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LECTURE ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE NEW TESTAMENT
1.1 INTRODUCTION

New Testament History and Literature is a foundational class for understanding the setting and message of the
New Testament. This lecture will introduce the student to the New Testament biblical literature, Bible study
methods, and the environment of the Early Church. Special attention will be given to the political, cultural,
religious, and geographical setting, the literary genre, and the meaning of the text in its original cultural,
historical, and literary context for the purpose of discovering the principles of truth to be applied to our
contemporary setting.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
O 1. Describe the literary structure of the New Testament.
2. Identify the major literary genres used in the New Testament
3. Discuss the process by which the New Testament canon emerged
4. Discuss the concept of the covenant community as the context and creation
of the New Testament.

1.3 WHY STUDY THE NEW TESTAMENT?

Three reasons have been suggested of why we should study the New Testament:
1. It mediates God’s presence and God’s truth.
2. It is of ultimate personal significance.
3. It is foundational to Western cultural literacy.
Regardless of what anyone may personally think or believe about him, Jesus of Nazareth has been the
dominant figure of the history of Western culture for almost twenty centuries.

1.3.1 INTERPRETING THE NEW TESTAMENT

A: Reading the World behind the Text
There are three developmental stages of a text:
1. The event
2. The recording of the event
3. The reading of the text
The difficulty in biblical interpretation is that the span of time between the recording of an event and the
reading of the text is literally centuries and millennia. Yet, between the composition and the reading the text
does not change, but language and cultures do change. The probability that the modern reader will impose his
own culture upon the text is great. In fact this imposition is to be expected yet when taken as an end in itself
will lead to inappropriate interpretation. When we talk of reading behind the text we are talking about the task
of pragmatics in trying to gain knowledge of the cultural, sociological, and physical world of the author and his
original audience. Two major areas related to background studies are:
1. General historical and cultural concerns to attain an informed reading of the text.
2. The ideological contexts of both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament.
B: Reading the World within the Text
The Bible as Literature
An integrative approach to interpretation must include a look at the literary creation of the text. The Bible is
literature, which is the basic presupposition for literary criticism. While the Bible is God’s revelation to
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humanity, it uses the language and images of humans. Thus, humans use the finiteness of written language
to say something about an infinite God
C: Reading and the World in Front of the Text
What happens when we listen?
Oral messages have two levels of meaning:
1. The speaker’s
2. The speech’s
One does not have to relate to the other. The speech may not reflect the full meaning the speaker means to
portray. The hearer will interpret both from the speech and from the attitude of the speaker though the
interpretation may not depict either levels of meaning in its full purpose.

What happens when we read?

The author and the reader bring their respective worlds into the text event.
Author Reader
World-view worldview
Presuppositions presuppositions
Language, culture language, culture
Values, self- understanding values, self-understanding

SENDER---------- TEXT-----------READER

Two worlds interact at Text to produce meaning

The texts reveal realities within the world of the author yet transcend historical events and facts. These realities
then must be construed within the reader’s world for contemporary meaning and significance. Therefore there
are two levels within the text:
1. The original meaning
2. The contemporary meaning/significance

The story and message are dynamic and will have meaning and application through the significance in the text
for the readers’ lives.
The world in front of the text deals with this dynamic of interpretation of the text from the standpoint of the
reader within a different culture, language, presuppositions than the author. The referential quality of the text,
what it says, requires a discussion of the mimetic insights of the text, what it means. The reader is required to
become intimately involved in creating the literary work.

D: Reader and Theological Presuppositions

Every reader has a pre-understanding and perspective (world-view). This structure of pre-understanding shapes
one’s account of reality. Without pre-understanding, understanding is impossible. Within the world in front of
the text, regarding sacred texts, two types of presuppositions are seen:
1. Reader Presuppositions: these presuppositions may be called assumptions but must not be synonymous with
beliefs or convictions. Most presuppositions are unconscious assumptions gathered from personal or
learned experiences. Perception and interpretation develop within the interpretive framework consisting of
presuppositions, beliefs, and attitudes based on ethical, doctrinal, denominational, philosophical,
theological, and methodological. All of these form the readers’ world-view.
2. Theological Presuppositions: Biblical truth is discovered and expressed within a particular universe of
meaning. Biblical interpretations must be consistent with established interpretive frameworks of the
interpretive community. Most theological presuppositions are focused primarily upon the Bible. The
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concepts of faith, revelation, word of God, and inspiration (authority and history) are included upon this
presuppositional focus.

1.4 NEW TESTAMENT SECTIONS

A. New Testament Sections
Gospels—four gospels are found in the NT that give accounts, apparently based on eye-witness testimony, of
the life, works, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Each of the four provides a different perspective upon
the teachings and activities of Christ. The four gospels are Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.

