Tafila Technical University

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Materials Selection for Design, Manufacturing

and Applications

Assignment 2 &3

Student: Mohanad Yousef Al-Tahrawi.

Instructor's Name: Dr. Ahmad Mostafa.

Date: April 9, 2022.

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Table of Contents
Assignment 2 ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Mechanisms of Creep ......................................................................................................................... 5
Creep Resistance ................................................................................................................................ 7
Melting temperature (Tm) and Glass transition temperature (Tg) ..................................................... 8

The question of Assignment 2 .............................................................................................................. 9

Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 11
References ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Assignment 3 ................................................................................................................................... 12
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 13
New Alloys ....................................................................................................................................... 14
High entropy Alloys (HEAs) ................................................................................................................. 14

Cryogenic Materials ............................................................................................................................ 15

Superplastic alloys............................................................................................................................... 16

Shape memory alloys (SMA) ............................................................................................................... 17

Metallic glasses Alloys ......................................................................................................................... 18

Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 19
References ...................................................................................................................................... 19

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 Tafila Technical University
Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Materials Selection for Design, Manufacturing

and Applications

Assignment # 2
Creep in Metals and Polymers

Student: Mohanad Yousef Al-Tahrawi.

Instructor's Name: Dr. Ahmad Mostafa.

Date: April 9, 2022.

3
1. Introduction:
When a material is under a constant load or stress, it may undergo progressive plastic
deformation over a period of time. This time-dependent strain is called creep.
In materials science, creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the tendency of a solid
material to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of persistent
mechanical stresses. It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of
stress that are still below the yield strength of the material. Creep is more severe in
materials that are subjected to heat for long periods and generally increases as they
near their melting point.
all the existing materials have different creep properties at different temperatures.
However, under specific working conditions of the materials the creep strains can be
ignored in comparison with the elastic or instantaneous plastic strains. Consequently,
the defining relationships are greatly simplified. Therefore, the creep properties are
considered only when neglecting these properties may result in considerable errors
in the evaluation of the strain capacity and efficiency of the investigated objects.
Metals (like all constructional materials) have the creep properties in a specific range
of stress and temperature. For example, even at room temperature the conventional
constructional materials outside the proportionality limit show properties of the so-
called limited creep (at which the strain tends asymptotically to a finite limit with
increasing time). However, it is very important to take into account the creep strains
for metallic structures working at high temperatures. After all, the concept of the high
temperatures for different metals may greatly differ. For example, taking into account
the creep properties for aluminum alloys are important at 150–250°C, even for
relatively low stress levels. In conventional constructional steels the creep properties
become evident in the entire stress range at temperatures higher than 400°C, in special
creep-resisting alloys – at temperatures above 700–800°C.

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2. Mechanisms of Creep:
Figure (1) shows typical creep curves. The strain is plotted as a function of
time under constant load or constant stress. The creep curve exhibits three stages.

Figure 1 Creep curves showing the increase in plastic strain as a function of time.

In stage I, the creep rate decreases with time, the effect of work hardening is more
than that of recovery in this stage. In stage II, the creep rate is a minimum and is
constant with time; here, the work hardening, and recovery processes are exactly
balanced. In stage III, the creep rate increases with time until fracture occurs. In this
stage, necking of the specimen starts and other processes that ultimately result in
failure set in.
The temperature and time dependence of creep deformation indicates that it is a
thermally activated process. Several atomic processes are known to be responsible
for creep in crystalline materials, [figure 2].
dynamic recovery occurs in the later stages of the plastic deformation process.
Dynamic recovery was attributed to the cross-slip of screw dislocations. In the low
temperature region of creep, the cross-slip continues with the aid of thermal energy
and causes further plastic strain as a function of time.

