.2 Airworthiness shall be assured by inspecting the structure at intervals

determined as if it had been repaired, in accordance with the requirements of Part 1,
Section 3, Leaflet 36. In effect, the inspection schedule assumes that the patch has
failed, i.e. a fail-safe approach has been adopted.
2.3 Account shall be taken of the consequences of separation of the

reinforcement patch and where appropriate, provision shall be made to prevent any
hazardous effects.
3 REINFORCEMENT DESIGN
3.1 Finite element analysis and/or boundary element analysis should be used in
the design of critical or complex reinforcements. Analytical closed form expressions
alone may be satisfactory for certain non-critical or simple repairs [1, 2, and 3].
3.2 For cracked components, the reinforcement should be designed so that the
stress intensity factor range (K) at the crack tip is reduced to a value which, will
result in an acceptable rate of fatigue growth; i.e. the crack should be arrested. In the
absence of detectable cracks, it should be assumed that the crack size (see Part 1,
Section 3, Leaflet 36 for the definition of detectable crack size) is at the detectable
length and in the most critical location and orientation for the purpose of designing
the reinforcement.
Page 1 of 5
SECTION 4
3.3 The design should ensure that the adhesive shear stress range and the patch
strain range are low enough to avoid unacceptable long term degradation or cracking
of either the adhesive or the reinforcement. (See, for example, section 10.41 in Ref
1.)
3.4 In general, the patch should be of minimum thickness to meet static strength
and fatigue requirements (see Part 1, Section 3, Clauses 3.1 & 3.2), since this
minimises component stresses arising from any thermal mismatch between the
component and the patch, load interaction effects due to the additional stiffness and
any mass-balance or aerodynamic effects.
3.5 The patch must be designed to avoid unacceptable peel stresses; this usually
means that the edges of the patches must be tapered.
3.6 Adhesive design data should be derived from the Thick Adherend Test as per
ASTM D3983 and ASTM D5656-04. Repairs should not be designed using data
derived from lap-shear strength tests. See Also Leaflet 17 (Def Stan 00-970 Part 1
Section 4) Processes and Working of Materials Adhesive Bonding of Structural parts-
Recommended Design Practice section 4.
3.7 Repair designs must account for the effect of temperature on adhesive
properties. Designs must address the highest and lowest temperatures expected to
occur in service.
4 COMPLIANCE CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 An inspection-based approach, in accordance with Part 1, Section 3, Clause

3.2, must be used to substantiate reinforcement designs. Analysis should, in general,
be supported by fatigue and crack growth testing. This testing need not necessarily
be carried out for each individual design but should be sufficiently representative to
validate the analysis method. Validation of the analytical procedures may be based
on test data from generic structural details and joints representing repairs. However,
extra testing may be required if variation from these generic designs is significant.
Inspection intervals should be those applicable to unpatched components. Inspection
techniques and inspection intervals should be substantiated on the basis that if crack
growth occurs the residual strength, (in the absence of the patch), must not fall below
that required by Part 1, Section 3 Leaflet 36. The residual strength requirement is
given in Def Stan 00-970 Part 1, Section 3 clause 3.2 Fatigue sub clause 3.2.16 i.e.
1.2 x Design limit Load.
4.2 In general, crack growth under bonded patches can be monitored using an
appropriate NDI technique, such as eddy-current or ultrasonics, although it will
normally only be possible to detect increases in crack length of approximately 0.5
mm or greater. Disbonds between patch and structure may result in increases in
fatigue growth rate above that predicted. For this reason, inspection techniques
should be available to assess the extent to which disbonds are present; in general,
ultrasonic techniques are suitable for detecting and monitoring the growth of
disbonds. A reference scan should be performed, on the as new bonded patch, for
comparison with future scans.
Page 2 of 5
SECTION 4
4.3 Although certification of reinforcements does not rely on patch performance,