The Book of the Acts of the Apostles—contains a glimpse of life in the 1st Century through a fairly detailed
account of the beginnings of the Church and its spread into the known ancient world. Beginning soon after the
resurrection of Jesus and with Jesus’ ascension into heaven, the Book of Acts is the continuation of the accounts
of the gospel writer Luke, who became a companion of the apostle Paul, the key character in the final 2/3 of the
book.

The Epistles, or Letters—contain the correspondence of various early Church leaders detailing teaching on
certain issues of local church life, inter-personal relationships, and other Christian concerns in 1st Century
churches. The epistles are usually divided into two categories:
The Pauline Epistles—are thus named since the Apostle Paul was the apparent author of these 13 books.
Paul’s ministry roughly covered the middle third of the 1 st Century A.D. Paul was probably the greatest
theologian and missionary of any who has ever lived. The letters reveal his passion for Christ, the Church, and
right understanding of God. Paul’s theological teachings have influenced the Christian church more than any
other non-divine human in history. These books include Romans, I & II Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians,
Philippians, Colossians, I & II Thessalonians, I & II Timothy, Titus and Philemon.

The General (Catholic/Universal) Epistles—are epistles addressing churches or individuals written by several
different authors. The teachings cover issues from church problems to advice. The theological teachings
present universal truths. These epistles include the books of Hebrews, James, I & II Peter, I, II, & III John and
Jude.

The Revelation/Apocalypse (of John)—is concerned with the end times of the world, the second coming of
Jesus, the judgment of the lost, and the eternal reward of the faithful. Since the theme is Jesus’ final victory
over evil, the name The Revelation of Jesus Christ is often given to the book. The book is apocalyptic, a type of
literature that depicts cataclysmic events. The Book of Revelation is written in the form of a vision or dream
that is rife with symbolic imagery.
Each of these categories and books will be discussed in the following weeks. This overview provides you a
working knowledge of the parts of the NT. You will receive reading assignments from each of these categories
as the course progresses. But first, the background that shaped the NT world must be discussed.

B. Definitions of Terms
1. Revelation: By revelation we mean God’s self-disclosure to humanity through His words and actions. This
revelation is recorded in the Bible and is based on historical events. Biblical history is best described as a
theological understanding of historical events that happened to or around God’s people. See 2 Tim 3:16.
2. Inspiration: When the term “inspiration” is used it means the involvement of God in the process of
communicating His revelation (self-disclosure) and usually refers to its written form. Inspired, or “God-
breathed,” means the Holy Spirit worked in and through the minds and hearts of His people to produce a
trustworthy account of God’s truth.
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3. Dictation (Verbal Inspiration): God dictated every word to the human writer. There was no actual
involvement of the person (except in a mechanical sense) in the thought process of putting the ideas in
written form.
4. Dynamic Inspiration: Guidance of the Holy Spirit, Human writers recorded their understanding of God’s
self-revelation in their own language and for their specific culture under the direct guidance of the Holy
Spirit. The Bible is totally and completely inspired (plenary inspiration) because it is the result of a dynamic
relationship between God and the human writers.
5. Influence of Tradition, Religious Practices, and Biases: Some Christians believe inspiration is the process
of human writers recording their understanding of God’s revelation under the influence of their religious
traditions, biases, and religious thinking. This theory does not generally include the guidance of the Holy
Spirit. It is a purely rationalistic theory.
6. Authority of Scripture: Protestant tradition regards Scripture as the only source of the Church’s beliefs and
practices. This sola scriptura (scripture only) principle was adopted by Martin Luther in the Reformation.
Our own Wesleyan tradition is based on this, but also recognizes that historic Church tradition, human
reason, and human experience are very important to the interpretation of Scripture. We recognize that the
Bible has authority because God is the “author.” The Bible is the record of His self-disclosure.
7. Hermeneutics: This is the art of biblical interpretation. The technical study of hermeneutics covers the rules
and principles used in the practice of biblical interpretation. The goals of hermeneutics are :
- to discover the historical context and meaning of the passage for the original audience and,
- to translate the content of that original meaning for the contemporary audiences.
8. Exegesis: This is the process of bringing the meaning” out of” the biblical text by the modern reader.
Exegesis is part of the hermeneutical process.
9. Eseigesis putting into the bible what the Bible did not say
10. Canon: The word “canon” comes from the Greek term kanon which originally meant a “reed” used for
measuring. Eventually it came to mean “a standard” and, in literature, it described a list of works that could
be attributed to a certain author.
1.5 AUTHORITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT MESSAGE
a) Internal Testimony: The New Testament itself testifies to the authority of the message.
1. References indicating the Old Testament is the Word of God: 2 Tim 3:15-17, 2 Pet 1:20-21, Heb 8:8,
Acts 28:25.
2. References which talk about the teachings of Jesus as “a word of the Lord”: 1 Cor 9:9, 13-14, 1
Thess 4:15, 1 Cor 7:10, 25.
3. References to the fact that certain information was received directly from God, by divine revelation:
Gal 1:1, 12, 1 Thess 2:13.
4. References that acknowledge Paul’s letters as authoritative: 2 Pet 3:15-16.
b) External Testimony: The Early Church fathers and leaders recognized the canonicity of the New
Testament books.
c) Informal Witnesses: By informal we mean the casual use of the books of the New Testament by Early
Church fathers. These quotations testify to the existence and authority of the books at the time of the writing
by the Early Church fathers.
d) The Councils: An “official council” was a formal discussion by delegates of the church. The earliest
council we know of which dealt with the issue of canon is the Council of Laodicea (AD 363). This council
decreed only canonical book of the New Testament should be read in the church. The earliest council listing
the present 27 books of the New Testament was the Third Council of Carthage in AD 397, which is usually
cited as the date for the closing of the New Testament canon.
LECTURE TWO
HISTORICAL, SOCIAL, AND RELIGIOUS SETTINGS OF THE WORLD OF JESUS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
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In the previous lecture, you were introduced to the circumstances surrounding the New Testament and its
significance. You were further introduced to the structure of the New Testament in its entirety. In this lecture
you will be introduced to Historical, Social, and Religious Settings of the World of Jesus. Also, how it affect
our interpretation of the New Testament for purposes of application of the word of God to our lives