Figure 2 Mechanisms of creep: (a) dislocation climb; (b) vacancy diffusion; and(c) grain boundary sliding.
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The Burgers vector b and the t vector of edge dislocations are nonparallel. Therefore,
they cannot cross-slip like screw dislocations. However, if the temperature is high
enough for an appreciable diffusion rate of vacancies, these may diffuse to the edge
dislocations or away from them, making them to climb up or down, see Fig. 2 a. Thus,
edge dislocations piled up against an immobile dislocation can move to other parallel
slip planes by climb and continue their motion in response to the stress. The rate
controlling step in the climb process is the diffusion of vacancies. The measured
activation energy for creep agrees with the activation energy for self-diffusion by the
vacancy mechanism in a number of materials.
Another mechanism of creep is called diffusional creep. Here also the diffusion of
vacancies controls the creep rate, but the mechanism does not involve the climb of
edge dislocations. Vacancies move in response to the applied stress from surfaces of
the specimen transverse to the stress axis to the surfaces that are parallel to the stress
axis. Over a period of time, this movement would elongate the specimen in the
direction of the stress axis and contract it in the transverse direction resulting in creep,
as shown in Fig. 2 b. The third mechanism of creep is the sliding of neighboring
grains with respect to the boundary that separates them (see Fig. 2c).

Grain boundaries lose their strength at a lower temperature than the grains
themselves. This effect arises from the non-crystalline structure of the grain
boundaries. the viscosity of a non-crystalline substance decreases continuously on
heating into the liquid range, whereas a crystalline substance maintains its
viscosity at a high value right up to the melting point. At temperatures above
0.5 Tm, the viscosity of the grain boundaries is small enough for them to behave
like a very viscous liquid separating the neighboring grains and allowing them to
slide against each other. This behavior of the grain boundaries is in contrast to
their low temperature behavior. At low temperatures, they do not flow viscously,
but provide effective obstacles to dislocation motion. At high temperatures, the
grain boundaries facilitate the deformation process by sliding, whereas at low
temperatures, they increase the yield strength by stopping the dislocations.

6
3. Creep Resistance
Creep resistance is a term used in materials science that refers to a solid material’s
ability to resist “creep,” which refers to the tendency of a material to slowly deform
over a long period of exposure to high levels of stress. Creep resistance is affected by
a material’s properties, the length of time it is exposed to a stressor, the temperature
at which it is exposed to the stressor, and the power of the stressor (e.g., the weight
of the load that the stressor places upon the material being considered). A specific
material’s creep resistance can be generally defined in terms of the amount of creep
that is produced by a specific amount of strain placed on a material for a specific
amount of time.
As a general rule, creep occurs when metals are required to operate at temperatures
above 30 to 40% of their absolute melting point. Rapid creep of polymers occurs at
temperature above 65 % of their glass transition temperature, whereas creep of heat-
resistant ceramic materials starts above 40–50% of their melting temperature (in
Kelvin). Table 1 gives the melting or softening temperatures of various aerospace
materials.

Table 1 Melting or softening (S) temperatures of aerospace materials

A material’s creep resistance is an important consideration for workplaces in which
the structural integrity of an apparatus, such as an engineered safety control, is
important to workplace safety. Because creep resistance is lowered by exposure to
high temperatures, workplaces must consider whether a material that is safe to use in
7
one setting might become unsafe to use if transported into a higher-temperature
setting. occurs to materials that are placed under strain. Most materials that are or
were used in building structures are heavily resistant to creep while at room
temperature, with materials such as glass and lead being notable exceptions.
However, a material’s creep resistance can be significantly lowered due to exposure
to heat (thermal creep). The creep resistance of a material changes over time,
according to a “creep curve.” The initial “primary creep” stage is relatively rapid,
whereas the secondary creep stage occurs at a slower, constant rate. The final stage,
tertiary creep, is marked by the re-acceleration of creep, which occurs until the
material fails. Creep is considered dangerous because it reduces the structural
integrity of the buildings, vehicles, and equipment that it affects, thus increasing the
risk of a safety incident. For instance, containers that hold material under high levels
of pressure and heat, such as boiler tanks, must be able to avoid creep in order to
prevent a rupture. The risk that creep could damage the integrity of a joint weld or
other seal is a particular concern. Occupational settings where creep poses a
significant safety challenge include the power generation and process manufacturing
industries, and creep is also a significant concern in ensuring safe airplane design. As
creep is accelerated by heat, building and equipment designs may also take creep into
account when assessing the risk of potential fire hazards. In general, any occupational
setting in which materials will be held under stress is one in which the creep resistance
of a material is a safety concern.

