Oscillations and Waves

Simple Harmonic Motion

Periodic motion: A motion which repeats itself after a regular interval of time is called periodic motion. Oftenly,
the displacement of a particle in periodic motion can always be expressed in terms of sine and cosine functions.
Since the term harmonic is applied to expressions containing these functions, periodic motion is also called
harmonic motion.
Mathematically any function that repeats itself at regular intervals of its argument is called a periodic function. The
periodic functions which can be represented by a sine or cosine curve are called harmonic functions.

Oscillation/ Vibration: If a particle in periodic motion moves back and forth (or to and fro) over the same path,
then its motion is called oscillatory or vibratory. The examples of oscillatory or vibratory motion are:
- motion of a pendulum
- motion of a spring fixed at one end, which is stretched or compressed and then released
- motion of a violin string
- motion of atoms in molecules or in a solid lattice
- motion of air molecules as a sound wave passes by

Every oscillatory motion is periodic, but every periodic motion need not be oscillatory. e.g., uniform circular motion
is a periodic motion, but it is not oscillatory.
Difference between oscillation & vibration: When the frequency is small, we call it oscillation. e.g., the oscillation
of a pendulum. When the frequency is high, we call it vibration. e.g., the vibration of a string of a guitar.

Simple Harmonic Motion

Let us consider the spring-mass system lies on a frictionless surface. We know that if we stretch or compress the
spring, the mass will oscillate back and forth about its equilibrium (mean) position. Let us displace spring by a
distance x towards right. As we displace it towards right, spring force will try to bring mass m towards left. Thus at a
displacement x, a spring force F develops in the spring in the left direction. We also say this force F as restoring
force as it tries to bring back mass m towards the mean position.

As this restoring force F is opposite to that of displacement, therefore, we can write from Hooke’s Law
= − ------------------ (1) (negative sign because F is opposite to x)
⇒ ∝
Thus, the resultant restoring force F acting on the body is proportional to the displacement x from the equilibrium
position and is directed opposite to the displacement, i.e., towards the equilibrium point. This kind of motion is
known as simple harmonic motion (S. H. M.).

Again, from Newton’s 2nd Law, we have

= --------- (2)

Using (1) and (2), − = ⇒ =−

Since k and m are constants, acceleration a of the

oscillating body is directly proportional to its displacement
from the equilibrium position and is directed opposite
to the displacement, i.e., ⇒ ∝−
Thus, acceleration a of the body is proportional to the displacement x from the equilibrium position and is
directed opposite to the displacement, i.e., towards the equilibrium point. This kind of motion is known as simple
harmonic motion (S. H. M.)

Definition of SHM: We can define SHM as an oscillatory motion in which net restoring force or acceleration of the
oscillating body is directly proportional to its displacement from the equilibrium position and is directed towards the
mean position.
The body performing SHM is known as a simple harmonic oscillator (SHO).

Differential equation of SHM

Let us consider a spring-mass system oscillating on a smooth horizontal surface as shown in the figure. At the
equilibrium position the spring is relaxed. When the block is displaced through x towards right, it experiences a net
restoring force F = – kx towards left.
The negative sign shows that the restoring force is always opposite to the displacement. The restoring force always
tends to restore the block to its equilibrium position x = 0.

∴ = − ---------- (1)
Applying Newton’s Second Law,

= = −

+ = 0 --------- (2)

The above equation is called the differential equation of SHM.

Putting = into the above equation we get

+ = 0 --------- (3)
where, is the angular frequency and is given by = ⁄

Thus, if a body is executing free or undammed vibration, its angular frequency is = ⁄ , which is called
natural frequency of vibration of the body.

The general solution (exponential form) of the differential equation (3) is given by
= + --------- (4)
Here gives the displacement of the body at any instant, A and B are constants to be determined from the initial
conditions.
The general solution can also be written as = sin( + )
The quantity ( + ) is called phase angle and is the initial phase at t = 0

Characteristics of SHM:

NOTE: Time period (T) and frequency.