2.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
O 1.        Describe the political events that culminated in the takeover of Judea by
the Roman Empire and the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem;
2.        Understand the historical events that led up to the Jewish messianic
expectations in the first century;
3.       Differentiate between the theological perspectives of Judaism and
Christian faith.

2.3 HISTORICAL SETTING: NEW TESTAMENT BACKGROUNDS

The NT world was shaped by political, cultural, and religious forces that “in the fullness of time” created the
perfect milieu for the presence of God to enter the world in a new revelation that changed the entire world
forever. Further, the political situation in Israel, the Middle East (Ancient Near East) and Asia Minor provided
opportunity for the spread of Christianity through the travels of Paul and the other Apostles. Yet, this cultural
and political environment took many hundreds of years to take shape. The final years of the Israelite Kingdom
found in the Book of II Kings, and the Prophets, particularly Jeremiah, finds the political forces at work in
reshaping Hebrew faith into Judaism. The destruction of Jerusalem and the deportation and exile of the Jewish
leaders to Babylon required a religious adjustment. The inter-testamental period covers what is often called the
400 years of silence since no direct revelation from God came through prophetic servants. But, those four
hundred years were far from silent concerning the land of Israel and Jewish belief. Malachi’s prediction of the
coming of Elijah (4:5-6) brought the OT revelation to an end. By the time of the angel’s announcement
regarding the birth of John the Baptist (the fulfillment of Malachi’s prophecy) in Luke 1:11-20, God had
prepared the world for the beautiful Christmas story of Jesus’ birth.
2.4 THE OLD TESTAMENT WORLD: THE END OF ISRAEL AS A KINGDOM
Events that covered over 700 years of history shaped the theological, ideological and religious thought and
practice of ancient Israel/Judah and later Judea. When the NT is read closely, the religious patterns and
leadership are very different from the OT patterns and leadership. Who were the Pharisees and Sadducees who
played such an important role in NT Jewish religious matters? Where did they come from? The political
situation is totally different in the NT under the Romans than at the end of the OT under the Persians. What
happened during the 400 years of silence that changed the entire face of Jewish life in Palestine?