e.g. in slowing crack growth, reinforcement durability must be considered (see
paragraph 3.3). The effects of environmental exposure and impact damage, which
may be experienced in service, should be taken into account. Previous service
experience with bonded patches, including demonstration and trials patches, should
be considered. If suitable data are not available it may be necessary to carry out
specimen testing to determine the effects of stress, impact damage, temperature,
humidity, salt, hydraulic fluid, fuel etc. on reinforcement performance.
5 REINFORCEMENT APPLICATION
5.1 Patch type.
5.1.1 Patch material: - Although boron/epoxy patches have been used widely for
bonded reinforcements, the use of other materials, such as carbon/epoxy,
glass/epoxy, GLARE or aluminium alloys, may be possible/appropriate for many
applications. The selection of patch material must take into account of service
temperature, service environment, ability of patch to conform to profile of surface to
be reinforced, processing temperatures and pressures, mechanical property
requirements and patch/substrate interactions (e.g. galvanic corrosion, thermal
stresses).
5.1.2 Patch Fabrication: - In the case of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) patches, the
following fabrication techniques may be available, each with specific issues or
concerns which must be addressed.
(a) Pre-cured patches. - Typically, pre-cured FRP patches give the best
mechanical properties and may be used in a wide range of thicknesses. These
patches can be shaped to complex curvatures using appropriate moulding
techniques. For reinforcements involving relatively thick patches and curved
surfaces, the patch should be cured against a mould of almost identical surface
curvature to that being reinforced but with release film rather than adhesive
between prepreg and metal. Such patches can be pre-cured at low temperature
on the component and post cured off the component, if a suitable prepreg
system is used. Cured patches should be examined to ensure that there has
been satisfactory consolidation.
(b) Prepreg/adhesive co-cure. - This technique is recommended for
reinforcements involving flat or moderately curved surfaces and relatively thin
patches (up to approximately 1 mm thick). For thicker patches it will be
necessary to demonstrate, by mechanical tests on typical patches, that
satisfactory patch consolidation occurs. Typically, structures have been repaired
using 1200C curing prepreg/adhesive systems. In general, higher temperature
curing systems have been avoided due to the risk of damage to underlying
structure. In all cases the wet glass transition temperature of the parent laminate
should be higher than the repair cure temperature.
(c) Wet lay-up. - This may be the most appropriate technique for the
reinforcement of complex shaped surfaces. However, it is difficult to control the
quality of patches, and this should be taken into account whenever wet lay-up is
used.
Page 3 of 5
SECTION 4
5.2 In general, it is recommended that a low temperature curing adhesive be

used in order to limit residual stresses, which may arise from differential thermal
contraction between the patch and the structure on cooling from the adhesive cure
temperature. However, adhesive selection will be influenced by other requirements,
such as elastic modulus, load capacity and durability. Typically, epoxy film adhesives
curing at 1200C have been used to achieve strong, durable reinforcements, which
experience relatively high temperatures in service, it may be necessary to use
adhesives which cure at higher temperatures. In these cases it is particularly
important to consider the effect of cure cycle on the surrounding structure, especially
any changes in strength or other mechanical properties. In structural locations where
service temperatures are relatively low, the use of low temperature curing adhesives
may be appropriate. In all cases, the wet glass transition temperature of the adhesive
should exceed the expected maximum service temperature.
5.3 Surface preparation: - Surface treatment has a critical influence on the durability of
bonded reinforcements; the selected surface treatment must allow adequate durability to be
achieved. Durability may be demonstrated by a suitable test method such as the Boeing
Wedge Test [4], providing the specimen surface treatment, temperature and pressure during
cure are identical to those used for applying the reinforcement. For 2000 and 7000 series
aluminium alloys, bonded with a 1200C curing epoxy-nitrile film adhesive, adequate durability
has been shown for surface treatments which demonstrate wedge test crack growth of 5 mm
in 24 hours and 6.5 mm in 48 hours when exposed to an environment of 500C and 95%RH.
This level of durability may be obtained readily for aluminium alloys if they are subjected to a
degrease, grit blast, silane treatment, as specified in RAAF Engineering Standard C5033 [1].
It is recommended that epoxy matrix FRP patches should be subjected to a degrease, grit
blast surface treatment [1]. Equivalent durability, or better, must be demonstrated for
alternative surface treatments or other substrate/patch combinations. The surface treatment
processes to be used for bonded reinforcement applications should be approved by the
Project Authority.
5.4 Bonding: - Temperature and pressure during cure must be controlled if adequate
bonding is to be obtained. For repairs to regions with significant substructure, it is important
that local heat sinks do not result in unacceptable temperature distributions in the bondline.
In some cases, it may be necessary to use multiple heat sources to enable satisfactory
temperature distributions to be achieved, such that the maximum temperature in each
heated zone does not result in damage to the structure while the minimum temperature at
the bondline produces an acceptable cure of the adhesive. For bonded repair and
reinforcement to complex structure, a trial installation using teflon separators may be
required to demonstrate acceptable adhesive thickness and degree of cure. Guidance on
temperature and pressure control is available [1, 2].
5.5 General: - Consideration should be given to electrical bonding of the adhesively-

bonded reinforcement, in accordance with Clause 4.27
Page 4 of 5
SECTION 4
6 REFERENCES
1 RAAF Engineering Standard C5033, 1995.
2 USAF Manual on Adhesively Bonded Patch Repair, 1999.
3 AA Baker and R Jones, Bonded Repair of Aircraft Structures, Martinus Nijhoff