The angular frequency is given by = ⁄ . The time period of the oscillation is given by = =2 ⁄ .
The period of motion is determined by mass m and elastic constant k. It is independent of the amplitude of
oscillation. Stiffer spring causes quicker oscillations. Heavier mass oscillates slowly.
Characteristics of SHM
 The motion is periodic
 The oscillating system must have inertia (which in turn means mass)
 Restoring force is proportional to the displacement
 Acceleration is proportional to the displacement and directed opposite to the displacement.
 The frequency and time period are independent of the amplitude.
 This implies large oscillations have the same period as small ones

Examples of SHM:

1. A mass suspended to a spring when pulled down and left free executes SHM.
2. A pendulum set for oscillation
3. Excited tuning fork
4. A swing with which children play
5. Shock absorber after bumped
6. In series RLC circuit is a standard example of a SHM (damped oscillation), with trade-off between charge on
capacitor and current in inductor.

Mechanical simple harmonic oscillator:

Mass suspended to spring (vertical vibrations)

Consider a spring of length L suspended freely from a support. If a mass m is attached to its free end B, it will be
stretched downward and its length will be increased by l. There will a change in the equilibrium position, which is at
the point where the spring force equals the gravitational force.

Hence, tension T in the spring , T1 = mg = – kl--------- (1)

Now if the load is further displaced downward through a distance x, making the total increase in the length by (l+x)
the tension in this position T2 will be proportional to (l+x) i.e.

T2 = – k (l+x) ----------- (2)

The resulting force acting on the mass will be T2– T1 OR T2 –mg

Hence we have resulting force on the mass,

F = – k (l+x) –mg
= – k (l+x) + kl
= – kx -------------- (3)
 –
∴ Acceleration of the mass = = ---------- (4)
In the above equation is constant hence acceleration of the mass ∝ its displacement and it is directed towards its
mean position C. Thus the mass will execute SHM with C as its equilibrium position. From eq. (4) we have
= = acceleration per unit displacement
Now, time period T of SHM
= = =2 ------------------- (5)

Since mg = kl we have k = mg/l and substituting this in above equation ,

= 2 --------- (6)

1. Springs in series:

In case if the mass is connected to a spring which consists of two different springs of different stiffness factor (k)
the time period can be calculated as follows:
Let the stiffness factor of spring S1 and S2 be k1 and k2 respectively and the increase in the length of the spring S1 be
x1 and that of S2 be x2. If x is the total increase in the length of the spring system because of the mass m as shown in
the fig., we have
x = x1 + x2 --------- (1)
Now the same weight cause the elongation in each spring

∴ mg = k1x1 and also mg =k2x2

Or = and =

If is the equivalent stiffness factor of the series combination, we have

mg = or =
Substituting the values of x x1 and x2

= = Or
 = = -------- (2)

Or =

From equation (2) we can say that in general if the number of springs of different stiffness is connected in series the
multi spring system can be regarded as consisting of spring of equivalent stiffens factor.

2. Springs in parallel:

Consider two springs S1 and S2 connected in parallel. Each spring will share the total load and will have equal
elongation say x. If k1 and k2 are stiffness factors for spring S1 and S2 and is the equivalent stiffness factor for the
parallel combination.
Total restoring force = mg= -------- (3)
Restoring force in spring S1 = k1x ------- (4)
Restoring force in spring S2 = k2x ------- (5)
Now total restoring force = Restoring force in spring S1+ Restoring force in spring S2

= +

Or = + --------- (6)

Thus the number of springs is connected in parallel the equivalent stiffness factor is the sum of the individual
stiffness factor.

