MAIN PARTS OF AN ENGINE

1. Cylinder block
2. Cylinder liner
3. Cylinder head
4. Oil sump
5. Manifolds
6. Piston
7. Piston rings
8. Gudgeon pin
9. Gasket
10. Connecting rod
11. Crank shaft
12. Cam shaft
13. Valve and valve operating mechanism
14. Engine bearings
15. Flywheel

CYLINDER BLOCK
This is a compulsory part of an engine that maintains integrating different important parts
related to the cylinder. Thus, the basic frame of the engine is made of a cylinder block. This has
engine cylinders in which the fuel burns and acts as bearings and guides for the reciprocating pistons.
The block is closed by the cylinder head at top and the oil sump at the bottom.

CYLINDER BLOCK CONSTRUCTION:

Cylinder blocks are basically made by casting for which we use grey cast iron and aluminium alloy.

Materials of cast iron cylinder block:

 Iron = 95%
 Carbon = 2.2%
 Silicon = 1.2%
 Manganese = 0.36%
 Sulphur = 0.12%
 Phosphorous = 0.85%

Materials of aluminium allot cylinder block:

 Aluminium = 91%
 Tin = 2%
 Copper = 7%

In cylinder block water jackets surrounds the cylinders for the engine cooling system and also
have to holes for the oil gallery for lubrication.

Aluminium alloy metal is generally used for making cylinder blocks due to its light weight. It
has a high thermal conductivity compared to the cast iron. Therefore, the engine runs calmly and as a

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result we can use high compression ratio. But there is high wear due to which cast iron liners are used
for prevention.

CYLINDER WEAR:

1. TAPER WEAR:

The main reason for this wear is the

pressure of the piston and piston rings on the
cylinder walls. Also the cylinders wear from
the top more than bottom because that
generates at the upper part of the cylinder
during power stroke. In this way cylinders get
tapered by wear out.

2. OVAL WEAR:

Besides taper wear, due to the angular

movement of the connecting rod, the piston
thrusts the cylinder walls whenever it reaches
TDC. Therefore, the cylinder wears out more
from right and left hand side. Therefore, along
with taper wear .the cylinder also becomes oval
shaped from the top.

TYPES OF CYLINDER BLOCKS

1. CASTING:
a) Mono block:
The cylind4er block is cast along with the crank case. The manufacturing is simple
such as machining the joints levels, boring in cylinder etc. this block experience less
vibration and has small engine size.
b) Separate cylinder casting:
Separate cylinders are less in weight and therefore for they can be lifted with ease.
This casting is simpler than mono- block casting.

2. NUMBER OF CYLINDERS:

Single cylinder, double cylinder, multi cylinder

3. COOLING:

Water cooled, air cooled, water cum air cooled

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 CYLINDER LINEAR
The biggest problem in the engine is caused due wear. They are made in the form of pipes of
alloy of silicon, manganese, chromium, and nickel. They are casted by the centrifugal casting
method. Liners are used to increase the life time of the cast iron cylinder block.

They are two types:

1. Dry cylinder liner

2. Wet cylinder liner

DRY CYLINDER LINER:

This linear is made in the shape of a pipe. A flange is made on the top of it to hold the linear
in correct position. The complete outer surface of this liner remains in contact with the cylinder
block. Therefore, the lining requires both internal and external machining. Dry cylinders are used
commonly. These liners are not in direct contact with the water in the water jacket. Therefore, they
do not remain cool completely.

WET LINER:

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 The entire outer surfaces of this type of the cylinder remain in contact with the cooling water.
Therefore the outer surface doesn’t require proper machining. The walls are always in contact with
cooling water in the water jackets. It is necessary to make a tight water joints by using packing rings
above and below this liners. For this purpose they are sealed with copper gaskets on the top and two
tight rubber rings at the bottom to prevent water leakage.

COMPARISON BETWEEN DRY LINER AND WET LINEAR

DRY LINER WET LINER

 It doesn’t get corroded  It get corroded.

 They do not come in direct contact with

 They come in direct contact with water
water

 A flange is made on the upper head  Flanges are made on both heads

 The outer surface has to be smoothened

 The outer surface doesn’t require finishing
and finished

 They can be fitted with ease  Fitting this liner require skill

CYLINDER HEAD
A cylinder head is used to close a cylinder block from the top. The combustion chamber
where the fuel burns is made in these cylinder heads. The valves are fitted on the cylinder head of
the engine. They are mainly made up of cast iron. In some engines the cylinder blocks is made up
of aluminium alloy. It is tightened to the cylinder block using nuts and bolts, called studs. The
surface meet the cylinder block should be plain because there is possibility of gas and water
leakage.

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CYLINDER HEAD DESIGN:

Cylinder head design is highly significant to maintain high engine efficiency. The swirl or
turbulence of air and fuel mixture can be increased only with the help of cylinder head design. The
cylinder head design also stops the setting of fuel drops on the surface of the cylinder walls or
combustion chamber, to ensure proper combustion and good engine efficiency.

CYLINDER HEAD OVERHAULING:

Scratch and remove the carbon inside the combustion chamber during cylinder head
overhauling. Cut the valve seat after scratching off the carbon on it. Also check the cylinder head
for any crack after forcing the water into the passage with pressure. The cylinder head surface
should be straight. It should be inspected at least 6-7 positions with the help of straight edge and
feeler gauge. The value should not exceed 0.05mm. If the clearance is larger, grind or face the
head to level its surface.

TYPES OF CYLINDER HEAD DESIGN:

 L - type cylinder head

 I - type cylinder head
 F - type cylinder head
 T - type cylinder head
 H - type cylinder head

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 TYPES OF S.I ENGINE COMBUSTION CHAMBER

1) T - HEAD TYPE COMBUSTION CHAMBER

This require two cam shafts (for the inlet valve and exhaust valve separately) by two cams
mounted on the two camshafts. The intake valves are on one side of the engine block and exhaust
valve are on the other side.