The division of the Israelite nation after the death of Solomon in 925 BC created two forms of YHWH worship.
The Northern Kingdom of Israel, with its capital in Samaria, became increasingly syncretistic in worship of
Baal and Asherah, almost to the exclusion of YHWH. The story of Elijah defeating the prophets of Baal and
Asherah, the gods of Queen Jezebel and King Ahab in I Kings 18:15-40 provides insight to the religious
poverty in the north. The result of this idolatry was complete destruction of the Northern Kingdom by Assyrian
forces in 722/1 BC. The Assyrians exiled the wealthy and skilled peoples of Israel and resettled individuals
from other conquered lands in the region around Samaria. The resulting inter-marriage created the peoples
known as the Samaritans in the NT. The ten tribes that had shaped the northern kingdom were never re-
instituted and are known as the lost tribes of Israel.
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The Southern Kingdom of Judah maintained their religious commitment to YHWH through religious reforms of
Kings Hezekiah ca. 715 BC (II Kings 18:5-7), and especially Josiah ca. 621/0 BC (II Kings 23:1-25). These
reforms re-centered worship in the Jerusalem Temple as the site of God’s holy presence. Yet, the sins of Judah
were great and in 605 BC the great king of Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Judah, deporting many of the
most influential members of Israelite society, including Daniel. He took the wealth of the Jerusalem Temple
and left the city weakened. In 597 BC another round of deportations included Ezekiel whose letter to the other
exiles called for them to settle down in Babylon, to work and be prosperous, and to believe that God will return
their children to the land within 70 years. The last king of Judah, Zedekiah, rebelled against Babylon, resulting
in the total destruction of Jerusalem and of the Temple. After the vast majority of Judahites were removed by
Nebuchadnezzar the land of Palestine lay nearly uninhabited for several decades until the Persians defeated the
Babylonians and allowed the Jews to return to Palestine and rebuild the Temple.
2.5 THE JEWS
The time in Babylon created a religious crisis. Until that time the faith of Israel centered in the Jerusalem
Temple, which was now destroyed. Jewish faith was at a crossroads, with the temptation to become
cosmopolitan Babylonians strong. But the opposite was true. Since the Temple was no longer available and
their faith needed reshaping but could not be rejected, the formation of Judaistic orthodoxy was accomplished.
Two important results of the exile helped form the matrix in which Christianity spread.
a) First, the destruction of the Temple and the sacrificial system left a void as to form and pattern of worship.
Synagogues were established where groups of Jewish men could meet for the study of the Torah (the first
five books of the OT) and the prophets, for worship and for fellowship. Sacrifice could only take place in
Jerusalem at the Temple, the synagogues functioned as training and religious studies institutions that
functioned all across the ancient world as the result of the second important happening which developed
from the exile.
b) The Diaspora (“the scattered ones”) describes those Jews who decided not to return to the land of Palestine
after the exile ended. Through the centuries after the Babylonian exile, the Jews of the diaspora relocated
all over the ancient known world. When the Romans became the world power in the centuries before
Christ, Jews were able to immigrate all the way to Rome itself. Everywhere they went synagogues were
established and places of meeting were built.
c) The Returning Exiles into the Land: Persia’s defeat of Babylon under King Cyrus in 539-38 BC changed the
entire future of the Jewish people. Cyrus declared that all the exiled peoples from every land could return
home, and take up their native religious practices. The Jewish exiles were given permission and supplies for
the rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple. Under the leadership of Zerubbabel, the foundation of the Temple
was laid. Due to conflict and dissension, fifteen years passed before God sent the prophets Haggai and
Zechariah to confront them and convict them for their lack of courage and trust in YHWH. The rebuilding
of the Temple began anew. The Persian king Darius provided the financial resources for the construction
which was completed around 516/15 BC. A little over 500 years later, Herod the Great expanded and
remodeled the Temple into a beautiful edifice that far surpassed the rebuilt Temple of the returned exiles.
This is the Temple mentioned in the NT, particularly in the gospels.
d) Ezra-Nehemiah and the End of OT Times: King Artaxerxes of Persia granted Nehemiah permission to visit
Jerusalem in 445-444 BC as the result of a message that described the sad state of the city walls. The Jews
in Jerusalem were discouraged and listless until the combined ministry of Nehemiah and Ezra brought
revival to the people with a new dedication to YHWH and desire to re-institute the OT festivals and
observances. The walls were rebuilt and Nehemiah returned to Persia as he promised the king he would. A
second trip to Palestine found that the revival had faltered and the people’s actions did not follow their
previous commitment. The primary offenders were punished and disciplined. Here, the OT history ends
and the 400 years of prophetic silence began. Prophetic silence, however, not political or military silence.
Within 100 years the world would face a new challenge that would change the face of western civilization
for millennia.
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
Synagogue and Diaspora developments during Babylonian exile became very
important in the spread of Christianity as seen in the Book of Acts. Paul and the
others found the synagogues as the starting point for witnessing and preaching.
The first Christian converts in the cities of the Roman world were often Jews
from synagogues.

2.6 INTERTESTAMENTAL HISTORY

a) The Greeks:
Prior to the rise of Philip of Macedonia in the mid-fourth century BC, Greece was filled with independent city-
states that acted independently. Philip was able to unite the various leaders of the cities under his leadership.
His son, Alexander the Great, used the combined powers of the Greek forces to defeat the Persians and to
conquer all of Asia Minor. He chose to move south against Egypt, conquering Phoenicia and Palestine along
the way.

