8/28/20

Formation of the Earth and Solar System

Io and the Great Red Spot of Jupiter from the NASA Juno spacecraft - July 2016

The Solar System - How Did It Get To Be This Way?

99%
of mass

Metallic Rocky and Gaseous

and rocky gaseous and icy

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Observations to be Explained
All the planets revolve around the Sun in the same
direction as the Sun rotates on its axis

All the planets (except Pluto…) revolve in nearly the

same plane as the Sun’s equatorial plane (and the
Ecliptic)

Planetary moons revolve around their primaries in

the same direction as their rotational axes

Observations Continued
Planetary orbits have low eccentricity (i.e.,
nearly circular), except Pluto

Over 99.8% of the mass of the Solar System

resides in the Sun

Over 99% of the angular momentum in the

Solar System resides in the planets

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Observations Continued
The Sun is mostly H (94%) and He (5.8%)

The terrestrial planets are metallic, rocky, and

are deficient in volatiles

The Jovian planets are rocky and gaseous

The outer planets are icy and gaseous

Solar Nebula Hypothesis

SNH is widely accepted as an explanation for
Solar System formation

Although details vary, its formulation can

explain various observations about the Solar
System

Nebula = interstellar cloud of gas and dust

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Nebula - Gas and Dust

Gas - principally H (hydrogen), the most
common element of the Universe
Cosmic Dust - particulate matter, typically from
a few molecules to a tenth of a micrometer
Intergalactic, interstellar, interplanetary, circumplanetary
Formed in dying stars, including supernovae

Areas of star formation

M33 Triangulum Galaxy (NGC 598) - 2.723 million light years

NGC 604

NASA images from HST WFPC2

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NGC 604

Star-forming nebula within Triangulum Galaxy

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Solar Nebula Hyp. Steps

Rotating interstellar nebula (99% H and He, 1% dust)
became gravitationally unstable and began to collapse
in on itself (likely triggered by nearby supernova
explosion)

As the radius decreased, the nebula began to spin

faster (skater analogy), conserving angular
momentum

Increased rotation rate changed the shape to a

flattened disk with most of the mass at the center

Pressure and temperature increased greatly

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Also called Proplyds

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Great Orion Nebula

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Artist’s conceptual view of a proplyd

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More Steps
Pressures and temperatures became high enough
(from gravitational collapse) in the center of the
protosun to initiate hydrogen fusion (the
protosun becomes the Sun!)

Requires temperatures of at least 8 x 106K

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More Steps
Protoplanets condensed by gravitational accretion

The heat generated by early planetary accretion

impact events resulted in planets that became
molten, and that subsequently became differentiated

Planetary differentiation is the process of density

segregation from molten material, whereby the more
dense materials sank to the cores of the planets,
while less dense material migrates to the exterior

The result is layered planets

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Differentiation
When the Earth was molten during planetary
accretion phase, the Earth’s elements
separated by density
Most dense materials migrated to the center
of the Earth (metals, then rocks), with the
least dense migrating to the outer part of the
planet (ocean & atmosphere)
Result was a compositionally layered Earth

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A Layered Earth

Resulted from density

segregation (differentiation)

More dense to the interior,

less dense “floating” on
surface

Core, mantle, crust,

hydrosphere

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Layering by
composition =
crust, mantle, core

Layering by rock
strength =
lithosphere,
asthenosphere,
mesosphere

Strength a function
of temp & pressure

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Compositional Layering
Crust - silicate minerals
– Oceanic - 5-10 km thick, more dense
– Continental - 30-70 km thick, less dense

Moho
– Seismic discontinuity marking crust-mantle boundary

Mantle - dense silicate minerals and oxides

– More dense than crust, less than core

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Compositional Layering
Gutenberg Discontinuity
– Seismic discontinuity separating mantle and core

Outer Core
– Liquid - Fe + lesser Ni + other elements

Inner Core
– Solid - Fe + lesser Ni + other elements

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Layering by Rock Strength

Lithosphere
– Brittle, cool, rigid
– Crust and part of the Upper Mantle

Asthenosphere
– Ductile (plastic), hot, weak
– Upper Mantle to about 350 km

Mesosphere
– Hot, but stronger due to higher pressures
– Lower Mantle

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