2) L - HEAD TYPE COMBUSTION CHAMBER

This has both inlet and exhaust valves ton the same side and is operated by the same camshaft.

3) I - HEAD TYPE COMBUSTION CHAMBER

This I head combustion chamber is also

called the overhead valve combustion
chamber, because the inlet and exhaust
valves are located on the top of the cylinder
head

4) F - HEAD TYPE COMBUSTION CHAMBER

In this, one exhaust valve is in the

cylinder head, inlet valve in the side and the
spark plug is in the cylinder head. The two
valves need to be operated by to different
cam shafts.

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 TYPES OF C.I ENGINE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
1) OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBER

It is also called direct injection combustion chamber. Engines with such combustion
chamber do not have a separate space for combustion in their head. Fuel is directly injected in
this chamber. The space between the flat level of the cylinder head and piston crown hole acts as
the combustion chamber. In this, generally multi-hole type injectors are used.

TYPES OF OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBER (DIRECT INJECTION TYPE)

a) Shallow Depth Chamber

This is used in heavy engines running

with low speed. The depth of cavity
provided in the piston is quite small and
the diameter is large. Due to the large
diameter, there will be almost negligible
squish.

b) Hemispherical Chamber

The depth of the diameter ratio can

be varied. So that the squish can be
controlled to attain better performance.

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 c) Cylindrical chamber

The shape of combustion chamber is

truncated cone with the base angle 30
degree. The squish can be varied by
varying the depth. The swirl can be
produced by masking the valve for nearly
180 degree of the circumference.

d) Toroidal chamber

This toroidal chamber design is mainly

focused to provide the powerful squish
along with the air movement. As the
more squish, the mask need in the inlet
valve is small and there is better
utilization of oxygen.

2) INDIRECT COMBUSTION CHAMBER

The combustion space in this type of combustion chamber is divided into two parts. One
par is in the cylinder and other part is in the cylinder head. Fuel is injection is carried out in the
combustion space of the cylinder head

Types of indirect combustion chamber are:

(a) TURBULENT (SWIRL) COMBUSTION CHAMBER

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 It has a separate chamber in which all the air is pushed during the compression stroke. Air
acquires a rotary speed during this transfer. This type of speed is maximum at almost 15 degree
before TDC. In this chamber, combustion begins along with injection and the combustion gases
return to the cylinder with a higher speed through the same neck.

(b) PRE-COMBUSTION CHAMBER

The pre-combustion chamber is located in the cylinder head and its volume accounts for
about 40% of the total combustion, space. During the compression stroke the piston forces the
air into the pre-combustion chamber. The fuel is injected into the pre-chamber and the
combustion is initiated. The resulting pressure rise forces the flaming droplets together with
some air and their combustion products to rush out into the main cylinder at high velocity
through the small holes. Thus it creates both strong secondary turbulence and distributes the
flaming fuel droplets throughout the air in the main combustion chamber where bulk of
combustion takes place.

CYLINDER HEAD GASKET

A gasket is a mechanical seal which fills the space between two or more mating surfaces,
generally to prevent leakage from or into the joined objects while under compression.

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 A head gasket is a gasket that sits between the engine block and cylinder head(s) in
an internal combustion engine. Its purpose is to seal the cylinders to ensure
maximum compression and avoid leakage of coolant or engine oil into the cylinders; as such, it is
the most critical sealing application in any engine and, as part of the combustion chamber, it shares
the same strength requirements as other combustion chamber components. Copper, aluminium,
rubber, asbestos sheet, paper, nylon, fiber etc. are used for making the packing or gaskets

MANIFOLDS

Two pipes are connected to the cylinder head. Air fuel mixture flows through one pipe and
exhaust gases flow through another pipe. These are called manifolds.

1. INTAKE or INLET MANIFOLD:

. .

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 An inlet manifold or intake manifold is the part of an engine that supplies the fuel/air
mixture or air to the cylinders. The primary function of the intake manifold is to evenly distribute
the combustion mixture (or just air in a direct injection engine) to each intake port in the cylinder
head. Even distribution is important to optimize the efficiency and performance of the engine. It
may also serve as a mount for the carburettor, throttle body, fuel injectors and other components of
the engine. The intake manifold has historically been manufactured from aluminium or cast iron

2. EXHAUST MANIFOLD

An exhaust manifold collects the exhaust gases from multiple cylinders into one pipe.
Exhaust manifolds are generally simple cast iron or stainless steel units which collect engine
exhaust gas from multiple cylinders and deliver it to the exhaust pipe. It is fitted with a silencer or
muffler. All burnt gases are collected by the exhaust manifold and sent to the silencer.

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TURBULENCE

Turbulence is the way air fuel mixture moves inside a combustion chamber. If the
turbulence of charge is more, then the air and fuel moves randomly inside the chamber.

Turbulence is created due to the circular movement of air in the cylinder. This
turbulence is created by the geometry of entry ports; scavenge air as well as the
geometry of the cylinder head and the piston crown. Due to turbulence there is thorough mixing and
homogenize mixture is produced between fuel and air. This
mixture will burn efficiently and hence the full quantity of air is available for the combustion of
fuel. This gives higher thermal efficiency of the engine and reduces the
unburnt fuel going into the exhaust thus reducing the specific fuel oil consumption and less smoke
is formed in the exhaust. At the same time, this will give the uniform
distribution of heat over the combustion space.

OIL SUMP

The half part below the crank case is called oil sump or oil pan. It is fixed on the crank case
with se screw along with gasket for leak proof joints. An oil sump is fitted at the bottom of an
engine to close the blank portion under the cylinder and to protect other parts of the engine such as
crankshaft etc. from dust. This sump is filled with lubrication oil for engine lubrication.it is made by
pressing mild steel sheets or aluminium alloy sheets.

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 PISTON

“The cylindrically shaped mass that reciprocates back and forth in the cylinder,
transmitting the pressure forces being generated by the fuel burnt in the combustion chamber
for rotating the crankshaft is called piston”.