Publishers, 1988.
4 ASTM D3762.
5 ASTM D3983-98(2004) Standard Test Method for Measuring Strength and Shear
Modulus of Non Rigid Adhesives by the Thick Adherend Tensile-Lap Specimen.
6 ASTM D5656-04 Standard Test method for Thick Adherend Metal Lap Shear Joints
for Determination of the Stress-Strain Behaviour of Adhesives in Shear by Tension
Loading.
Page 5 of 5
SECTION 4
LEAFLET 97
FLUTTER CLEARANCE WITH SYSTEM FAILURES
1 INTRODUCTION
This Leaflet gives guidance on the requirements to be followed in evaluating the aeroelastic
stability of aircraft (aeroplanes and remotely piloted aerial vehicles) with systems, the failure of
which during a mission may influence safe flight. System failure for the purposes of this Leaflet
is any condition which changes the aeroservoelastic characteristics of the aircraft compared
with those in normal operating conditions. These requirements are based on Appendix K to
CS 25 [1], with changes appropriate to operation in the military environment.
The criteria given in this Leaflet must be used to demonstrate compliance with the
requirements of Clause 4.8 (Aeroelasticity, flutter and vibration). They are intended for
application to aircraft equipped with flight control systems, autopilots, stability augmentation
systems, load alleviation systems, flutter control systems, and fuel management systems. If
the requirements of this Leaflet are applied to other systems, it may be necessary to adapt the
criteria to the specific system.
The criteria defined in this leaflet only address the aeroelastic consequences of the system
responses and performances and cannot be considered in isolation, but should be included in
the overall safety evaluation of the aircraft. These criteria may in some instances duplicate
standards already established for this evaluation.
This leaflet describes the flutter margins to be applied to an aircraft with system failures
considered under Clause 4.8.8 This specifically excludes consideration of all failures which
are extremely improbable (i.e., so unlikely as not anticipated to occur during the entire
operational life of all aircraft of the type, taken to be a probability of 10–9/hr). This additional
guidance augments the flutter clearance programme defined in Leaflet 23.
2 EFFECT OF SYSTEMS ON STRUCTURES – SYSTEM FULLY OPERATIVE
When the system under consideration is fully operative, the aircraft must meet the aeroelastic
stability requirements of Clause 4.8 Specific guidance on flutter clearance is given in Leaflet
23 accompanying Clause 4.8
3 EFFECT OF SYSTEMS ON STRUCTURES – AT THE TIME OF SYSTEM FAILURE

