Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223

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Ore Geology Reviews

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Ore mineralogy and trace element (re)distribution at the metamorphosed

Lappberget Zn-Pb-Ag-(Cu-Au) deposit, Garpenberg, Sweden
Glacialle Tiu a, *, Nils Jansson a, Christina Wanhainen a, Yousef Ghorbani b, Lena Lilja c
a
Division of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, SE-97187 Luleå, Sweden
b
Division of Minerals and Metals Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, SE-97187 Luleå, Sweden
c
Garpenberg Mine, Boliden Mineral AB, SE-77698 Garpenberg, Sweden

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Qualitative and quantitative mineralogical and textural investigations were undertaken for the different sulfide
Bergslagen minerals in the 1.89 Ga Lappberget deposit, with a focus on sphalerite and pyrite. Three sphalerite types were
Remobilization identified and associated with: (1) main massive sulfide mineralization, (2) Fe-Mn skarn ore, and (3) Ag-rich
Sphalerite
fissure veins. Sphalerite-1 contained a relatively higher amount of trace elements (Fe, Co, Ge, Cu, Sn, and Au)
Pyrite
Silver
but is lower in Mn/Fe, Ga, and Hg compared to sphalerite-2. Evidence of tectono-metamorphic modification of
LA-ICP-MS sulfides is observed throughout the deposit, such as the formation of growth twins and deformation twins in
sulfides, the development of high-angled triple-point junctions in recrystallized pyrite and sphalerite, and the
formation of ‘ball ore’ or ‘durchbewegung’ textures within mineralized shear zones. The recrystallization of
pyrite and galena may have led to the re-distribution of fluid-mobile elements (As, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag, and Au), some
of which were deposited in discordant Ag-rich fissure veins peripheral to the main massive sulfide lenses. Trace
element signatures of sulfides in Lappberget are compatible with the other metamorphosed and deformed,
subseafloor volcanogenic carbonate replacement (SVALS)-type deposits in the Bergslagen mining district.

1. Introduction been focused on the stratigraphy, geochemistry and structural frame­

Located approximately 180 km northwest of Stockholm (Fig. 1), the
Lappberget Zn–Pb–Ag–(Cu–Au) deposit is part of Boliden Mineral AB’s
Garpenberg mine and is Sweden’s oldest still-operating mine. It is
located in the Bergslagen mining district, which hosts a wide variety of
metamorphosed and deformed, magmatic-hydrothermal, and hydro­
thermal mineral deposits (c. 7 000 iron oxide deposits, c. 1 500 base
metal deposits, and 150 metal deposits of other commodities; Stephens
et al., 2009). Recent research has shown that mining operations at
Garpenberg began as far back as 375 BCE (Bindler et al., 2017), and the
mine has since developed into one of the country’s largest base metal
mines. The mine targets several sulfide deposits distributed along the
northwestern limb of the Garpenberg syncline (Fig. 2). The ores are
commonly located in upright structural domes. The Lappberget deposit
is currently the largest sulfide deposit in the mine with a combined
mineral resource and ore reserve of 58 Mt at 3.42% Zn, 1.68% Pb, 0.06%
Cu, 70 g/t Ag, and 0.41 g/t Au (Högnäs, 2019). It is mined and processed
to produce four different concentrates: Zn, Pb, Cu, and a gravimetric
concentrate targeted for Au and Ag. Most studies in Garpenberg have
work of the deposit (e.g., Sandecki, 1982; Vivallo, 1985; Allen et al.,
2003; Berggren, 2005). While more recent studies have added more
knowledge on magnetite deposits near Lappberget (cf. Jansson and
Allen, 2013; 2015), our understanding of the distribution and miner­
alogy of ore minerals within the Lappberget deposit is still limited.
This study aims to characterize the different mineralization types at
Lappberget based on the ore mineralogy and textures of the main sulfide
minerals, mainly, sphalerite, pyrite, galena, and chalcopyrite. Quanti­
tative analysis of mineral chemistry was undertaken using electron
probe microanalysis (EPMA) and laser ablation inductively-coupled
plasma mass spectroscopy (LA-ICP-MS) for the different sulfides asso­
ciated with the different mineralization styles. The qualitative and
quantitative investigations of the sulfide minerals at Lappberget will
help provide a better understanding of the ore formation as well as the
effect of the overprinting metamorphism and deformation. In addition,
the identification of the different ore types and trace element distribu­
tion in sulfides can be utilized for the geometallurgical assessment of the
ore (e.g., Frenzel et al., 2019).

* Corresponding author at: Luleå University of Technology, Luleå SE-97187, Sweden.

E-mail addresses: glacialle.tiu@ltu.se, glacialletiu@gmail.com (G. Tiu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104223
Received 17 August 2020; Received in revised form 30 April 2021; Accepted 8 May 2021
Available online 12 May 2021
0169-1368/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
G. Tiu et al.
2. Geological setting
2.1. Regional geology
The Lappberget Zn–Pb–Ag–(Cu–Au) deposit is hosted within the
strongly deformed and metamorphosed Garpenberg supracrustal inlier
(Fig. 2). The inlier is mainly composed of rhyolitic-dacitic metavolcanic
rocks with minor metabasalts and marble and is bounded by Sveco­
karelian metagranitoids (Allen et al., 2003). A northeast-southwest
trending, doubly plunging upright syncline constitutes the major
structure in the area and is referred to as the Garpenberg syncline (Du
Rietz, 1968; Allen et al., 2003). Its southeastern limb is cut by the
northeast trending and southeast dipping Stora Jelken reverse shear
zone (Allen et al., 2003). Mineralization occurs as irregular, strata­
bound, massive, and disseminated deposits, which occur mostly on the
northwest limb of the Garpenberg syncline. Mineralization formed at c.
1.89 Ga, prior to ductile deformation and metamorphism during the
Svecokarelian orogeny (Jansson et al., 2011). Regional tectonics within
the Bergslagen region shows that ductile deformation associated with
folding (D1) and low pressure and high temperature metamorphism (M1)
occurred at c. 1.87 Ga followed by the emplacement of alkali-calcic
plutonic rocks at c. 1.87–1.84 Ga (Stephens and Jansson, 2020).
Another cycle of ductile deformation involving folding and shearing
(D2) and metamorphism (M2) occurred at 1.82–1.75 Ga including the
emplacement of alkali-calcic plutonic rocks until 1.78 Ga (Stephens and
Jansson, 2020). This is followed by a transition from ductile to brittle
deformation characterized by localized shearing and faulting at c.
1.8–1.7 Ga (Stephens and Jansson, 2020). The metamorphic grade is
estimated at lower amphibolite facies with a peak metamorphic tem­
perature of 550 ◦ C at pressures below 3.5 kbar (Vivallo, 1985). The
metamorphic overprint has made it uncertain whether calc-silicate
minerals in the ores are of magmatic-hydrothermal origin or if they
formed during the metamorphic overprint (cf. minerals like garnet and
amphibole in metamorphosed VMS deposits, e.g., Hodges and Man­
ojlovic, 1993).
Base metal sulfide deposits within the Bergslagen region are mainly
classified into two end-members: ‘Falun-type’ or subseafloor
Fig. 1. Geological map of the Bergslagen region showing the location of the Garpenberg area outlined with a black box. Red circles are polymetallic sulfide deposits
and blue circles are Fe oxide deposits registered in the database of the Geological Survey of Sweden (Jansson et al., 2011).
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Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223
volcanogenic carbonate replacement (SVALS)-type deposits and
‘Åmmeberg-type’ or stratiform ash-siltstone hosted (SAS)-type deposits
(Magnusson, 1953; Allen et al., 1996). SVALS-type deposits are associ­
ated with VMS- and skarn-like features and are interpreted to have
formed in intra-caldera settings, where rapid burial during major
caldera-forming volcanic events induced a shift from sub-seafloor hy­
drothermal activity to contact-metasomatic regimes with time (Jansson
et al., 2011). SAS-type deposits, on the other hand, are interpreted to
have formed by exhalation of hydrothermal fluids on the seafloor (Allen
et al., 1996; Jansson et al., 2018). Examples of SVALS-type deposits in
the Bergslagen region include Garpenberg (Allen et al., 1996), Falun
(Kampmann et al., 2017), Stollberg (Allen et al., 1996), and Sala
(Jansson, 2017). SAS-type deposits are represented by the Zinkgruvan
(Allen et al., 1996) and Lovisa (Jansson et al., 2018) deposits.
2.2. Local geology
The Lappberget Zn-Pb-Ag-(Cu-Au) deposit is situated in an upright
structural dome in the northwest limb of the Garpenberg syncline
(Fig. 2). It is hosted by intensely altered and metamorphosed felsic
volcanic rocks and former limestone that are overlain by less altered
metasedimentary rocks. The local stratigraphy at Lappberget is com­
parable to the nearby Garpenberg Norra deposit as described by Allen
et al. (2003). The stratigraphic footwall consists of highly silicified and/
or micaceous rocks. Jansson (2011) inferred that these rocks are
equivalent to the massive to bedded metavolcanic rocks of rhyolitic to
dacitic composition in the stratigraphic footwall at Garpenberg Norra.
Overlying this sequence is the main ore host, comprising a unit of skarn
and calcitic to dolomitic marble, for which a stromatolitic limestone
alteration precursor has been interpreted (Allen et al., 2003). Strati­
graphic hanging wall rocks consist of less altered rhyolitic to basaltic
volcanic breccia, conglomerates, and sandstones. Subvolcanic dacitic
intrusions intrude the underlying mineralized horizon.
Mineralization extends from the crest of the structural dome at
approximately 350 m below the surface and remains open at depth.
Sulfide-rich zones containing massive ores, veins, and breccias are
concentrated on the limbs of the upright structural dome (Fig. 3).
G. Tiu et al. Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223

Sphalerite, galena, and pyrite are the main sulfide minerals at Lapp­ taken at the mineralized section of the Lappberget deposit.
berget, whereas pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite constitute minor
components.
3.2. Mineralogical and textural analysis
3. Methodology
Petrographic investigations were carried out on 150 thin sections
using optical light microscopy (Nikon ECLIPSE E600 POL) and a scan­
3.1. Sample selection
ning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with energy dispersive spec­
trometer (EDS) (Merlin Zeiss Gemini) at Luleå University of Technology.
One hundred and fifty drill core samples of varying lengths were
Sputter coating with carbon was undertaken for all SEM analyses. An
collected to investigate the sulfide occurrence and associations of the
acceleration voltage of 20 keV and emission current of 1.0nA was uti­
different mineralization types present in the deposit. The list of samples
lized for EDS analysis. For modal mineralogy, representative thin-
is attached as supplementary material (Table A). Boliden Mineral AB
section samples were analyzed using QEMSCAN® 650 (FEI with W-
provided the historical drill core assays for Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag and Au from
filament, two EDS, and an electron backscatter detector) at Boliden AB
the sampled intervals. Element-to-mineral conversion (EMC) of
with iMeasure version 5.4 software for data collection and iDiscover 5.4
geochemical assay data was applied to quantify the amount of sulfides
software for data processing. The field scan measurement mode was
present for spatial modelling (Whiten, 2008). Thirty-five samples were
performed at an X-ray resolution of 5 µm using a horizontal field width
utilized for lithology and alteration studies, whereas 115 samples were
of 1500 µm (300 × 300 analysis points per field), with a measurement

Fig. 2. Regional geological map of the Garpenberg area (Allen et al., 2003; Jansson et al., 2011). The Lappberget deposit is marked by a star.