A piston moves up and down inside the cylinder. Their up and down movement completes
the suction, compression, power and exhaust strokes of an engine. When power is developed in an
engine, the piston is the first to withstand a huge blow.

FUNCTIONS OF PISTON:

 To seal the cylinder with the help of the piston rings disallow the entry of high pressure gas
into the crank case and complete process of suction, compression and exhaust strokes.
 To provide a bearing for small end of the connecting rod.
 To send the force produced by combustion to the crankshaft in mechanical form.
 To provide heat to the piston rings for their cooling.
 To open and close the transfer inlet and exhaust ports of two stroke engines.

CONSTRUCTION OF PISTON:

Two or three grooves are cut in the upper part of a piston. Piston rings are fitted these
grooves to fill up the clearance between the piston and cylinder. Compression rings are fitted in the
upper grooves and oil rings in the lower grooves. A cross hole is made between the piston skirt
which is called the piston boss. A gudgeon pin is fitted in this boss and used for joining the piston
and connecting rod small end.

Diameter of the piston is slightly lesser than the cylinder size because any metal can expand
the volume upon receiving heat. The piston also expands upon receiving heat from firing. If there is
no clearance between the piston and cylinder walls then there is a risk of the piston jamming in the
cylinder. This clearance is called piston side clearance.

A clearance of 0.001" is maintained for one inch of a piston made of cast iron and semi-
steel. A clearance of 0.002" to 0.004" is maintained for an aluminium alloy piston because these
pistons expand more. Bottom part of the piston called the skirt . It is generally circular from top to
bottom. Slots are cut in the skirt of some pistons so that when they heat up, there is no possibility of
jamming

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PARTS OF PISTON:

1. Head or crown:
The top of the piston is called piston head or crown.

2. Ring grooves:
Grooves are cut on the upper portion of the piston. These are called ring grooves. It is used
to house the piston rings

3. Lands:
The portion of the piston between the ring grooves called lands. These lands hold up the
rings against the pressure of the gas.

4. Piston skirt:
The part of the piston below the rings is called piston skirt. The side thrust developed due to
the pressure of the gas is absorbed by the piston skirt.

5. Piston pin boss:

The piston skirt has bosses on the inside holdup the piston pin.

6. Supporting web:
The force due to combustion pressure pushes down the crown of the piston. The supporting
conveys this force from the crown to piston pin boss. The tick sectioned web also form heat
path from the piston crown to the pin bosses and skirt and thus avoid expansion problems.

7. Oil drain holes:

The lubricating oil forms an oil form between the piston and cylinder walls. This oil film
drain into the sump through the oil drain holes of the piston.

8. Compression height:
The distance between the axis of the piston pin and top of the piston crown is called
compression height. It determines the compression ratio for a given engine i.e.; if the
compression height is less, it has less compression ratio and vice versa.

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PISTON MATERIAL:

Pistons are often made up of aluminium alloy, but cast iron and semi steel are also used in
some engines.
ALUMINIUM ALLOY PISTON
Aluminium 91%
Tin 2%
Copper 7%

TYPES OF PISTON:

1. ON THE BASIS OF PISTON PROFILE:

 Slipper piston:

A slipper piston is a piston for a petrol engine that has been

reduced in size and weight as much as possible. In the extreme
case, they are reduced to the piston crown, support for
the piston rings, and just enough of the piston skirt remaining to
leave two lands so as to stop the piston rocking in the bore.

 Cut-way piston:

This piston is similar to a slipper piston. But

skirt is uniformly cut consequently making
the engine dense

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2. ON THE BASIS OF PISTON HEAD:

 Flat head piston

 Concave head piston
 Convex head piston
 Recessed head piston
 Truncated cone head piston

3. ON THE BASIS OF PISTON DESIGN

i. Solid skirt piston:

This type of piston is used for solid

and strong structure because it has to
withstand compression load. Such pistons are
used in SI or CI engine or heavy petrol
engines. This type of piston design withstand
heavy loading thrust

ii. Split skirt piston:

A cut is made along the circular perimeter of this slot provides

flexibility during the compression thrust .the longer cut in the
bottom divides the piston skirt into two equal parts without
forming any crack on the cutting heads.

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 iii. Expansion control in piston:

Too much expansion takes place in the piston during cylinder firing. The cylinder gets
cooled by water and air but there is no method for cooling piston. Thus there is a chance of piston to
get stuck in the cylinder. The following methods are adopted for controlling this expansion:

(a) Piston slot:

Slots are cut in the piston skirt to prevent piston expansion. Horizontal slots prevent
the heat from moving downwards. Vertical slots don’t allow the piston diameter to increase
during piston expansion.

(b) Heat Dam:

A thin groove cut into the head of a piston between the top ring groove and the top of
the piston. The heat, instead of passing through the aluminium of the piston to the ring,
encounters the heat dam. This helps to minimize heat transfer.

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 (c) Taper piston:

It is used to maintain correct

piston to cylinder wall clearance. The
top of the piston is machined slightly
smaller than bottom, because piston
head gets hotter than skirt. The piston
is almost equal in size at the top and
bottom in the operating temperature.

(d) Cam grinding of cam:

After finishing piston the perimeter of the piston is made slightly elliptical by grinding. The
piston heats up when the engine function s and this heat moves towards the piston and makes the
piston completely circular.

(e) Wire wound pistons:

A band of steel wire under initial tension is put between the piston pin and the oil control
ring, thus restricting the expansion of the skirt.

(f) Auto thermic piston:

This type of piston contains low thermal expansion steel insert at the piston pin bosses.
These inserts are so moulded that their ends are anchored in the piston skirt.

