Haramaya University

Haramaya Institute of Technology

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Switching & Intelligent Networks

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 Chapter 1: Introduction
• Introduction to Switching function
• Elements of a switching system
• Types of switching systems
• Centralized switching systems
• Basic switching center model
• Resources sharing
• Introduction to traffic and queuing theory

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 1.1 Introduction to Switching function
• The exchange of information between two or many individuals is
called Communication
• The word tele is a Greek word which means distance
• Telecommunication means the exchange of information between
two distant places
• The advancement of communication techniques has increased the
speed with which the transfer of information takes place
• At the onset of the invention of communication systems, the
invention and usage of telephony was the most important one

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 • Telecommunications represent the transfer of information, from
an entity at one place to an entity at another place
• The information can be in the form of data, voice or symbol
• The entities can be human beings, computers, facsimile machines,
telegraphy machines, phones or so on
• In telephone conversation:
• The one who initiates the call is referred to as the Calling Subscriber
• The one for whom the call is destined is the Called Subscriber
• In other cases of information transfer, the communicating entities
are known as Source and Destination

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 • Telecommunication system can be divided into four main parts:
1. End system or Instruments
2. Transmission system
3. Switching system
4. Signaling system
• The purpose of a telecommunication switching system is to
provide the means to pass information from any terminal device to
any other terminal device selected by the originator

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 Elements of Telecommunication Network

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 • In March 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented and demonstrated
his telephone set
• The possibility of long distance voice communication
• He demonstrated the point-to-point communication
• A calling subscriber chooses the appropriate link to establish
connection with the called subscriber
• This system requires some mode of Signaling
• To alert the called subscriber about the incoming call
• To indicate the calling subscriber, when the called subscriber is busy on
another call

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 • The point-to-point connection requires the telephone sets to be
linked using wires
• If the number of subscribers present is low in number, the type of
connection will be a little complex
• If the number of subscribers is high or moderate, then the connections will
lead to a mess
• To understand the complication, let us consider a network of 5
subscribers

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 • In the point-to-point connection
• For n entities n(n−1)/2 links are needed
• All these links form a network
• Networks with point-to-point links among all the entities are
known as Fully Connected Networks
• The number of links required in a fully connected network becomes very
large even with moderate values of n
• Hence, a system of switching network is needed in-between these
subscribers
• Alexander Graham Bell recommended the Switching between the
subscribers using a switching office

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 • A switch transfers signals from one input port to an appropriate
output port
• A basic problem is then how to transfer traffic to the correct output port
• In the early telephone network, operator’s closed circuits manually
• In modern circuit switches this is done electronically in digital
switches
• If no circuit is available when a call is made, it will be blocked (rejected)
• When a call is finished a connection teardown is required to make the
circuit available for another user

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 Example
• Calculate the number of links required to fully connect 5000 links
and the number of additional links required to fully connect 5001
links.
• Solution:
• To connect 5000 points, number of links required are 12497500
• To connect 5001 points, number of links required are 12502500
• The additional links required to connect extra one point on a 5000
points network of fully connected are 5000

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 Functions of Switching System
• The switching office performs the following basic functions
• Identity: identify the calling subscriber from the calling signal
• Addressing: identify the called subscriber from the input information
• Train of pulses or multiple frequency depends on the dialing facility
• Path setup: Based on the availability, suitable path will be selected
• Busy testing: pass busy tone after waiting for some time (status)
• Supervision: detect answer and clear down conditions
• Clear down: disconnect a connection after call is completed
• Billing: a mechanism to meter or count the number of units made during
the conversation

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 1.2 Elements of Switching Systems
• A Telecommunication network is a group of systems that
establishes a distant call.
• This network connection cannot be simply made with telephone
sets and bunch of wires
• But a good system is required to make or break a connection
• This system is known as the Switching System or the Switching
Office or the Exchange
• With the introduction of the switching system
• The subscribers are not connected directly to one another
• They are connected to a switching office
• And then to the required subscriber
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 • The switching stations provide connection between different
subscribers.
• Such switching systems can be grouped to form a
telecommunication network.
• The switching systems are connected using lines called the Trunks.
• The lines that run to the Subscriber premises are called the
Subscriber Lines.

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 • The following figure shows a telecommunication network.

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 • From the early to the later stages of the 20th Century (1900-80),
when a person needed to make a distant call, the call was first
routed to the operator at the nearest switching center and then the
number and location of the called subscriber was noted down.
• Here, the job of the operator was to establish a call to the remote
switching center and then recall the calling subscriber to establish
the connection.
• This system of making calls was called the Trunk call system.

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 • The purpose of a telecommunications switching system is to
provide the means to pass information from any terminal device to
any other terminal device selected by the originator
• The following figure shows the switching system model

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 • With the introduction of switching systems, the need for
traditional connections between the subscribers reduced
• All the subscribers need to have a connection with the switching
system, which makes or breaks any connection
• The switching system, which is also called the Telephone
Exchange, takes care of establishing the calls
• Hence, the total number of such links is equal to the number of
subscribers connected to the system.

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 • Signaling is required for the switching system to establish or
release a connection
• It should also enable the switching system to detect whether a called
subscriber is busy or not
• The functions performed by a switching system in establishing and
releasing connections are known as Control Functions
• The early systems required manual operations to establish
telephone calls
• An operator used to receive a call from the calling subscriber and then
connect the call to the called subscriber
• Later on, the system was automated.
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 • The following figure will help you understand the model of
telephones in the early stage of its invention.

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 • When you see the telephone in the above figure, the dialer part and
the microphone are connected to a stationary wooden plank
• The speaker to listen, was connected by a wire at the side
• The top portion of the telephone has two bells connected - these
bells ring when there is an incoming call
• This is one of the earlier models of the telephone.
• The telephone sets of the calling subscriber and the called
subscriber are connected through a switching system or a
telephone exchange in order to establish the calls requested.

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 • Few basic elements play an essential role for the functioning of a
switching system.
• Along with the switching network, there are different sub systems
such as:
• Control sub system
• Signaling system
• Trunk and subscriber line interfaces
• Distributor units
• Operator console
• Juncture circuits

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 • Switching Network:
• It provides the switching paths between the called subscribers and the
calling subscribers.
• Control Subsystem:
• This is the critical part of the switching system
• Actively establishes the switching paths, by
• Identifying the inlet and outlet lines and
• Interpreting the signaling information received on these lines.
• Controls the making and breaking of the connection by sensing the signal
transfer on the lines
• Sends out signaling information to the subscriber and other exchanges
connected to the outgoing trunks.
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 Signaling
• The signaling formats and requirements for the subscriber, the
trunks and the sub systems differ significantly.
• Accordingly, a switching system provides for three different forms
of signaling:
• Subscriber loop signaling
• Interexchange signaling
• Intra-exchange or register signaling
• A switching system is composed of elements that perform
switching, control and signaling functions.

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 • Trunk Interface:
• The Trunk lines used for connections between the switching systems, are
terminated at this port.
• The Trunk interface is the point where the trunk lines are connected to the
system.
• Subscriber Line Interface:
• The Subscriber lines used for connections between the subscribers and the
switching systems are terminated at this port.
• The subscriber line interface is the point where the lines from the
subscribers are connected to the system.

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 • Line Scanning Unit:
• The line scanning unit senses and obtains the signaling information from
the respective lines.
• The information obtained from these lines are given to the control sub
system to identify the inlets and outlets.
• Distributor Units:
• The distributor units are used for distributing or sending out the signaling
information on the respective lines.
• The distribution of information through the trunk lines, is done through
the distribution units.

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 • Operator Console:
• The operator console permits interaction with the switching system for
maintenance and administrative purposes.
• Service Circuit Interface:
• The service circuit interface provides interaction between circuits for
maintenance and testing purposes.
• Junctures:
• The Junctures is a junction that provides a folded connection for the local
subscribers and the service circuits.
• If the called subscriber and the calling subscriber both are local, then the
folded connection helps in making the connection to a local call,
• Whereas the trunk lines will not be in use.
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 1.3 Types/classification of Switching Systems
• In the early stages of telecommunication systems, the process and
stages of switching, played an important role to make or break
connections.
• At the initial stages, the switching systems were operated
manually. These systems were later automated.
• The following flowchart shows how the switching systems were
classified.

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 • The switching systems in the early stages were operated manually.
• The connections were made by the operators at the telephone exchanges
in order to establish a connection.
• To minimize the disadvantages of manual operation, automatic
switching systems were introduced.
• Automatic switching systems are classified as the following
• Electromechanical Switching Systems
• Here, mechanical switches are electrically operated.
• Electronic Switching Systems
• The usage of electronic components such as diodes, transistors and ICs

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 Electromechanical Switching Systems
• The Electromechanical switching systems are a combination of
mechanical and electrical switching types.
• The electrical circuits and the mechanical relays are deployed in them.
• The Electromechanical switching systems are further classified
into the following.
• Step-by-step switching system:
• Also called the Strowger switching system after its inventor A B Strowger.
• The control functions are performed by circuits associated with the switching
elements in the system.
• Crossbar switching system:
• Have hard-wired control subsystems which use relays and latches
• These subsystems have limited capability and it is virtually impossible to modify them
to provide additional functionalities.
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 Electronic Switching Systems
• The Electronic Switching systems are operated with the help of a
processor or a computer which control the switching timings.
• The instructions are programmed and stored on a processor or
computer that control the operations.
• This method of storing the programs on a processor or computer is
called the Stored Program Control (SPC) technology.
• New facilities can be added to a SPC system by changing the
control program.

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 • The switching scheme used by the electronic switching systems
may be either Space Division Switching or Time Division Switching.
• Space division switching:
• A dedicated path is established between the calling and the called subscribers for the
entire duration of the call
• Time division switching:
• Sampled values of speech signals are transferred at fixed intervals.
• The time division switching may be analog or digital
• In analog switching, the sampled voltage levels are transmitted as they are.
• However, in binary/digital switching, they are binary coded and transmitted.