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G. Tiu et al.
Fig. 3. (A) Cross-section of the Lappberget ore body and (B) Mineralogical modelling of major minerals based on EMC calculation at Lappberget. Thin grey lines are
logged drill cores.
area of approximately 21.5 mm × 32 mm.
3.3. Electron microprobe analysis
Mineral chemistry data was derived for twenty-five thin sections at
the Geological Survey of Finland on a CAMECA SX100 electron micro­
probe equipped with five wavelength-dispersion spectrometers (TAP, 2
LLIF, PET, and LPET) and one EDS detector. The sulfide analyses were
determined using an accelerating voltage of 20 kV with a probe current
and beam diameter of 40nA and 1 µm, respectively. Natural minerals
and metals were used as reference standards. Data for the EPMA spot
analyses is attached as supplementary material (Table B).
3.4. Multielement LA-ICP-MS spot analysis and element mapping of
sulfides
Both LA-ICP-MS spot analysis and element mapping were carried out
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Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223
using a New Wave Research (NWR193) laser-ablation system coupled to
an iCAP-Q quadrupole inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer
(LA-ICP-MS, Thermo Scientific) at Luleå University of Technology.
Calibration of the ICP-MS was performed at the start of every experiment
to maximize the sensitivity of the isotopes and minimize the production
of the molecular oxide species (232Th16O/232Th) and doubly charged
ions (140Ce++/140Ce+). The ablated material was transported using
helium (He) as the carrier gas.
LA-ICP-MS spot analysis was carried out with a spot size of 50 μm, a
laser repetition rate of 5 Hz, and a laser fluence of ~ 2.5 J/cm2. A total
acquisition time of 85 s was used, including 15 s background measure­
ment (laser off), 30 s sample ablation, and 40 s washout time. Multiple
standard analyses were done after every 6 to 12 spot analyses to correct
for instrument drift.
The following isotopes were analyzed: 34S, 55Mn, 57Fe, 59Co, 60Ni,
65
Cu, 66Zn, 69Ga, 72Ge, 75As, 77Se, 107Ag, 111Cd, 115In, 118Sn, 121Sb,
197
Au, 202Hg, 205Tl, 208Pb, and 209Bi. The dwell times for the analytes
G. Tiu et al. Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223

were set individually. Data reduction was done using the IOLITE soft­
ware package (Paton et al., 2011). Concentration calculation and in­
strument drift correction were carried out using sulfide reference
materials MUL-ZnS-1 (Onuk et al., 2016) for sphalerite, MASS-1 (Wilson
et al., 2002) for galena, and UQAC-FeS (Savard et al., 2018) for pyrite
and chalcopyrite. MASS-1 was utilized to quantify concentrations of Hg
whereas UQAC-FeS was used for Au, since these elements were not
available in the sphalerite standard. Absolute concentrations of Hg must
be considered as approximate due to uncertainties in Hg content of
MASS-1. Ge concentrations can also not be quantified in full confidence
due to the interference with 56Fe16O. 66Zn was used as the sphalerite
internal standard, 208Pb for galena and 57Fe for other sulfides. The
concentration of the internal standard elements are based on the average
mineral chemistry data for each sample and sulphide type. Limits of
detection (LOD) were calculated based on Longerich et al. (1996)
formula.
LA-ICP-MS element maps were generated using a series of parallel
line rasters spaced identical to the spot size (5–20 µm) to ensure com­
plete coverage. The laser was run at varying speed depending on the spot
size with a repetition rate of 5 Hz or 10 Hz and laser fluence of ~ 2.5 J/
cm2. The same set of standards as those used for spot analysis was used
to create element maps at the beginning and end of each mapping run.
Element maps were processed and generated using the IOLITE software
package. The result of the LA-ICP-MS spot analyses is attached as sup­
plementary material (Table C).
3.5. Linear mixed effect model (LME)
Linear mixed effect (LME) models were fitted for the trace element
chemistry data of sphalerite to characterize the effect of the different
mineralization styles and sphalerite types. Prior to modelling, the data
was log transformed to fulfill the statistical requirements for LME
models (van den Boogaart and Tolosana-Delgado, 2013). For elements
with below detection limit values, median values provided from the data
reduction in IOLITE was used (Supplementary material Table C). For this
study, the sphalerite type and mineralization styles were modeled as
fixed effects whereas sample was modelled as random effect, following
the notation:
log(C) SphaleriteType + Mineralization + (1|Sample) (1)
wherein C denotes the trace element concentration in sphalerite.
A more detailed explanation of the models and procedures utilized
for modelling LME was discussed in van den Boogaart and Tolosana-
Delgado (2013) and Godefroy-Rodríguez et al. (2020). LME modelling
was done using Microsoft R client software version 3.5.2 with lme4
(Bates et al., 2015) and piecewiseSEM (Lefcheck, 2016) packages.
3.6. Mineralization styles
A wide variety of minerals were identified through petrographic
analysis of the samples from the Lappberget deposit as summarized in
Table 1. Footwall disseminated and semi-massive mineralization are
observed at depth and transitions to a massive sphalerite-galena-pyrite-
chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite-Au electrum mineralization followed by a
massive sphalerite-pyrite-galena mineralization. Skarn-hosted mineral­
ization occurs at the interface between the silicified volcanic rock and
dolomitic marble. Magnetite mineralization, carbonate-hosted Ag-rich
sulfide sulfosalt veinlets and Ag-As-Mn fissure mineralization is
concentrated in the upper part of the deposit, within the dolomitic
marble sequence. Representative samples of the different mineralization
styles are shown in Fig. 4.
3.7. Massive sphalerite-pyrite-galena mineralization (MSPG)
The massive Zn-Pb sulfide ore at Lappberget is dominated by
sphalerite, pyrite, and galena. Chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite occur as
minor to trace phases, mostly as exsolutions in sphalerite.

Table 1
Mineral abundance of sulfides, sulfosalts, antimonides and oxides in the Lappberget deposit. Mineral estimation is based from the QEMSCAN modal mineralogy and
estimates from thin sections. Mineral formulas are calculated based on the EPMA data. Mineral abbreviations are mostly after Whitney and Evans (2010).
Mineral phase (abbreviation) Mineral Formula MSPG MSGC FwD SKN QDM AgD MSZ

Metal sulfides
Sphalerite (Sp) Zn0.8-1.08Fe0-0.2Mn0-0.1S *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
Galena (Gn) PbS ***◦ *** ** ** ** ** ***
Pyrite (Py) FeS2 *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
Chalcopyrite (Ccp) CuFeS2 * ** ** * * * *
Pyrrhotite (Po) Fe0.9-1S * ** ** * ** ◦
*
Arsenopyrite (Apy) Fe1.02-1.03As0.9-1S ◦ ◦ ◦
* * ◦ ◦

Gudmundite (Gdm) FeSb0.9-1S ◦ ◦

Alabandite (Alb) MnSa

Cubanite (Cbn) CuFe2S3 ◦ ◦ ◦

Bournonite (Bour) PbCuSbS3 ◦ ◦

Boulangerite (Boul) Pb5Sb4S11a ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

Freibergite (Frb) (Cu4.3-10.6Ag0.1-6.2Zn0-1.1Fe0.1-2Mn0-1.9)(Sb0.2-4.2As0-3.8)S12.2-13.6 ◦ ◦ ◦

* * *
Tetrahedrite (Ttr) ◦
* ◦

Tennantite (Tnt) ◦ ◦ ◦

Silver-Allargentum (Ag,All) Ag0.81-0.98Sb0.01-0.15 ◦

* ◦ ◦

Dyscrasite (Dys) Ag3.1-3.2Sb0.8 ◦ ◦

Acanthite (Ac) Ag2Sa ◦ ◦

Electrum (El) (Au,Ag) 10–87 wt% Ag ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

Jordanite (Jor) Pb13.8-13.9(As4.6-5Sb1.1-1.3)S23-23.1 ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

Stephanite (Stp) Ag5.3-7.4Sb1.4-3.4S0.7-1.1 ◦ ◦ ◦

Pyrargyrite (Pyr) Ag3SbS3a ◦ ◦

Diaphorite (Dia) Pb2Ag3Sb3S8a ◦ ◦

Native antimony (Sb) Sba ◦ ◦

Native arsenic (As) Asa ◦

Oxides
Magnetite (Mag) Fe3O4a (MnO = 2.20–2.26 wt%) ** ◦

Ilmenite (Ilm) FeTiO3a ◦

Pyrophanite (Pph) MnTiO3a ◦ ◦

*** major mineral phase (>5 area%), ** minor (1–5 area%), * trace (<1 area%), ◦ rare (sporadic trace mineral phase)
a
based on stoichiometric formula (Anthony and Bideaux, R.A., Bladh, K.W., Nichols, 1990).