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 (g) Bi – metal piston:

In this type of piston skirt is formed by steel and the aluminium alloy cast inside it forms
piston head and piston pin bosses. As the coefficient of thermal expansion for steel is quite small,
the piston will not expand much and hence smaller cold clearances can be maintained.

iv. Oil Cooled Piston:

Oil cooling reduces the piston temperature. A cavity or blank space is made in these pistons
where oil is sent from the small end of the connecting rod .as the piston moves the oil also shakes
and keeps the piston cooled by absorbing heat.

DEFECT OF PISTON:

1. Scuffing:

This occurs due to excessive heat; the piston expands and becomes tight in the cylinder. As a result
lubricant is squeezed out from the cylinder walls and metal to metal contact takes place.

2. Scoring:

Piston is scored as a result of carbon build-up. Accumulation of carbon and other deposits on the
piston skirt. Particles of carbon breaking away from the exhaust ports, lodging between the piston
skirt and cylinder results in scoring the piston.

3. Damage to Ring land:

This occurs mainly because excessive Ring groove clearance and attempting to remove the piston
without first removing the Cylinder ridge

4. Damage to piston pin boss and circlip groove:

This occurs rocking motion of the connecting rod due to bent connecting rod or tapered crankpins
or loosely installed circlip

5. Seize of piston:

Due to over expansion of the position it get stuck in the cylinder. It is mainly caused due to use of
oversize diameter piston, lack of lubrication between piston and cylinder wall, due to high
temperature in engine, due to lack of cooling, tightened piston pin etc.

6. Burning of piston:

It means the piston failed due to excessive heat in the combustion chamber. A burned piston will
typically have a melted appearance, or a hole burned completely through the top of the piston

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 PISTON RINGS

FUNCTIONS OF PISTON RINGS:

 To form a seal for high pressure gases from the combustion chamber against leak into the
crank case.
 To provide easy passage for heat flow from piston crown to the cylinder walls.
 To maintain sufficient amount of oil for lubrication on cylinder wall through the entire
length of the piston travel minimizing the ring and cylinder wear and same time control the
thickness of oil film.

RING CONSTRUCTION:

The rings are generally cast individually and machined so that when in position it is able to
exert uniform pressure against the cylinder walls. A gap has to be cut at the ends so that while
inserting the ring on to the piston, it can be expanded, slipped over the piston head and released into
the ring groove. Further the gap is almost closed when the piston is inside the cylinder due to which
ring is able to exert pressure on cylinder walls, which is a must for sealing purpose. More over any
circumferential expansion of the ring at the high temperature may also be accommodated by the
gap. The piston ring end gap is kept between 0.3mm – 0.35mm when installed.

RING MATERIALS:

The material generally used for the piston rings is fine grained alloy cast iron containing
silicon and manganese. This material resists heat and wear and is elastic to allow radial expansion
and compression, thus the ring is able to apply flexible pressure in the cylinder walls.
The top ring is plated with chromium due to this plating the ring is able to resist the high
temperature and corrosion against combustion.

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TYPES OF PISTON RING END GAP:

a) Butt type
b) Bevelled or tapered type
c) Seal cut type or lap joint type

TYPES OF PISTON RINGS:

Piston rings are two types:

1) Compression ring
2) Oil scraper or oil control ring

Compression Ring:

This ring uses its radial pressure to prevent leakages of gases during the compression stroke.
Generally, two or three such rings are fitted on one piston. They should have very good radial
pressure so that there is no gas leakage.

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Oil Scraper or Oil Control Ring:

These oil scratch off the lubrication oil from the cylinder walls and drop them into the oil
sump below so that this oil doesn’t move into the combustion chamber and get burnt. These rings
are inserted below the slot under compression ring. The slots made for oil rings have small holes
and the oil ring also has holes in it. Through these holes excess oil is gone to the sump while piston
moves up and down.

FAULTS, CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF PISTON RINGS:

SL.NO. DEFECT CAUSE REMEDY

 Piston ring worn out.

 Cylinder bore worn out.
1 Compression gas leaks  Fit new rings
 Burnt ring has become
blue or black.

 Fit new rings.

 Rings are loose.
2 Ring makes noise  Clean the
 Compression is leaking.
grooves.

 Piston has worn out or  Change the

3 Sticky rings broken. piston.
 Ring grooves have carbon.  Clean the groove

 Increase the gap.

 Reduce the ring
 Low ring end gap.
thickness by
4 High wear of rings  Thick rings.
grinding.
 Oversized rings.
 Fit rings of
correct size.
 Maintain proper
gap.
 Low ring gap.
 Fit the ring
5 Ring breaks  Ring not fitting properly.
properly.
 Ring is tight in groove.
 Use the correct
rings.

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 GUDGEON PIN or PISTON PIN

Gudgeon pin/ Piston pin/ Wrist pin is used to connect the piston and connecting rod.
The pin is generally tubular in form .this makes the pin very light. Low carbon hardened steel
is used to make the piston pin as it is a hard wear resisting surface.

TYPES OF GUDGEON PIN FITTINGS:

1. FULL FLOATING TYPE GUDGEON PIN

In the fully floating configuration, a bearing surface is created both between the small end
eye and gudgeon pin and the journal in the piston. The gudgeon pins are usually secured with
circlips. No interference fit is used in any instance and the pin ‘floats' entirely on bearing surfaces.

2. SEMI FLOATING TYPE GUDGEON PIN

The small end bearing of the connecting rod has a groove for fitting this type of pin and it is
fastened the pin. Middle part of the gudgeon pin is fastened to connecting rod with bolt.

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 3. FIXED OR STATIONARY GUDGEON PIN

Piston pin is fastened to the piston pin bosses by set screws.it has a bearing on connecting
rod small end.

CONNECTING ROD

The function of connecting rod is to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into the
rotary motion of the crank shaft.it transmit power from piston to the crankshaft .The top end of the
connecting rod is called small end and bottom end is called big end. Piston pin connects the piston
and small end of the connecting rod .the big end of the connecting rod is connected to the crankpin.
The connecting rod should withstand all the pressure and stresses; therefore, the connecting rod
must be very rigid. So it has I-cross section to provide rigidity. Steel or duralumin is used as
material for constructing connecting rod by dropforging. Malleable or spheroidal graphite cast iron
is also used in casting of connecting rod.