Vibrations
The study of vibrations is concerned with the oscillating motion of elastic bodies and the force associated
with them. All bodies possessing mass and elasticity are capable of vibrations. The characteristic feature of vibration
is its periodicity i.e. there is a movement or displacement or variation in the value of a physical quantity that repeats
over and over again. In mechanical systems the periodicity refers to displacement while in the electrical system, it is
related to current and voltage. At the microscopic level, atoms and molecules execute periodic vibrations in the solid
state. The propagation of light involves the vibrations of electric and magnetic fields while that of sound, the
periodic motion of atoms and molecules. Most engineering machines and structures experience vibrations to some
degree and their design generally requires consideration of their oscillatory motions.
Vibrations are classified in to three types: (i) Free vibrations (ii) Damped Vibrations (iii) Forced Vibrations.

 Free Vibrations:

If we consider the vibration of a simple spring mass system it will vibrate with a natural frequency of

= 12

If no resistance is offered to the motion of the vibrating body by any source such as air friction or internal forces, the
body will keep on vibrating indefinitely and such vibrations are called the free vibration.

“The vibrations in which the body vibrates with its own natural frequency when left free to itself, without
decrease in its amplitude are called free vibrations”.

In free vibrations only restoring force acts on the body. This restoring force is proportional to the displacement
and acts always towards the mean position. For example, vibrations of simple pendulum and simple spring mass
system. In practice, it is not possible to eliminate friction completely. Actually the amplitude of the vibrating body
gradually decreases to zero as a result of friction. In the above examples, friction is less and can be considered as the
examples of free vibrations.

Theory / Analysis of free vibrations: (NOT FOR EXAM)

Let us consider the motion of a particle of mass m acted upon by a restoring force proportional to its
displacement. The restoring force may be expressed by -µy where µ is constant of proportionality and negative sign
indicates that the restoring force acts in opposite direction to the displacement.
Now according to Newton's law
Force= mass ×acceleration = m

∴ = −

Or =− =−

Where =
∴ + =0 -------- (1)

Equation (1) is homogeneous differential equation of second order, and its solution is of the form,

t
ye ……………(2)

dy t
Then dt  . e

2
and d 2y   2et
dt
Substituting these values in eq (1), we get

t 2 2 t
e   e 0

t 2 2
e (   )  0

Here, et ≠0, because it leads to trivial solution.

2 2
    0
2 2
  
 i

Thus, the general solution of eq (1) is given by

= + ---------- (3)

where A and B are some constants

From eq. (3) 

y  A cos t i sin t B cos t i sin t
y  (A  B ) cost i(A  B )Sin t

Let (A+B) = R sin 

and i(A–B)= R cos

y  R sin . cos(t)  R cos. sin(t)

y  R sin(t ) …………….. (4)

Where R = √ +
Equation (4) represents the displacement of the body in free vibrations and R is maximum displacement called
amplitude.
The value of 'y' repeats when 't' is increased by (2π/ω).

In eqn (4), if 't' is replaced (t+2π/ω) we get,

2
= + +

= sin[ +2 + ]

= sin[ + ]
 y  R sin t  2  
y  R sin t  

Hence the period of vibration, T = and frequency of vibration f = 1/T = /2 . Thus in case of free vibrations amplitude
of vibration remains constant with time. In other wards total energy of the vibrating body remains constant in free vibration.

 Damped Vibrations:

Free vibrations are purely ideal case. In practice, for a body executing vibrations, the amplitude keeps on
deceasing because of resistive and frictional forces. Hence the energy of vibrating body decreases and vibrations die
out after some time. The motion is said to be damped by friction and such vibrations are called damped vibrations.
The resisting frictional force is proportional to the velocity of the body
Theory of damped vibrations:

In damped vibrations, the body is subjected to,

(i) A restoring force, which is proportional to displacement but oppositely directed. This is written as -µy, where µ
is a constant of proportionality or force constant.

(ii) A damping force (may be resistive or frictional), which is proportional to the velocity but oppositely directed.
This may be written as -r dy/dt, where r is the damping force per unit velocity.
Since, Force = mass × acceleration = m

Therefore the equation of motion of the particle in damped vibration is given by

2
d y
m  y  r dy
2
dt dt
2
y
  y0
d r dy

2
dt m dt m

2
d y dy 2
2  2b  y  0 ……………..(1)
dt dt
where r/m=2b and µ/m=ω2

Eq.(1) is a homogeneous differential equation of second order. Let its solution is = ------ (2)
where α is arbitrary constant.