The conditions of this section apply to the aeroelastic stability of an aircraft during and
immediately after the failure of a system. The required flutter clearance speed is defined in
conjunction with the probability of occurrence per hour of the failure mode j, Pj.
For failures with Pj ≥ ‘once per ‘lifetime’, the aeroelastic stability must be assessed against the
standard flutter clearance speed, V”, which is factored V D /M D . The factor should not be less
than 1.15. The ‘lifetime’ to be considered shall not be less than the specified life of the aircraft.
The impact of a life extension should also be considered.
Page 1 of 4
SECTION 4
For failures with Pj < ‘once per lifetime’ the aeroelastic stability may be assessed against a
flutter clearance speed linearly reducing with probability down to a value V’ at a probability of
10–9/hr. V’ is the greater speed given by:
(a) V MAX /M MAX increased by a factor of 1.15
(b) V D /M D
Figure 1 shows how the clearance speed is be defined using the specified life of a typical
transport aircraft as an example. In this case, shown by the blue line, the aircraft has a
‘lifetime’ of 30000 hrs, so that the breakpoint becomes (3.33 × 10–5, V”) and the end points are
(1, V”) and (1 × 10–9, V’). For an aircraft with a ‘lifetime’ of 6000 hrs (typical for a combat
aircraft), the breakpoint would be (1.67 × 10–3, V”) and the end points remain at (1, V”) and (1
× 10–9, V’).
For life extension of large aircraft, the value of Pj to be considered should be that of the civil
requirements of CS-25, i.e., those shown by the black line in Figure 1. For combat aircraft, a
value of Pj commensurate with a life extension of at least 100% should be considered. Thus
for the typical combat aircraft from the example above, the breakpoint would be (8.33 x 10-4,
V”) and the end points remain at (1, V”) and (1 × 10–9, V’).
Values for other aircraft types should be derived in a similar manner.
The calculated flutter speed should not be below this clearance speed, expressed as
equivalent airspeed, at constant Mach number and, separately, at constant altitude.
Failures that result in forced structural vibrations (limit cycle oscillations) must not produce
loads that could result in detrimental deformation of primary structure.
Note that there are some differences between this condition and the corresponding
formulation in Appendix K to CS-25:
The low-probability speed is based on the V MAX /M MAX envelope. The design cruise
conditions used in CS-25 is relevant for civil certification of civil aircraft which operate
well-defined flight profiles with a predominance of cruise conditions but is unlikely to be
realistic for a military aircraft.
The probability breakpoint is referred to a once-per-lifetime probability for the specified
aircraft.
4 EFFECT OF SYSTEMS ON STRUCTURES – CONTINUED FLIGHT WITH SYSTEM IN THE

FAILED CONDITION
For the continuation of flight, with the aircraft having the system in a failed state, and taking
into account any appropriate reconfiguration and flight limitations, the following apply.
The required flutter clearance speed is defined in conjunction with the probability of
occurrence being in the failed condition j, Qj (where Qj = (Tj)(Pj) and Tj = average time in
hours spent in the failed condition).
The clearance speed reduces linearly from V”, the factored V D /M D , at a probability of 1 to V’,
the greater speed given by:
(a) V MAX /M MAX increased by a factor of 1.15
(b) V D /M D
Page 2 of 4
SECTION 4
for a probability of one hour per lifetime, remaining at this level for all lower probabilities down
to 10–9. Figure 2 shows how the clearance speed may be derived, using the transport aircraft
with a ‘lifetime’ of 30000 hrs as an example: the breakpoints become (1, V”), (3.33 ×10–5, V’)
and (1 × 10–9, V’).
If the probability of failure occurrence Pj is greater than 10 per lifetime then the clearance
speed must not be less than factored V D /M D . For example, for an aircraft with a specified life
of 30000 hours, this condition shall be applied for Pj>3.33 ×10–4 / flight hour. For aircraft
having different ‘lifetimes’, the breakpoints should be derived in an analogous manner.
The calculated flutter speed should not be below this clearance speed, expressed as
equivalent airspeed, at constant Mach number and, separately, at constant altitude.
Failures that result in forced structural vibrations (limit cycle oscillations) must not produce
loads that could result in significant fatigue damage during continued flight.
5 FAILURE INDICATIONS
For system failure detection and indication, the following apply:
The system must be checked for failure conditions that are not extremely improbable
and that degrade the aeroelastic stability below the level required by Def Stan 00-970 or
significantly reduce the reliability of the remaining system. As far as reasonably
practicable, the flight crew must be made aware of these failures before flight. Certain
elements of the control system, such as mechanical and hydraulic components, may
use special periodic inspections, and electronic systems may use daily checks, in lieu of
detection and indication systems to achieve the objective of this requirement. These
certification maintenance requirements must be limited to components that are not
readily detectable by normal detection and indication systems and where service history
shows that inspections will provide an adequate level of safety.
The existence during flight of any failure condition that is not extremely improbable and
that could significantly affect the aeroelastic stability of the aircraft and for which the
associated reduction in airworthiness can be minimised by suitable flight limitations,
must be signalled to the flightcrew. For example, failure conditions that result in
aeroelastic stability below those specified in Clause 4.8 must be signalled to the crew
during flight.
6 DISPATCH WITH KNOWN FAILURE CONDITIONS