A bronze metal or gunmetal bush is used at the small end. Thin bearing shells are fixed in
both the pieces of big end to produce minimum friction when engine is running and to ensure
smooth rotation of the crankshaft. Grooves are cut between these bearing shells for lubrication oil.

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 CRANK SHAFT

Crank shaft is that part of an engine from where we receive power. The power that is
received from the connecting rod is sent to the wheels through the clutch and flywheel.

A crank shaft is the most important part of an IC engine. It converts the up and down motion
of the piston into rotary motion. This is the fastest moving part of the engine .Therefor, it should
have a floating balance should be very good dynamically and statically balance d so that it can
rotate quickly with ease. Crank weight and web are fitted near the crank pin and crank journal to
maintain the balancing of the crankshaft during rotation.

CRANKSHAFT MATERIAL:

It is generally made of drop forged steel by steel forging. Thereafter under goes heat
treatment, that is, it is steel by nitrating, carburizing, and chrome plating. This steel is called SG. SG
iron is also called spheroidal graphite type of iron. This is a cast iron in the form of carbon layers. It
has a high strength.

SL.NO. COMPONENTS PERCENTAGE

1. Copper 1.50% - 2.0%

2. Sulphur Less than 0.6%

3. Carbon 1.35% - 1.60%

4. Silicon 0.85% - 1.10%

5. Chromium 0.45% - 0.50%

6. Manganese 0.60% - 0.80%

7. phosphorous Maximum 0.10%

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The main parts of crank shaft are as follows:

1. Crank pin
2. Crank web
3. Balancing or crank weight
4. Bearing journals
5. Oil drills

Two types of bearings are fitted on crank shaft, a) big end bearing, b) main bearing. The
position where the big end is fitted is called the crank pin and the surface where the main bearing is
fitted is called crank journal. Oil passages are made for lubrication from crank pin till crank journal.
Oil passes through these holes to lubricate the main bearings and big end bearings.

CRANKSHAFT BALANCING:

Crank shaft balancing means to bring the crankshaft in balance both statically and
dynamically. For that we need to know the reasons that cause high vibration in the engine,
scratching sound in engine bearing when parts collide with each other. We can find solution to the
problems after deducing this information. Vibration and colliding sound in crank shaft is produced
due to the uneven loads on the both ends of the centre line of any crank. Thus their balancing is
important.

VIBRATION DAMPER:

This id fitted on the other end of the crank shaft .during the power stroke, the force exerted
on the crank pin has a tendency to twist the crankshaft. During power stroke, the piston moves from
TDC downwards with a shock. This is also exerted a sudden shock on the crank shaft. But the crank
shaft cannot rotate suddenly. So, it produces vibration in the crank shaft. Vibration dampers are
used to prevent this vibration. A vibration damper reduces the stiff vibration due to the dragging
effect produced by the no movement of flywheel. This maintains a uniform speed of the crank shaft.

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 ENGINE BEARINGS

An engine bearing is device that reduces friction in the drive shaft and reduces power
wastage. It reduces noise and simplifies the movement.
The main function of bearing is to prevent friction and make en engine capable to function
during higher temperature.

TYPES OF BEARINGS

1. MAIN BEARING:

The main bearings are the bearings which hold the crankshaft in place and allow it to rotate
within the engine block. Main bearings are usually plain bearings or journal bearings, held in place
by the engine block and bearing caps. The number of main bearings per engine varies between
engines, often in accordance with the forces produced by the operation of the engine. They are
made up of white metal or gunmetal. Some bearings shells are also made of copper and coated with
a white metal paste.

2. BIG END BEARING:

Big end bearings perform the function of joining the connecting rod on the crank pin of
crank shaft. They are also made in two pieces, similar to the main bearings. They are also made of
white metal or gunmetal. Oil grooves are cut inside these bearings with hole to allow passage of oil
from the crankshaft.

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 3. SMALL END BEARINGS:

The small bearing is used to join the small lend of the connecting rod to the piston boss with the
help of gudgeon pin. It is made of gunmetal or bronze metal in the form of a bush bearing.

BEARING MATERIALS:

 White metal or Babbitt – Lead based or tin based, little amount of copper and antimony.
 Aluminium – aluminium alloy with small amount of tin or copper.
 Cadmium based alloy
 Steel

SPECIAL DIESEL ENGINE BEARING:

These are fitted in two pieces in the form of a sleeve on the crankpin and journal of engine.
The main functions of this bearing are:
 To help in seating the rotating shaft and other parts in a diesel engine.
 To reduce friction between two parts and to reduce the noise produced due to the bumping
between them
 To absorb the heat produced due to friction.

REASONS FOR FAULTS IN BEARINGS:

 Less lubrication oil in engine.

 Bearing metal gets defected due to corrosion.
 Too much load on engine.
 Incorrect fitting of engine.
 Incorrect fitting of bearings.

CAM SHAFT

It is a shaft on which cams are mounted. It is mounted in bearings in the lower part of the
cylinder block in most in line engines.in few engines it is located on the cylinder head. In V-8
engines it is located between two banks of cylinder. A camshaft provides a mode of control for
opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valves. The ignition distributor, mechanical fuel pump, oil
pump etc. are also driven with the help of camshaft. Camshaft has a number of cams along the
length, two cams for each cylinder.
“A cam shaft rotates at half the movement of crank shaft”

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CAM LOBE:

A cam lobe is built on the camshaft. The no. of cam lobes on a cam shaft is equal to the
number of valves. These cam lobes are made in different directions according to the engine firing
order. Engine valves are opened and closed with the help of cam lobes. The inlet and exhaust valves
open due to the pressure of the cam lobe when it moves upward and the valves closes due to the
pressure of the cam lobe when it moves downwards.