Differentiating eq.(2) with respect to t, we get

t
 . e

Substituting these values in eq.(1), we have

 2et  2b  et  2e t  0

or et ( 2  2b   2 )  0

As et  0,  2  2b   2  0

This gives =− ± ( − )

Substituting for α in eq. (2) the general solution can be written as,

= exp − + ( − ) + exp − − ( − ) ---------- (3)

where A1 and A2 are arbitrary constants.

Depending upon the relative values of b and ω following three cases are possible. They are
2 2 2 2
(i) b2>ω2 (ii) b <ω (iii) b =ω
  Case 1: Over damping (When b2>ω2) .

In this case ( − ) is real and less than b. Hence the exponential terms in eq.(3) are both negative. Thus
the displacement y consists of two terms, both dying off exponentially to zero without performing any
oscillations. The rate of decrease of displacement is governed by the term − + ( − ) as the other term
reduced to zero quickly relative to it. This type of motion is called as over-damped or dead beat. Example:-
pendulum moving in thick oil, dead beat moving coil galvanometer.

 Case 2: Under damping (when b2<ω2).

In this case, ( − ) is imaginary. Let us write ( − )= ( − )= where   2b2and

i=√−1

Eq.(3) now becomes

y  A1 expb  i  t  A2 exp b i  t

e
b t
A1 ei t  A2ei t  
b t
e A1 cos  t  i sin  t A2 cos  t  i sin  t
b t
e (A1  A2 ) cos  t  i (A1  A2 ) sin  t 

b t
e a sin  cos  t  a cos sin  t 
Figure: Graphs of displacement versus
where a sin   (A1  A2 ) and a cos  i (A1  A2 ) time for (a) an under damped oscillator,
(b) critically damped oscillator
b t (c) overdamped oscillator.
e a sin (  t  )  

 a eb t sin   t    

= A sin [ ( − ) t+ ]

where A  a eb t and this represents the amplitude of damped oscillator. The amplitude of the motion is
continuously decreasing due the factor e b t which is called damping factor.
The value of A sin [ ( − ) t+ varies between +1 and -1, therefore, the amplitude also varies between
a and a . The decay of the amplitude depends upon damping coefficient b. It is called "under damped"
motion. Examples:- Motion of pendulum in air, Electric oscillations of LCR circuit.

Note: The time period of such oscillations is, T= = . In this case the period is slightly increased or
( )

frequency decreased because the period is now . while in the absence of damping it was 2π/ω.
( )
  Case 3: Critical damping (b2=ω2)
If we put b2=ω2 in eq. (3), then this solution does not satisfy the differential eq. (1). Let us consider.
( − ) h0.Now eq. (3) reduces to

y  A1 expb  ht  A2 exp b  ht

e
b t
A1eh t  A2eh t  

b t
e A1 (1 h t .....) A2 (1 h t .....) 

b t
e (A1  A2 )  h t(A1  A2 ) ..... 

y  eb t p  q t ………….(4)

where p= (A1  A2 ) and q= h (A1  A2 )

Eq.(4) represents possible form of solution. It is clear that as t increases, the factor ( p  q t )
b t
increases but the factor e decreases. In this case, displacement y first increases due to factor
b t
( p  q t) but at the same time reversal occurs due to exponential term e and the displacement
approaches zero as t increases. In this case, particle tends to acquire its position of equilibrium
more rapidly than in case -1. Such a motion is called critically damped motion. This type of
motion is exhibited by many pointer instruments such as voltmeter, ammeter etc. in which the
pointer moves to the correct position and comes to rest without any oscillation.