5
G. Tiu et al.
Fig. 4. Representative samples of different mineralization styles at the Lappberget deposit. (A) Massive Zn-Pb mineralization (LPB1513-101); (B) Massive Cu-rich
sulfide mineralization (LPB2577-156.9); (C) Footwall disseminated mineralization (LPB3408-302.8); (D) Carbonate-hosted Ag-rich veinlets dominated by galena,
sulfosalts and antimonides (LPB 3065-44.67); (E) Magnetite mineralization (LPB3618-89.4); (F) Skarn-hosted sulfide mineralization cut by talc vein (LPB3564-161);
and (G) Mineralized shear zones showing ‘ball texture’ (LPB3408-270.1).
Mineralization typically occurs as vein networks but also as replacement
bodies and breccia infills. The massive ore breccia consists of a medium
to coarse-grained sphalerite-galena matrix and wall rock fragments with
diffused boundaries. Annealing textures in pyrite and sphalerite are
typically present.
The massive ores are mainly concentrated along with the contact
between dolomitic marble and highly silicified rock. Two major sulfide-
rich zones, to the north and south, are distinguished as the high-grade
ore lenses in the mine. These sulfide-rich zones exhibit an ENE-WSW
trend and dips steeply (c. 80-90◦ ) towards the south (Fig. 3). The
marble and footwall rock interface is characterized by the silicification
of former limestone and an increased abundance of magnesian skarn.
3.8. Massive sphalerite-galena-pyrite-chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite ± Au
mineralization (MSGC)
This mineralization style displays similar textures as the massive Zn-
Pb mineralization but has more chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite and has
higher Au and Ag content. A higher galena:sphalerite and pyrrhotite:
pyrite ratio is also recorded. The Cu-rich massive sulfide ore generally
occurs at the lower parts of the massive sulfide mineralization adjacent
to the footwall disseminated to semi-massive mineralization. Sphalerite
typically contains small blebs of chalcopyrite and/or pyrrhotite as in­
clusions within the grain or along grain boundaries.
3.9. Footwall disseminated to semi-massive mineralization (FWD)
Disseminated sulfide mineralization of mainly pyrite and sphalerite
occurs along all sides of the main massive sulfide mineralization.
However, high-grade mineralization of this type typically occurs as
veins and is mainly located in the footwall, hosted by biotite-quartz- and
muscovite-quartz-altered volcanic rocks. This mineralization style is
characterized by a relatively high content of chalcopyrite and pyrrho­
tite, occurring as disseminations, veins, or as the groundmass of semi-
massive sulfides. This mineralization is also associated with higher
gold to sulfide content. Gold typically occurs as Ag-rich electrum. The
mica-hosted sulfide mineralization was observed in the deeper parts of
the Lappberget deposit (below 850 m depth as shown in Fig. 3).
3.10. Skarn-hosted sulfide mineralization (SKN)
Massive skarns are commonly located at the marble and silicified
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Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223
rock interface, adjacent to the massive sulfide mineralization. The skarn
is mainly composed of amphibole (tremolite-actinolite), manganoan
diopside, and talc. Both tremolite-actinolite and manganoan diopside
are coarse-grained and typically occur with interstitial sphalerite and
galena. In some quartz sulfide veinlets, alteration zoning is observed.
Manganoan diopside occurs proximal to the sulfide veins followed by
tremolite-actinolite, then calcite, and lastly dolomite. Tremolite
replacing diopside is observed locally.
3.11. Magnetite mineralization (MT)
Magnetite mineralization ranges from vein, semi-massive to massive
mineralization and occurs stratigraphically above the main massive
sulfide ore. It is associated with manganoan diopside and actinolite with
sphalerite, galena, pyrite, and pyrrhotite. The amount of sulfide min­
erals associated with magnetite is significantly less than the amount
present in the previously discussed sulfide mineralization.
Different varieties of magnetite mineralization were identified based
on their mineral associations. These are (1) quartz-diopside-actinolite
skarn-hosted magnetite, (2) actinolite-garnet-biotite-associated
massive magnetite, and (3) dolomitic marble-hosted magnetite. The
latter is associated with silver and galena veinlets.
3.12. Mineralized shear zones (MSZ)
Northeast-trending shear zones (Jansson, 2011) cut the structural
dome that hosts the mineralization at Lappberget. These shear zones are
associated with talc and chlorite as well as minor biotite and phlogopite.
Some sections of the shear zones, which cuts the massive sulfide
mineralization, host significant sphalerite-galena-pyrite mineralization.
Mineralogy is similar to the massive ores but exhibit a “ball ore texture”
(e.g., Geijer, 1971; Vokes, 1973) or “durchbewegung” structure
(Marshall and Gilligan, 1989), characterized by a fine-grained sphal­
erite-galena matrix with well-rounded clasts of wall rock and pyrite.
Schist fragments generally give a more elongated form while vein quartz
fragments and pyrite take on extremely rounded forms. A bulging
recrystallization texture is present in the rounded quartz grains
(Passchier and Trouw, 2005).
3.13. Carbonate-hosted Ag-rich sulfide-sulfosalt veinlets (AgD)
Argentiferous sulfide-sulfosalt veinlets are generally hosted in
G. Tiu et al.
manganoan dolomitic marble. The veinlets host a complex sulfide-
sulfosalt assemblage, with galena, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, gudmun­
dite, freibergite, tetrahedrite-tennantite, bournonite, boulangerite and a
variety of Ag-, As-, and Sb-bearing minerals, most commonly allargen­
tum and dyscrasite. These veinlets typically form a sulfide vein with a
dendritic pattern, wherein sphalerite, pyrite ± pyrrhotite occupy the
main vein and galena, sulfosalts, and Ag-bearing minerals serve as
branches (e.g., Fig. 4D). These veinlets are typically observed along
cusps of deformed sulfide veins and cut recrystallized pyrite grains. Rare
veins of coarser-grained galena also occur and are associated with quartz
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veins. Fragments of massive sulfide mineralization are commonly
incorporated into the veins, showing corrosive and replacement texture.
The late-stage evolution of the vein assemblages is recorded by distinct
decomposition textures, which post-date the last pervasive deformation
of the veins. These are (1) symplectitic or myrmekitic intergrowths of
tetrahedrite and galena replacing bournonite, (2) complex intergrowths
of dyscrasite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite, alabandite, tetrahedrite, chalco­
pyrite and/or native antimony replacing an Ag-rich fahlore, and (3) late-
stage native silver-allargentum-arsenopyrite-alabandite ± Mn-sphal­
erite fracture fills. The veins containing the third texture type crosscut
Fig. 5. Photomicrographs of different
sphalerite textures. (A) annealed sphalerite
grains showing triple junctions and pyrrho­
tite inclusions along boundaries (LPB1617-
91.02, plain transmitted light), (B) zonal
chalcopyrite disease in sphalerite (LPB1554-
216.17, reflected light), (C) deformation
twins in sphalerite; sample etched with
NaClO (LPB3458-187.52, reflected light), (D)
red sphalerite (sp-1) with chalcopyrite in­
clusions inside a pyrite grain associated with
yellow sphalerite (sp-2) (LPB1425-203.87,
transmitted light), (E) deformation twins in
sphalerite (sp-2) (LPB1425-203.87, trans­
mitted light), (F) sphalerite (sp-2) showing
growth zonation pattern (LPB3065-30.78,
transmitted light), (G) sphalerite (sp-1) with
chalcopyrite as inclusions in garnet associ­
ated with type 2 sphalerite (sp-2) (LPB1103-
187.62, reflected light), (H) SEM image of
sphalerite (sp-3) showing oscillatory zoning
cut by fracture-filling allargentum (white)
and Ag-bearing tetrahedrite (light gray)
(LPB2918-472.34). Abbreviations: all-
allargentum, ccp-chalcopyrite, gn–galena,
grt- garnet, po-pyrrhotite, py-pyrite, sp-
sphalerite, and tth-tetrahedrite.
G. Tiu et al.
the veins with the first and second textures and occurs as infill along
micro-veins and cavities in recrystallized pyrite, magnetite, galena, and
dolomitic marble. These late-veins are also associated with fine-grained
manganiferous silicates (e.g., bannisterite).
4. Sulfide occurrence and texture
4.1. Sphalerite
Three types of sphalerite are observed in Lappberget. Sphalerite-1
(sp-1) mainly occurs in MSPG, MSGC, and FWD. It is generally coarse-
grained and exhibits recrystallization and annealing textures (e.g.,
Fig. 5A). In some samples, the contact between intergrown sphalerite is
marked by a high-angled triple junction (i.e., some at approximately
120◦ ). Pyrrhotite or chalcopyrite blebs commonly occur near the grain
boundaries. This texture is referred to as ‘chalcopyrite disease’, which
are typical in metamorphosed sulfide deposits (i.e., below upper
amphibolite facies) (Barton and Bethke, 1987; Bente and Doering, 1995;
Lockington et al., 2014; Govindarao et al., 2018). Chalcopyrite disease
texture is most common in MSGC and FWD. Chalcopyrite disease with
‘watermelon texture’ is commonly observed in sphalerite (sp-1) adjacent
to chalcopyrite grains. Watermelon texture is characterized by the
presence of a Cu-enriched and Fe-depleted interdiffusion rim (rind) in
the sphalerite with rounded chalcopyrite blebs at the boundary through
to the core (seed) (Bente and Doering, 1993, 1995). An example is
shown in Fig. 5B. Deformation and annealing twins are prevalent in sp-1
(Fig. 5C). Sphalerite-1 also occurs as inclusions in pyrite porphyroblasts
(Fig. 5D), quartz, and garnet intergrown with sphalerite-2.
Sphalerite-2 (sp-2) is mostly observed associated with manganoan
dolomitic marble and skarn minerals (i.e., MT, AgD, and SKN). Sp-2 also
occurs as inclusions in co-(re)crystallizing garnet. Sp-2 rarely contains
deformation twins (Fig. 5E) and seldom shows millimeter-thick growth
zonation (Fig. 5F). The latter is only found in coarse-grained sphalerite
grains. Nanometer-sized exsolutions of pyrrhotite were observed in sp-2
along the twin boundaries in sphalerite. Brittle deformation of sp-1 and
sp-2 in shear zones produced finer-grained rounded sphalerite inter­
grown with galena (Fig. 5G). The sphalerite in MSZ shows abundant
twinning with few grains showing bulging grain boundaries. Late stage
carbonate-hosted Ag-rich veins contain well-rounded sphalerite grains
(sp-3a) and sphalerite grains with nano- to micrometer thick oscillatory
growth zonations (sp-3b) (Fig. 5H).
Fig. 6. Three generations of pyrite revealed through etching in NaClO and through LA-ICPMS multi-element mapping (LPB1617-277).
8
Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223
4.2. Pyrite
Four different pyrite morphologies are recorded in Lappberget: (1)
rounded anhedral pyrite (py-1), (2) inclusion-rich pitted pyrite (py-2),
(3) inclusion-free recrystallized pyrite (py-3) and (4) pyrite aggregates
occurring with galena and tetrahedrite (py-4). The first type of pyrite
(py-1) is finer-grained (<100 µm) and occurs as anhedral to subhedral
individual grains or as inclusions within the younger pyrite generations.
It is, however, difficult to distinguish since it visually resembles py-3 and
is only revealed through etching with NaClO as shown in Fig. 6. Py-1 is
observed in FWD, MSGC, and AgD but may be present with other
mineralization styles. Pitted pyrite (py-2) is generally observed as fine to
coarse anhedral to subhedral crystals or as cores in recrystallized pyrite.
The pits in py-2 are commonly filled with arsenopyrite, galena, tetra­
hedrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and silver-bearing minerals. Py-2 is
observed in all mineralization types.
Py-3 is characterized by coarse and rounded subhedral grains and is
ubiquitous in the mineralized areas in Lappberget. Intergrown py-3
grains are marked by a triple junction of approximately 120◦ , indica­
tive of a recrystallization and annealing texture. One sample of etched
pyrite (py-3) shows a ductile deformation texture. Evidence of brittle
deformation of pyrite (py-3) is shown through fractures ranging from
hairline cracks to extensive pulverization (Fig. 7A and 7B). Grain rota­
tion and corrosion of pyrite is commonly observed in the mineralized
shear zones. Rounded pyrite grains commonly showed hairline fracture
without infills except for later silver-hosting minerals. Chalcopyrite and
pyrrhotite replacement of the third type of pyrite was observed in AgD
veins.
Py-4 is fine-grained (<10 µm) aggregates of pyrite grains complexly
intergrown with galena, tetrahedrite, and other sulfosalts and is
observed in the late veins (AgD). A younger fine-grained subhedral to
euhedral pyrite is also observed in the unmineralized rocks (i.e.,
younger intrusives) in Lappberget, but this will not be discussed in this
paper.
4.3. Galena
Texturally, it is difficult to distinguish different galena generations
due to its ductile behavior. Galena, having a plastic behavior, typically
forms as an interstitial phase between sphalerite and less commonly
pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite. Grains are generally anhedral and grain
sizes may vary from fine- to coarse-grained. Galena is present as a
G. Tiu et al.
massive matrix in MSPG and MSGC or as veinlets cutting massive
sphalerite. Tetrahedrite exsolutions in galena is common in MT and
SKN, an example of which are shown in Fig. 7D. Jordanite, boulangerite,
and more rarely bournonite also occur as exsolutions within galena. In
AgD veins, galena occurs as a massive matrix to well-rounded sphalerite
(sp1 and sp-2) and pyrite (py-3) grains. Galena formed by decomposition
of Pb-bearing sulfosalts is also observed in these veins.
5. Chalcopyrite
Two generations of chalcopyrite were observed. Type 1 chalcopyrite
(ccp-1) is associated with sulfide mineralization and dominant in FWD
9
Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223
Fig. 7. Photomicrographs of different sulfide
textures. (A) tectonoclastic rotation and
rounding of pyrite in sphalerite-galena ma­
trix (LPB1101-246.03, reflected light, (B)
shearing patterns showing cataclastic texture
in pyrite while sphalerite and galena occur as
infills (LPB1617-157.62, reflected light), (C)
tetrahedrite showing myrmekitic texture
with galena and replacing bournonite
(LPB2536-124, reflected light), (D) tetrahe­
drite replacement of sphalerite (LPB1554-
235, reflected light), (E) late-stage allargen­
tum(Ag0.991Sb0.009)-rich veins associated
with alabandite, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite
cutting a tennantite vein in Mn-bearing
dolomite (LPB1520-145.28, reflected light),
(F) chalcopyrite with cubanite exsolution
lamella (LPB3367-154.65, reflected light),
(G) intergrowths of cubanite, antimony,
sphalerite, pyrrhotite, alabandite, exsolved
from an earlier tetrahedrite (LPB2572-
153.91, reflected light), and (H) coarse flame
texture resulting from low temperature
exsolution of troilite in pyrrhotite, which has
undergone brecciation; sample etched with
NaClO (LPB1103-198.32), reflected light).
Abbreviations: alb-albite, all-allargentum,
apy-arsenopyrite, ccp- chalcopyrite, cub-
cubanite, bour-bournonite, dys- dyscrasite,
gn-galena, po-pyrrhotite, py-pyrite, sp-
sphalerite, Sn-native antimony, tro- troilite
and tth- tetrahedrite.
and MSGC. Whereas, type 2 chalcopyrite (ccp-2) is a product from the
decomposition of earlier Cu-sulfosalts (Fig. 7E). Ccp-2 is generally
observed in AgD.
Ccp-1 predominately occurs in the lower part of the deposit associ­
ated with the presence of more Fe-rich silicates (e.g., biotite). Ccp-1 is
generally fine-grained (<25 µm) but may occur as coarse (>200 µm)
crystals along sulfide veinlets. It may also occur as an interstitial phase
in fractured pyrite. Coarse chalcopyrite grains are anhedral and have
rounded edges. Chalcopyrite typically occurs as small chalcopyrite blebs
(1–10 µm) in sphalerite (‘chalcopyrite disease’) and mainly occurs in Fe-
rich sphalerite. Cubanite and pyrrhotite exsolutions were also observed
in chalcopyrite in FWD (Fig. 7F). Ccp-2 is subhedral to euhedral and
G. Tiu et al.
occurs as fine- to coarse-grained crystals. Ccp-2 is typically intergrown
with euhedral arsenopyrite, dyscrasite, sphalerite (sp-3), and tetrahe­
drite (ttr-2). It is also observed replacing a former Cu-fahlore (i.e., a
former freibergite-tetrahedrite). Reddish brown to bluish white tarn­
ishing of chalcopyrite is observed in some grains.
5.1. Silver-bearing minerals
Based on the volume of the detected and analyzed silver-bearing
grains, the most important silver minerals belong to the dyscrasite
(Ag3Sb) group, including allargentum (Ag1-xSbx). After the dyscrasite
group, the tetrahedrite group minerals ((Ag,Cu,Fe)12(Sb,As)4S13) are the
next most abundant hosts for silver, followed by electrum and native
silver. Rare silver minerals include acanthite (Ag2S) and pyrargyrite
(Ag3SbS3).
Dyscrasite group minerals are typically enclosed by or associated
with freibergite-tetrahedrite. Grain size varies from a micron to hun­
dreds of microns. Freibergite exsolutions typically occur in galena,
Fig. 8. Binary plots for selected elements for the three sphalerite types from Lappberget based from EPMA (top) and LA-ICPMS (bottom) data. (Upper right)
Photomicrograph of sphalerite sample (LPB1425-203.8, transmitted light).
10
Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223
forming irregular grains ranging from a few microns to a millimeter in
size. Myrmekitic intergrowths of chalcopyrite (ccp-2), sphalerite (sp-
3a), tetrahedrite, alabandite, gudmundite, native antimony, and dys­
crasite within freibergite grains are observed (Fig. 7G). Native silver-
allargentum associated with alabandite, arsenopyrite ± calcite occurs
as infill in fractured pyrite, magnetite and Cu-Pb sulfosalts.
6. Sulfide chemistry
6.1. Sphalerite
The EPMA and LA-ICPMS data from sp-1 and sp-2 is plotted in Fig. 8.
Only one sample of sp-3 was analyzed using EPMA due to its rare
occurrence and small grain size.
Sp-1 has relatively higher concentrations of Fe, Co, Ge, Cu, Sn, and
Au but has lower concentrations of Mn, Ga, and Hg compared to sp-2
(Table 2). Manganese and Fe shows a positive correlation for sp-1 and
sp-2, with sp-1 having a lower Mn:Fe ratio (slope = 0.1) compared to sp-
 G. Tiu et al.
Table 2
Summary statistics for trace element concentrations (ppm) in sphalerite.
Sphalerite/Mineralization Type Element Mn Fe Co Cu Ga Ge As Ag Cd In Sn Sb Au Hg Tl Pb Bi
(No. of Analysis) Median LDL 0.46 15.82 0.06 1.66 0.19 0.72 0.56 0.02 1.09 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.004 0.156 0.003 0.02 0.01