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 • The time division switching may be analog or digital
• In analog switching:
• The sampled voltage levels are transmitted as they are.
• In digital/binary switching:
• They are binary coded and transmitted
• It may be space, time, or space-time switching
• Space Switching:
– Coded values are transferred during the same time interval from input to output
• Time Switching:
– If the values are stored and transferred to the output at a time interval
• Space-time switching:
– Designed by using a combination of space and time switching techniques

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 1.4 Centralized Switching Systems
• A simplest way of structuring the telecommunication switching is
the terminal-to-terminal connection
• This kind of switching is called distributed switching and applied
only to small telephone system
• Some examples of distributed switching are:

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 • Each terminal have two kind of switches, one to make required link
and other to connect a link to receive a call
• By this method, for N terminals, the numbers of links required are
N(N – 1)/2
• The interconnection of four terminals but only with 4 links.
• Here each terminal is connected permanently to one channel and all other
terminals may be accessed by operating a switch
• Also it removes the need to connect a terminal to a link for an incoming
call

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 Centralized Model
• The distributed system cannot be extended to large terminal cases
and the increased geographical separation of terminals
• A simple centralized system reduces the average length of
transmission link, and hence the transmission cost
• But this system increases the total switching costs
• Introducing more local centers instead of one national center
switching machine can further reduce the transmission cost
• Two local centers are connected by links called trunk
• A trunk in telephone system is a communication path that contains
shared circuits that are used to interconnect central offices

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 Type of centralized model

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 Short distance centralized system

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 • Even though the increase in the number of switching centers lower
the total transmission costs, the total switching cost tend to
increase for two reasons:
1. The local centers become more complex because they must be able to
decide on a suitable routing to another center
2. Economy of scale is lost with an increased number of local centers because
of additional numbers

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 Hierarchical system
• Central offices may be interconnected by direct trunk groups or by
intermediate office known as a tandem, toll or gateway office
• The process of centralizing switching centers can occur at several
levels leading to the hierarchical network
• Star connection may be used where traffic intensity is less
• Mesh connection are used when there are relatively high traffic levels
• Such as in metropolitan network

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 Names of different level switching centers in telephone networks

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 1.5 Basic switching center model
• A Switching system can be understood as a collection of switching
elements arranged and controlled in such a way as to set up a
common path between any two distant points.
• The introduction of switching systems reduced the complexity of
wiring and made the telephony hassle-free

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 Inlets and Outlets
• The set of input circuits of an exchange are called Inlets
• The set of output circuits are called the Outlets
• The primary function of a switching system is to establish an electrical
path between a given inlet-outlet pair
• M indicates the inlets and the outlets are indicated by N.
• So, a switching network has M inlets and N outlets.

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 Switching Matrix
• The hardware used to establish connection between inlets and
outlets is called the Switching Matrix or the Switching Network.
• This switching network is the group of connections formed in the
process of connecting inlets and outlets.
• A NxN single stage network with a switching capacity of K
connections can be realized by a two stage network of NxK and
KxN

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 • First Stage:
• Any of the N inlets can be connected to any of the K outlets.
• NK switching elements.
• Second Stage:
• Any of the K inputs can be connected to any of the N outlets.
• KN switching elements.
• There are K alternative paths for any inlet/outlet pair connection.
• Terminology: Generally for M inlets and N outlets
• Expanding network: M<N
• Concentrating network: M>N
• Square network: M=N
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 Architecture of General two-stage networks

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 • Multiple small size matrices are used in each stage.
• Easy to be realized in practice.
• Flexible in system design.
• MxN two-stage network design
• Decomposition: M = p x r, N = q x s
• Switching matrices: p x s and r x q, for each switch
• There must be at least one outlet from each block in the first stage
terminating as inlet on every block of the second stage.
• Number of switching elements
• S=psr + qrs = Ms + Nr
• Switching Capacity:
• The number of links between the first and the second stages =Sr

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 Types of Connections
• There are four types of connections that can be established in a
telecommunication network.
• The connections are as follows:
• Local call connection: between two subscribers in the system.
• Outgoing call connection: between a subscriber and an outgoing trunk.
• Incoming call connection: between an incoming trunk and a local subscriber.
• Transit call connection: between an incoming trunk and an outgoing trunk.

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 Folded Network
• When the number of inlets is equal to the number of outlets
• Such a network is called the Symmetric Network
• which means N=M
• A network where the outlets are connected to the inlets, is called
the Folded Network
• In a Folded Network, the N number of inlets which come as outlets
are again folded back to the inlets.
• Nevertheless, the switching network provides connections to the inlets
and outlets as per the requirement.
• The following figure will help you understand how the Switching Network
works.

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 • As one connection can be given to one line per time, only N/2
connections are established for N inlets of a folded network.
• Such a network can be called as Non-blocking network.
• As long as the called subscriber is free, a calling subscriber will be able to
establish a connection to the called subscriber.
• In the above figure, only 4 subscribers were considered
• line 1 is busy with line 2
• line 3 is busy with line 4.
• While the call is in progress, there used to be no chance for making
another call and hence, only a single connection was made.
• Hence for N inlets, only N/2 lines are connected.

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 • At times, it might happen that the inlet and outlet connections are
continuously used to make Transit calls through trunk lines only
• But not among the local subscribers
• The inlet and outlet connections if used in an Inter-exchange transmission
• The exchange does not support connection between local subscribers,
• Then it is called the Transit Exchange.
• A switching network of such kind is called the Non-folded network

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 Blocking Network
• If there are no switching paths free in the network, the call
requested will be denied
• Where the subscriber is said to be blocked
• The network is called the Blocking Network
• In a blocking network, the number of simultaneous switching
paths is less than the maximum number of simultaneous
conversations that can take place.
• The probability that a user may get blocked is called the Blocking
Probability.
• A good design should ensure low blocking probability.

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 Traffic and Erlang
• The product of the calling rate and the average holding time is
defined as the Traffic Intensity.
• The continuous sixty-minute period during which the traffic
intensity is high is the Busy Hour.
• When the traffic exceeds the limit to which the switching system is
designed, a subscriber experiences blocking.
• The traffic in a telecommunication network is measured by an
internationally accepted unit of traffic intensity
• It is known as Erlang (E).
• A switching resource is said to carry one Erlang of traffic if it is
continuously occupied through a given period of observation.
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 Signal exchange diagrams
• The first step in any system design is to consider the range of
control signals that has to be interchanged between a terminal
• This information is conveyed in the form of signals and many
different ways are used to code these signals
• In telephone systems a commonly used form of signal is tile
changing of the value of an analogue quantity , such as:
• the dc resistance across a pair of wires,
• the amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage etc.
• In message and data systems, special bit patterns are used as
signals

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 • A signal exchange diagram shows a basic set of signals for a
terminal that can be used in either a calling or a called mode
• In the calling mode the first action that the user of the terminal
must take is to transmit a seize signal to the system to indicate that
the terminal wishes to make a connection or pass a message.
• The system generally responds to the seize by an accept signal (for
reasons which will become apparent later)
• The terminal then transmits routing signals and the system
responds with a variety of status signals
• For example: line busy, number invalid, line free, and line answered

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 Basic signal exchange diagram

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 • Once the need for the connection is over, the terminal sends a clear
forward signal
• 'Forward' and 'back' here refer to the direction of traffic which is
deemed to flow from the originating terminal to the terminating
terminal
• In the called mode the terminal is sent a seize signal from the
system and responds with an accept signal .
• At the end of the period of communication the terminal may be
sent a clear forward signal to indicate the end of the connection

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 State transition diagrams
• The signal diagram gives the 'alphabet' of the valid signals between
two devices
• It does not indicate what sequences or 'sentences’ are possible
• The valid sequences and their meaning can be expressed
conveniently in what is called a state transition diagrams (STD)
• STD is a design tool that a set of international standards have been
produced for use in telecommunications systems
• The concepts underlying an STD can be explained by reference to
the control units

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 Basic state transition diagram symbols

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 Multiple decision box

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 • A control unit moves from one state to another only because of the
arrival of a signal from a terminal
• The arrival of a signal is described as an event.
• When the unit does move from one state to another it may perform
some action such as:
• Operating a switch or
• Sending a signal to another control unit or terminal
• The actions performed between one stable state and another are
collectively called a task
• In many cases the combination of current state and new event defines the
task and new state,
• But in some cases there is a choice of next states
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 • Such a choice depends upon information external to an individual
control unit
• The most obvious example of this is the choice of next state after the
routing signal has been received
• A different state is necessary depending upon whether the called terminal
is busy or free

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 • Thus there are four components of a state transition diagram:
• State boxes:
• These are la belled with a number and descriptive title
• In some cases it is useful to place a pictorial representation of the state in box
• Event boxes:
• The possible (or permitted) events are each drawn as arrow indented boxes, the paths
to which come from the state box in question.
• Action boxes:
• Actions are shown by rectangular boxes except for the action of sending a signal to
another control unit or terminal which is given the special symbol of an arrowed box .
• Decision boxes:
• For binary decisions the symbol is the diamond-shaped box as normally used in
computer flowcharting .
• For multiple decisions the extended version shown is used.
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 Simplified std for originating call

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 1.6 Resource Sharing
• A Basic Switching System described above has two inherent
advantages:
• It can be made with very high system availability
• In the absence of faults, the only possible reason for an on-demand
connection to another terminal not being achieved is that the required
terminal is already busy
• With present day technology , however, a system like this is
generally uneconomic.
• The art of switching systems' designers was:
• To find techniques to reduce the cost of a switching system,
• Maintaining high levels of system availability
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 • Practical system designs take advantage of the fact that not all
parts of a complete system are required all the time because of:
• Terminals are not in use or
• They can operate much faster than needed.
• These factors permit the possibility of resource sharing as a means
of cost reduction
• In switching systems there are three techniques of resource
sharing
1) Functional subdivision
2) Common switch network and control
3) Time-Shared Decision Making

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 Functional subdivision
• It is not necessary for all the functions of a control unit to be
available all the time
• While it is in the idle state a control system for one terminal need only
have the function of detecting a seize from its terminal
• When a terminal is in the conversation state its control system does not
need the functions involved in receiving and decoding the routings signals.
• The technique of functional subdivision involves partitioning a
control unit into a number of units
• Which provides only some of the functions of the complete control system
• Each terminal needs a permanently associated unit to detect seize signals,
• But other units may be pooled and switching arrangements introduced

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 Functional Subdivision

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 Common switch network and control
• It is replacing a number of one-by-N switches by a single multiple-
input, multiple-output network
• The M one-by-N main switch es are replaced by a single M-by-N network
• The N one-by-M access switches are replaced by an N-by-M network
• This reduces the total number of switch elements required in a system
• There are two problems with this technique:
1) In most designs of switch network there is a particular probability that
no path will be found between an inlet and
2) It is usually necessary to have a common control for the switch network,
and if this goes wrong it will affect the complete system

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 Common switch network and control

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 Time-Shared Decision Making
• Each control system exists in a number of states and changes its
state only when some event occurs
• When an event occurs its control system must decide on the
necessary actions and the new state .
• The time between occurrence of events at a control system is much
greater than the time required for making decisions
• In a telephone system the shortest time between events for a single
terminal is typically 30ms or more
• Whereas electronic circuits can make a decision in 1us or less .
• The decision - making component may therefore be time -shared
between a large number of control units of a given type

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 • To develop the optimum level and arrangement of resource
sharing which satisfies the functional requirements of the systems
and keeps below a design objective the probability of a terminal
not being able to set-up a call due to
1) Lack of resource when needed, or
2) Faults within a sub-system.