3.1 Melting temperature (Tm) and Glass transition

temperature (Tg)
Melting temperature Tm, the temperature at which the substance changes from a solid
to a liquid. Glass transition temperature Tg, is an important parameter used for
identification of plastics. The Tg value is the temperature at which amorphous
polymers change from hard to soft. The concentration of crystalline regions in
amorphous (semicrystalline) polymers affects the rigidity of the polymer
Glass transition temperature and melting temperature are two chemical terms that are
often confusing. Glass transition temperature is discussed under polymer chemistry
because this transition can be observed in polymer compounds. But melting
temperature can be observed in any compound. The main difference between glass
transition temperature and melting temperature is that glass transition temperature
describes the transition of a glass state into a rubbery state whereas melting
temperature describes the transition of a solid phase into a liquid phase.

8
Q: Creep occurs when materials are loaded above about 1/3Tm
or 2/3Tg. Explain these relations.
Creep occurs in metals when the temperature is above about 30-40% Tm. Ceramics
have melting temperatures much higher than metals and will only creep when they
are exposed to stresses at much higher temperatures [above 40–50% of their melting
temperature]. For polymers Creep occurs at room temperature. since it is not a
crystalline structure, Creep occurs at temperature more than Tg under load (constant
tensile stress) at constant temperature, the strain increases with the time taken during
the examination, and the examination takes several hours or days if the test is done
at temperature lower than (Tg) because the material is hard and brittle, and the
duration increases for weeks if the material is reinforced with reinforcing materials
Rapid creep of most polymers occurs at temperature above 65 % of their glass
transition temperature.
Part A: why creep difficult to occurs for temperature less than 1/3 Tm or 2/3 Tg.
That is because activation energy Q [ the minimum amount of energy that is
required to activate atoms or molecules to a condition in which they can undergo
chemical transformation or physical transport].
Activation energy Q for lattice self-diffusion in a material is related to melting
temperature Tm of the material by
Q = k R TM
By experimental test show that Below 0.35 Tm the activation energy for creep was
found to decrease rapidly with decreasing temperature; it was shown that the
presence of at least four discrete activation energies could account for these low
temperature results.

Figure 3 influence of stress and temperature on creep behaviour

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With this low activation energy, the creep is difficult to occurs because the creep
rate calculates by:

Where A = constant, Q= activation energy & n = stress exponent.

The activation energy Q can be determined experimentally, by plotting the natural
log of creep rate against the reciprocal of temperature
As the temperature increases, the stress-strain curve continually shifts upward, and
when the creep time increases in additional to temperature increases, the average
creep modulus decreases, increase temperature in the material can increase the
vibration of atoms in the crystal structure, which will increase the atomic distance.
It would be worth explaining that the 0.35%Tm that mention previously was simply
an approximation as to when creep started to have engineering significance. Then we
should learn that creep can occur at much lower temperatures than 0.35%Tm and that
whether the effects of creep are significant or not depends upon the stress magnitude,
the design life that is required, the type of loading experienced and whether the
material is considered to be “Creep Resistant”.

Part B: Why does creep occur at temperatures that are related to the melting
temperature and vary for different substances (about 1/3Tm or 2/3Tg).
the differences in creep resistance from one material to another depend on the
stability of the structure and on the hardening mechanism. This is because atomic
mobility is sufficient to cause softening of cold-worked structures and coarsening of
unstable precipitates.
Creep is much more affected by grain size, micro-structure and previous strain
history. Grain size is a major factor in creep. Coarse-grained materials exhibit better
creep resistance than fine-grained ones, as fine-grained metals have a greater amount
of grain boundary materials and grain boundaries behave as a quasi-viscous material
with a high tendency to flow at elevated temperatures. That is why single crystals
exhibit a higher creep resistance than poly-crystalline materials. [Since tungsten
filaments of electrical lamps are made of single crystals, they can withstand very high
temperatures].
The next important factor is the thermal stability of the micro-structure of alloys and
its resistance to oxidation at high temperatures. An annealed specimen, for instance,
for having greater thermal stabilities is far superior in its creep resistance to quenched
steel for its poor thermal stability.
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Pure metals which have high melting points and compact atomic structure usually
show good creep resistance at high temperatures [The creep resistance of pure metals
can be considerably increased by alloying them with suitable elements].