sp-1 Min 855 50,787 <0.06 4.20 <0.19 <0.72 <0.56 0.38 644 <0.01 <0.05 <0.04 <0.004 4.18 <0.003 0.04 <0.011
n = 90 Max 15,813 98,443 14.82 2587* 12.96 5.45 3.76 90.53 2841 10.68 2.27 169* 0.21 37.93 5.89 527* 1.92
Median 5179 66,512 0.60 16.46 3.15 2.84 1.16 4.18 1403 0.14 0.11 1.83 0.03 10.40 0.02 2.21 0.01
ADL (%) 100 100 69 100 94 93 51 100 100 91 92 98 86 100 69 100 21
sp-2 Min 757 6694 <0.06 <1.66 <0.19 <0.72 <0.56 <0.02 692 0.02 0.04 <0.04 <0.004 11.12 <0.003 0.05 <0.01
n = 54 Max 40,966 103,950 4.58 859* 11.96 3.11 57.68 79.13 2767 9.81 1.39 110* 0.09 74.58 1.83 205* 0.08
Median 5439 27,291 0.55 13.56 5.86 1.50 1.08 3.29 1481 0.11 0.09 0.84 0.02 20.53 0.02 1.70 0.01
ADL (%) 100 100 50 98 63 65 61 100 100 100 85 96 54 100 70 100 24
FWD Min 1475 60,245 <0.06 4.20 <0.19 <0.72 <0.56 0.38 644 0.13 <0.05 0.14 <0.004 5.05 <0.003 0.24 <0.01
n = 29 Max 10,086 83,105 14.82 2304* 7.82 4.58 3.76 90.53 2749 1.89 0.72 10.54 0.11 25.95 0.14 11.49 0.01
Median 4813 72,273 3.95 7.49 1.75 2.41 1.48 1.86 1434 0.44 0.14 0.80 0.04 9.83 0.02 0.82 0.01
ADL (%) 100 100 76 100 83 97 72 100 100 100 93 100 79 100 34 100 7
MSGC Min 855 50,787 <0.06 19.18 2.18 1.73 <0.56 5.52 1455 0.70 0.40 12.23 0.04 4.18 0.01 5.33 <0.01
n = 11 Max 2509 60,190 5.27 201.74 3.17 3.76 2.43 69.49 1894 1.78 2.27 119* 0.10 10.32 0.19 232* 1.92
Median 2271 56,800 2.49 34.02 2.49 3.43 2.14 13.08 1663 0.77 0.66 31.34 0.07 8.72 0.02 13.48 0.01
ADL (%) 100 100 100 100 100 100 55 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 45
11