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 1.7 Introduction to traffic and queueing theory
• Sometimes when a call request is made, the resources required
will not be immediately available.
• In these circumstances a call is said to be blocked
• For some applications it is assumed that , if a call is blocked ,
• The call is abandoned or ‘lost’
• In other applications the call request is queued in some way until
the required resources become available
• That is the call 'waits' or ‘queues’
• In practice most systems have a mixture of call loss and call
queueing

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 • If a required resource such as a trunk line is not available:
• The call is lost
• The user receives a busy tone
• Usually, even if the resource subsequently becomes available, the
busy tone will not be removed
• Traffic theory and queueing theory are used to estimate the
probability of occurrence of call blocking
• If queueing is involved, to estimate the statistical distribution of the waiting times of
blocked calls
• In fact theory is usually used for design rather than analysis,
• That is to estimate the quantity of resources required in order for a
system to meet particular probabilities of loss and queueing
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 • A theoretical analysis of the performance of a switching system
needs two pieces of information as a starting point :
• A statistical description of the traffic demands from terminals, and
• A set of performance objectives
• The traffic demands from terminals may be characterized by the
following :
a) Calling rate: is the average number of requests per unit time
b) Holding time: is the mean time that calls last
• The most commonly used distribution is the negative exponential distribution in
which the probability of a call lasting at least t seconds is given by :
• P(t) = exp(- t/h)
• Where h is the average holding time in second

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 • For h = 100 seconds, it shows that with this mean holding time:
• 50% probability that a call lasts longer than 70 seconds;
• 36% probability that a call lasts longer than 100 seconds;
• 13% probability that a call lasts longer than 200 seconds.

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 c) Distribution of destinations:
• Is the probability of a call request being for particular destinations
• This is obviously of importance in a hierarchical, many center system,
• It determines the number of trunks needed between individual centers
d) User behavior when no resource is immediately available:
• The statistical properties of the switching system are a function of the
behavior of users who encounter call blocking
• For instance, the system will behave differently if the user
• Abandons the request ,
• Makes repeated attempts to set up the call
• Waits until the resources become available

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 Macroscopic traffic statistics: the erlang
• The amount of traffic carried by a group of circuits or a group of
switches during any period is the sum of the holding times
expressed in hours
• The traffic flow on a group of circuits or a group of switches equals
the amount of traffic carried divided by the duration of the
observation
• Traffic flow calculated in this way is expressed in erlangs.
• The amount of traffic has the units of time and traffic flow is dimensionless
• TC = HT1 + HT2 + …. + HTN
• TF = TC/t Erlangs

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 • The erlang is named after A. K. Erlang, a mathematician who
developed much of the early theory of telephone traffic
• Applying the definition to an individual terminal
• If the average number of calls arising in time T is n and
• The average holding time of calls is h,
• The amount of traffic carried in time T = nh units of time and
• The traffic flow A = nh/ T erlangs.

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 • In the case of a single terminal the traffic in erlangs is equal to the
average occupancy of the terminal
• Where occupancy is defined as the proportion of the time that a
terminal is busy
• It can be easily shown that the traffic in erlangs from a group of
terminals is numerically equal to both of the following :
a) The average number of concurrent calls
b) The average number of calls which originate in the average holding time
• An alternative unit for traffic measurement in common use in
North America is the hundred call seconds (ccs)
• This is used as a measure of the amount of traffic expressed in units of 100
seconds.
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 Busy hour traffic
• The actual values of all parameters of traffic, and in particular the
calling rate, vary with time
• In a telephone system the number of calls made per hour varies
throughout the day
• There is a peak in the morning for a telephone system with business users
• For a system in a residential area the peak may occur in the early evenings
• Cheap rate tariffs stimulate use of the telephone whereas peak rate
tariffs are a way of maximizing revenue in an acceptable way

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 • The calling rate may vary with the season of the year
• it may be higher during the summer season in a holiday resort.
• There are very large peaks at holiday times such as Christmas
• Most switching systems grow with time, in terms of the number of
terminals, so the total traffic increases.
• It is interesting to note that , as a system such as the telephone
system grows, there is a tendency for
• calling rates (per terminal ) to decrease during certain stages of
this growth

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 • In order to design a suitable switching system some traffic figures
are needed
• Which represent the average demands made by users on the
system over a planning period of the order of six months.
• In the telephone field, the so-called busy hour traffic figures are
used for planning purposes.
• An hour is chosen because it is long compared with the average
holding time of around 3 minutes
• If the parameters are measured for the busiest hour on a number
of the busiest days of the year
• The mean of these measurements gives a useful measure of the traffic

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 • The performance of a switching system is done by specifying a
grade of service (g.o.s.).
• For a system designed on a loss basis, a suitable grade of service is
the percentage of calls which are lost
• because no equipment is available at the instant of the call request.
• In a waiting system a grade of service objective could be:
• The percentage of calls which are delayed or
• The percentage which are delayed more than a certain length of time .

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 • This grade of service is applied to a terminal-to-terminal
connection
• But in a system containing many switching centers it is usually
more convenient to break into component parts
• Such as the grades of service for:
• An internal call
• An outgoing call to the trunk network
• The trunk network itself
• A terminating call .

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 • Typical objectives for overall grades of service for a commercial
telephone system are:
• 3 - 5 % for local calls and
• 6% or 7% for long distance calls
• These figures are comparable with the probability that the called
user is already busy .
• Typical objectives for component parts of a connection are :
• Internal Calls 3 %
• Trunk Calls 1 - 3 %
• Outgoing Calls 2 %
• Incoming Calls 2 %

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 Chapter 2: Types of Switching Systems
• Manual Switching
• Automatic Switching
• Stored Program Control Exchange
• Space Division Switching
• Time Division Switching

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 2.1 Manual Switching
• In early days, the human exchange provided switching facilities
• In manual exchanges, a human operator and the elements like
switches, plugs and sacks were used to connect two subscribers
• In the manual exchange (until 1892), the control was provided by a
human operator and the elements of the switch assemblies are
plugs and jacks
• All the local exchange hardware are duplicated for each subscriber
except the ringing generator, operator’s head set and the battery

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 • If a subscriber A initiates a call to the subscriber B, A lifts the
telephone handset from the cradle
• This action, closes the subscribers loop which includes transmitter
and receiver of the handset
• The closing circuit causes a dc current (from battery) to flow
through line relay and illuminates the lamp of subscriber A
• By seeing the light, the human operator, closes the speak key and
ask the subscriber A ‘‘number please’’
• By knowing the called subscriber is B, The operator throws ring
key B to the ringing generator

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 • The ringing generator provides a dc current to alert the subscriber
B. If B does not pickup the phone after reasonable time, the
operator reports to A that the call cannot be connected.
• If B lefts his phone from its cradle, the lamp of B glows
• The operator then connect jack A to jack B and then say to A go
ahead please.
• Both lights of A and B are ‘on’ till their conversation.
• If any one or both lamps goes off, the operator will disconnect the
jacks.

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 • Limitations of manual exchanges :
1. Language dependent: The operation of a human exchange is language
dependent as the subscriber needs to communicate with the operator
2. Lack of privacy: As a human operator is involving in connecting two
subscribers, he or she may be willing to hear the conversation of two VIP’s or
record the message
3. Switching delay: If the operator is not active, the delay in switching will
be high normally it takes minutes to setup a call or release a call
4. Limited service: An exchange can provide service only to minimum
number of subscriber. If the subscriber rate increases, overload and thus
congestion are not unexpected.

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 2.2 Automatic Switching
• Based on the classification of switching systems, automatic
switching system can be divided in to electromechanical switching
and electronic switching systems
• Around 1890’s many electromechanical switching devices were
introduced
• Till 1940, different electromechanical switching system were
invented, of which strowger switching system and cross bar
switching system were still popular
• Electronic switching system (ESS) which uses stored program
control (SPC) and computer controlled switching systems are
presently dominating the worldwide exchanges

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 2.2.1 Strowger Switching System
• Several electromechanical switching system were developed
around 1880–1890
• Along with his nephew Walters, Strowger produced a working
model in 1888 (US patent No. 447918, 10/6/1891).
• In this system, a moving wiper (with contacts in the end) moved
upto and around a bank of many other contacts, making a
connection with any one of them.
• The reasons for survival of this system even in some part of the
world are its
• High system availability
• Comprehensibility and
• Cheapness and simplicity
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 • There are two types of basic elements which performs most of the
functions of the strowger switching system. They are:
• Uniselectors and
• Two motion selectors.
• Uniselectors: is a one which has a single rotary switch with a bank
of contacts.
• Depending upon the number of switching contacts, uniselectors are
identified as 10 outlet or 24 outlet uniselectors.
• A single 10 outlet or 24 outlet uniselector can be used as a switching
element for 10 or 24 subscribers.
• Several uniselectors can be graded together so that multiple incoming
circuits can be connected to multiple outgoing circuits.
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 (a) 10 contact uniselector, (b) graded uniselectors

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 • An uniselector is operated by (wiper movement) is performed by a
drive mechanism of a rotary switch.
• This mechanism contains an armature, electromagnet, Pawl, and
Ratched wheel.
• The wiper is attached to the ratchet wheel. When the line relay
detects a calling signal, the magnet is energized and operates the
ratchet wheel, pawl and its associated wiper.
• When the electromagnet is deenergised the armature is released
and returns to its rest position.
• Thus, if the electromagnet is energised and deenergised, (for
example 3 times by applying 3 pulses), the wiper moves by three
contacts.
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 Two motion selectors
• A two motion selector is a selector in which a set of wipers is
moved in two different planes by means of separate mechanisms.
• By mounting several arcs of outlets on top of each other, the
number of outlets can be increased significantly
• The wipers are required to move both horizontally to select a bank
and then vertically to move around that bank to the required
outlet.
• Such a selector is known as a two motion selector.

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 Two motion selector

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 Step by Step Switching
• The strowger switching system consists of subscriber’s line circuit,
line finder & allotter circuit, Group selector and final selector.
• The block diagram of strowger switching which explains the
process by which the switching system connects a calling
subscriber and called subscriber

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 • Subscriber line circuit (SLC): Every subscriber is connected to his
local exchange by one pair of wires and at the exchange, every
subscriber line terminates into its own subscriber line circuit
• Group Selector: Depends on the subscriber number, the group
selector may comprise one or two selectors, generally referred as
first and second selectors.
• Final selector: The final selector takes care of the last two digits. As
the last two digit being 4 and 5. The dialing of 4 advances the
switch to row 4 and then the dialing of 5, rotates the switch to the
5th column.

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 Disadvantage of strowger switching system
1. As this switching involves heavy mechanical displacements, regular maintenance by the
skilled technicians are necessary.
2. It is not feasible to select an alternate route for interoffice calls, if all the trunks are busy as
the switching is by step through various selectors.
3. Step by step switching is limited to dial pulses. For touchtone telephones, special devices
has to be introduced.
4. If calling rate is high, heavy operation is performed by the system and the life time of the
system is less.
5. The last two digits of the called line numbers are specifically determined by their location
on the connector. Congestion could arise when the switching system is heavily loaded.
6. The capacity of switching system reduces if codes of different numbers are allotted to
various subscribers
7. The strowger system can accept only 7 to 9 pulses in 1 second. Hence if we dial fast, the
system can not give correct performance.

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 2.2.2 Crossbar Switching System
• In the late 1930’s and throughout 1940’s, AT & T introduced
various versions of the crossbar switches.
• This crossbar switch basically consists line link frames trunk, link
frames and common control equipment.
• With crossbar switches and common control equipment, the
crossbar exchange achieves full access and nonblocking
capabilities.
• Active elements called crosspoints are placed between input and
output lines. In common control switching systems, the switching
and the control operations are separated.