4. Conclusion
Temperature has important effects on deformation phenomena. Microstructural
defect rearrangements are often accelerated at high temperatures. Since these
processes tend to soften the material, they counteract the strain hardening produced
by plastic deformation.
The differences in creep resistance from one material to another depend on the
stability of the structure and on the hardening mechanism. This is because atomic
mobility is sufficient to cause softening of cold-worked structures and coarsening of
unstable precipitates.
For general rule ‘Creep occurs when materials are loaded above about 1/3Tm or 2/3Tg’
In my personal opinion, for me creep is simply time dependent movement of
dislocations. Diffusion really helps dislocations move and avoid obstacles.
Personally, there is nothing special about 1/3 or 2/3 or 0.4. They are just rules of
thumb.
5. References
1. Materials and process selection for engineering design by Farag, Mahmoud M
2. Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction 8th Edition by William D. Callister, Jr. &
David G. Rethwisch.
3. Creep and Long-Term Strength of Metals (A. M. Lokoshchenko)
4. https://www.safeopedia.com/definition/5667/creep-resistance

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 Tafila Technical University
Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Materials Selection for Design, Manufacturing

and Applications

Assignment # 3
New Alloys: characteristics, application and
examples

Student: Mohanad Yousef Al-Tahrawi.

Instructor's Name: Dr. Ahmad Mostafa.

Date: April 9, 2022.

12
1. Introduction:
Alloy is a substance with metallic characteristics synthesized by a certain method from two
or more metals and metals or non-metals. It is generally obtained by melting into a
homogeneous liquid and solidifying. According to the number of constituent elements, it
can be divided into binary alloys, ternary alloys and multi-element alloys.
The production of alloys by mankind began with the production of bronzes. The
Babylonians were the first to produce alloys in the world. The Babylonians began to refine
bronze (alloy of copper and tin) 6000 years ago. China is also one of the earliest countries
in the world to research and produce alloys. In the Shang Dynasty (more than 3000 years
ago), the bronze (copper-tin alloy) process was very developed; about the 6th century BC
(late Spring and Autumn period), it was forged (remaining Heat-treated) a sharp sword.
Alloys are macroscopically uniform, diversified substances containing metal elements, and
generally have metal characteristics. Any element can be used as alloying elements, but a
large amount of added is still metal. The most basic and independent substances that make
up an alloy are called components, or abbreviated as yuan. An alloy composed of two
components is called a binary alloy, an alloy composed of three components is called a
ternary alloy, and an alloy composed of more than three components is called a multi-
element alloy. In the solid state, an alloy It may be a single phase or a mixture of multiple
phases; it may be crystalline, or it may be quasicrystal line or amorphous. The difference
in crystalline alloys depends on the atomic radius, electronegativity, and electron
concentration of its constituent elements. The possible phases are solid solutions that
maintain the same structure as the pure element of the substrate and inter-mediate phases
that do not have the same structure as any constituent elements. Intermediate phases
include normal valence compounds, electronic compounds, laves phases, σ phases,
interstitial phases and interstitial compounds with complex structures, etc. The possible
phases of the alloy in the equilibrium state can be known from the phase equilibrium
diagram.
The structure and properties of the constituent phases in the alloy play a decisive role in
the performance of the alloy. At the same time, the changes in the alloy structure, namely
the relative number of phases in the alloy, the changes in the grain size, shape and
distribution of the phases, also affect the performance of the alloy. Great influence.
Therefore, the combination of various elements to form a variety of different alloy phases,
and then through appropriate treatment may meet a variety of different performance
requirements.
The term alloy is now also used in polymer chemistry, which refers to a composite material
made by blending a polymer or copolymer with another polymer or elastomer under certain
conditions, such as styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer resin Blended with butadiene-
acrylonitrile rubber

13
2. New Alloys:
Materials science and materials engineering go hand-in-hand when it comes to
studying and designing materials for various applications. While a materials scientist
investigates the correlations between the structure and properties of a given substance,
a materials engineer uses this information to identify the most efficient way to enhance
the properties of a material through the redesign of its structure. In this lesson, students
experience the relationship between materials science and engineering through the
investigation of alloys.