MSPG Min 3024 51,088 <0.06 8.16 2.89 1.91 <0.56 1.72 1379 0.03 0.05 0.05 <0.004 5.66 <0.003 0.19 <0.01
n = 11 Max 6498 68,308 0.65 95.35 12.96 4.32 1.14 29.88 2841 0.07 0.24 39.59 0.03 18.55 0.67 12.59 0.02
Median 3837 62,796 0.57 16.19 3.38 3.32 0.84 6.08 1558 0.03 0.09 2.68 0.01 14.67 0.02 2.36 0.01
ADL (%) 100 100 45 100 100 100 45 100 100 100 100 100 91 100 73 100 18
MSZ Min 3963 55,426 <0.06 9.11 4.40 <0.72 <0.56 1.13 1017 <0.01 <0.05 0.40 <0.004 6.08 <0.003 0.53 <0.01
n = 14 Max 9643 63,152 0.54 256.51 9.80 4.04 1.33 78.50 1309 0.15 1.40 169* 0.21 14.16 5.89 454* 0.12
Median 8937 58,773 0.19 15.66 5.37 3.58 0.89 4.26 1195 0.13 0.09 1.29 0.02 10.27 0.01 3.54 0.02
ADL (%) 100 100 93 100 100 93 14 100 100 43 86 100 93 100 93 100 36
SKN Min 3104 14,178 <0.06 <1.66 <0.19 <0.72 <0.56 0.84 847 0.02 <0.05 <0.04 <0.004 5.86 <0.003 0.04 <0.001
n = 35 Max 40,966 103,950 2.70 782* 12.02 3.11 57.68 79.13 1828 1.00 1.39 110* 0.05 74.58 0.45 22.70 <0.001
Median 16,390 62,470 0.35 13.98 6.60 2.29 1.17 2.39 1348 0.05 0.08 0.61 0.01 29.50 0.02 0.84 <0.001
ADL (%) 100 100 57 97 80 66 66 100 100 100 91 89 51 100 83 100 0
MT Min 1336 6694 <0.06 4.70 <0.19 <0.72 <0.56 2.14 692 0.01 <0.05 0.19 <0.004 10.17 <0.003 0.88 <0.001
n = 22 Max 12,378 88,623 3.96 2587* 1.13 5.45 29.50 37.41 2670 1.97 0.11 41.12 0.06 25.62 1.83 527* 0.08
Median 3075 25,461 3.43 9.66 0.86 1.38 0.84 9.22 1090 0.11 0.08 3.63 0.03 16.08 0.08 2.90 0.01
ADL (%) 100 100 41 100 41 82 64 100 100 100 86 100 68 100 82 100 50
AgD Min 757 7100 <0.06 6.70 4.40 <0.72 <0.56 0.50 1209 0.06 <0.05 0.05 <0.004 9.05 <0.003 0.12 <0.001
n = 22 Max 7347 73,331 9.42 28.73 10.89 4.38 1.14 8.44 2767 10.68 0.38 4.80 0.09 18.20 0.07 205* 0.05

Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223

Median 1765 32,043 2.98 17.06 6.65 1.60 0.63 2.67 1501 4.43 0.10 0.71 0.03 13.25 0.01 1.27 0.00
ADL (%) 100 100 41 100 100 68 36 100 100 100 77 100 73 100 50 100 32

LDL = Lower detection limit, ADL (%) = Percentage of analyses above the lower detection limit, *=presence of inclusion only partially removed.
G. Tiu et al.
2 (slope = 0.4). Replacement of Cd for Zn is not substantially affected by
the differences in Mn:Fe ratio. Cadmium and Zn are positively correlated
whereas Cd and Mn are negatively correlated in sp-2. A positive linear
correlation between Ge and Fe is observed in sp-2 but this trend is less
distinct in sp-1, however, this may also be due to the interferences be­
tween Ge and Fe isotopes. A negative correlation between Co and Mn is
observed in sp-1 but less distinct for sp-2. The presence of ‘chalcopyrite
disease’ in some sp-1 grains produced an interdiffusion rim, which is
depleted in Fe, Zn, Mn, and Hg, but enriched in Cu and Sn as shown in
the LA-ICP-MS maps and depth profile in Fig. 10. Sphalerite with chal­
copyrite inclusions, mainly in FWD, shows a positive trend between Sb
and Sn. Silver in sphalerite can occur both as solid-solution and micro-
inclusions. Variation in color in sphalerite is observed to not only be
attributed in Fe content (i.e., darker with increasing Fe) but may also be
affected by the presence of Mn and Cd (Togari, 2005). The sp-3 sample is
highly manganese-rich (Zn0.93Mn0.04Fe0.01S). A semi-quantitative anal­
ysis using SEM-EDS of the fine oscillatory growth zonations for sp-3 in
Fig. 5H shows irregular fluctuations in the Mn and Zn composition,
ranging from 0.1 to 46.3 wt% Mn.
Trace element chemistry of analyzed sphalerite for the different
mineralization styles is less distinct and is generally overlapping as
summarized in Table 2 and plotted in Fig. 9. Trace element chemistry of
sphalerite from FWD, MSGC, MSPG, and MSZ, which only contains
analyzed grains from sp-1, has a narrow distribution (Fig. 9) as
compared to the other mineralization styles. MT, SKN and AGD contains
both sp-1 and sp-2 analysis. The trace element signature for sp-1 is re­
flected in the four mineralization styles, having generally lower Mn/Fe
and Hg but higher Ge and Fe (Fig. 8 and Fig. 9). Chalcopyrite-rich
mineralization styles, FWD and MSGC, registers high median Au, In
and Sn. Galena-rich MSGC registers the highest median Ag (13.1 ppm),
Au (0.1 ppm) and Sb (31.3 ppm) content. Lowest median Ga content is
associated with MT (0.9 ppm). Sphalerite hosted in manganiferous skarn
(SKN) contains the highest median content for Mn (1.6 wt%) and Hg
Fig. 9. Tukey box plots for selected elements based from LA-ICPMS data for sphalerite from different mineralization styles.
12
Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223
(29.5 ppm) in sphalerite. Arsenic content is lowest for MSZ and AgD.
Linear mixed effect modelling of the trace element chemistry for
sphalerite (Table 3) indicates that the sphalerite types have a statisti­
cally significant effect (p < 0.1) on the concentration of Fe, Co, Ga, Ge,
Cd, Au, Hg and Mn/Fe in sphalerite. The effect of mineralization style on
the other hand, is only statistically significant for elements Mn, Ni and
Tl. The Ni and Tl values for the analyzed sphalerite are mostly below or
near detection limits. Based on the LME modelling, the effects of the
mineralization styles on sphalerite chemistry are less significant.
Random effects (e.g., sample) account for a significant portion of the
total variance for all modelled elements.
6.2. Pyrite
Py-1 is distinctly Co-rich (median = 694.2 ppm, range =
108.4–1510.5 ppm) and has high Co/Ni ratio (median = 178.3)
(Table 4). LA-ICP-MS depth profile of py-1 (Fig. 11) shows an even
distribution of Co, Ni, and As suggesting that these elements are lattice-
bound. Py-1 is only analysed in FWD, AgD and MSGC. Analyzed py-2
grains contain several micro-inclusions, resulting in an anomalously
high amount of Cu, Zn, As, Ag, Pb, and Sb (e.g., Fig. 6). Arsenic, although
it may occur as inclusions, is mostly observed to have an even distri­
bution (e.g., Fig. 11). Arsenic in py-2 has a median concentration of 423
ppm. Most of the pyrite, assumed to be of the recrystallized type (py-3),
shows an even and relatively low distribution of trace elements (Mn, Co,
Ag, Sb, Au, and Pb). Arsenic in py-3 varies from below detection limits to
as high as 2288.4 ppm, depending on the presence of cobalt- or arsenic-
rich core. Lowest Co content is observed in the FWD samples.
Only three pyrite grains were analysed for py-4 due to its small grain
size. Py-4 has an anomalously high arsenic content (8.5–9.8 wt%), high
distribution of trace elements, mainly Sb, Cu, Pb, Zn, Tl, Ag, and Au, and
low Ni and Co content. Although the LA-ICP-MS depth profile shows an
even distribution for Sb, Ag, Cu, Zn, and Pb (Fig. 11), it is possible that
G. Tiu et al. Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223

Fig. 10. An example of a sphalerite grain (sp-1) showing the typical ‘chalcopyrite disease’ (watermelon texture) with line data and maps from LA-ICPMS analysis of
Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cd and Hg (LPB1554-216.7).

