2017 International Conference on Military Technologies (ICMT)
May 31 – June 2, 2017, Brno, Czech Republic
Air Flow Rate Measurement with Various
Differential Pressure Methods
Tamás Nagy∗ , Adolf Jı́lek∗ and Jiřı́ Pečinka∗
∗ University of Defence/Department of Air Force and Aircraft Technology, Brno, Czech Republic,
e-mail: tamas.nagy@unob.cz, adolf.jilek@unob.cz, jiri.pecinka@unob.cz
Abstract— There are various differential pressure meth-
ods to measure the air flow rate in a closed duct. These
methods are defined by ISO standards, thus providing
measurement with high accuracy. General practise for air
flow rate measurements with gas turbine engines is to
measure depression in the throat of a flare or Venturi inlet
system. However, such a measurement does not comply with
any standard and thus has to be calibrated in order to obtain
the so called discharge or flow contraction coefficient. With a
goal of evaluation of this coefficient three different methods
of the air flow rate measurement for a small turbojet TJ100
are compared and discussed in the presented research.
Keywords— flow rate coefficient; lemniscate; nozzle; three-
hole pressure probe
I. I NTRODUCTION
This article deals with the air flow rate measurement
and calibration of the TJ100 turbojet engine intake sys-
tem based on various differential pressure methods. The
research was conducted in co-operation with the turbo-
jet engine manufacturer Prvnı́ brněnská strojı́rna Velká
Bı́teš, a. s.
The TJ100 engine intake system uses two types of
inlet bellmouth. The engine manufacturer nowadays uses
a Venturi type inlet bellmouth and calculates the air flow
rate through it based on the ISO 5167-1:1991 standard
complimented by the ISO/TR 15377:2007. These two
standards describe the measurement of fluid flow using
pressure differential devices, e.g. orifice plates or nozzles.
The second inlet is a lemniscate shaped flare which
does not apply to the ISO standard but is often used for
air flow measurement with gas turbine engines. Compared
to the Venturi it introduces almost no total pressure drop
and allows slightly higher air mass flow rates for the same
inlet duct diameter. However, a discharge coefficient rep-
resenting the ratio of effective flow area to the geometric
area has to be set for such airmeter.
Figure 1. Scheme of measurement device.
c
978-1-5090-5666-8/17/$31.00
2017 IEEE 535
The aim of this research was to calibrate the lem-
niscate flare air flow rate measurement system and set
the discharge coefficient for it. The calibration was done
by comparison of the flare measurement with two other
measurement systems placed downstream the calibrated
inlet. The measurement setup is presented in Fig. 1. The
first method used is based on ISO standard [1] and utilizes
a flow nozzle installed into a closed duct. The second
method is based on usage of multi-hole pressure probe
which was used for evaluation of flow conditions in the
duct at different diameters. Obtained flow velocity profile
was then used for the air flow rate calculation.
A comparison with calculation based on ISO standard
used by the engine manufacturer for the similar Venturi
type meter is presented as well.
Air flow rate calculation
Generally the air mass flow rate through an area A is
defined as
Q = ρ · A · c, (1)
where the ρ is flow density and c is the average flow veloc-
ity. The velocity is usually evaluated based on difference
of total and static flow pressures ∆p at the measurement
element and thus it is possible to write
p
Q = A 2ρ · ∆p · CD, (2)
where CD is the discharge coefficient representing the
fact that due to the skin friction and boundary layer there
is a certain velocity profile of the flow and thus the aver-
age flow velocity (dynamic head) is lower than the static
pressure difference in the airmeter. The velocity profile
and thus the discharge coefficient is above all dependent
on the airmeter geometry and surface roughness and in
the simplest form is considered constant for an airmeter.
It can range from 0.9 for small diameters, and low quality
surfaces and geometry up to 0.99 for large diameters,
polished metal lemniscate inlets. For low velocities the
air temperature and density can be considered constant as
well. The change of density with the air velocity can be
evaluated by the Laval number function q(λ) defined as
  1   1
κ + 1 κ−1 κ − 1 2 κ−1
q(λ) = 1− λ · λ, (3)
2 κ+1
where the Laval number λ for our measurement, is
calculated from equation
v
u
uκ + 1
"   κ−1 #
ps κ
λ= t 1− , (4)
κ−1 pt

where κ is the isentropic coefficient (for air κ = 1.4),

ps is the static pressure and pt the total pressure. Then,
according to [2] the air flow rate can be calculated as
pt
Q = K · A · √ · q(λ) · CD, (5)
T
where T is the gas temperature in kelvins.
For more precise calculations the effect of Reynolds
number change (given by the air density, velocity and
kinematic viscosity) should be considered as well. Then
the discharge coefficient can be replaced by more general
flow coefficient representing several influences. In this
form it is applied in calculations according to ISO
standards described in next chapter.