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 • The unique features of the crossbar switches are:
(i) Common control allows the customer and the switch to share the
common equipments used to process the call.
(ii) Wire logic computer allows specific routine functions of call processing
to be handwired into the switch.
(iii) Flexible concentration ratios allows the system designer to select the
appropriate ratio for a specific switch based on customer mix in a specific
location.
(iv) Crossbar switches are easier to maintain because the switch have
significantly fewer moving parts than strowger switching system.

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 • The fundamental concept of crossbar switching is that it uses
common control networks.
• The common control networks enables the exchange to perform
event monitoring, call processing, charging, operation and
maintenance.
• The common control also facilitates uniform numbering of
subscribers in a multiexchange area like big cities and routing of
calls from one exchange to another via some intermediate
exchanges.
• The common control makes no call processing until it receives
entire number. It receives all the number, stores, and then
establishes connection.
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 • The crossbar switch is known as a non-blocking crossbar
configuration.
• It requires N2 switching elements for N subscribers.
• Thus for 100 subscribers, 10000 crosspoint switches are required.
• Hence, crossbar is economic only for small private exchanges requiring
small switches.
• For connecting and releasing the subscriber, the select magnet and
bridge magnet should be energized and deenergized respectively.
• External switch must decide which magnet to operate.
• This is called marker. A marker can control many switches and
serve many registers.

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 Diagonal crosspoint matrix
• A diagonal matrix for 5 subscriber is shown below.
• The number of crosspoints are reduced to N (N–1)/2, where N is
the number of subscribers.
• It is also called triangular matrix or two way matrix.

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 Blocking Configurations
• For the rectangular matrices with N inputs and N outputs, the number of switches
is now 2N2 compared to N2 for the single stage.
• Here, the random failure of a limited number of switches will not preclude
connections.

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 Multistage switching
• The single stage structures are called non-blocking and the multistage crosspoints are called
blocking.
• Many of the limitations of the single stage matrix can be remedied by using a multistage structure.
• In order to produce longer switches a two stage link system of primary and secondary switches is
use

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 AT & T No. 5 Crossbar System
• This system was developed by the Bell Telephone Laboratories
and brought into service in 1948.
• This system is especially suitable for isolated small cities and for
residential areas on the fringes of large cities.
• When the percentage of calls connected to subscribers in the same
office is relatively high, No. 5 crossbar system is useful.
• Improvements and added features have widened the applications
of the No. 5 equipment.
• It is presently being used in almost all areas including
metropolitan business exchanges and rural centers of about 2000
lines or more

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 • Line link frames: The basic line link frame is a 2 bay frame work with each bay
mounting ten 200 point, 3 wire switches. The ten switches on one bay are used as
combined line and junctor switches and provide terminations for 100 junctors and
100 lines.
• Junctors: Each line link frame has 100 junctor terminations which are used to
connect to all the trunk link frames in the office. The number of junctors in a group
depends on the number of trunk line frames in the office.
• Trunk link frames. The trunk link frame is made up of trunk switches, junctor
switches and relays for marker access to the frame. Trunks and originating
registers, which register the called number are connected to the trunk switches.
• Common control equipments: The common control equipments used in AT & T
crossbar system are originating and incoming registers, markers, translators,
senders and connectors. These equipments are explained briefly below.

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 • Marker. It is the most active part of common control equipment. All the markers
and their associated equipment serves up to a maximum of 20,000 members make
a marker group.
• Outgoing registers. It furnish dialtone to subscribers and record the digits that are
dialed, and then the called number is transmitted from register to marker.
• Pretranslator. The pretranslator determines, how many digits the register should
expect before seizing a marker. A pretranslator can be placed in the outgoing
register.
• Outgoing Sender. The sender type is based on the switching system used. In
crossbar No. 5 office, four different types of outgoing senders provided are:
• Dial pulse (DP),
• Multi frequency (MF),
• Reventive pulse (RP)
• Panel call indicator (PCI)

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 • Connectors. It is used for interconnecting two equipment elements for
short interval of time.
• Important features of No. 5 crossbar system :
(i) The use of precious metal, non-sliding contacts results in noise free
conversations.
(ii) Various options of charging methods such as AMA or message resister and
coin.
(iii) Provision of toll and tandem switching features with the same common
control equipment as is used for local traffic.
(iv) Good trouble shooting procedures and additional features like eleven digit
capacity, alternate routing, code conversion, marker pulse conversion etc.
(v) Improved distribution of usage over various equipment units by means of
rotating sequence and memory circuits.
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 2.3 SPC Exchange
• In last two sections, the strowger’s step by step switching system
and crossbar switching system were studied.
• In each case, electromechanical components were used for both
switching and control elements.
• In 1965, Bell system installed the first computer controlled
switching system which uses a stored program digital computer
for its control functions.
• The SPC concepts permits the features like abbreviated dialing, call
forwarding, call waiting etc.
• The SPC enables easier number changes, automated call tracing
message unit accounting (for billing) etc.

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 • In SPC, a programe or a set of instructions are stored in its memory
and executed automatically one by one by the processor.
• Carrying out the exchange control functions through programs
stored in the memory of a computer led to the name stored
program control.
• A computer can be programmed to test the conditions of the inputs
and last states and decide on new outputs and states.
• The decisions are expressed as programs which can be rewritten
to modify or extend the functions of control system.
• All switching systems manufactured for use as public switching
systems now use computers and software programming to control
the switching of calls.
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 Basic view of SPC telephony switch
• The SPC uses processors designed to meet the various requirements of the
exchange.
• More than one processors are used for the reliability.
• Normally these processors are duplicated.
• Also the SPC system uses distributed software and hardware architectures.
• To carry over the maintenance functions of the switching system, a separate processor is used.

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 • Using the above setup, the SPC performs trunk routing to other
control or tandem offices.
• Special features and functions are also enabled with sophisticated
equipments and in compact form.
• There are two types in SPC exchanges, namely
1) Centralized SPC and
2) Distributed SPC
• In the following sections, both types are described.

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 2.3.1 Centralized SPC
• Early electronic switching systems are centralized SPC exchanges and used a single
processor to perform the exchange functions.
• Presently centralized exchanges uses dual processor for high reliability

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 • A dual processor architecture may be configured to operate in
(a) stand by mode
(b) synchronous duplex mode and
(c) Load sharing mode.
• Standby mode: In this mode, any one of the processors will be
active and the rest is standby.
• The standby processor is brought online only when the active processor
fail.
• This mode of exchange uses a secondary storage common to both
processors.

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 • Synchronous duplex mode: In this mode, the processors p1 and
p2 are connected together to exchange instructions and controls.
• Instead of a secondary storage common to p1 and p2, separate memory
M1 and M2 are used.
• These processors are coupled to exchange stored data. This mode of
operation also uses a comparator in between p1 and p2.
• Load sharing mode: In this mode, the comparator is removed and
alternatively an exclusion device (ED) is used.
• The processors calls for ED to share the resources, so that both the
processors do not seek the same resource at the same time.
• In this mode, both the processor are active simultaneously and share the
resources of exchange and the load dynamically
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 Availability
• Single processor: Availability
=
+
• MTBF = Mean time between failures
• MTTR = Mean time to repair
• Unavailability = 1 – A
U=
• If MTBF >> MTTR
U=

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 • Dual Processor: A dual processor system is said to have failed
only when both processor fails and the total system is unavailable.
• The MTBF of dual processor is given by
=
2
• Availability
= =
+ +2
• Unavailability
2
= =
+ +2
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 Example
• Given that MTBF = 2000 hrs and MTTR = 4 hrs. Calculate the
unavailability for single and dual processor systems for 10 years
and 30 years.

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 2.3.2 Distributed SPC
• The introduction of distributed SPC enabled customers to be
provided with a wider range of services than those available with
centralized and electromechanical switching system.
• Instead of all processing being performed by a one or two
processor in centralized switching, functions are delegated to
separate small processors (referred as regional processors).
• But central processors is still required to direct the regional
processors and to perform more complex tasks.

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 • The distributed SPC offers better availability and reliability than
the centralized SPC.
• Entire exchange control functions may be decomposed either
horizontally or vertically for distributed processing.

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 • In vertical decomposition, the exchange environment is divided
into several blocks and each block is assigned to a processor that
performs all control functions related to that block of equipments.
• In horizontal decomposition, each processor performs one or some
of the exchange control functions.
• Figure above shows the distributed control where switching
equipment is divided into parts, each of which have its own
processor.

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 2.4 Space Division Switching
• In space division switching, the paths in the circuit are separated
from each other spatially
• It was originally designed for analog networks, but is used
currently in both digital and analog switching
• A crosspoint switch is referred to as a space division switch
because it moves a bit stream from one circuit/bus to another
• For large group of outlets, considerable savings in total crosspoints
can be achieved if each inlet can access only a limited number of
outlets.
• Such situation is called limited availability.

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 • By overlapping the available outlet groups for various inlet groups,
a technique called ‘‘grading’’ as established.
• Rectangular crosspoint array is an example of grading. For longer
trunk groups, large crosspoints were expensive and not used now-
a-days.
• The number of crosspoints required are M × N, where M is number
of inlets and N is number of outlets.

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 Multistage Switching
• It is inefficient to build complete exchanges in single stages. Single
stage can only be used to interconnect one particular inlet outlet
pair.
• Also the number of crosspoints grows as the square of the inputs
for grading, N (N–1)/2 for a triangular array and N (N–1) for a
square array.
• Also the large number of crosspoints on each inlet and outlet line
imply a large amount of capacitive loading on the message paths.
• Therefore, it is usual to build exchanges in two or three stages to
reduce the number of crosspoints and to provide alternative paths.
• The sharing of crosspoints for potential paths through the switch is
accomplished by multiple stage switching.
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3/22/2022 143
 • Consider the three stage switching structure to accommodate 128
input and 128 output terminals with 16 first stage and last stage.
• The N input lines are divided into N/n groups of n lines each. Each
group of n inputs is accommodated by an n-input, k-output matrix.
• The intermediate stages are k in number and N/n inputs and N/n
outputs. The inter-stage connections are often called junctors.
• Each of the k paths utilizes a separate center stage array. An
arbitrary input can find k alternate output. Thus multistage
structure provides
• alternate paths. Also the switching link is connected to a limited
number of crosspoints. This enables the minimized capacitive
loading.
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 • The total number of crosspoints NX for three stage is
=2 + ( )
• Where
• N = Number of inlets-outlets
• n = size of each inlet-outlet group
• k = number of second stage.
• 2Nk = number of cross points in 1st and 2nd stage
• ( ) = number of cross points in each array of second stage
• k( ) = total number of cross points in second stage
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 • Also
= (2 + )

• The three stage switching matrix require that k ≥ 2n – 1 to generate no blocking, k =

2n – 1 and for large N, =

• Number of cross points for a three stage switching matrix to connect N inlets to N
outlets is
⁄
=4 2
• When very large number of lines must be accommodated, switching structures with
more stages, even up to eight stages are used.
• The probability that all k links are busy is given by
= [1 − (1 − ) ]
Where =
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 Number of crosspoints in a Non blocking switch

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 Example
• A three stage switching structure is to accommodate N = 128 input
and 128 output terminals. For 16 first stage and 16 last stage,
determine the number of cross points for nonblocking.
• Answer: Nx = 7680 cross points
• If the number of crosspoints in the example is to be reduced by the
factor of 3 with non blocking what is the probability that a call will
be blocked ? Assume the utilization probability p = 15%.
• Answer: B = 1.34%

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 2.5 Time Division Switching
• In time division switching all inlets and outlet one connected to a
common switch mechanism.
• The switch is connected to the required inlet and outlet for short
durations.
• Each input is sampled to change the connecting pattern. Thus switch is fast
and compact.
• This technique may only be used where the signal is not affected
by the sampling process.
• Time division switches of analog signals have limited applications.
• Thus time division switches have more practical value only when
the signal is already in digital form.