FIRING ORDER:

 3 cylinder inline engine : 1-3-2

 4 cylinder inline engine : 1-3-4-2 or 1-2-4-2
 6 cylinder inline engine : 1-5-3-6-2-4

CAM SHAFT DRIVES

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 The cam shaft rotates at the half the speed of the crank shaft so as to open and close the
valves once in the every two revolutions of crankshaft. The drive from crankshaft to cam shaft may
be either chain drive or gear drive or belt drive where cam sprocket wheel is twice as large as
crankshaft sprocket. There are timing marks on the sprocket or gears to ensure correct valve timing.

The latest type of drive is by means of rubber belt which is made up of rubber moulded on
through a non stretching cord. Such belts operating relatively silently and do not need any
lubrication.
A timing chain is a metal chain that unites the crankshaft and camshaft to make them rotate
in correct timing.. One major advantage of using timing chain over belt is its long-lasting feature.
Luckily, these chains need not be replaced after some miles. They can last until the life of your car’s
engine. In addition, they contain tensioners that help to keep them working accurately and prevent
loosening.

Timing belt tensioner

The timing belt tensioner is used to do just that - keep tension on the timing belt. The timing
belt is a rubber belt that runs over and through a series of pulleys and gears.

Timing chain tensioner

A timing chain is kept under proper tension by a chain tensioner. A chain tensioner could be
operated by a spring-loaded mechanism or oil pressure. Chain guides and silencers are used to keep
the timing chain from vibrating.

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 VALVE TIMING
A valve timing diagram is a graphical representation of the exact moments, in the sequence
of operations, at which the two valves (i.e. inlet and exhaust valves) open and close as well as firing
of the fuel. It is, generally, expressed in terms of angular positions of the crankshaft.

THEORETICAL VAVLE TIMING DIAGRAM:

IVO – inlet valve opens

IVC – inlet valve closes
EVO - exhaust valve opens
EVC – exhaust valve closes
TDC – top dead centre
BDC – bottom dead centre

The theoretical valve timing diagram for a four-stroke cycle engine is shown. In this
diagram, the inlet valve opens at A and the suction takes place from A to B. The crankshaft revolves
through 180 degree and the piston moves from T.D.C. to B.D.C. At B, the inlet valve closes and the
compression takes place from B to C. The crankshaft revolves through 180 degree and the piston
moves from B.D. C. to T.D. C. At C, the ignition occurs and the expansion takes place from C to D.
The crankshaft revolves through 180 degree and the piston again moves from T.D.C. to B.D.C. At
D, the exhaust valve opens and the exhaust takes place from D to E. The crankshaft again revolves
through 180 degree and the piston moves back to T.D.C. But in actual practise it will differ.

ACTUAL VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF 4 - STROKE PETROL ENGINE:

 TDC- top dead centre

 BDC – bottom dead centre
 IVO – inlet valve opens (20
degree before TDC)
 IVC - inlet vale closes (35
degree after BDC)
 Spark is given 35 degree
before TDC
 EVO- exhaust valve opens
(35 degree before BDC)
 EVC- exhaust valve closes
(10 degree after TDC)

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 The valve timing diagram, as shown we see that the inlet valve opens before the piston
reaches TDC or in other words, while the piston is still moving up before the beginning of the
suction stroke. Now the piston reaches the TDC and the suction stroke starts. The piston reaches the
BDC and then starts moving up. The inlet valve closes, when the crank has moved a little beyond
the BDC This is done as the incoming charge continues to flow into the cylinder although the piston
is moving upwards from BDC Now the charge is compressed (with both valves closed) and then
and temperature) push the piston downwards with full force and the expansion or working stroke
takes place. Now the exhaust valve opens before the piston again reaches BDC and the burnt gases
start leaving the engine cylinder. Now the piston reaches BDC and then starts moving up, thus
performing the exhaust stroke. The inlet valve opens before the piston reaches TDC to start suction
stroke. This is done as the fresh incoming charge helps in pushing out the burnt gases. Now the
piston again reaches TDC, and the suction stroke starts. The exit valve closes after the crank has
moved a little beyond the TDC. This is done as the burnt gases continue to leave the engine cylinder
although the piston is moving downwards.

ACTUAL VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF 4 - STROKE DIESEL ENGINE:

 TDC- top dead centre

 BDC – bottom dead centre
 IVO – inlet valve opens (25 degree
before TDC)
 IVC - inlet vale closes (30 degree
after BDC)
 FVO- fuel valve opens or fuel
injection starts (5 degree before
TDC)
 FVC- fuel valve closes or fuel
injection stops (25 degree after
TDC)
 EVO- exhaust valve opens (45
degree before BDC)
 EVC- exhaust valve closes (15
degree after TDC)

In the valve timing diagram as shown we see that the inlet valve opens before the piston
reaches TDC; or in other words while the piston is still moving up before the beginning of the
suction stroke. Now the piston reaches the TDC and the suction stroke starts. The piston reaches the
BDC and then starts moving up. The inlet valve closes, when the crank has moved a little beyond
the BDC. This is done as the incoming air continues to flow into the cylinder although the piston is
moving upwards from BDC. Now the air is compressed with both valves closed. Fuel valve opens a
little before the piston reaches the TDC. Now the fuel is injected in the form of very fine spray, into
the engine cylinder, which gets ignited due to high temperature of the compressed air. The fuel
valve closes after the piston has come down a little from the TDC. This is done as the required
quantity of fuel is injected into the engine cylinder. The burnt gases (under high pressure and
temperature) push the piston downwards, and the expansion or working stroke takes place. Now the
exhaust valve opens before the piston again reaches BDC and the burnt gases start leaving the
engine cylinder. Now the piston reaches BDC and then starts moving up thus performing the
exhaust stroke. The inlet valve opens before the piston reaches TDC to start suction stroke. This is
done as the fresh air helps in pushing out the burnt gases. Now the piston again reaches TDC, and

32
the suction starts. The exhaust valve closes when the crank has moved a little beyond the TDC. This
is done as the burnt gases continue to leave the engine cylinder although the piston is moving
downwards.