II. ISA 1932 NOZZLE ACCORDING TO ISO 5167

Figure 2. ISA 1932 Nozzle [1].
ISA 1932 flow nozzle is a very widely used flow
meter for liquids, gases and steam. It is more challenging
and costly to manufacture than an orifice plate. It offers The air mass flow is then given by the following
high accuracy and smaller pressure loss compared to an equation
orifice plate, which makes the ISA 1932 flow nozzle more
efficient. It has a smooth inlet leading to a narrower throat C πd2 p
Q= p ε 2∆p · ρ1 , (9)
section with sharp outlet, this narrowing is defined by the 1 − β4 4
beta ratio
where ∆p = p1 − p2 is the nozzle pressure difference and
β = d/D, (6)
ρ1 the specific mass of the fluid or gas at the nozzle inlet
were D is the diameter of the pipe or nozzle inlet and d and should be calculated from the ideal gas law
the diameter of the nozzle outlet. p1
There are two types of the ISA 1932 flow nozzle: one ρ1 = , (10)
rT1
for d ≤ (2/3)D and the other for d > (2/3)D. For the
where r is the specific gas constant (for air r = 287.1 J ·
measurement described in this article, the first version of
kg−1 K−1 ).
the flow nozzle was used, see Fig. 2.
According to [1] the total uncertainty of the mass flow
Reference [1] describes the following restrictions for
is calculated from the following equation
the use of the ISA 1932 flow nozzle: s
• 50 mm ≤ D ≤ 500 mm
2  2
δQ δC δε
• 0.3 ≤ β ≤ 0.8 = +
4 7
Q C ε
• 7 · 10 ≤ ReD ≤ 10 . . . for 0.30 ≤ β < 0.44 s
4 7 2 2  2  2
2β 4
 
• 2 · 10 ≤ ReD ≤ 10 . . . for 0.44 ≤ β ≤ 0.80 δD 2 δd
+ + (11)
According to the standard, the flow rate coefficient for 1 − β4 D 1 − β4 d
the ISA 1932 nozzle is calculated as follows
s  2  2
1 δ∆p 1 δρ1
C = 0.9900 − 0.2262β 4.1 − + + .
1.15 4 ∆p 4 ρ1
106 (7)

− 0.00175β 2 − 0.0033β 4.15 ·


According to [3] the maximum value of the uncertainty
ReD for the nozzle inlet diameter δD
D should not exceed 0.4 %
where ReD is Reynolds number related to diameter D. and for the nozzle outlet diameter δd
d should be less than
The expansion coefficient is calculated as 0.1 %. If the used medium is gas (in this case air) the
s uncertainty of the specific mass δρ 1
ρ1 , based on the ideal
κτ 2/κ 1 − β4 1 − τ (κ−1)/κ
  
ε= , (8) gas law should be calculated from the uncertainty of the
κ−1 1 − β 4 τ 2/κ 1−τ pressure and temperature, given by the sensors’ accuracy
class, i.e.
where τ = pp21 is the nozzle pressure ratio, i.e. the ratio  2  2  2
of the pressure on the nozzle outlet (p2 ) to the pressure δρ1 δp1 δT1
= + . (12)
on the nozzle inlet (p1 ). ρ1 p1 T1

536
 TABLE I
R EQUIRED STRAIGHT LENGTHS FOR FLOW NOZZLE AND V ENTURI NOZZLE

Minimal upstream Minimal downstream Minimal straight length

straight length straight length between the pipe fittings
(between a 90◦ elbow (any pipe fitting in the upstream
or tee pipe and according to ISO 6167)
the primary element)
δC δC δC
D β L C
L C
L C
[mm] [1] [mm] [%] [mm] [%] [mm] [%]
0.7 > 3136 +0.00 > 784 +0.00 > 1568 +0.00
112 > 1568 +0.50 > 392 +0.50 > 784 +0.50
0.694 1117 +0.75 615 +0.50 481 +0.85