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 Chapter 3: Time Division Switching
• Introduction to TDS
• Analog time division switching
• Digital time division switching
• Two-dimensional Switching:
• Space and time switches
• Time-space (TS) Switching
• Space-Time-Space switch
• Time-Space-Time switch

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 3.1 Introduction
• Various facilities of digital switching and transmission is the
reason why the analog switching is slowly getting replaced by
digital switching.
• The incorporation of digital switching and transmission technique
into telecommunications altered the whole telecommunication
industries setup.
• The reliability of digital switching system is becoming increasingly
important for users of telephone services.
• Voice and/or data can be represented using digital signals
efficiently than analog signals.

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 • A switching system is called digital when the input to and output
from the switching system can directly support digital signal.
• Many basic elements of the digital switching system and its
operation are very similar to the stored program control (SPC)
switching system.
• The cost of an analogue switch is roughly proportional to the
number of cross points, but the cost relationship in digital
switching is different.

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 • The functions of the digital switching network is to connect pairs of
channels.
• So that information arriving at the switching center in a particular
channel on one PCM multiplex system can be passed to some other
channel on an outgoing PCM multiplex systems.
• To achieve this switching, two processes referred to as time
switching and space switching are used
• The early version of electronic switching system is the stored
program control (SPC).
• The SPC systems have temporary memory for storing transient call
information and to carry programming information.

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 • The SPC performs line control, trunk control, ancillary control,
maintenance control etc.
• The instructions required for performing these operations are
resided in a single processor.
• For reliability or high availability, the processor may be duplicated.
Thus SPC uses a centralized software and hardware architectures.
• A modern digital switching system employs a number of
processors not uses distributed software and hardware
architectures.

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 • The digital switching system also referred as Electronic Switching
System–III generation is:
• Purely electronic in operation,
• The switching process is by time division/digital transmission,
• The type of control is stored program common control and
• The network uses pulse code modulation.
• Figure below shows the evaluation of digital switching system and
is self explanatory.

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 Evaluation of digital switching

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 Time Division Switching
• Time division switching involves the sharing of crosspoints for
shorter periods of time.
• This paves way for the reassign of crosspoints and its associated
circuits for other needed connections.
• Therefore, in time division switching, greater savings in
crosspoints can be achieved.
• Hence, by using a dynamic control mechanisms, a switching
element can be assigned to many inlet-outlet pairs for few
microseconds.
• This is the principle of time division switching

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 • Time division switching uses time division multiplexing to achieve
switching.
• Two popular methods that are used in time division multiplexing
are the time slot interchange (TSI) and the TDM bus.
• In ordinary time division multiplexing, the data reaches the output
in the same order as they sent.
• But TSI changes the ordering of slots based on the desired
connections.
• The demultiplexer separates the slots and passes them to the proper
outputs.
• The TDM uses a control unit. The control unit opens and closes the
gates according to the switching need.
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 • The principle of time division switching can be equally applied to
analog and digital signals.
• For interfacing sampled analog signals but not digitized, the analog
time division switches are attractive.
• But for larger switches, there are some limitations due to noise,
distortion and crosstalk which normally occurs in PAM signals.
• Thus analog switching is now used only in smaller switching
systems.
• In this section, the analog time division switching and digital time
division switching are described briefly.

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 3.2 Analog Time Division Switching
• In analog time division switching the speech is carried as PAM analog
samples or PCM digital samples, occurring at 125µs intervals.
• When PAM samples are switched in a time division manner, the switching is
known as analog time division switching.
• If PCM binary samples are switched, then the switching is known as digital time
division switching.
• A single switching bus supports a multiple number of connections by
interleaving PAM samples from receive line interfaces to transmit line
interfaces.
• There are two cyclic control stores.
• The first control store controls gating of inputs onto the bus one sample at a
time.
• The second control store operates in synchronism with the first and selects the
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 Analog time division switching structure

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 • The selection of inlet/outlet is controlled by various ways.
• (a) cyclic control and
• (b) memory based control are the important controls.
• Cyclic control: The cyclic control is organized by using Modulo-N
counter and k to 2k decoder as shown below.

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 • The k and N are related by ⌈log2 N ⌉= k
•N = number of inlets/outlets
•k = decoder size.
•⌈ ⌉ = gives the lowest integer. It means k may be assumed lowest integer or
more than that.
• This kind of switching is non-blocking but lack of full availability as it is not
possible to connect inlet to any outlet.
• The switching capacity or number of channel supported by cyclic controlled system
is
125
=

• The numerator 125 µ sec indicates the time taken to scan inlet and outlet and
• The denominator ts is the time in µ sec to setup connection.

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 • Memory based control: Full availability can be achieved if any
one control is made memory based.
• If the input side is cyclically switched and the outlets are connected
based on the addresses of the outlets stored in contiguous location
is referred as input controlled or input driven.
• If the outlets are cyclically switched, the switch is referred as
output controlled or output driven.
• As the physical connection is established between the inlet and the
outlet through the common bus for the duration of one sample
transfer, the switching technique is known as time division space
multiplexing

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 • For this system,
125
=
+ + +
• tm = time to read the control memory
• td = time to decode address and select the inlet and outlet.
• ti = time to increment the modulo N counter.
• tt = time to transfer the sample.
• The capacity equations are valid only for a 8 kHz sampling and non
folded network
• The switching capacity in the memory controlled is equal to N

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 Memory control for both inlet and outlet
• No restrictions on subscriber number and full availability of the switching system
can be achieved by designing a switching configuration with control memory for
controlling both inlets and outlets.
• This configuration referred to as memory controlled time division space switch is shown below.

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 3.3 Digital Time Division Switching
• The digital time division multiplexed signals usually requires
switching between time slots as well as between physical lines.
• The switching between time slots are usually referred as time switching.
• Similar to analog time division switching the switching structure
can be organized expect the use of memory block in place of the
bus.
• This adds the serial to parallel and parallel to serial bit conversion
circuitry’s as the input to the memory block should be in parallel
form.
• The basic requirement of time division switching is that the
transfer of information arriving at in a time slot of one input link to
other time slot of any one of output link.
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 • A complete set of pulses, arriving at each active input line is
referred to as a frame.
• The frame rate is equal to the sample rate of each line.
• A time switch operates by writing data into and reading data out of a single
memory.
• In the process the information in selected time slots is interchanged as
shown below.

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 • In TSI operation, inputs are sequentially controlled and outputs
are selectively controlled.
• The RAM have several memory locations, each size is the same as of single
time slot. Figure below shows the general arrangement of the time division
time switching

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 • The serial to parallel and parallel to serial converter are used to
write the data into the memory and read the data out of memory.
• For convenience, two MDR are shown, but MDR is a single register.
Gating mechanism is used to connect the inlet/outlet to MDR.
• The input and output lines are connected to a high speed bus
through input and output gates.
• Each input gate is closed during one of the four time slots. During
the same time slot, only one output gate closed.
• This pair of gates allows a burst of data to be transferred from one
input line to a specific output line through the bus.
• The control unit opens and closes the gates according to switching
need.
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 (a) Sequential write/random read, (b) random write/sequential read

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 • The time division time switch may be controlled by sequential
write/random read or random write/ sequential read.
• Figure above depicts both modes of operation and indicates how
the memories are accessed to translate information from time slot
2 to time slot 16. Both methods use a cyclic control.
• Figure (a) implies that specific memory locations are dedicated to
respective channels of the incoming TDM link.
• Data are stored in sequential locations in memory by incrementing
modulo N counter with every time slot.
• Thus incoming data during time slot 2 is stored in the second
location within the memory.

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 • On output, information retrieved from the control store specifies which
address is to be accessed for that particular time slot.
• Thus sixteenth word of control store contains the number 2, implying
that the contents of data store address 2 is transferred to the output
link during outgoing slot 16.
• Random write/sequential read mode of operation is opposite to that of
sequential write/random read.
• Incoming data are written into the memory locations as specified by the
control store, but outgoing data are retrieved sequentially under
control of an outgoing time slot counter.
• The data received during time slot 2 is written directly into data store
address 16 and it is retrieved during outgoing TDM channel number 16.

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 3.4 Two-dimensional Switching
• Combination of the time and space switches leads to a configuration
that achieved both time slot interchange and sample switching across
trunks.
• These structures also permit a large number of simultaneous
connections to be supported for a given technology.
• Large digital switches require switching operations in both a space
dimension and a time dimension.
• There are a large variety of network configurations that can be used to
accomplish these requirements.
• The incoming and outgoing PCM highways are spatially separate.
• So the connection of one line of local exchange obviously requires space
switching to connect to the channel of outgoing highways.
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 • Thus the switching network must be able to receive PCM samples
from one time slot and retransmit them in a different time-slot.
• This is known as time slot interchange, or simply as time switching.
• Thus the switching network must perform both space and time switching.
• The space switching and time switching may be accomplished in
many ways.
• A two stage combination switch may be organized with time
switch as first stage and the space switch as the second stage or
vice versa.
• The resulting configurations are referred as time space (TS) or
space time (ST) switches respectively

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 • Three stage time and space combinations of TST and STS configurations are more
popular and flexible.
• Very large division switches includes many combinations of time and space
switches.
• Typical configurations are TSST, TSSSST, and TSTSTSTS. These switches support
40000 lines or more economically.
• The general block diagram involving time and space switching is shown below

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 • The main task of the switching part is to interconnect an incoming
time slot and an outgoing time slot.
• The unit responsible for this function is group switch.
• There are two types of building block in the digital group switch.
• They are time switch and space switch.
• In Figure above, the subscriber makes a local call to B.
• The control unit has assigned time slot 3 to the call on its way into the
group switch, and time slot 1 on its way out of the group switch (to B).
• This is maintained during the entire call. Similarly B to A also
carried out.