Table 3
Summary of linear mixed effects model results for the sphalerite.
p (Sphalerite Type) P (Mineralization) R2 (fixed effects) R2 (sample) R2 (model) Total Variance

Mn 0.28 0.03 0.09 0.86 0.95 0.15

Fe 1.27E-16 0.19 0.28 0.64 0.92 0.07
Co 1.51E-03 0.77 0.05 0.85 0.91 1.16
Ni 0.15 0.02 0.18 0.51 0.69 0.35
Cu 0.91 0.60 0.01 0.34 0.35 0.43
Ga 2.13E-04 0.77 0.06 0.88 0.94 0.40
Ge 6.62E-04 0.31 0.17 0.66 0.83 0.17
As 0.60 0.14 0.08 0.63 0.71 0.26
Se 0.41 0.58 0.05 0.21 0.26 0.31
Ag 0.83 0.32 0.02 0.47 0.49 0.30
Cd 0.09 0.09 0.06 0.78 0.84 0.02
In 0.51 0.77 0.00 0.99 0.99 0.72
Sn 0.74 0.63 0.01 0.79 0.80 0.16
Sb 0.72 0.44 0.01 0.51 0.52 0.94
Au 0.05 0.34 0.11 0.59 0.70 0.42
Hg 1.24E-05 0.15 0.13 0.82 0.95 0.07
Tl 0.81 0.01 0.16 0.24 0.40 0.92
Pb 0.75 0.73 0.00 0.40 0.40 1.42
Bi 0.59 0.56 0.01 0.30 0.31 0.37
Mn/Fe 2.35E-14 0.05 0.28 0.68 0.97 0.13

the results from LA-ICP-MS analysis is contaminated with the associated
tetrahedrite and galena (as micro-inclusions), as these elements cannot
be easily incorporated in the pyrite crystal lattice (Huston et al., 1995).
Analyzed gold content for py-4 has a median value of 24.4 ppm. The
analyzed py-4 grains are all from a SKN sample, however, py-4 (<50 µm)
has also been observed in dolomitic marble-hosted veins.
6.3. Galena
Galena does not show a major deviation from its ideal stoichiometry.
Trace element chemistry analysis shows significant amounts of Ag
(median = 842.1 ppm) and Sb (median = 893.6 ppm) with varying
concentrations of Cd, Sn, Sb, Tl, Bi, and more rarely As in the crystal
lattice. In comparison with other major sulfides (i.e., sphalerite, pyrite,
pyrrhotite, and chalcopyrite), galena is the preferred host for Ag, Sb, Tl,
and Bi. A strong linear correlation and 1:1 M ratio is observed between
silver and antimony, suggestive of a coupled substitution (Amcoff, 1984;
George et al., 2015). High Zn, Ga, and Hg content in galena is associated
with sphalerite micro-inclusions.
Galena associated with Ag- and Sb-bearing minerals reports a lower
Ag and Sb content (e.g. MSGC and MSZ, Table 5). The highest Sn content
in galena is observed in FWD and MSGC samples, whereas lowest Sn

13
G. Tiu et al. Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223

values are registered in samples from the SKN.

<0.01
<0.01
<0.01

<0.01

<0.01
0.01

0.59
0.11

0.27
0.01

0.08
0.09
0.09
100
36

22
6.4. Chalcopyrite
Bi

0
Based on EPMA data, chalcopyrite does not show a major deviation

1104.79*

1715.73
7643.12
4497.28
<0.023
262.63
from its ideal stoichiometry. Due to size limitation, only chalcopyrite

<0.02
88.82

13.10
0.02
0.10

6.29

0.89
100

100
grains from FWD were analyzed. Cubanite exsolution in chalcopyrite has
Pb

86

94
relatively higher Ag but less Sn content as compared to its host chal­
copyrite. Elevated zinc and manganese content in chalcopyrite is due to
<0.21

<0.21

<0.21
0.21

0.39
0.39

0.17
0.15

2.41
1.31

1.41
2.33
1.93
the presence of sphalerite micro-inclusions. Observed reddish brown to

100
Hg

14

29

11
bluish white tarnishing on chalcopyrite is identified in the LA-ICP-MS
depth profiles as silver diffusion on the chalcopyrite surface. Despite
<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

20.67
25.20
24.40
the strong association with the presence of chalcopyrite and high gold
0.01

0.08
0.05

1.91
0.08

0.07
0.01

100
Au

57

43

22
values in the logged drill cores, no significant gold content is present in
the analyzed chalcopyrite grains (Table 6).
4123.53
4598.37
4352.33
325.23
<0.03

<0.03

<0.03
21.07

18.55

6.5. Silver-bearing minerals

0.03

3.42

5.61
1.60

100
71

57

28
Sb

The chemical composition of tetrahedrite-freibergite in Lappberget

<0.06
<0.06
<0.06

<0.06

<0.06

varies significantly (Cu4.3-10.6Ag0.1-6.2Zn0-1.1Fe0.1-2Mn0-1.9)(Sb0.2-4.2As0-

23.02
12.11
0.06

4.81
2.43

2.44
3.67
2.58
100
14

11
Sn

3.8)S12.2-13.6. Analyzed grains of tetrahedrite-freibergite contain from 0.9

0

to 33.8 wt% Ag whereas Cu concentration varies from 13.7 to 42.7 wt%

LDL = Lower detection limit, ADL (%) = Percentage of analyses above the lower detection limit, *=presence of inclusion only partially removed

(Supplementary material Table B). The atomic substitution of silver and

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01
0.01

0.04
0.04

0.13
0.13

0.02
0.02

0.03
0.04
0.03
100

copper in tetrahedrite-freibergite minerals is linear (1:1) as shown in

14
In

Fig. 12. Based on calculated modal mineralogy from analyzed samples,

freibergite-tetrahedrite with >20% Ag is more common. Generally, the
218.92

173.92
241.51
218.12
<0.02

<0.02

<0.02
28.47

22.87

tetrahedrite group minerals are antimony-rich but less commonly

0.02

1.41
0.18

0.34

100
Ag

57

50

56

approach the arsenic end-member, tennantite. Silver in tetrahedrite has

a strong positive correlation with Cd, whereas a negative correlation is
observed between Cd and Cu. Cadmium occupies the same position as
84772.10
97927.80
91844.60
1590.33

3061.39

2288.41
822.73

422.68

918.92

Cu in the IVM1 site in the tetrahedrite group unit cell (Pattrick and Hall,
<0.49
20.13

66.68
0.49

100

100

100
89
As

1983; Johnson et al., 1988). Presence of arsenic (>0.5 wt% As) in

tetrahedrite drastically decreases its silver and zinc content, which
conforms to the incompatibility between As and Ag, and As and Zn in the
<0.16

<0.16

<0.16
<0.16
<0.16

<0.16
0.16

0.41
0.41

0.17
0.17

0.46
0.46

(Cu,Ag)10(Fe,Zn)2(Sb,As)4S13 fahlore structure (Ebel and Sack, 1989;

Ga

14

33
7

Sack, 2017). One sample with a secondary tetrahedrite (ttr-2) shows

high Zn and As content, which is either through contamination with a
2073.33*

1329.80
1008.04

nearby sphalerite grain or formed from a different fahlore structure.

510.08

684.25
<6.67

<6.67

<6.67
10.91

94.56

33.80
14.09
6.67

Tetrahedrite associated with the latest stage of mineralization (i.e., with

100
Zn

57

29

17

sp-3b) shows a chemical zonation with varying silver and antimony

content. LA-ICP-MS analysis of analyzed tennantite grains from AgD
13990.00
18342.70
15932.20

contains mercury ranging from 75 to 109.8 ppm and manganese ranging

1148.10
<1.31

<1.31

<1.31
75.57

from 1590 to 1720 ppm. Silver diffusion in the surface of tennantite was
1.31

3.49
2.91

3.44
2.85

100
Cu

29

36

11

also observed.
Limited analysis was conducted for other silver-bearing minerals due
130.22

to small grain sizes. Based on the EPMA data, silver-allargentum phases

Summary statistics for trace element concentrations (ppm) in pyrite.

<0.39

<0.39
<0.39
<0.39
43.08

13.37

24.23
0.39
2.12

5.33

3.98

4.10
100

100

have a wide compositional variation (Ag0.81-0.98Sb0.01-0.15) with Sb

89
Ni

concentration from 0.8 to 17.1 wt%. The antimony content of dyscrasite

ranges from 21.1 to 23.35 wt%. The majority of electrum in Lappberget
1510.49
108.43

670.10

is Ag-rich based on analysis using SEM-EDS and QEMSCAN (Tiu et al.,

<0.04

<0.04

<0.04
<0.04
<0.04
45.66

22.92
0.04

5.49

3.01
100
Co

2021). Electrum in FWD associated with presence of chalcopyrite and

86

89

pyrrhotite contains generally higher Ag:Au wt.% ratio (c.7:3) but can go
as high as 2:8 whereas majority of electrum found within the magnetite
495.38

762.88

114.38
<0.56

<0.56

<0.56
27.46

40.11
11.58

59.09

84.32

mineralization (MT) has Ag:Au wt.% ratio of 9:1.

0.56

0.99

100
Mn

71

57

44

7. Discussion
Median LDL

ADL (%)

ADL (%)

ADL (%)

ADL (%)
Element

7.1. Metamorphism, deformation and trace element (re)distribution

Median

Median

Median

Median
Max

Max

Max

Max
Min

Min

Min

Min

The conditions attained during the Svecokarelian metamorphism

and deformation in Garpenberg were mainly in low pressure amphibo­
(No. of Analysis)

lite facies (Vivallo, 1984). Polyphase metamorphism and deformation

events in Lappberget have resulted in growth and deformation twins in
Pyrite Type

sulfides, the development of high-angled triple-point junctions in

n = 14

n = 18
Table 4

n=7

n=3

recrystallized pyrite and sphalerite, and the formation of ‘ball ore’ or

py-1

py-2

py-3

py-4

‘durchbewegung’ textures within mineralized shear zones. Re-

14
G. Tiu et al. Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223

Fig. 11. Representative single-spot LA-ICPMS spectra for different pyrite generations in Lappberget: (py-1) Co-enriched pyrite (LPB3408-278.2), (py-2) inclusion-
rich pitted pyrite (LPB3564-143.46), (py-3) inclusion-free recrystallized pyrite (LPB3367-154.64) and (py-4) pyrite aggregates occurring with galena and tetrahe­
drite (LPB1554-216.17).

Table 5
Summary statistics for trace element concentrations (ppm) in galena.
Mineralization Element Mn Cu Zn As Ag Cd Sn Sb Tl Bi

(No. of Analysis) Median LDL 1.19 3.62 9.72 1.38 0.07 2.39 0.14 0.08 0.01 0.02
FWD FWD:Minimum <1.19 <3.62 <9.72 <1.38 733.80 2.54 4.53 1061.43 2.73 2.17
n=8 FWD:Maximum 3.97 <3.62 <9.72 3.34 1055.59 14.78 9.40 1217.36 28.54 8.64
FWD:Median 1.94 <3.62 <9.72 2.75 894.96 7.23 6.55 1145.71 5.09 3.86
FWD:ADL 75 0 0 50 100 100 100 100 100 100
MSGC MSGC:Minimum <1.19 <3.62 7.26 2.10 502.81 3.11 7.81 743.93 1.86 N/A
n=2 MSGC:Maximum 2.84 <3.62 14.37 2.36 646.80 4.98 8.36 1115.94 2.25 N/A
MSGC:Median 2.84 <3.62 10.81 2.23 574.81 4.05 8.09 929.94 2.06 N/A
FWD:ADL 50 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0
MSZ MSZ:Minimum <1.19 <3.62 8.74 <1.38 413.22 <2.39 3.65 430.35 11.26 0.84
n=3 MSZ:Maximum <1.19 <3.62 8.74 <1.38 884.74 <2.39 4.50 1100.68 27.36 1.31
MSZ:Median <1.19 <3.62 8.74 <1.38 591.50 <2.39 4.29 749.61 20.65 0.90
FWD:ADL 0 0 33 0 100 0 100 100 100 100
SKN SKN:Minimum 2.10 6.33 <9.72 7.09 936.74 3.48 0.22 1235.38 25.13 0.86
n=2 SKN:Maximum 2.17 9.49 <9.72 7.80 1207.60 5.40 0.29 1323.96 26.54 0.91
SKN:Median 2.13 7.91 <9.72 7.44 1072.17 4.44 0.25 1279.67 25.84 0.89
FWD:ADL 100 100 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

LDL = Lower detection limit, ADL (%) = Percentage of analyses above the lower detection limit, N/A = Not analyzed.