The uncertainty of the expansion coefficient ε is The geometry limitations given by the standard are:
δε ∆p • d ≥ 50 mm
=2 [%]. (13) • 65 mm ≤ D ≤ 500 mm
ε p1
• 0.316 ≤ β ≤ 0.775
Standard [1] defines the uncertainty of the flow rate 5 6
• 1.5 · 10 ≤ ReD ≤ 2 · 10
coefficient C, which is based on the premise that we
know the value of β, D and ReD without error. Then The uncertainty is not applicable for our case thus is
the following applies not defined here. Standard [1] gives the instructions and
• 0.8 % . . . for β ≤ 0.6; design specifications only for a Venturi nozzle installed
• (2β − 0.4) % . . . for β > 0.6.
into a pipe. When used with gas turbine engine there are
no pipes on the inlet side of the nozzle. The air flows from
However, [1] defines the upstream and downstream
the atmosphere, thus at the inlet it might be influenced
conditions as well. According to the standard, there
not only by the geometry of the nozzle, but also by any
should be a laminar flow without any disruption going
disturbance in the surrounding atmosphere [5]. The open
through the flow nozzle. To calculate the flow rate using
duct flow is beyond the scope of this ISO standard, but
the equations above, the pipe lengths have to meet the
is complimented by the ISO/TR 15377:2007. According
requirements, see Table I. In the case of any deviation
to this standard the inlet is either from open atmosphere
from the required dimensions the value of the uncertainty
δC or from a pipe with a diameter no less than 2d. The
C has to be raised according to Table I. limitations of the open inlet usage are:
The upstream straight lengths used in the tests did not
• d ≥ 50 mm
comply with ISO 5167 requirements. The last row of
• β ≤ 0.125
Table I shows the real lengths of the used duct. The flow 5 6
• 3 · 10 ≤ ReD ≤ 3 · 10
rate coefficient uncertainty in some cases was an estimate,
as ISO 5167 does not mention its value for any lengths The uncertainty in the value of C is expected to be no
below those mentioned in Table I. The total uncertainty better than 1.5 %. If the open inlet is considered, then
of the flow rate coefficient is according to (6)
δC d d
= (2β − 0.4) + 0.75 + 0.50 + 0.85 ∼ = 3.09 %. β= = = 0.
C D ∞
The estimated value of the flow rate uncertainty is than Thus, for the expansion coefficient we get the following
calculated according to (11) and for the given measure- equation
ment condition its value is approximately s
κτ 2/κ 1 − τ (κ−1)/κ
 
δQ ∼ ε= . (15)
= 3.25 %. κ−1 1−τ
Q
III. V ENTURI NOZZLE Based on these assumptions the engine manufacturer
This section discusses the measurement of the flow rate, in his standard [4] defines the air flow rate through the
which is in this case calculated from the pressure drop on Venturi nozzle as
pt
a Venturi nozzle as is used by the engine manufacturer [4]. Q = C · pomA · pomB · d2 √
Similarly to the previous method, it is based on the ISO tthr + 273.15
(16)
s
5167 standard as well. Venturi nozzle has a throat with the     κ−1
pthr 1 pthr κ
static pressure tappings and a diverging duct downstream · 1− ,
pt κ pt
the measurement section (Fig. 3).
The flow rate is calculated in the same way as for the where the auxiliary variables are defined as
ISA nozzle (9) but the flow coefficient is defined as   1  0.5
κ + 1 κ−1 κ+1
pomA = · , (17)
C = 0.9858 − 0.196β 4.5 (14) 2 κ−1

537
 s κ+1
  κ−1
π κ 2
pomB = · . (18)
4 r κ+1
The static pressure on the throat of the Venturi nozzle
is given by the following equation
pthr = pt − ∆pthr . (19)
The flow coefficient is defined as
Ccalc = b0 · ReD 6 + b1 · ReD 5 + b2 · ReD 4
(20)
+ b3 · ReD 3 + b4 · ReD 2 + b5 · ReD + b6 ,
and the Reynolds number is
4Q
ReD = . (21)
πηd
where the coefficients bi are

b0 − 4.591506 · 10−40
b1 + 5.274588 · 10−33
b2 − 2.458773 · 10−26
b3 + 5.961127 · 10−20
b4 − 7.983709 · 10−14
b5 + 5.804441 · 10−8
Figure 3. Venturi nozzle [1].
b6 + 9.704852 · 10−1