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 3.4.1 Space and Time Switches
• Space switch:

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 • Space switch uses a space array to provide switching generally the
space switch consists of a matrix of M × N switching points
• Where M is number of inlets and N is number of outlets
• A connection between an inlet and an outlet is made by the simple
logic gates (AND gates).
• As logic gates are unidirectional, two paths through switching
matrix must be established to accommodate a two way
conversation.
• The logic gate array can serve for concentration, expansion or
distribution depending on M is larger, smaller or equal to N.
• The figure shows only one voice direction. However, the corresponding
components are available for the opposite direction too.
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 • A number of M, of X slot multiplexers, provide the inputs and the
outlets are connected to N, X slot demultiplexers.
• The gate select memory has X locations.
• The word containing information about which cross point is to be
enabled is decoded by the translator.
• During each internal time slot, one cross point is activated.
• In the shift to the next interval time slot, the control memory is
incremented by one step
• And a new crosspoint pattern is formed in the matrix

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 • Time switch. The time-slot interchange (TSI) system is referred to as
time switching (T-switching).
• Figure below shows the block diagram of time switch.

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 • Each incoming time slot is stored in sequence in a speech memory
(SM).
• The control memory (CM) determines in which order the time
slots are to be read from SM.
• This means that a voice sample may be moved from say incoming
time slot 3 to outgoing time slot 1.

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 3.4.2 Time-space (TS) Switching

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 • This switch consists of only two stages. This structure contains a
time stage T followed by a space stage S
• Thus this structure is referred to as time-space (TS) switch.
• The space array have N inlets and N outlets. For each inlet line, a
time slot interchanger with T slots is introduced.
• Each TSI is provided with a time slot memories (not shown)
• Similarly a gate select memory needs to be provided for the space array
(not shown)
• The transmission of signals carried out from sender to receiver
through multiplexer input and demultiplexer output.
• The reverse communication also similar.

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 • Let the communication is to take place between subscriber A and B. Let A is
assigned time slot 2 and line 7 and subscriber B is assigned time slot 16 and line 11.
• Then the signal moved from time slot 2 to time slot 16 by the time-slot exchanger
and is transferred from line 7 to line 11 in the space array.
• Similarly, the signal originated by B is moved from slot 16 to slot 2 through line 11 to 7.
• The cyclic control and gate select memory contains the information needed to
specify the space stage configuration for each individual time slot of a frame.
• The time stage have to provide decays ranging from one time slot to a full frame.
• During each outgoing time slot, control information is accessed that specifies inter-
stage link number to output link.
• During other time slots, the space switch is completely reconfigured to support
other connections.

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 • Let each time slot interchanger have T slots.
• If the space array is a N × N, then the simultaneous connections
possible is NT.
• If T = 128 and N = 16, 2048 connections can be supported.
• This structure is not free of blocking.
• The control store is a parallel end around shift resister.
• If space array is at the inlet side and time switch is at the output
side, the structure is referred as space time (ST) switching.
• Both TS and ST arrangements are equally effective.
• TS system is used in DMS 100 digital switching system developed in
Canada (1979).
• It handles 61000 trunks and accommodates 39000 trunks.
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 Blocking Probability
• The blocking probability of TS switching is calculated as follows.
⍴
• The probability that a subscriber A is active =
• ρ = fraction of time that a particular link is busy measured in Erlangs
• T = number of time slots in a frame.
• The probability that any other subscriber is active on the same link
(1 − )
=
• The probability that a particular called subscriber is chosen by A
1 1
= ∗
• N = Number of inlets (or outlets) for N × N space array.
• NT = Simultaneous connection
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 • The probability that the same time slot on a different outlet is
chosen by the other subscribers on the same inlet
( − 1)( − 1)
=
( − 1)
• From Blocking probability
( )( )
=
∗ ( )

• As T >> 1 and N >> 1, & NT >> 1

=
• The TS switch can be made non-blocking by using an expanding time switch (T to
T2 slots) and a concentrating space switch (which is complex)
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 Implementation Complexity (IC)
• In general the complexity of the switching is represented in terms
of number of cross points (N2) and its associated cost.
• The number of cross points in space stage can be easily calculated
which is based on the array size.
• The time stage uses significant amount of memory which adds the
cost of the whole system.
• To take this into account the cost of memory bit is assumed one
hundredth of the cost of cross point.
= +
100

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 • NX = Number of space stage cross points
• NB = Number of bits of memory
• NB not only includes the time stage memory arrays, but also the
control memory (store) of the time stage and space stage
NB = NBX + NBT
• NBX = Number of memory bits for the space stage control store
• NBX= N × (Number of control words) (number of bits per control word)
• NBT = Number of memory bits in the time stage equal to sum of
time slot interchange and the control store bits.
• NBT= N × number of channels × number of bits per channel + N × number
of control words × number of bits per control world.
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 Example
• If N = 80, NBX = 13, 440 and NBT = 24,960 for a typical TS switch,
calculate the implementation complexity.
+ 13440 + 24960
= + = 80 ∗ 80 +
100 100
IC = 6784 equivalent cross points

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 3.4.3 Space-Time-Space Switch

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 • In STS switching, the time stage is sandwiched between two space
arrays.
• The digital switching system ITS 4/5 of USA (1976) uses the STS switching
configuration.
• It handles 3000 trunks and accommodates 1500 Erlangs of traffic.
• Figure above shows the spacetime-space (S-T-S) switching
network for M incoming and outgoing PCM highways.
• Establishing a path through an STS switch requires finding
• A time switch array with an available units access during the incoming
time slot and
• An available read access during the desired outgoing time slot.

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 • The input side space stage as well as the output side space stage is
free to utilize any free time switch modules.
• In the diagram shown in the figure above, the time slot 2 is
connected to the TSM 2
• Where the time slot allotted is 16 and passed to the (M – 1)th line of
output space array
• Thus the path is provided.
• This structure is of non-blocking nature.

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 Blocking probability
• The STS switch is identical to the probability graph of three stage
space switches
• Similar to that, the blocking probability of an STS switch is
= 1− 1−

• ⍴ = probability that a link is busy

• β = K/N = is the factor by which the percentage of links that are
busy is reduced.
• K<N and β < 1
• K = number of center stage TSM.
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 Implementation capacity (IC)
• While calculating IC, the following factors are to be considered
• Total number of two space stage cross points,
• Total number of two space stage control bits,
• Number of time stage memory bits, and
• Number of time stage control bits.
2 log
8 + + log
=2 +
100
• K = The minimum number of center stage TSM to provide desired
grade of service
• C = number of channel

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 3.4.4 Time-Space-Time Switch
• In TST switching the space stage is sandwiched between two time stage
switches.
• Of all the multistage switching, TST is a popular one.
• Popular digital switching systems using TST are tabulated in table below

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 • The principle of operation of TST switching is shown in the figure given below.
• In figure, two flows of time slots, one for each direction are connected together.

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 • The functional block diagram which explains the transfer of signals from inlet to
outlet is shown in the figure given below.

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 • The information arriving at the incoming link of TDM channel is
delayed in the inlet time stage until an appropriate path through
the space stage is available.
• Then the information is transferred through the space stage to the
appropriate outlet time stage.
• Here the information is held until the desired outgoing time slot occurs.
• Any space stage time slot can be used to establish a connection.
• The space stage operates in a time divided fashion, independently
of the external TDM links.
• There are many alternative paths between a prescribed input and
output unlike a two stage network which has only one fixed path.

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 Blocking probability
• The blocking probability is minimized if the number of space stage
time slots L is made to be large.
• By direct analogy of three stage space switches, the TST switch is
strictly non-blocking if L = 2T - 1
• T = number of time slot of time switch.
• L = number of space slot of space switch.
• The general expression of blocking probability for a TST switch
with non-blocking individual stage is
= 1 − (1 − )

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 Implementation complexity
• The implementation complexity (IC) of a TST switch can be
derived as
log +2 8 +2 log
= +
100
• Example: Determine the implementation complexity of 2048 channel TST
switch with 16 TDM links and 128 channels. Let the time slot of space
switch is 25.
• Given N = 16, T = 128, L = 25
16 ∗ 25 ∗ log 16 + 2 ∗ 16 ∗ 128 ∗ 8 + 2 ∗ 16 ∗ 25 ∗ log 128
= 16 +
100

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 Chapter 4: Advances in Switching
• Introduction
• Message Switching
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
• Numbering and Services

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 4.1 Introduction
• This section describes various techniques used to establish
connections between users exchanges.
• Switches are hardware and/or software devices used to connect
two or more users temporarily.
• The most important switching methods are:
1) Message switching,
2) Circuit switching, and
3) Packet switching.

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 4.2 Message Switching
• The terminals of the message switching systems are usually
teleprinters.
• In this switching, delays are incurred but no calls are lost as each
messages are queued for each link.
• Thus much higher link utilization is achieved.
• The reason for the delay is that the system is designed to maximize
the utilization of transmission links by queueing message awaiting
the use of a line.
• This switching is also called store and forward switching.

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 • In message switching, the messages are stored and relayed from
secondary storage.
• So, message switching is best known by the term store and
forward.
• In message switching, there is no direct link between the sender
and the receiver.
• A message delivered to the destination is rerouted along any path
before it reaches the destination.
• It was common in 1960’s and 1970’s.
• Typical message switching network is shown in the figure below.

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 Message switching network

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 • Message switching offers the possibility of greatly improved
economy.
• The working of message switching is as follows:
• Source sends message M1 to the destination.
• Suppose that the transmission path selected is A––C––D.
• In message switching no complete connection is required.
• Thus each message includes a header contains
• The destination address,
• Routing information, and
• Priority information (for special cases).

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 • The node A will transmit message M1 to switching center C.
• Where it will be stored in a buffer.
• The processor in each node maintains message queues for each
outgoing link.
• These queues are normally serviced on a first come, first served basis.
• In the header have priority information, the message will be
passed earlier.
• Then, after storage and possible delay, the message will go from
node C to D and then to the destination.
• To store the messages, large capacity storage media is necessary at each
node.

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 • Most message switching networks could deliver a message on a
delayed basis if destination node is busy or otherwise unable to
accept traffic.
• The message switching was used in unintelligent devices such as
telegraphy.
• Since these devices has been replaced by the high speed intelligent
devices, this switching is unpopular for direct communications.
• In message switching network, the transmission links are never idle.
• Utilization of transmission link of a message switching network is
directly related to the actual flow of information.
• With increased store and forward queuing delays, utilization
efficiency can be increased.
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 4.3 Circuit Switching
• The circuit switching sets up connection between the telephone,
telex networks etc. which interchange information directly.
• If a subscriber or system to which connection to be made as
engaged with other connection, path setup cannot be made.
• Thus circuit switching is also referred as lost call system.
• Circuit switching creates a direct physical connection between two
devices such as phones or computers.
• In order to setup a direct connection over many links it is
necessary that each link to be simultaneously free.
• This implies that the average utilization of the links must be low if
the probability of demand for connection is more.
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 • It is therefore used in voice networks mainly and not in networks
designed for data transfer.
• A circuit switch is a device with n inputs and m outputs that
creates a temporary connection between source and destination.
• The inputs n and outputs m need not be equal.
• In order to transmit information, a circuit switched network finds
a route along which it has free circuits.
• The network connects the circuits together and reserves them for
the transmission.
• Figure below illustrates the circuit switching.