Jerusalem was spared destruction apparently because a Jewish priest revealed a Jewish prophecy declaring
Alexander’s success. By 323 BC, in ten years time, the Greeks owned the known world east to India, including
Egypt, Palestine, and Asia Minor. Alexander died suddenly in 323 BC.Greek culture and language soon
permeated the ancient world.

Hellenization became the term used to describe the spread of Greek culture throughout the empire. For nearly
600 years (roughly 300 BC – 300 AD) Greek culture dominated the ancient world, with Greek language
becoming the common language of all people. The Greek spoken and written in the first century AD was called
koine or “common” Greek. Thus when the NT writers penned their books koine Greek was the language chosen
because they were trained in it and because it would be understood throughout the empire. When Alexander
died the new kingdom was divided between his generals. Two in particular affected the New Testament world.
b) The Ptolemies
Palestine was fought over by the two generals Seleucids and Ptolemy. Eventually the Ptolemies won out and
controlled the land of Palestine 323-198 BC. Over time the hellenization of the Jews had been so successful that
few Jews could read Hebrew anymore. The OT became impossible to read for most of the Jews. While the
Jews prospered under the Ptolemy leaders, their religious institution was in crisis due to the lack of scripture
knowledge. Therefore, the OT was translated into the Greek of the day (ca. 285-246 BC). This translation
became the common text of the Jewish faith and is the Bible that Jesus and the disciples quoted most of the
time. It was called the Septuagint, so called because the story is that 70 or 72 scholars translated the text in 70
days. Often the Septuagint is abbreviated by LXX, or the Roman numeral 70. This text became the Bible of the
common people of the 1st century AD. When the early church began to grow among Gentiles, the LXX
provided the Word of God in a language they already knew.
c) The Seleucids
The Seleucids and Ptolemies battled over Palestine for over 75 years (275-198 BC). In 198 BC the Seleucids
defeated the Ptolemies in a major war that left the Seleucids in control of Palestine. Quickly, the Jewish distain
of the Seleucids grew due to pressure placed on them to adopt pagan practices and to become even more
Hellenistic. Jewish refusal to cooperate resulted in persecution and censure by the Seleucid leaders. The final
insult came when the Seleucid leader Antiochus IV Epiphanes desecrated the Temple with a pagan altar and
offered pagan sacrifices. Antiochus had persecuted the Jews by preventing them to perform or participate in
traditional Jewish religious practices. This final insult resulted in rebellion and revolt.
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A result of the Seleucid persecution was the desire for a militant political Messiah to come and to throw out all
pagan Gentile forces and create a pure Jewish state free from all persecution. By the 1 st century AD, NT times,
most Jews believed a military Messiah was the predicted Messiah of the OT prophecies. Thus when Jesus came
with peaceful teachings and loving actions the people became quickly disenchanted with Him.
d) The Maccabean Revolt:
Antiochus IV Epiphanes continued persecuting the Jews, including the desecration of the Temple in Jerusalem.
The flash point arrived when Mattathias, high priest, refused to offer a pagan sacrifice on the Temple altar in
direct conflict with an order from a high Syrian official. Another person in the Temple offered to make the
sacrifice, but Mattathias was so appalled at the thought that he killed both the man and the Syrian official. Thus
began the Maccabean revolt against the Seleucids. Mattathias destroyed all the pagan trappings that had been
added to the Temple and hid in the nearby desert with his three sons. Soon, the family became heroes and other
zealots joined them in the desert hideaway and formed a guerrilla army. Mattathias died shortly after the
incident and leadership of the revolt went to his son, Judas, also called Maccabeus, or “the Hammer.” Syrian
forces continuously defeated the zealot army until they had sufficient strength and experience to finally win
their freedom. Jerusalem and Israel were finally free of the tyranny of Antiochus Epiphanes.

The victory is celebrated to this day by Jews as the Feast of Lights, or Hanukkah. All was not well however, as
traitors in the zealot ranks vied for power through civil war. Judas died in battle and was replaced by his
brother Jonathan, who after much in-fighting and political maneuvering became the official high priest of
Jerusalem and even became a member of Syrian nobility. Yet, continuous conflict over the following decades
convinced Jonathan’s brother, Simon, to secure a treaty with the newest world power, Rome, in 139 BC. This
treaty granted political freedom to the Jews. Simon and his family became the official high priestly family.