and the dynamic viscosity is Three-hole pressure probes are frequently used for two-
dimensional flow measurements. Using these probes one
4
X j can determine the total (pt ) and the static pressure (ps ),
η= aj · (tthr + 273.15) , (22)
i.e. flow velocity as well as the velocity direction. Deter-
j=0
mination of the velocity distribution in the flow field then
where the coefficients aj are enables calculation of the mass flow rate. However, due
to the manufacturing inaccuracies a calibration procedure
a0 − 7.895405 · 10−7 prior to the measurement is necessary.
a1 + 8.689648 · 10−8
a2 − 9.786073 · 10−11 The measurement of velocity and flow angle, using the
a3 + 8.352612 · 10−14 three hole pressure probe, is realised by the following
a4 − 3.078914 · 10−17 principle. There are three holes on the cylindrical surface
of the probe, see Fig. 4. Through these holes we mea-
sure three pressures pL (left hole) pR (right hole) and
Equations (16), (20) and (21) are then used in an
pC (centre hole). When the pressure probe is set into
iterative method, where the first value of C is an estimate
direction opposite of the flow, the left and right holes
and we repeat the cycle until a precise value of C is
measure the same pressure, otherwise there is a pressure
obtained.
difference. This difference is used to determine the angle
This calculation was applied to static pressure in the
α between the velocity direction and the direction the
lemniscate flow meter throat. It is obvious that due to
probe is pointed to and then to calculate the total and
different geometry of the lemniscate bellmouth and above
static pressure.
all missing divergent section downstream the measure-
First we define the following coefficients [6]:
ment throat the flow velocity profile will be different and
the calculation is not directly applicable. However, the • direction coefficient

geometry of both flowmeters is quite similar and thus the pL − pR

Kα =
change in the velocity profile in the measurement section pC − 0.5 (pL + pR )
 −1
with the flow velocity will be similar as well. Thus the pR
−1 (23)
pL
calculation was used for estimation of the effect of the =   ,
−1
Reynolds number and the air density. pC pR
pR − 0.5 pL +1
IV. C YLINDRICAL THREE - HOLE PRESSURE PROBE
• total pressure coefficient
In many flow fields the experimental determination
of the steady-state three-dimensional or two-dimensional pt − pL +p
2
R

Kt = , (24)
characteristics of the flow are required. The flow field in pC − pL +p
2
R

the turbojet intake system or in a duct exhibits velocity

gradients, induced by the boundary layers.

538
 and the air flow rate with the discharge coefficient con-
sidered CD = 1 is calculated according to (5) as
pt
∆Q = K · ∆A · √ · q(λ),
T
where the ∆A is the area of an annulus respective to the
probe position. Then the mass flows at separate positions
are summed X
Q= ∆Q
The velocity field can be expressed from (1) (Fig. 5).

Figure 4. Three-hole pressure probe (Diametres in mm).

•static pressure coefficient

pC − pL +p
2
R

Ks = . (25)
pt − ps
We calculate the angle α from Kα as
α = 0.0013066216 · Kα6 − 0.0117565892 · Kα5
− 0.0360116663 · Kα4 + 0.4877293903 · Kα3
(26)
+ 0.3701967269 · Kα2 − 12.172788169 · Kα Figure 5. Velocity profile of the air flow for Q0 = 0.65 kg · s−1 .
− 0.1066309082.
When the flow angle is known, total and static pressure
V. R ESULTS
coefficients can be expressed as
Measurement of static pressures at the lemniscate throat
Kt = 1.387 · 10−9 · α6 − 1.6097 · 10−8 · α5 was evaluated by three different methods. First, equation
− 2.0456 · 10−7 · α4 + 6.699431 · 10−6 · α3 (2) was used as a base line for comparison with the
(27)
+ 5.70362 · 10−4 · α2 − 2.119756 · 10−3 · α rest of the measurements. The discharge coefficient was
+ 0.988788431 considered CD = 1. Calculated flow is designated Q0
in the following analysis. Second, equation (5) was used
and with the same value of CD = 1 for the evaluation
Ks = 2.09 · 10−10 · α6 − 3.9 · 10−11 · α5 of the air density change effect (designated Q1). Third,
− 4.39326 · 10−7 · α4 − 1.0467 · 10−8 · α3 the Venturi nozzle calculation was applied (Q2). These
(28)
− 4.10393 · 10−4 · α2 + 1.703248 · 10−3 · α
+ 0.983888734.
The last three equations are obtained from the calibra-
tion and are valid only for the used three-hole pressure
probe [7].
We then calculate the total and static pressures at the
point of measurement
 
pL + pR pL + pR
pt = Kt pC − + , (29)
2 2
pC − pL +p
2
R

ps = pt − . (30)
Ks
Using static ps and total pressure pt the Laval number
is calculated according to (4)
v
u
uκ + 1
"   κ−1 #
ps κ
λ= t 1−
κ−1 pt Figure 6. Relative air flow rate with various methods.