Table 6
Trace element concentrations (ppm) of analyzed chalcopyrite grains.
Sample Mn Co Cu Zn Ag In Sn Sb Au Hg Pb Bi

LPB1634-692.4–1 31.49 <0.93 333,763 362.71 37.25 <0.41 52.76 2.95 0.22 <0.72 4.47 <0.06
LPB1634-692.4–2 34.42 <0.74 338,390 264.06 23.72 <0.44 52.92 0.55 <0.03 <0.79 0.89 <0.03

15
G. Tiu et al.
Fig. 12. Plotted EPMA data of tetrahedrite group minerals showing different element trends.
distribution of fluid-mobile elements (As, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag, and Au) may
have occurred during the recrystallization of earlier sulfides (e.g., Hus­
ton et al., 1995; Kampmann et al., 2018). Such post-ore modifications
would become juxtaposed on any original, pre-metamorphic zonation in
the deposit, potentially considerably obscuring the latter. Against this
background, the processes and timing involved in forming the currently
observed ore textures at Lappberget will be discussed in the following
sub-sections, followed by an attempt to identify remnant pre-
metamorphic features.
7.1.1. Recrystallization
Etching of pyrite and sphalerite mostly reveal little, if any, internal
growth zonation, suggesting that any original pre-metamorphic growth
features have been obliterated during regional metamorphic recrystal­
lization. The pyrite generation py-3 occur as metamorphic rims around
py-2 but also form homogeneous grains with no textural evidence of the
precursor. Assuming that all py-3 is formed by the recrystallization of
earlier pyrite, the chemical difference between these pyrite types sug­
gest that the process of recrystallization must have led to the depletion of
Co, Ni, As, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag, and Au. Arsenic, a metastable element in the
pyrite structure, is expelled during the metamorphic growth or recrys­
tallization (Huston et al., 1995) and can be incorporated in later sulfo­
salts and/or arsenopyrite.
Recrystallization of sp-1 grains occurs at high angle boundaries,
some showing triple-grain junctions commonly lined by small chalco­
pyrite and pyrrhotite grains. Sp-1 generally has a homogeneous trace
element distribution (i.e., no zonation observed). This is indicative of
static recrystallization and re-equilibration (Gilligan and Marshall,
1987; Bente and Doering, 1993; Passchier and Trouw, 2005; Lockington
et al., 2014; Govindarao et al., 2018). Due to the multiple phases of
metamorphism and deformation, it was not possible to clearly distin­
guish between the pre-deformation and recrystallization (annealing)
twins. Growth twins (both pre-deformation and recrystallization twins)
are prevalent in sp-1 and less commonly in sp-2. Sphalerite recrystalli­
zation and re-equilibration with other sulfide minerals are reported to
16
Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223
occur at moderate temperatures (Ramdohr, 1969; Clark and Kelly, 1973;
Siemes and Borges, 1979; Cook et al., 1993; Cugerone et al., 2020).
Recrystallization of sphalerite and chalcopyrite may have also led to the
expulsion of Fe, Zn, Mn, and Hg in the interdiffusion rim of the sphal­
erite, which is replaced by Cu and Sn (Fig. 10). However, this phe­
nomenon was only observed locally between grains.
7.1.2. Deformation and remobilization
The sulfide ore was subjected to intense remobilization and ductile
deformation during the folding event that produced the dome structure
in Lappberget. Ore bodies are now elongated vertical lenses parallel or
subparallel to schistosity (Sandecki, 1982) and have a sub-vertical
stretching lineation (Allen et al., 2003). Deformation twins are
observed in sp-1 and sp-2 (Fig. 5). Silver in the Lappberget deposit may
have been remobilized from the massive sulfide mineralization through
retrograde reactions involving sulfosalt phases formed through exsolu­
tion from a high temperature galena phase (α-galena). The strong Ag and
Pb correlation, high Ag:Pb wt. % ratio (1:240), and approximately 1:1
bulk Ag/(Sb + Bi) molar ratio of the Lappberget ore suggest that sig­
nificant quantities, if not all, of silver in Lappberget can be accounted for
as an original component of α-galena (Amcoff, 1976; Chutas et al.,
2008). Silver and Sb could have been incorporated in the galena crystal
lattice through coupled substitution for two Pb atoms at 240–390 ◦ C
(Amcoff, 1976; Sack and Goodell, 2002; Sack and Ebel, 2006; Chutas
et al., 2008). Galena in Lappberget still contains a significant amount of
Ag (median = 852 ppm) and Sb (median = 1102 ppm).
The significant amount of trace elements (As, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag, Au, Mn
and Tl) in arsenian pyrite (py-4) can also be a product of remobilization
expelled by earlier sulfides (e.g., galena and pyrite) or replacement of a
former Fe-rich sulfosalt. The fine-grained intergrowth occurrence of py-
4 with gudmundite, chalcopyrite and galena supports the latter
hypothesis.
7.1.3. The ductile–brittle transition
The transition from ductile to brittle deformation led to the
G. Tiu et al.
formation of localized shear zones and generated ‘ball ore’ textures in
MSZ, which occurred during the post-F2 deformation. Bulging grain
boundaries in some sphalerite is indicative of dynamic recrystallization
(<200 ◦ C; Cugerone et al., 2020). The brittle deformation of the more
competent minerals (mainly pyrite, silicates, and carbonates) was either
achieved via cataclastic deformation or by hydrofracturing (Craig and
Vaughan, 1994). Cataclasis of pyrite and pyrrhotite occurred at a tem­
perature below 130 ◦ C (i.e., based on the presence of troilite exsolutions
in pyrrhotite; Hall and Yund, 1968). Effective remobilization of sphal­
erite, galena, and chalcopyrite ceased before the brittle deformation of
pyrite due to the rare presence of infillings in pyrite fractures.
The Ag-rich veins do not exhibit evidence of ductile deformation and
hence most likely formed after the transition from ductile deformation,
when the dolomite host began to deform in a brittle manner. The for­
mation is most likely significantly later than the features described
above given the regional geological evolution in Bergslagen. However,
the suite of elements contained in the Ag-rich veins mirror those that are
inferred to have been lost during recrystallization of early galena (e.g.,
Sb, Ag) and pyrite (Co, Ni, As, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag, and Au). Hence, the metals
contained in these veins were most likely ultimately sourced from the
nearby sulfide lenses via remobilization.
7.2. Implications to ore formation
Previous studies have concluded that primary ore textures associated
with the initial ore formation were obscured by at least two overprinting
metamorphic and deformation events (Sandecki, 1982; Vivallo, 1984;
Allen et al., 2003; Jansson, 2011). This study suggests that some textural
and chemical signatures of the early stages of ore formation may still be
preserved. At the deposit scale, the metal zonation from Cu and Au-rich
disseminated/stringer mineralization in the footwall rocks (FWD) to
more Zn-Pb-rich massive sulfide mineralization (MSPG) along the con­
tact to the overlying marble is similar to that in other SVALS-type de­
posits in Bergslagen. (e.g., the Falun deposit; Kampmann et al., 2018).
Hence, this is most likely a primary feature of this deposit type. At a
much finer scale, features such as e.g., porous pyrite (py-2) with micro-
inclusions of other sulfides (mainly sphalerite and galena) may be
textural relics of early mineralization styles.
Fig. 13. Sphalerite chemistry data for Mn/Fe and Co from other base metal deposits within the Bergslagen region.
17
Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223
In terms of ore mineral composition, trace element concentrations of
early sphalerite (sp-1) from Lappberget is comparable to the SVALS-type
deposits at Falun (Kampmann et al., 2018) and Kaveltorp (Cook et al.,
2009) but distinct from SAS-type deposits at similar or higher meta­
morphic grade (Fig. 13). For example, the low cobalt concentrations of
sphalerite (<100 ppm) from Lappberget is similar to other SVALS-type
deposits, in contrast to the SAS-type deposits Zinkgruvan and Market­
orp in Bergslagen, where Co concentrations > 100 ppm have been re­
ported in sphalerite (Axelsson and Rodushkin, 2001; Cook et al., 2009).
Jansson and Liu (2020) related such differences in the deposit types to
fundamentally different ore-forming fluids and their capacity in trans­
porting Co in solution. It was shown that the oxidized, saline brines
implied for SAS-type deposits are by far more capable of leaching and
transporting Co in solution than the reducing, acidic fluids implied for
SVALS-type deposits. They furthermore concluded that in SVALS-type
deposits, Co is more likely to become sequestered in pyrite than in
sphalerite, since pyrite is a good host for cobalt due to the compatible
electronic spin states between Co2+ and Fe2+ (Bajwah et al., 1987). The
sphalerite LA-ICP-MS data from Lappberget are directly consistent with
this model; with analyzed pyrite co–(re)crystallizing with sphalerite
generally having a higher cobalt content than in the sphalerite. Thus, the
low Co content in sphalerite from Lappberget is most likely an inherited
primary feature.
Based on the style of alteration and ore mineralogy at SVALS-type
deposits, Jansson et al. (2013) and Kampmann et al. (2017) have
inferred that SVALS-type deposits formed from relatively hot (>250 ◦ C),
moderately acidic, reducing hydrothermal fluids, similar to typical
volcanogenic massive sulfide deposit. At Lappberget, evidence consis­
tent with this model includes (1) the presence of high Au/Ag ratio in
electrum in FWD (Shikazono and Shimizu, 1987; Guisbiers et al., 2016),
(2) the high Co concentration and high Co/Ni ratio of py-1 (Bralia et al.,
1979; Bajwah et al., 1987; Large et al., 2014), (3) the relatively high Sn
content in galena (Kampmann et al., 2018), and (4) the relatively high
concentrations of Fe, Sn, Co, In and low Ga in sphalerite (Barton and
Toulmin, 1966; Scott and Barnes, 1971; Scott and Kissin, 1973; Huston
et al., 1995; Frenzel et al., 2016). However, it should be noted that the
sulfides in the Lappberget deposit have been affected by metamorphism
and their mineral chemistry may not reflect the primary formation
G. Tiu et al.
conditions. Both Falun (Kampmann et al., 2017) and Lappberget have
undergone similar tectono-metamorphic modfications, i.e., low P and