VALVE LEAD:

The number of degrees in which a valve will opens before theoretical timing is called valve lead.

VALVE LAG:

The number of degrees in which a valve should close after theoretical timing is called valve lag.

VALVE OVERLAP:

The condition when both the inlet and exhaust valves are open simultaneously during so many
degrees of crankshaft rotation is called valve overlap.

VARIABLE VALVE TIMING:

In internal combustion engines, variable valve timing (VVT) is the process of altering
the timing of a valve lift event, and is often used to improve performance, fuel economy or
emissions. It is increasingly being used in combination with variable valve lift systems. The VVT
varies the timing of opening and closing of valves for multiple engine speeds. At high speed, the
Inlet valves open quite earlier so that more air-fuel mixture or ‘charge’ enters the cylinders. This
helps to increase engine’s breathing which also improves its ‘volumetric efficiency’ to a large
extent.

Car manufacturers tend to have their own names for variable valve timing technology.
For example, Toyota uses a ‘VVT-I’ (Variable Valve Timing with Intelligence) system whilst
Honda, somewhat famously, calls its system ‘VTEC’ (Variable Valve Timing and Lift
Electronic Control).

In order for the intake and exhaust valves to open and close, they are connected to a rotating
camshaft that sits above the valves.
Honda's famed VTEC technology is featured across its range.
Variable valve timing technology controls three key characteristics of the int ake and exhaust
valves:

 Valve timing- the points in the piston’s movement at which the valves open and close.

 Valve duration- how long the valves stay open.

 Valve lift- how much the valves physically open (their opening aperture).

To do this, various sensors, such as airflow and camshaft position sensors feed information to
the car’s ECU (engine control unit), which then uses various mechanisms to control the
aforementioned valve characteristics. Honda’s VTEC system, for example, physically moves
the camshaft in order to give the valve more lift.

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 ENGINE VALVES
To admit the sir fuel mixture in the engine cylinder and to force the exhaust gases out at correct
timing.

TYPES OF ENGINE VALVES:

1. Sliding sleeve valve

2. Rotary valve
3. Poppet valve or mushroom valve

SLIDING SLEEVE VALVE:

As the term indicates this valve is cylindrical shape. The sleeve is housed in between the
cylinder and piston. Ports are cut in the cylinder and sleeve to allow flow of air fuel mixture in or
exhaust gases out. A provision of mechanism is made to drive the sleeve. They close their ports by
moving up and down or keep rotating.

ROTARY VALVE:

Many types of rotary valves have been

developed. Figure shows a disc type rotary
valve .it consist of a rotating disc which has a
port. While rotating the port will coincide
alternative with inlet and exhaust manifolds to
perform suction and exhaust.

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POPPET VALVE or MUSHROOM VALVE:

The poppet valves which derives its name from its motion of popping up and down. This is
also called mushroom valve because of its shape which is like a mushroom.

1. Head:
This is the top most part of the valve and it is flat top or tulip top or standard top.

2. Margin:
The thick corner along the circular perimeter of a valve head is called the margin.

3. Neck:
It is the part between the valve head and valve stem.

4. Stem:
This is the thin and long part of the valve on which slots are cut.

5. Face:
This part of the valve fits on the valve seat and prevents leakage. It is better that a face has
less width.

6. Lock grooves:
They are also called slots. It is used for fixing the cotter. A cotter locks the seat of the spring
of a valve assembly.

7. Base or Tip:
This is the lower part of the valve.

Generally inlet valves are larger than exhaust valves. This is due to the following reasons:

 The speed of the incoming air fuel mixture is less than the velocity of exhaust gas which
leaves under pressure.
 Because of high pressure the density of exhaust gases are also high.
 Smaller exhaust gas is also preferred because of shorter path of heat flow and consequently
reducing thermal loading.

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VALVE MATERIALS:

For inlet valves:

Silica chrome steel = cardon-0.4%, nickel-0.5%, manganese-0.5%, silicon-3.5%, chromium-8%

For exhaust valves:

Austenitic steel: - carbon-0.25%, manganese-1.5%, silicon-1%, nickel-12%, chromium-21%,

molybdenum-21%

Precipitation hardening steel: - chromium-23 to 24%, nickel-4 to 5%, molybdenum-1.0%,

manganese-1.0%, carbon-0.4 to 0.5%, sulphur-0.0035%, phrosphorous-0.0035%

SODIUM COOLED VALVE:

In many heavy-duty engines, sodium-cooled valves are used. A sodium-cooled valve has a
hollow stem, which is partly filled with metallic sodium. Sodium melts at 97’5°C. Thus, at
operating temperatures the sodium is liquid. When the engine is running, the valve moves up and
down, and the sodium is thrown upward into the hotter part of the valve. It absorbs heat, which is
then given up to the cooler stem as it falls down in the stem again. This action keeps the valve head
cool. Sodium cooled valve runs as much as 100°C cooler than a solid stem valve of similar design
under the same operating conditions. This means a sodium-cooled valve has a longer life. But its
use requires more care.

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 TYPES OF VALVE OPERATING MECHANISMS

1. MECHANISMS WITH SIDE CAM SHAFT (cam shaft in cylinder block):

(a) DOUBLE ROW SIDE VALVE MECHANISM (T-HEAD):

This is the oldest type of valve actuating mechanism. In this the inlet and exhaust valves are
operated by separate camshafts which make the mechanism complicated. Moreover the shape of the
combustion chamber provides poor combustion and low engine performance due to which this
types of mechanism is obsolete.

(b) SINGLE ROW SIDE VALVE MECHANISM (L-HEAD):

In this mechanism the inlet and exhaust valves are all arranged in a single row and operated
by same camshaft. This method was once popular on account of the following advantages:
 Low engine height
 Low production cost
 Quiet operation
 Ease of lubrication
However this mechanism is no more because it found very inefficient on account of shape of
combustion chamber which cause detonation.