539

Figure 7. Flow rate coefficient.
three results are compared with the cylindrical probe
measurement (Q3) and the measurement at the ISA nozzle
according to the ISO standard (Q4).
In Fig. 6 the comparison of calculated air flow rates
Q1 to Q4 is presented against the Q0 on the horizontal
axis. The flow rates were compared in a range form 0.2
to 1.6 kg · s−1 . However the ISA nozzle was restricting
the flow through the system significantly and allowed
maximum flow rate just 0.6 kg · s−1 . For higher flow
rates it had to be removed from the measurement stand.
From the diagram it is obvious that the differences
between the various methods are quite small. For detailed
analysis relative differences of the calculated air flow rates
against the Q0 are presented in Fig. 7. The Q1 curve
neglects the real air flow distribution (CD = 1) and its
drop with rising velocity represents the effect of reduction
of the air density. In the Q2 the drop in high speeds is
visible as well, however there is also a reduction in lower
speeds probably caused by change in Reynolds number.
The curve is shifted from zero to lower flow rates by
approximately 2 %, which is representing the effect of
boundary layer and friction causing velocity reduction
near the channel wall. Here it has to be stressed again that
the calculation was designed for Venturi nozzle and thus
the shift is not respecting the real bellmouth geometry.
Q3 was evaluated based on real flow velocity profile
and thus should be the most precise. The trend of the
curve for higher flow rates (1 to 1.6 kg · s−1 ) is very
similar to the trend of Q1 and Q2. The apparent scatter
of the Q3 points is caused by difference (error) between
pressure readings at the bellmouth throat (Q0-Q2) and the
cylindrical probe. The fact that for the low mass flow rates
(0.2 to 0.6 kg · s−1 ) the scatter pattern is very similar for
the ISA nozzle measurement (Q4) measured separately
at different position of the stand by different sensors
suggests that the error is caused by the bellmouth airmeter
measurement. The flow reduction at low velocities due
to the Reynolds number change seems to be higher than
predicted by the Q2 calculation.
The average discharge coefficient defined based Q3 is
CD = 0.957. However the difference between the Q0
540
and Q3 based on which discharge coefficient is defined is
ranging approximately from 3.5 % to 5.5 %. Thus for the
best precision the discharge coefficient should be function
of the flow rate. The air mass flow rates for the TJ100
engine operating speed range from 80 % to 100 % RPM
is 1 to 1.8 kg · s−1 . For this range an average discharge
coefficient of CD = 0.96 can be used.
VI. C ONCLUSION
Five different calculations based on three different
measurement methods were used for the air mass flowrate
evaluation. The methods were discussed and results com-
pared. The difference of the results of different methods
was within 4 %. Based on the results a discharge coef-
ficient for the lemniscate flare bellmouth used with the
TJ100 engine was set to 0.96. The coefficient was set
based on comparison with flow rate calculation using a
velocity distribution measurement by a cylindrical probe.
The cylindrical probe measurement precision was not
evaluated exactly but is expected to be around 1 %.
In order to define the discharge coefficient with higher
precision a comparison of the bellmouth inlet with a
certified airmeter using a standardized method would be
necessary.
N OMENCLATURE
A Pipe area
β Beta ratio, nozzle outlet diameter to inlet diameter
c Flow velocity
C Flow rate coefficient
CD Discharge coefficient
d Nozzle outlet diameter
D Nozzle inlet diameter
∆p Total and static pressure difference
ε Expansion coefficient
Kα , Kt , Ks Pressure probe koefficients of direction, total and
static pressure
κ Isentropic coefficient
λ Laval number
η Dynamic viscosity
p1 , p 2 Nozzle inlet and outlet pressure
ps , p t Static and total pressure
pthr Static pressure on the throat of the Venturi nozzle
pL , p R , p C Pressure on the left, right and center hole of
pressure probe
Q Mass flow rate
r Specific gas konstant
ReD Reynolds number related to diameter D
ρ Flow density
ρ1 Specific mass of gas on nozzle inlet
tthr Inlet temperature on the throat of the Venturi nozzle
T Fluid or gas temperature
T1 Nozzle inlet temperature
τ Nozzle pressure ratio
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