If the aircraft is to be dispatched in a known system failure condition that affects aeroelastic
stability, or affects the reliability of the remaining system to maintain aeroelastic stability, then
the provisions of Clause 4.8 must be met for the dispatched condition and for subsequent
failures. Flight limitations and expected operational limitations may be taken into account in
establishing Qj as the combined probability of being in the dispatched failure condition and the
subsequent failure condition for the clearance speeds in Figures 1 and 2. No reduction in the
clearance speed is allowed if the subsequent system failure rate is greater than ten per
lifetime.
Reference
(1) European Aviation Safety Agency. Certification Specifications for Large Aeroplanes.
CS-25, Amendment 2, 2 October 2006.
Page 3 of 4
SECTION 4
V"
V'
1.E-10 1.E-09 1.E-08 1.E-07 1.E-06 1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00
Pj - probability of occurrence of failure mode j (per hour)
FIG. 1 - CLEARANCE SPEED AT THE TIME OF OCCURRENCE
V"
V'
1.E-10 1.E-09 1.E-08 1.E-07 1.E-06 1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00
Qj - probability of being in failure condition j
FIG. 2 - CLEARANCE SPEED FOR CONTINUATION OF FLIGHT
Page 4 of 4
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Internet e-mail: enquiries@dstan.mod.uk
File Reference
The DStan file reference relating to work on this standard is D/DStan/21/970/1
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Standard does not in itself confer immunity from legal obligations.
Revision of Defence Standards

Defence Standards are revised as necessary by an up issue or amendment. It is important that users
of Defence Standards should ascertain that they are in possession of the latest issue or amendment.
Information on all Defence Standards can be found on the DStan Website www.dstan.mod.uk,
updated weekly and supplemented regularly by Standards in Defence News (SID News). Any person
who, when making use of a Defence Standard encounters an inaccuracy or ambiguity is encouraged
to notify UK Defence Standardization (DStan) without delay in order that the matter may be
investigated and appropriate action taken. Sponsors and authors shall refer to Def Stan 00-00 before
proceeding with any standards work.

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Defence Standard 00-970 Part 1

Part 1: Fixed Wing

Section 4: Design and Construction

Aviation Publication (AvP) 970 dated 1959

Air Publication (AP) 970 2nd Edition dated 1924

Handbook (HB) 806 1st Edition dated 1918

SECTION 4 - DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

DESIGN AND AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR SERVICE AIRCRAFT

PART 1 – FIXED WING

SECTION 4 - DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

4.0.2 Requirements are provided to cover the following aspects:

4.1 General Detail Design

4.25 Pressurised Air Ducts

4.1 GENERAL DETAIL DESIGN

4.1.1 This information is similar to CS 25.601 – 25.607

REQUIREMENT COMPLIANCE GUIDANCE

REQUIREMENT COMPLIANCE GUIDANCE

(a) structural collapse at loads up to

(b) loss of control,

(c) failure of motive power,

(d) unintentional operation of, or

(e) incapacitating injury to any

(f) unacceptable unserviceability or

REQUIREMENT COMPLIANCE GUIDANCE

(a) authorised by the Aeroplane

(b) permitted by the requirements of

(c) approved by the appropriate

(a) AGS parts,

(b) ADS standard parts,

(c) BSI standard parts,

(d) ASD-STAN standard parts,

such items shall be used.

REQUIREMENT COMPLIANCE GUIDANCE

(a) British Standards: Aerospace

(b) PR EN Standard Specifications

(c) DTD Specifications, including

(a) British Standards: General

REQUIREMENT COMPLIANCE GUIDANCE

(a) titanium fasteners or titanium alloy

(b) high tensile strength (over 1100

REQUIREMENT COMPLIANCE GUIDANCE

(c) bolts in joints which have to be

(a) likely to be subjected to any

(b) used in positions where no

REQUIREMENT COMPLIANCE GUIDANCE

the bolts shall be to a specification which has been

(b) Where the Aeroplane Design

(a) for enclosed systems where water

(b) for structure in areas where water

REQUIREMENT COMPLIANCE GUIDANCE

(b) The use of any alternative material

(b) heavily loaded shear joints,

REQUIREMENT COMPLIANCE GUIDANCE

(d) joints subject to thermal strain

(e) joints where the manner of

(f) joints subjected to cyclic loading.

(a) Whether items can be re-used if the

(b) Whether the items are to be

(c) The extent to which reconditioning,

REQUIREMENT COMPLIANCE GUIDANCE

4.2 MARKING OF AEROPLANE PARTS

4.2.2 Definitions of terms used in this clause are contained in Part 0.

REQUIREMENT COMPLIANCE GUIDANCE