Keeping in OT tradition the hereditary family of high priest became a type of dynasty known as the
Hasmoneans. Political power quickly became vested in the high priest. The dual role of civil and religious
authority helped the Hasmoneans to develop great wealth and created enormous power in Jewish society. With
the advance of the Hasmoneans, the line of King David was pushed to the background and nearly into obscurity.
The members of the family became truly insignificant within Jewish culture. Thus Joseph, earthly father of
Jesus, though of royal lineage was a lowly carpenter.
e) The Hasmoneans (135-63 BC) :
The death of the last son of Mattathias, Simon, brought an end to the Maccabean period of struggle. The
Hasmonean Dynasty proliferated with the rise of Simon’s son John Hyrcanus to the role as High Priest in
Jerusalem. The Hasmoneans essentially became kingly priests who ruled over civil and religious matters. The
Hasmonean era was filled with infighting and intrigue among the ruling family. The dual role of religious and
civil leadership resulted in the accumulation of great wealth and power within the Hasmoneans.

The constant deception and lack of self-rule within the family ultimately resulted in civil disorder, military
weakness and eventual takeover by the Roman Empire. Two key religious groups developed in Jewish life
during the reign of John Hyrcanus. First, a group of leaders that enjoyed the benefits of Hellenism and were
willing to sacrifice some religious and social Jewish traditions to maintain contact with Hellenistic thought
became known as the Sadducees.

Another group of ultra-conservative leaders rejected all parts of Hellenism and struggled to maintain traditional
Jewish religion. They were called the Hasidim. These conservative religious leaders eventually matured into
the group known as the Pharisees of the NT.

While the rest of Hasmonean history is too complicated in a NT introduction, one key event resulted in the
arrival of the Romans into Jerusalem. The Pharisees and Sadducees became entangled in a struggle that brought
Syria into the political arena of Hasmonean Israel. John Hyrcanus II was dethroned and replaced by
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Aristobulus II, his brother. A subsequent effort by supporters of Hyrcanus II to retake the throne brought
Roman intervention, leading to Roman rule of Palestine.
f) The Rule of Herod the Great:
From 63 BC the land was ruled by the Herods. One king in particular served a key role in the preparation and
story of the birth of Jesus Christ, Herod the Great. From 40/37 -4 BC, the land of Palestine was ruled by an
amazing figure filled with paradox. The Hasmonean strife created a vacuum of leadership in Palestine. Herod
gained the favor of the Roman general Mark Anthony and procured the throne and title King of the Jews from
the Roman Empire. With Roman support, Herod went to Jerusalem, drove out the opposition, and established
his kingdom as the political ruler of Palestine.

Herod the Great ruled Judea as a shrewd and ruthless politician. Filled with paranoia, Herod murdered anyone
who appeared to be a threat to him. Those killed included many members of his family: his brother-in-law, his
wife’s uncle, his wife, his mother-in-law, and even three of his own sons! Herod at best was a tolerable leader
to the Jews at first. To attempt to please the Jewish leaders and to gain Jewish support Herod expanded and
beautified the Jerusalem Temple by first building around and then deconstructing Zerubabbel’s post-exilic
temple. Political gain was his consuming goal in this and numerous other building projects. Many of his
architectural accomplishments still stand today, including viaducts, the shrine at Abraham’s tomb in Hebron,
and much of the great city and seaport he built called Caesarea Maritima. For the construction of the port itself,
Herod employed underwater cement to construct a breakwater.

Jesus’ birth came soon before Herod’s death in 4 BC. He was the Herod who called for the murder of all boys
age 2 and under in Bethlehem after the visit from the Magi in Matthew 2. The magi told of the star that foretold
the new “King of the Jews.” Thus ever jealous Herod acted in ruthlessness. Warned in a dream, Joseph took
Mary and baby Jesus to Egypt to escape the scourge of Herod. Soon after, Herod the Great died.

Roman rule had finally brought a measure of security, prosperity, and stability to Palestine. Yet, for nearly two
hundred years Palestine had been racked by Hasmonean intrigue and jealousy, by constant struggle between the
Pharisees and Sadducees, and the political intervention of the Gentile Romans created a great sense of unrest
among the people. Thus, a longing arose among the Jews for someone to leads them to peace and
political/religious freedom. This is the world that Jesus entered.
g) New Testament (1st Century AD) History:
Roman rule during the time of Herod and of the 1 st Century AD was marked by the self-rule of many conquered
territories, under subjection to the emperor. These territories were arranged into provinces and given local
leadership as long as Roman sovereignty was not denied. Palestine became the province of Judea. Roman
control was based in one of two different officials: for territories that were benign and freely obedient to
Roman rule, a Proconsul reported directly to the Roman Senate. For territories that displayed tendencies toward
unrest or rebellion, a procurator or prefect was placed over them as a governor with the Roman Army as the
strength.