lower amphibolite-facies conditions.
Building on the SVALS-type models in Allen et al. (1996, 2003),
Jansson and Allen (2015), and Kampmann et al. (2018), pyrite, pyr­
rhotite, chalcopyrite ± cubanite, and possibly gold may have formed
contemporaneously during the early (syn-volcanic) ascent of the hy­
drothermal fluid, when a decrease in temperature prompted the depo­
sition of minor sphalerite and α-galena. Upon interaction of the fluid
with the overlying marble unit, pH neutralization occurred and pro­
moted the formation of the main massive sulfide lenses. In detail, this led
to the increased precipitation of sphalerite, pyrite (py-2) and galena.
The timing of skarn mineral formation at Lappberget is difficult to
fully constraint due to the complex regional metamorphic overprint.
Magnetite-rich Fe-(Mn) skarn is commonly associated with massive
sulfides in many other sulfide deposits in Bergslagen such as Ryllshyttan
(Jansson and Allen, 2015), Hällefors (Wagner et al., 2005), Kaveltorp
(Grip, 1978), Lovisa (Jansson et al., 2018), and Zinkgruvan (Jansson
et al., 2017). As summarized in Stephens and Jansson (2020), a range of
genetic models are applicable for the origin of these skarns, ranging from
purely regional metamorphic reactions between carbonates and silicates
in syngenetic deposits to intrusion-related metasomatism. Jansson and
Allen (2015) and Kampmann et al. (2017) concluded that skarns in the
Garpenberg and Falun areas are formed by burial and metasomatism
succeeding earlier subseafloor hydrothermal activity. A contact meta­
somatic origin has been demonstrated for magnetite-rich massive skarns
adjacent to the intrusive contacts of early granitoids and felsic sub­
volcanic intrusions in the Garpenberg region (Jansson and Allen, 2013;
2015). However, it is not clear if the skarns at Lappberget formed via the
same mechanism or during regional metamorphic reactions between
carbonates and silicates belonging to an earlier alteration system (see
Allen et al., 2003 or Jansson, 2011 for further discussion).
7.3. Sphalerite-2, a product of metasomatism or metamorphism?
The distinct composition, texture, and mineral association of sp-2
compared to sp-1 suggests that very different conditions were
involved in their formation. Based on the textural evidence (e.g., in­
clusions), sp-2 is relatively younger than sp-1. However, the exact timing
of sp-2 formation is difficult to constrain, similar to the Fe-Mn skarns
that are associated with it. The high Mn:Fe ratio of sp-2 is not common in
Bergslagen based on the published sphalerite analysis (Cook et al., 2009;
Kritikos, 2016; Kampmann et al., 2018). The only known exceptions are
from the Kaveltorp deposit (Cook et al., 2009) and the Limtjärn Fe oxide
skarn deposit (Kritikos, 2016) (Fig. 13).
It has been shown that the content of lattice-bound Fe and Mn in
sphalerite increases with increasing temperature and decreasing sulfur
fugacity (Scott and Kissin, 1973; Sombuthawee et al., 1978; Lusk et al.,
1993; Keith et al., 2014) and that these elements are readily incorpo­
rated or expelled into sphalerite during recrystallization (Ramdohr,
1969; Lockington et al., 2014). However, a study on metamorphosed
sphalerite from greenshchist to granulite facies by Lockington et al.
(2014) revealed no systematic correlation between metamorphic grade
and Fe and Mn content, i.e., sphalerite composition varied within a
deposit subjected to the same metamorphic conditions.
Lockington et al. (2014) concluded that the concentrations of lattice-
bound elements (Fe, Mn, Cd, In, and Hg) are strongly influenced by the
relative abundance of these elements in the pre-metamorphic sphalerite,
as well as the element partitioning between co-existing minerals in
mineral assemblages (Lockington et al., 2014). The strong association of
sp-2 with the Fe-Mn skarn minerals as compared to sp-1 suggests that the
initial composition of sp-2 and its associated assemblage may have been
formed under very different initial physicochemical conditions
compared to the footwall mineralization (FWD) and massive sulfide
mineralization associated with sp-1 (e.g., MSPG). Alternatively, since in
particular Mn-rich minerals are altogether uncommon in FWD, the
18
Ore Geology Reviews 135 (2021) 104223
higher Mn content in sp-2 could reflect a greater availability of Mn to be
partitioned into sphalerite during metamorphism, from the associated
Fe + Mn-rich carbonate and skarn minerals.
Manganese-enriched minerals are common in distal Zn-Pb skarn
deposits (Einaudi and Burt, 1982; Abrecht, 1985; Meinert, 1987) and are
a characteristic feature for infiltration metasomatism. The transition
from subseafloor hydrothermal activity forming sp-1 to contact meta­
somatic regime is also consistent with genetic models for other SVALS-
type deposits (Jansson et al., 2011; Kampmann et al., 2017). Mineral­
izing fluids (of hydrothermal or metamorphic origin) may have caused
the remobilization of Mn from pre-existing Mn-rich carbonates (Meinert
et al., 2005; Palinkaš et al., 2013) and incorporated this Mn directly into
sp-2.
One important constraint on a skarn model for Lappberget is that
although magmatism occurred within the Bergslagen region until 1.75
Ga, radiometric dating by Jansson and Allen (2011) and Stephens et al.
(2009) showed that there are no known magmatic rocks younger than
1.89 Ga in the vicinity of Lappberget (Fig. 1). Hence, given that in­
trusions were involved in forming the skarns associated with sp-2, this
would imply that the evolution from sp-1 to sp-2 deposition reflect a
transition from early sub-seafloor carbonate replacement to contact
metasomatism already at around 1.89 Ga as was inferred by Jansson and
Allen (2015). This would also imply that some mineralogical evidence of
this transition has been retained despite the later metamorphic
overprint.
In the event that sp-2 formation occurred later in conjunction with
regional metamorphism, magmatic-hydrothermal fluids are difficult to
invoke as opposed to metamorphic fluids. It cannot be ruled out that sp-
2 could have formed entirely via fluid-assisted metamorphic remobili­
zation of earlier sp-1 and that the higher Fe- and Mn-content reflect local
element partitioning with Fe- and Mn-rich carbonates and silicates in the
marble host to this mineralization type. Clinopyroxene replacement of
sp-2 as well as sp-2 inclusions in garnets suggest that sp-2 began forming
prior to or during the formation of skarn minerals. This is somewhat
atypical of metasomatic skarn systems, where garnet and clinopyroxene
commonly predate base metal sulfides (e.g., Meinert et al., 2005), but
this should be expected in deposits where calc-silicates formed during a
later metamorphic overprint (cf. Jansson, 2011).
The absence of a clear cross-cutting relationship between sp-1 and
sp-2 precludes fully resolving whether these two sphalerite types reflect
polygenetic mineralization at c. 1.89 Ga and/or if sp-2 is a product of a
metamorphic remobilization. Future studies may be able to better
resolve this by integrating the detailed textural and compositional
analysis of this study with other methods, such as radiometric dating and
fluid inclusion studies. High variance associated with random effects
suggests that additional trace element chemistry data for sphalerite in
Lappberget, especially for sp-2, can help better constraint the element
distribution for the different sphalerite types within the deposit.
8. Conclusion
Due to the overprinting tectono-metamorphic events, it is chal­
lenging to unequivocally infer the original conditions and timing of
formation between the different sulfides characterized in this study.
Nevertheless, this study have shown that textural and chemical variation
for different sulfides can be observed within the ore body. This hetero­
geneity is caused both by the original ore forming conditions and the
tectono-metamorphic modifications. The main findings in this study are
summarized below:
(1) The trace element signatures of sphalerite and pyrite is consistent
with other metamorphosed SVALS-type deposits in Bergslagen.
Although Lappberget have undergone tectono-metamorphic
modifications, a gross metal zonation is retained at least on a
deposit scale similar to other SVALS-type deposits, like Falun.
G. Tiu et al.
(2) The VMS- and skarn-like features of SVALS-type deposits are re­
flected in the differences in texture and chemical composition of
sphalerite associated with the massive sulfide mineralization (sp-
1) and Fe-Mn skarn-related mineralization (sp-2).
(3) Metamorphism and deformation have affected the sulfide trace
element distribution of fluid mobile elements (e.g., As, Cu, Zn, Pb,
Ag, and Au).
The strong association between lithology and sulfide types can be
utilized to quantify the distribution and variation of target minerals in
the deposit (e.g., lithology as a proxy for determining the sphalerite
type). Identifying the different sulfide types present in Zn-Pb deposits is
crucial, not only for determining the ore paragenesis but also in opti­
mizing the beneficiation process (e.g., understanding the effect of Fe and
Mn in sphalerite flotation) and in the extraction of rare and critical
metals (e.g., Ga, Ge, and In from sphalerite).
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This study was financed by the European Union’s Horizon 2020
research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 72267, as
part of the MetalIntelligence network (www.metalintelligence.eu). The
authors would like to acknowledge Boliden Mineral AB for allowing
access to the drill cores and assay data, as well as providing us technical
and financial support. Special thanks are given to Boliden geologists,
engineers and technicians who have provided valuable insights and
assistance during this study. Lassi Pakkanen (GTK Finland) and Riia
Chmielowski (Luleå University of Technology) are thanked for the
guidance in performing the EPMA and LA-ICP-MS analysis, respectively.
We also thank Dr. Nigel Downes and Leslie Logan for proofreading this
paper. We are also grateful for the generosity of Seequent (Leapfrog), FEI
(iDiscover), and the IOLITE software team for granting us access to the
software utilized in this study. This paper greatly benefited from the
reviews by Dr. Iain Pitcairn (Stockholm University) and especially, by
Dr. Max Frenzel (Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104223.
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