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 Circuit switching network

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 • In the figure above, the end device A is connected to the end device
D through switches II, III and V.
• Circuit switching involves three phases:
• First, the source, request the network for the route.
• The network assigns a route.
• Second, data transfer now occurs,
• The duration of the data transfer is called holding time.
• Third, once the data transfer is competed,
• The path setup is disconnected.
• By moving the level of switches, any end devices can be connected
to any other end devices.
• Circuit switching is usually accomplished by TDM.
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 • As the data transfer takes place in three phases, the time taken for
the data transfer (T) is expressed as
T = Tp + Td + Tr
• Tp = Path setup time (N – 1) Trs
• Trs = average route selection time
• N = Number of switches in the path
• Td = data transfer time = M/R
• M = Message length in bits
• R = data transfer rate in bits per sec
• Tr = data release time = NTh
• Th = house keeping entries time.
• Thus T = (N – 1)Trs + M/R + NTh
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 • Let N = 3, If Trs = 2 sec, Th = 0.2 sec, R = 2400 bps and the message
is 300 bytes long,
• The time for the data transfer is
• T = (3 – 1) × 2 + 300 × 8/2400 + 3 × 0.2 = 4 + 1 + 0.6 = 5.6 sec.

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 Comparison of message and circuit switching

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 4.4 Packet Switching
• The modified form of message switching is called packet switching.
• Packet switching system carries data from a terminal or computer
as a short packets of information to the required destination.
• This system is midway between message switching and circuit
switching.
• The first packet switching system Arpanet, was developed by the
U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1969.
• The system used PDP-8 minicomputers made by Digital Equipment
Corporation as packet switches, which were connected by
dedicated 50 kbps telephone lines.

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 • The data stream originating at the source is divided into packets of
fixed or variable size.
• The data communication system typically have heavy traffic.
• Thus, the time interval between consecutive packets may vary, depending
on the burstiness of the data stream.
• A typical upper bound on packet length is 512 octets (bytes).
• Each packet contains a portion of the user’s data plus control information.
• As the bits in a packet arrive at a switch or router, they are read
into a buffer.
• When the entire packet is stored, the switch routes the packet over
one of its outgoing links.
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 • The packet remains queued in its buffer until the outgoing link becomes idle.
• This technique is called store and forward technique.
• Figure below illustrates the flow of packet switching

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 • In the figure given above, two packets (P1, P2) are entering at
station A and B.
• The packet (P1) entering at A is targeted to the station H and the
packet (P2) entering at B is targeted to the station G.
• Depends on the path availability the packet P1 choses the path as
station A–C–E–H.
• Similarly the packet P2 choses the path as station B–C–D–G.
• In each station, the packets are stored in a buffer and forwarded to
the next station after the availability.

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 • From the previous section, it is clear that in packet switching,
messages are broken into packets and sends one at a time to the
network.
• Routing control decides how the network will handle the stream of
packets as it attempts to route them through the network and
deliver them to the intended destination.
• The routing decision is determined in one of two ways. They are:
1. Datagram
2. Virtual circuit

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 Datagram
• In datagram, each packet within a stream is independently routed.
• A routing table stored in the router (switch) specifies the outgoing
link for each destination.
• The table may be static or it may be periodically updated.
• In the second case, the routing depends on the router’s estimate of
the shortest path to the destination.
• Since the estimate may change with time, consecutive packets may
be routed over different links.
• Therefore each packet must contain bits denoting the source and
destination.
• Thus may be a significant overhead.
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 • Figure below shows a simple communication network where the
concept of datagram is explained.
• The circled one are called the switching nodes whose purpose is to
provide a switching facility that will move the data from node to
node until they reach the destination.
• The squared one are called the stations and they may be
computers, terminals, telephones or other communication devices.
• These stations also referred as end devices are the communicating
devices.

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 Virtual circuit
• In virtual circuit, a fixed route is selected before any data is
transmitted in a call setup phase similar to circuit switched
network.
• All packets belonging to the same data stream follow this fixed
route called a virtual circuit.
• Packet must now contain a virtual circuit identifier.
• This bit string is usually shorter than the source and destination
address identifiers needed for datagram.
• Once the virtual circuit is established, the message is transmitted
in packets.
• Figure below shows the concept of virtual circuit
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3/22/2022 227
 • In the figure shown above, suppose that end station B has two
messages to send to the destination D.
• First B sends a control packet referred as call-request packet to
node 2, requesting logical connection to D.
• Node 2 decides to route the request and the subsequent message
packets through node 3 and 4 to destination D.
• If D prepared to accept the connection, it sends a call-accept packet
to node 4.
• Node 4 sends the call-accept packet to B through node 3 and 2.
• Because the route is fixed for the duration of the logical
connection, it is referred to as a virtual circuit.
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 4.5 Numbering and Services
• The numbering plan is used to identify the subscribers connected
in a telecommunication network.
• The main objective of numbering plan by any nation is to
standardize the number length wherever practical according to
CCITT* recommendations.
• Other objectives includes
• To meet the challenges of the changing telecom environment
• To meet subscriber needs for a meaningful and user friendly scheme
• To reserve numbering capacity to meet the undefined future needs.

*CCITT: Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy

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 ITU Recommendations in Numbering
• Recommendation E.164 : It provides the number structure and
functionality for three categories of numbers used for international
public telecommunication.
• The three categories of numbers are :
1. National telephone services: An international public
telecommunication number (for geographic areas) is also referred to
as the national significant number (NSN).
• NSN consists of the country code (CC), national destination code (NDC)
and the subscriber number (SN).

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 2. Global telephone services: An international public
telecommunication number for global telephone service consists of a
three digit country code and global subscriber number.
• The country code is always in the 8XX or 9XX range.
3. International networks: An international public
telecommunication number for international networks consists of
three digit country code, a network identification code and a
subscriber number.
• The country code is always in the 8XX range. The identification code is one
to four digits.

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 • Recommendation E.123: This defines a standard way to write
telephone numbers, email addresses and web addresses.
• It recommends how to use hyphen (-), space ( ), or period (•) .
• ( ) are used to indicate digits that are sometimes not dialed, / is used to
indicate alternate numbers and • is used in web addresses.
• Recommendation E.162: This recommendation describes that the
originating country must analyze a maximum of seven digits of the
E.164 international number.
• When a number is being analyzed, it will be done according to this
recommendations.

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 International Numbering Plan
• This plan has to be implemented irrespective of a country’s national
numbering plane and implemented in accordance to the
recommendations of ITU.
• With some standard international framework, subscribers from
different countries can call each other.
• This plan makes it possible to access all countries with the same
country code any where in the world.
• For the international numbering plan, the world has been divided into
nine geographical area as given below.
• The general rule is that within each global region each country code
starts with the same digit.
• Figure below shows the geographical map of world numbering zones.
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 • The numbering format for international telephone number is
shown below.
• An international telephone number starts with one to three digit
country code followed by 9 to 12 subscriber number.
• The dialing procedure is that the international prefix ‘00’ should be
dialed first followed by the telephone number.

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 National Numbering Plan
• Each country decides for itself what kind of numbering plan it can
have.
• A numbering plan may be open, semi open or closed.
• Each country decides what rules to follow when issuing telephone
numbers.
• Such a numbering plan is called national numbering plan.
• An open numbering plane or non-uniform numbering scheme
allows variations in the number of digits to be used.
• This plan is used in countries equipped extensively with non-director
strowger switching system.
• This scheme is almost extinct.

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 • A closed numbering plan or uniform numbering plan refers to a
numbering plan which only allows telephone numbers of a
predetermined length.
• Special services (toll free, premium rate, etc.) are usually excluded from
this rule.
• A semi-open plan permits number lengths to differ by almost one
or two digits.
• Today, this scheme is the most common and is used in many countries
including India, Sweden, Switzerland and U.K.

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 • The dialing procedure for national numbering plan are also comes
in two categories.
• A closed numbering plan refers to a numbering plan which requires users
to dial all numbers at all times.
• This means that local-local calling also requires the area code to be dialed, as well as
the trunk prefix.
• In open dialing plan local calls can be placed without the trunk prefix and
area code.
• National numbering format is shown below.

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 Telecommunication Services
• The planning of telecommunication system, to give good service,
comprising a network of switching centers with various plans.
• From initiating the network to the extension of the network based
on the increased load, network planning plays a vital role.
• Depending upon the applications the network can supply, the
following functions and its essential parts should be included in
the network

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 1. Switching
2. Routing
3. Flow control
4. Security
5. Signaling
6. Traffic management
7. Accountability
8. Administration
9. Inter networking

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 • All the above functions and some other service related functions are
usually classified or grouped into different levels.
• This grouping ease the network and the concerned network engineers
to carryout the functions efficiently.
• The grouping differs from network to network or divisions to divisions
or between telephone companies.
• The ability of the network to provide these functions has a profound
effect on the type of network.
• In particular, the nodes of the network become more complex and more
expensive as their functionality increases.
• Figure below shows the different levels of the network management.

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 • There are in general three networks which can be used for any
services (voice or data transfer). They are :
(a) Public switched network: It allows access to the end office,
connects through the long-distance network, and delivers to the end
point.
• There are many hierarchies depends on the wish of network provider.
• But, the goal of the network hierarchies is to complete the call in the least
amount of time and the shortest route possible.

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 (b) Private networks: Many companies, depending on their size and
need, create or build their own networks.
• If their networks are underutilized, they may give their network for hire or
lease. These networks employ mixture of technologies
(c) Hybrid networks: To provide a service, if an organization uses
both private and public networks, the network is referred as hybrid
network.
• Normally, the high-end usage services are connected via private facilities,
the lower volume locations use the switched network.

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 • The customers are generally in need of variety of services.
• Even though certain networks are used to perform many services,
they are more effective for a particular one or two services.
• Hence, based on the services, the networks are classified as
1. The Public Switched telephone Network (PSTN)—for telephony.
2. The public switched telegraph network—for telex
3. Data networks—for voice and data
4. Cellular radio network—for mobile communication
5. Special service networks—to meet specialized demands.

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Chapter 5: Introduction to the intelligent network (IN)
• Introduction to Intelligent Network
• The Need for IN
• Intelligent Network Services
• Advanced Intelligent Network

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 5.1 Introduction to Intelligent Network
• Intelligent Network (IN) is an architectural concept for the
operation and provision of new services which is characterized by:
• Extensive use of information processing techniques;
• Efficient use of network resources;
• Modularization and reusability of network functions;
• Integrated service creations and implementation
• Flexible allocation of network functions to physical entities;
• Portability of network functions among physical entities;
• Standardized communication between network functions vie service
independent interfaces;

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 • The term Intelligent Networks (IN) is used to describe an
architectural concept which is intended to be applicable to all
telecommunications networks and aims to ease the introduction
and management of new services.
• The objective of IN is to allow the inclusion of additional
capabilities to facilitate provisioning of service, independent of the
service or network implementation in a multi-vendor
environment.
• Service implementation independence allows service providers to
define their own services independent of service specific
developments by equipment vendors

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 • The Intelligent Networks is a telecommunications network
services control and management architecture.
• As with the past telecommunications technology, it was not
desirable to introduce short term services, because of the long
implementation and development period.
• Now, with IN technology it is possible to introduce new services
rapidly without affecting the available services.
• IN defines a large set of standards that describe the interfaces
between different network control points.