When Jesus was born, Caesar Augustus ruled as Roman emperor. His social, political, and military reforms
marked his reign. Part of those reforms required the census called by Quirinius of Syria that took Joseph and
Mary to Bethlehem, to the town of David. After Herod’s death, Jewish pressure for autonomous rule was met
by the installation of Archaeleus, Herod’s son, as the ruler of Judea and Samaria. His brother Herod Antipas
ruled the region of Galilee where Jesus grew up and performed most of his ministry. Antipas was the Herod
who beheaded John the Baptist (Mark 6:17-29). When Jesus was put on trial, Pilate sent Jesus to Antipas
because Jesus was a Galilean.

Jesus’ life in Galilee as a boy was mostly peaceful under Antipas’ rule. The one significant uprising in Galilee
by the Jews came when Jesus was about 12 years old, but was quickly snuffed out by the Romans. After
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Augustus died, Tiberias became the Roman emperor (14-37 AD). A Roman historian from the time of Tiberias
noted that in Galilee “things were quiet.” It was during the reign of Tiberias and Herod Antipas that Jesus
began his ministry and was crucified. Judea and Samaria had been more restless, thus by Jesus’ ministry
period, a Roman procurator was in place, Pilate.

In AD 41-44, Herod the Great’s grandson, Herod Agrippa I, was placed over all of Palestine. His attempts to
befriend the Jewish leaders resulted in persecution of the new Christian Church. His persecution possibly
claimed the life of James, the brother of John, the son of Zebedee. Acts 12:20-23 describes the agonizing death
of Agrippa in AD 44. This death is also recorded by the 1 st century Jewish historian Josephus. Apparently soon
after being called a god by the people, Agrippa was struck with a deadly illness.

A succession of rulers followed Agrippa, none of whom made a mark on society. Many were dishonest and
vicious, provoking civil unrest among the Jews. The rise of Sicarii (knife assassins), Zealots (ruthless adherents
to the Law), and a major rebellion against Rome (AD 66-70) finally brought destruction to Jerusalem and the
Herodian Temple. Around AD 62, James, the half-brother of Jesus, was executed.

Roman rule during this time fell to Nero (54-68). Nero soon became mentally disturbed and burned most of
Rome to the ground to make room for a new palace. Nero blamed the Christians for the fire to divert attention
from his plans. Christian teaching that the end of the world will be accompanied by fire supplied the fuel for
believing Nero’s claims. During the ensuing persecution numerous Christians were martyred. Tradition says
that both Peter and Paul were killed during this persecution. Yet, the persecution appears to have been confined
to Rome. This persecution marked a turning point in the early Church in that by the mid-60’s most of the major
figures of the early Church were dead.

Jewish rebellious tendencies, however, continued to brew in Palestine. Finally, the Roman general Vespasian
gained solid control of Judea in 67. With Nero’s suicide in 68, however, Vespasian raced to Rome to claim the
throne of the empire. His son, Titus, took over command in Judea. Renewed Jewish rebellion forced Titus to
sack Jerusalem and destroy the Temple in 70. A small group of rebels withdrew to the original mountain palace
and fortress of Herod the Great at Masada. Surrounded and faced with Roman capture, the 900 men and
women hiding in the fortress chose to die before capture in 74.

Vespasian was followed by Domitian as Emperor who reigned the 15 years 81-96. Domitian was zealous in
trying to purify Roman religious practices and began persecuting Judaism and Christianity. Probable
persecution in parts of the empire against Christianity may be the background behind the final works of the
Apostle John in I John and Revelation.

2.7 Key Results Of The Turbulent 1st Century For Christianity:

1. Jerusalem became less important as a center of Christian belief. Newer centers developed in Antioch,
Ephesus, and even Rome.
2. Gentile Christians soon surpassed the number of Jewish believers.
3. Division between the Jews and Christians also developed. In the early Church, Jewish believers still
worshiped in the synagogues. But, tension grew between the two religions resulting in harassment of
Christians by the Jews. Some Christian believers were put out of the synagogues. The Gospel of John seems
to indicate this rift through description and contrast between “Jewish faith” and “Christian beliefs and
practices.” John seems to indicate Judaism as alien to Christians.