2.1 High entropy Alloys (HEAs)

High-entropy alloys (HEAs) are alloys that are formed by mixing equal or relatively
large proportions of (usually) five or more elements. Prior to the synthesis of these
substances, typical metal alloys comprised one or two major components with
smaller amounts of other elements.

2.1.1 High entropy Alloys Characteristics

1. High strength-to-weight ratio
2. Good oxidation resistance
3. Good fatigue resistance
4. Lightweight
5. Wear and Creep resistance
6. Ion irradiation resistance
7. Low level radioactive waste
8. Elevated temperature materials

2.1.2 High entropy Alloys Applications

➢ High entropy alloys are excellent materials for compressors, combustion

chambers, exhaust nozzle and gas turbine case applications within the
gas turbine engine.
➢ High entropy alloys are great auxiliary materials used for nuclear
reactors applications.
➢ High entropy alloys are alternative alloys for biomedical applications.
➢ Aerospace

2.1.3 High entropy Alloys Examples

1. AlCoCrCuFeNi alloy.
2. Nb-Mo-Ta-W alloy.
3. AlMnNbTiV alloy.

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2.2 Cryogenic Materials
Composite materials are used in a large number of cryogenic applications because
of their unique and highly tailorable properties. The composite material
constituents are as numerous as the applications for which they are intended.
Selection of an optimal composite can be an arduous task, as conflicting
requirements greatly complicate materials selections. Fundamental mechanical,
electrical, and thermal requirements generally dictate these materials selections, but
trade-offs and compromises often occur. Materials selection is further complicated
by the unique operating environments, including extremes of temperature, close
dimensional tolerances, and radiation exposures. Selection of materials is also
complicated by the difficult fabrication scenarios required by some applications.
Reliability is another issue of extreme importance, as composites in these cryogenic
applications are often inaccessible for inspection or repair, and their performance
is critical during the entire life cycle of the device.

2.2.1 Cryogenic Materials Characteristics

1. excellent fatigue and cryogenic toughness properties
2. have low DBTT [Ductile brittle translation temperature].
3. superior fatigue crack growth resistance.
4.Yield and ultimate strength increase with decrease the temperature
5. Fatigue strength increase with decrease temperature
6. Impact strength decrease with decrease temperature
7. Ductility decrease with decrease temperature
8. Hardness increase with decrease temperature
9. Coefficient of thermal expansion decrease with decrease temperature
10. Specific heat decrease with decrease temperature
2.2.2 Cryogenic Materials Applications

➢ metallurgy, chemistry, power industry, medicine, rocket propulsion and

space simulation, food processing by refrigeration

2.2.3 Cryogenic Materials Examples

1. Al-Li alloy.
2. Si3N4-SiCw alloy.
3. SiOC alloy.

15
2.3 Superplastic alloys
Superplasticity is the ability of a polycrystalline material to exhibit, in a generally
isotropic manner, very high tensile elongations prior to failure (T > 0.5 Tm). The
first observations of this phenomenon were made as early as 1912. Since then,
superplasticity has been extensively studied in metals. It is believed that both the
arsenic bronzes used in Turkey during the Bronze Age (2500 BC) and the
Damascus steels utilized from 300 BC to the end of the nineteenth century were
already superplastic materials. One of the most spectacular observations of
superplasticity is perhaps that reported by Pearson in 1934 of a Bi–Sn alloy that
underwent nearly 2000% elongation. He also claimed, for the first time, that grain
boundary sliding was the main deformation mechanism responsible for superplastic
deformation. The interest in superplasticity has increased due to the recent
observations of this phenomenon in a wide range of materials, including some
materials (such as nanocrystalline materials, ceramics, metal-matrix composites,
and intermetallics) that are difficult to form by conventional forming processes.
Extensive reviews on superplasticity are available.