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 • The IN’s main advantage is the ability to control switching and
service execution from a small set of Intelligent Network nodes
known as Service Control Points (SCP).
• SCPs are connected to the network switches (known as Service
Switching Points) via a standardized interface; CCITT Signaling
System No. 7.
• The SS7 will facilitate a multi-vendor SCP and SSP marketplace,
and the standardization of application interfaces allows a multi-
vendor software marketplace for SCP applications (that is, the
service control logic and its related data)
• The SSPs detect when the SCP should handle a service.
• The SSP forwards a standardized SS7 (TCAP) message containing relevant
service information.
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 • The IN’s long term goal is the ability to introduce new services, or
change existing services quickly, without having to adapt SSP
software (only parameters or trigger updates).
• The adaptation will be confined to the SCP where parameters or stimuli
are updated.
• This goal was first planned by Bellcore to be achieved in two
stages: IN/1 and IN/2.
• IN/1 definitions introduced the term Intelligent Network in 1986 and in
1987 IN/2 definitions were introduced.
• In 1988 IN/2 was delayed and IN/1+ was introduced instead.

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 • The AIN concepts were essentially those of IN/2 defining a fully
service independent architecture with total separation of service
logic from the underlying switching system.
• These principles were accepted also by CCITT and ETSI work.
• The AIN Release 1 and CCITT CS1 were published in 1993. Let us
finally summarize early IN/1 and IN/2 outlines.
• An Intelligent Network is able to separate the specification,
creation, and control of telephony services from physical switching
networks.

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 IN Components

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 Service Management System (SMS)
• The SMS is owned by the network operator.
• It updates SCPs with new data or programs and collects statistics
from the SCPs.
• The SMS also enables the service subscriber to control his own
service parameters via a terminal linked to the SMS.
• For example, the subscriber may define the day and time when an
"800" number should be routed to a specific office.
• This modification is filtered or validated by the network operator.
• The SMS is normally a commercial computer
• The SMS may also provide a development environment for new services.

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 Service Control Point (SCP)
• The SCP is used when new IN services are introduced into the
network and then activated.
• If a service is based on functional components (IN/l + and IN/2),
the FCs are executed with the help of a Service Logic Interpreter
(using an explanatory script).
• Some SCP services may require large amounts of data, which must
reside on direct access storage devices, for example, disks.
• The service programs and the data are updated from the SMS.
• The SCP is a commercial computer or a modified switch.
• The critical factor is that the unit can access databases efficiently
and reliably and provide a software platform for rapid service
creation
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 Signaling Transfer Point (STP)
• The STP is part of the Common Channel Signaling Number Seven
(CCS7) network.
• It switches CCS7 messages to different CCS7 nodes.
• The CCS7 is a standardized communication interface through
which the goal of multivendor SCPs and SSPs can be achieved.
• The use of a standalone or integrated STP will depend on network
specific configurations.
• The STP is normally produced by traditional switch manufacturers.

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 Service Switching Point (SSP)
• The SSP serves as an access point for service users and executes
heavily used services (as described for the SCP).
• In IN/I, no "user programmability" exists in the SSP. The SSP is
produced by traditional switch manufacturers.
• The TCAP will be used to communicate between SSPs and SCPs.

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 Intelligent Peripheral (IP)
• The IP provides enhanced services, controlled by an SCP or SSP.
• It is more economical for several users to share an IP because the
capabilities in the IP are either not in the SSP or are too expensive
to put in all SSPs.
• The following are examples of typical IP functions:
• Announcements
• Speech synthesizing
• Voice messaging
• Speech recognition
• Database information made accessible to the end user.
• The IP is usually accessed from the SSP via a circuit or packet basis,
such as ISDN.
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 Vendor Feature Node (VFN) or Service Provider (SP)
• The VFN is outside the network; it is owned and administered by a
service subscriber. It can provide many services.
• The VFN provides the services mentioned for IPs and may be
connected via a CCS7link.
• However, this type of connection includes filter logic which
prevents a VFN using CCS7 messages which could interfere with
network operations.

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 5.2 The Need for IN
• Intelligent Network (IN) is an extension of the already existing network
infrastructure for the addition of services in a centralized way.
• The benefit of IN is thus the fluent introduction of services as not all the
traditional telephone network exchanges need to be updated to support the
achieved services.
•IN also provides additional services that utilize open interfaces.
• This means that in principle the IN networks can be deployed and extended
independently of network element providers.
• An essential element of IN is SCP (Service Control Point) which makes it
possible to offer the IN services in a centralized way.
• The calls that uses IN services are thus directed to this point via SSP elements
(service switching point).

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 • The SCP redirects the calls with the help of core INAP, which is an
intelligent network application protocol.
• Examples of this routing is the call from the fixed telephone
network’s exchange or GSM network’s mobile switching services
exchange between SSP and SCP.
• In SCP, there is service management system (SMS) and databases
that contain information about the services of the users. SMS takes
care of the management and maintenance of these databases.
• Figure below clarifies the architecture of IN and the main
elements.

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 The architecture and main elements of IN

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 • For the communications between IN and other networks, there is STP
element (Service Transfer Point) for the routing of the signaling.
• STP is packet switched, IN-specific network element which specializes in
relaying signaling via the principles of SS7.
• The applications of IN can vary very much.
• Some examples are prepaid service numbers and personalized, PIN-
protected services that can be accessed from any subscription line
• Other examples are reversed billing (B subscriber pays the connection that is
initiated by A-subscriber), division of the bill between A and B subscribers,
voice menu and virtual private network (VPN).
• IN is also suitable for deploying short dialing numbers, call announcements
and automatic redialing of the number.

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 • In practice, there is a range of subscription numbers reserved for national IN
services, indicated by an operator-specific prefix of the number.
• These numbers, as well as others that have been defined as IN numbers but are
not necessarily distinguished by their prefix, are redirected to SSP and finally to
SCP which handles the call according to rules applied to that specific number.
• SCP can, for example, perform a number transform, that allows the special
number to be redirected to the terminal of the final B-subscriber.
• The database dictates the charging principle of these calls, including the cost of
the call which can be, for example, a single cost or based on active call time, in
addition to normal call expense, including the variations of hour and day.
• As soon as the final number of the B-subscriber has been resolved from the data
base, the call is forwarded to the SSP of the receiving end, and finally to the
subscriber.

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 • One of the special benefits of the IN concept is related to the transfer of
subscriber numbers.
• For example, if the user wants to terminate the contract with one mobile
operator and initiate the contract with a new operator, still keeping the
original subscriber number, including the original prefix of the number that
previously might have indicated the operator’s network.
• The liberalization of the number portability has thus been possible via this IN
functionality.
• As a summary, IN provides the possibility to deploy a whole set of totally
new services, and facilitates the flexible management of subscriptions.
• It should be noted that especially mobile communication networks have been
heavily integrated to IN to optimize the service offering and management of
subscriptions.

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 5.3 Intelligent Network Services
• Examples of IN services
• Televoting
• Call screening
• Local number portability
• Toll-free calls/Freephone
• Prepaid calling
• Account card calling
• Virtual private networks (such as family group calling)
• Centrex service (Virtual PBX)
• Private-number plans (with numbers remaining unpublished in
directories)
• Universal Personal Telecommunications service (a universal personal
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 • Mass-calling service
• Prefix free dialing from cellphones abroad
• Seamless MMS message access from abroad
• Reverse charging
• Home Area Discount
• Premium Rate calls
• Call distribution based on various criteria associated with the call
• Location-based routing
• Time-based routing
• Proportional call distribution (between two or more call centers or offices)
• Call queueing
• Call transfer
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 5.4 Advanced Intelligent Network (AIN)
• Developed by Bell Communications Research, AIN is recognized as
an industry standard in North America.
• Its initial version, AIN Release 1, is considered a model toward
which services will evolve.
• Meanwhile, evolutionary subsets of AIN Release 1 have been developed.
• These are shown in the AIN Release Table below.
• Elsewhere, the International Telecommunications Union (see ITU-
T), endorsing the concepts of AIN, developed an equivalent version
of AIN called Capability Set 1 (CS-1).
• It comes in evolutionary subsets called the Core INAP capabilities.

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 The AIN Release
AIN Release Capabilities
Release 0 Trigger checkpoints at off-hook, digit collection and analysis, and routing points of call
Code gapping to check for overload conditions at SCP
75 announcements at the switching system
Based on ANSI TCAP issue 1
Release 0.1 Adds a formal call model that distinguishes the originating half of the call from the terminating half
Additional triggers
254 announcements at the switching system
Based on ANSI TCAP issue 2
Release 0.2 Adds Phase 2 Personal Communication Service (PCS) support
Voice Activated Dialing (VAD)
ISDN-based SSP-IP interface
Busy and no-answer triggers
Next events list processing at SCP
Default routing
Release 1 A full set of capabilities
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 … cont’d
• AIN is a collection of components performing together to deliver
complex call switching and handling services.
• The Service Switching Point (SSP) is the central office that provides
robust, call-switching capabilities.
• When switching decisions require complex call processing, the SSP
relies on the Service Control Point (SCP), a subscriber database,
and it executes service logic.
• The SSP uses SS7 signaling, specifically Transaction Capabilities
Application Part (TCAP) messages, requesting the SCP to
determine the best way to handle the call.

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 • The process supports telephony features, including 800 (888/877)
and 900 calling, credit/debit card calling, call forwarding, and
virtual private networks.
• AIN has promised an architecture that is amenable to rapid
development and deployment of new services.
• How to maintain the stringent performance requirements of a
central office service within this rapidly changing environment is a
major challenge in the advancement of AIN.
• Intelligent Peripherals (IP) and Service Nodes (SN) are elements of
the AIN and must be reliable to be deployed and used in the central
office.

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 • Intelligent Peripherals work in cooperation with Service Control
Points (SCP) to provide media services in support of call control.
• Service nodes combine the functions of the SCP and the IP.
• When viewed as point nodes in the network, these elements (IP
and SN) are subject to failure and require redundant components
and multiple communication paths.
• Software and procedures in support of central office reliability are
also required.

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 • Advanced Intelligent Networks (AIN) provide more features and
functions that are not provided by Intelligent Networks.
• Advanced Intelligent Network does not specify the features and
services, but how they are used by end users.
• An essential component in AIN is the Service Creation Element (SCE).
• Today, service configuration and changes are handled by Telcom
personnel at end offices.
• The SCE specifies the software used to program end office switches.
• The single, most important change is through a Graphical User Interface
• Over time, the SCE will reside at the users’ organization, allowing
customers to tailor their services on an as-needed basis, without telephone
company assistance.
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 • Some of these enhanced features available include the following
items:
█ Calling name delivery
█ Call rejection
█ Call screening (visual or audio)
█ Call trace
█ Call trap
█ Personal ID numbers (pins)
█ Selective call acceptance
█ Selective call forwarding
█ Spoken caller identification

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