Principles of Reasoning

2022/03/23

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• All psychiatrists are people with medical degrees. All

people who can prescribe drugs are people with
medical degrees.Therefore, all psychiatrists are people
who can prescribe drugs.

• All P are G.
• All B are G.
• All P are B.
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• All psychiatrists are people with medical degrees. All

people who can prescribe drugs are people with
medical degrees.Therefore, all psychiatrists are people
who can prescribe drugs.

• All cats are animals.

• All frogs are animals.
• All cats are frogs.
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• Class/Category: a group of objects.

• Categorical proposition: a proposition that relates two
classes of objects.
• Subject term: the term that comes first in a standard-
form categorical proposition.
• Predicate term: the term that comes second in a
standard-form categorical proposition.
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Examples
• Classes/Categories:
1. Cats; Flowers; Animals; Pencils; Rational numbers; All
students in the University of Iowa;
2. {2, 3, 5, 7}; {Tom, Jerry};
3. {x : x have the property P}
• Class inclusion: what is contained in that class
• Class exclusion: what is not contained in that class
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Examples
• Categorical propositions:
1. All roses are flowers.
2. Some cats are frogs.
3. No cats are spiders.
4. Some philosophers are not crazy people.
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Examples
• Subject/Predicate terms:
1. All roses are flowers.
• Subject term: roses
• Predicate term: flowers
2. Some cats are frogs.
• Subject term: cats
• Predicate term: frogs
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Standard Forms

A-propositions: All S are P.

I-propositions: Some S are P.
E-propositions: No S are P.
O-propositions: Some S are not P.
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Standard-form categorical Propositions

• Classify the following categorical propositions:
1. All roses are flowers.
2. Some cats are frogs.
3. No cats are spiders.
4. Some philosophers are not crazy people.
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Standard-form categorical Propositions

• Classify the following categorical propositions:
1. All roses are flowers. (A-proposition)
2. Some cats are frogs. (I-proposition)
3. No cats are spiders. (E-proposition)
4. Some philosophers are not crazy people.
(O-proposition)
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A: All S are P.
• universal affirmative
• It affirms that every member of the subject class is a
member of the predicate class.
E: No S are P.
I: Some S are P.
O: Some S are not P.
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A: All S are P.
E: No S are P.
• universal negative
• It asserts that no members of the subject class are
members of the predicate class.
I: Some S are P.
O: Some S are not P.
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A: All S are P.
E: No S are P.
I: Some S are P.
• particular affirmative
• It asserts that at least one member of the subject class
is a member of the predicate class.
O: Some S are not P.
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A: All S are P.
E: No S are P.
I: Some S are P.
O: Some S are not P.
• particular negative
• It asserts that at least one member of the subject class
is not a member of the predicate class.
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• Quantity
• Universal (A, E) all, no
• Particular (I, O) some
• Quality
• Affirmative (A, I) are
• Negative (E, O) no...are, are not
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• Quantifier
• all, no, some
• Tell the extent of the class inclusion or exclusion
• Copula
• are, are not
• Link the subject class with the predicate class
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Distribution
• Distributed: If a categorical proposition asserts
something about every member of a class, then the
term designating that class is said to be distributed.
• Undistributed: If a proposition does not assert
something about every member of a class, then the
term designating that class is said to be undistributed.
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Distribution
A: All S are P.
• S: distributed
• P: undistributed
E: No S are P.
I: Some S are P.
O: Some S are not P.
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Distribution
A: All S are P.
E: No S are P.
• S: distributed
• P: distributed
I: Some S are P.
O: Some S are not P.
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Distribution
A: All S are P.
E: No S are P.
I: Some S are P.
• S: undistributed
• P: undistributed
O: Some S are not P.
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Distribution
A: All S are P.
E: No S are P.
I: Some S are P.
O: Some S are not P.
• S: undistributed
• P: distributed
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WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT 19

• 5A 7-10;
• 5BI 10-15
• 5BII 7-10;
• 5BIII 7-10
• Due 3/25 Friday
• Reading textbook pp. 192-9, 201-7