Note: The total energy of a damped oscillator at an instant 't' is given by

1 2
E 2A
1 b t 2
 2  (a e ) 

1 2 2b t
 2a e 
2b t
E  E0 e ……………..(1)

Quality factor (Q): The quality factor of a damped oscillator defines the quality of oscillator so far as
damping is concerned. Less the damping higher is the quality factor.

The quality factor is defined as 2π times the ratio of the energy stored in the vibrating system to the
energy lost per period.
 Q  2 energy stored in the system  2 E
energy lost per period PT

where P is power dissipated and T is time period.

( )
But = =

2b t
P  E0 (2b).e 2 b E
∴ =2 =
∴ = =
Where is the relaxation time.
This shows that, for low damping, the quality factor of the vibrating system is high.

Higher is the value of Q higher would be the value of relaxation time i.e. lower damping

 Forced Vibrations:
So far we have discussed the vibrations in which the body vibrates at its own frequency without being subjected to
external force. However a different situation arises when the body is subjected to external force. As an example
consider the vibration of a bridge under the influence of marching soldiers or vibration of tuning fork when exposed
to the periodic force of sound waves. In both the cases the body vibrates because it is subjected to an external
periodic force. Such a vibrations are called forced vibrations. The loss of energy in a damped oscillator can be
compensated by an external periodic force so that the vibrations are sustained.

“The vibrations in which the body vibrates with a frequency other than its natural frequency under the
action of an external periodic force are called forced vibrations."

 Theory of forced vibrations:

In forced vibrations, the body is acted upon by,

(i) A restoring force proportional to the displacement but oppositely directed, given by (-µy), where µ is known as
force constant.

(ii) A damping force proportional to velocity but oppositely directed, given by (-r dy/dt), where r is the damping
force per unit velocity.

(iii) An external force, represented by F sin pt, where F is the maximum value of this force and
p/2π is its frequency.

So the total force acting on the particle is given by   y  r dy  F sin pt

dt

By Newton's second law of motion this must be equal to the product of mass m of the particle and its instantaneous
acceleration i.e hence
 2
d y  y  r dy  F sin pt
m
dt 2 dt

2
d y  r dy   y  F sin pt
or m
dt 2 dt

2
d y  r dy   y  F sin pt
or m dt m m
2
dt
2
d y  2b dy 2 y  f sin pt…………….(1)
2
dt dt

b  damping factor
where r  2b ,    and F  f
2

m m m  natural frequency
2
The equation (1) is differential equation of motion for forced vibration. When the steady state is
set up, the particle vibrates with the frequency of applied force and not with its own natural
frequency. The solution of this eq.(1) must be of the form,

y  A sin( pt ) ……………. (2)

where A is the steady amplitude of vibrations and θ is the angle by which the displacement y lags
behind the applied force F sin pt. A and θ being arbitrary constants.

Differentiating eq. (2), we have

= cos( − θ)

Or =− sin( − )

Substituting these values in eq. (1), we get

2 2
 A p sin ( pt )  2b A p cos ( pt )  A sin( pt )  f sin pt  f sin{( pt ) }

2 2
Or A (  p ) sin ( pt )  2b A p cos ( pt )  f sin( pt ) cos  f cos( pt ) sin 

If this equation holds good for all values of 't', then the coefficients of sin ( pt ) and cos ( pt )
terms on both sides of this equation must be equal, Hence we have

2 2
A (  p )  f cos …………….(3)

and 2b A p  f sin  ……………..(4)

squaring and adding eqs. (3) and (4), we get

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
A (  p )  4 b A p  f i.e. A2[ (ω2-p2)2+4b2p2] = f2

f
A ……………….(5)
2 2 2 2 2
(  p )  4 b p
Phase of the forced vibration: by dividing eq.(4) by eq.(3), we get

2bp
tan 
2 2
(  p )

1
 2b p 
  tan   ……………(6)
 2 2 

 p 

Eq.(5) gives the amplitude of forced vibrations while (6) its phase. Depending upon the relative
values of p and ω, the following three cases are possible:

Case(i): when driving frequency is low i.e. p<<ω . In this case the amplitude of vibration is
given by

f
A
2 2 2 2 2
(  p )  4 b p
2 2
(  p ) ≈  2 and 2bp = 0 therefore
f F F 2 
A 2   constant [ f  ,  ]
  m m

 2bp  1
and   tan1  2 2   tan 0  0
  p 
 

This shows that the amplitude of vibration is independent of frequency of force. This amplitude
depends on the magnitude of applied force and force constant. Also, the force and displacement
are always in phase.