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(c) OVER HEAD INLET AND SIDE EXHAUST VALVE MECHANISM (F-HEAD):

It is a combination of overhead valve

mechanism and side valve mechanism.
Overhead valve mechanism is used for
inlet valve and side valve mechanism
is used for exhaust valve.it is used in f
head engines. F head engines were
found less efficient and were also
more expensive due to which this has
also become obsolete

(d) OVER HEAD VALVE MECHANISM (I- HEAD):

This type was quietly

extensively used in now a
day’s .The cam operates the
valve lifter which in turn
actuates the push rod. The
push rod further operates
the rocker arm which
actuates the valve.

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2. MECHANISMS WITH OVERHEAD CAM SHAFT (cam shaft on cylinder head):

(a) SINGLE OVERHEAD CAM SHAFT (SOHC):

A SOHC engine has one camshaft per bank of cylinders; therefore a straight engine has a
total of one camshaft. A V or flat engine with a total of two camshafts (one per bank of cylinders) is
a single overhead camshaft engine, not a double overhead camshaft engine.

(b) DOUBLE OVERHEAD CAM SHAFT (DOHC):

A double overhead camshaft (DOHC or "twin-cam") engine has two camshafts per bank of
the cylinder head, one for the intake valves and the other for the exhaust valves. Therefore there are
two camshafts for a straight engine and a total of four camshafts for a V engine or a flat engine

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VALVE TRAIN:

A valve train is a mechanical system that controls operation of the intake and exhaust valves in
a combustion engine.

1. Lifter or Tappet:

A tappet is most commonly a component in an internal combustion engine which

converts the rotating motion of the camshaft into linear motion of the valves, either directly
or indirectly. In an internal combustion engine, a tappet (also called a 'valve lifter' or 'cam
follower') is the component which converts the rotation of the camshaft into vertical motion
which opens and closes the intake or exhaust valve. The types of valve lifters (i.e. tappets)
commonly used by automotive engines are solid lifters, hydraulic lifters and roller lifters.

2. Push rod:

Pushrods are long, slender metal rods that are used in overhead valve engines to
transfer motion from the camshaft (located in the engine block) to the valves (located in the
cylinder head). The bottom end of a pushrod is fitted with a lifter, upon which the camshaft
makes contact.

3. Rocker arm:

Rocker Arms are typically in between the pushrod and the intake and exhaust valves.
They allow the pushrods to push up on the rocker arms and therefore push down on
the valves. However, in Over Head Cam applications the Cam will ride directly on
the Rocker Arm.

4. Valve spring:

The valve spring is one of the most important yet over looked parts of an engine, and
is a key part of the valve train. The valve spring keeps the valves closed tightly against their
seats until the cam opens the valve, which releases pressure. The cam will then continue
through its motion releasing the valve and allowing the valve spring to do its job, and retract
the valve back into the head. There are many kinds of valve springs available, with two main
types: Single, and Dual designs.

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 5. Valve spring retainer:

The retainer is a specially shaped washer that fits over the top of the valve spring.
The keepers, or locks, fit into the valve stem grooves, holding the retainer and spring in
place. The seal keeps the valve operating mechanism oil from running down the valve stem
and into the combustion chamber.

6. Valve guide:

A valve guide is a cylindrical piece of metal, pressed or integrally cast into the
cylinder head, with the valve reciprocating inside it. Guides also serve to conduct heat from
the combustion process out from the exhaust valve and into the cylinder head where it may
be taken up by the cooling system.

7. Valve stem oil seal:

Valve stem seals are small relative to other gaskets and seals in an engine, but play
an important role in lubrication. Valve stem seals provide a controlled leak of oil to allow
the valve stem to be lubricated as it slides in the valve guide.

8. Valve seat:

The valve seat in an internal combustion gasoline or diesel engine is the surface
against which an intake or an exhaust valve rests during the portion of the engine operating
cycle when that valve is closed The actual valve-seat angle is generally 45 degrees. On the
combustion-chamber side of the 45-degree seat is a top angle that is usually around
30 degrees. This top angle serves two purposes. First, it acts as a radius to transition air
between the 45-degree seat and the combustion chamber.

VALVE CLEARANCE:

Valve clearances are the small gaps between the tops of the valve stems and the part of the
mechanism which presses on them to open the valves. Check the clearances at regular intervals as
specified in the car service schedule, and adjust if necessary. Reset the clearances whenever the
cylinder head has been removed.

Inlet valve clearance is measured to be 0.35 mm and exhaust valve clearance should be near about
0.45 mm

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 FLYWHEEL
It is a heavy wheel attached to the rear end of the crank shaft. The size of the fly wheel
depends on the no. of cylinders and the general construction of the engine. The flow of power from
the engine cylinder is not smooth. Although the power impulses in multi cylinder engine overlap
follow each other.to provide fairly even flow of power however additional levelling of power
impulses required. This is done by fly wheel. The inertia of fly wheel tents to keep the engine
running at constant speed. When the engine tents to speed up, the flywheel resists. When the engine
tent to slow down, the fly wheel resists. Thus fly wheel absorb the energy as engine tries to speed
up and gives back energy as the engine speed almost constant. The flywheel is also used as a apart
for clutch mechanism. it has also teeth on its outer edge to mesh with the electric cranking motor
drive pinion when the engine being cranked to start it.

FUNCTION OF CLUTCH:

Function of the Clutch is to transmitting the torque from the engine to the drivetrain.
Smoothly deliver the power from the engine to enable smooth vehicle movement. Perform quietly
and to reduce drive-related vibration

FUNCTION OF COUPLING:

A coupling is a device used to connect two shafts together at their ends for the purpose of
transmitting power. Couplings do not normally allow disconnection of shafts during operation,
however there are torque limiting couplings which can slip or disconnect when some torque limit is
exceeded

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