2.3.1 Superplastic alloys Characteristic

1. large elongations in tension without the development of any incipient
necking [greater than 100% even 1000%].

2.3.2 Superplastic alloys Applications

➢ Dummy manufacturing, automotive industries, aerospace, hollow engine
blades.
2.3.3 Superplastic alloys Examples
1. Bi–Sn alloys.
2. Al-Mg Alloys.
3. Al-Zn-Mg Alloys.

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 2.4 Shape memory alloys (SMA)
Shape memory alloys (SMA) are materials that “remember” their original shape and can
go back to this original shape after deformation under a stimulus. They are also known as
smart alloys or memory metals. SMAs were first reported by Arne Ölander in 1932. He
observed that a gold-cadmium alloy can be bent when cool, but it can return to its
original shape when heated. However, it was not until William Buehler and Frederick
Wang of the US Naval Ordnance Laboratory developed a nickel-titanium alloy in 1962
that could go back to its original shape upon deformation that these materials caught on.
This alloy was commercialized as nitinol and since then SMAs have become a popular
choice in a variety of fields such as aerospace, civil engineering, and biomedical devices.
Some SMAs can go back to a shape different from their original shape under a stimulus,
thus holding two different shapes and are called two-way SMAs.

2.4.1 Shape memory alloys (SMA) Characteristic

1. reversible change in their crystal structure.
2. Lightweight alloys
3. Have high melting point.
4. Have high thermal stability and corrosion resistance.
5. Strong.

2.4.2 Shape memory alloys (SMA) Applications

➢ flexible spectacle frames, bridge structures, used as actuators.
2.4.3 Shape memory alloys (SMA) Examples
1. Nickel-titanium alloys.
2. Cu32Zn10Sn alloys.
3. Gold-cadmium alloys.

17
 2.5 Metallic glasses Alloys
Metallic glasses represent one kind of advanced material, very popular in recent
decades. These materials are very adaptable like plastics for their manufacturability
in very complex shapes. TPF (Thermoplastic forming) based processes seem very
good method to process them. These materials can compete with plastics but have
metallic properties. They behave as magnetic materials with less hysteresis loss
and less eddy current loss making them suitable for transformer and MEMS
(Micro-Electromechanical System) applications. These materials exhibit good
corrosion resistance, hardness and toughness. Based on the property and
application, metallic glasses are good rivals to plastics, metals and ceramics.
Chemical composition and kinetics of supercooling of these materials are the areas
where young researchers can focus attention with a view to their improvement.

2.5.1 Shape memory alloys (SMA) Characteristic

1. Good strength.
2. Ductile.
3. Good magnetic properties.
4. High corrosion resistance.
5. High electrical resistance
2.5.2 Metallic glasses Applications
➢ In Electrical and Electronics.
➢ Nuclear reactor engineering.
➢ Bio - Medical Industries.
➢ reinforcing elements in concrete.
➢ make razor blades.
➢ produce high magnetic fields and magnetic levitation effect.
2.5.3 Metallic glasses Examples
1. Ni - Nb (Nickel & Niobium).
2. Mg - Zn (Magnesium & zinc).
3. Cu - Zr (Copper & Zirconium).

18
3. Conclusion:
The discovery of new materials through the exploration of outer space or through
the integration of available materials and the formation of alloys that have the same
properties as combined materials is a reason for the industrial and scientific
revolution in the field of materials science.
As the discovery of materials with new properties provide solutions to many of the
problems that we face in our practical lives, and on the other hand, the discovery of
new materials directs us to invent applications for them, and this is what
scientifically advanced countries seek.

4. References:
1. https://www.wikipedia.org
2. High-Entropy Alloys Fundamentals and Applications (Michael C. Gao, Jien-Wei Yeh, Peter
K. Liaw etc.)
3. Materials for cryogenics applications E. David Research National Institute for cryogenics
&Isotopic Technologies Rm. Valcea, P.O. Box 10, O.P. No. 4, Code 1000, Romania
4. Mechanical properties of lead alloy Pb-Sn and other superplastic alloys by Xiaoyu Zhao
5. https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=16806
6. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/metallic-glass

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