Case (ii): when frequency of applied force is very high (p>>ω)

f
A
2 2 2 2 2
(  p )  4 b p
2 2 2 4
In this case (  p ) ≈ p and since 4b2 p2≪ p 4

f f
A 
4 2 2
p  4b p p2
1  2bp  1  2b 1
and   tan 
 2 2

 tan 
  
  tan  0  
  p   p 
Thus in this case the amplitude of vibration decreases with increase in frequency of applied force
and phase difference tends to π.

Case (iii): when p=ω i.e. frequency of force is equal to natural frequency of body.

In this case, the amplitude of vibration is given by

f
A
2 2 2 2 2
(  p )  4 b p

A f  F [ f  F , 2b  r and p  ]
2b p r m m

 2bp 
Also   tan1  1
2 2
  tan   / 2
  

This shows amplitude of vibration is maximum when p=ω. Then vibrating body is said to be in resonance. Also the
amplitude of vibration is governed by damping and for small damping forces, the amplitude of vibration will be
quite large. The displacement lags behind the force by phase π/2.


Resonance:
In forced vibrations, the amplitude of vibration will be maximum when
the frequency of applied force is equal to the natural frequency.

“The phenomenon of making a body to vibrate with maximum

amplitude under the influence of an external force whose frequency is
equal to the natural frequency of the vibrating body is called
resonance".

Example of resonance:
1. Tuning of radio or transistor, when the natural frequency is adjusted to the frequency of the radio waves,
resonance takes place and the incoming sound waves can be listened after being amplified.
2. Musical instruments can be made to vibrate by bringing them in contact with vibrations which have the same
frequency equal to the natural frequency of the instruments.
3. Soldiers crossing a suspension bridge are prohibited to march in steps and are advised to march out of steps so
as to avoid the resonance between the natural frequency of the bridge and the frequency of the steps of soldiers,
which may cause the collapse of the bridge.
  Condition of amplitude resonance:

In case of forced vibrations we have amplitude =

[( ) ]

For A to become maximum the denominator in the above equation must be minimum. This can be achieved by
i) making b= r/2m minimum i.e. when the damping caused by the medium is made minimum
ii) by making p= w
this condition can be proved as follows,
we know that, the differential coefficient of function will be zero both at maxima and minima. Hence the differential
coefficient of the denominator in above equation must be zero.

[4 +( − ) ]=0

8 −4 ( − )=0
2 −( − )=0
= −2 ------- (3)
It is clear that denominator reaches minimum if eq (3) is satisfied. Further under the condition when b is negligible
the condition modifies to p =w

Thus when damping is minimum, and p = w, amplitude A becomes maximum

=
2
Showing Amax →∞ as b → 0

Sharpness of resonance:

Sharpness of resonance means the rate of fall in amplitude with the change of forcing frequency on each side of
resonance frequency. Fig. shows the variation of amplitude with forcing frequency at different amount of damping.
When damping is zero i.e. b=0, amplitude becomes infinite at p = ω. This case is never attained in practice due to
frictional resistance, as slight damping is always present. Curve 2 and 3 shows effect of damping on the amplitude.
It is observed that the peak of the curve moves towards the left. For smaller value of b (damping) the fall in the
curve about p = ω is steeper than for large value. This shows that smaller is the value of damping, greater is the
departure of amplitude of forced vibration from the maximum value. Hence smaller is the damping, sharper is the
resonance or larger is the damping, flatter is the resonance.