2.8 SOCIAL BACKGROUNDS

2.8.1 Jewish socio-economic Classes
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1. The upper-class included the descendants of the Hasmoneans who maintained control of Judea as virtual
rulers though under Roman governorship. They held control of the religious institution and Temple taxes
and business activities. These activities included the selling of animals for sacrifices and the exchange of
money for Jews on pilgrimage from other lands (see John 2:13-16).
2. The upper-middle class included the Jewish religious rulers and council (the Sanhedrin). Nicodemus and
Joseph of Arimathea were part of this class. Most of them were landowners who rented out farms and
received a portion of the profits from the crops of the tenant farmers.
3. The vast majority of Jews, however, were extremely poor. Though the majority of Jews were not slaves,
slavery was a common practice in the Roman Empire. Some of the poor were farmers, some artisans and
some may have had small businesses (carpenters and fishermen). While these classes existed, the very
nature of Hebrew Law denied the clear distinctions within society. All men were considered equal before
God and their obligation to Law was equal also. The wealth of some may be seen as God’s blessing but not
necessarily understood as deserved blessing
2.8.2 Hellenistic and Roman Social Backgrounds
The complicated mixture of Jewish, Greek, and Roman culture resulted in a world where Judaism had
become a sort of island. The world around Judea had changed drastically since the days of the foundation of
Israel. The Jews of Jesus’ day had spent over 300 years (since Alexander the Great) under Hellenistic and
Roman thought, while at

D. The Zealots: These fanatical nationalists were not a religious sect but a political activist group. Their
attempts to achieve freedom from Roman oppression included violence. They believed that true worship of
God denied any allegiance to the Roman emperor. A member of Jesus’ disciples is called Simon the Zealot and
may have been part of this movement prior to the call of Jesus.
LECTURE THREE
THE LIFE OF JESUS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The emphasis of the second lecture was on drawing from the historical, social and religious life of the Jews and
the 1st century Christianity. This lesson will focus on the general nature of the gospels, paying special attention
to the life of Jesus. Modern biographies usually begin with an account of the subject’s childhood years, and then
progress consecutively through adolescence and adulthood to show how the mature person has developed in
response to the various influences of early life and environment. The Gospels are primarily a witness to Jesus.
Their main emphasis is the last week of Jesus’ life. This is prefaced by the reports of Jesus’ teaching and
accounts of a few events from the three years before His death. There is no real discussion of His childhood and
adolescence.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

O At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1.  Describe Matthew’s and Marks purpose of writing;
2. Summarize and teach others about prominent themes in Matthew and Mark;
3.  Discuss Matthew’s portrait of Jesus and the meaning of discipleship in
Mark.

3.3 ORAL AND WRITTEN TRADITION, ROLES, AND TEACHING OF JESUS

A. Oral Tradition: The events and teachings of Jesus were passed on from one generation to the next through
memorizing the stories. We know that in oral societies today, peer monitoring for accuracy is continual.
They allow room for different perspectives and points of view but are intolerant of inaccuracies or deliberate
skewing of information.
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B. Written Tradition: In the case of the stories of Jesus, there was an early commitment to writing. These
took different forms: miracle stories, pronouncement stories, sayings and parables, instruction for disciples,
sayings collections, and passion narratives. It is difficult to know which of these forms was primarily written
and which were oral, because all we have at this point in time are the written copies of documents.
C. Roles of Jesus
1. Teacher: Jesus was called “Rabbi” by His followers and disciples, both men and women (Lk 8:1-3). The
term Rabbi during time was not a technical designation indicating special schooling for this position as it
came to mean later on in Judaism. But it does denote a teacher with students or disciples, which was also
characteristic of the scribes of the first century.
2. Healer: Jesus was also a healer, not just of diseases, but also of demon possession. His miraculous powers
showed authority over both the physical and spiritual worlds.
3. Lord: Quite remarkably, Jesus was also called Lord or Master by His followers. These terms indicate that
His authority was recognized. Lord or Master was a term commonly used for people of importance, but also
was the name used for God since the Jews were prohibited from using God’s name, Yahweh. For example,
note Mark 2:23-28; 3:1-6 where Jesus calls himself the Lord of the Sabbath.
4. Miracle worker: Matthew 12:27 tells us Jesus is not the only miracle worker who drove out demons. But
He was significantly different in that He did not charge for His miracles! His miracles were often used to
help people “hear” what He had to say. Reasons for His miracles can be found in the three different Greek
words used and translated “miracle” in English. Dunamis—power: They witnessed to Jesus’ power and thus
established Jesus as the Messiah. Semeia—sign: They were signs that in Jesus the kingdom of God had
come. Tepas—wonders: Their purpose was to teach the wonders about who Jesus is and what the kingdom
of God was about, not to entertain. These miracles can be categorized into these types:
a) Provision (Lk 9:10-17, 5:1ff.),
b) Healing (Mk 5:21-43)
c) Destruction (fig tree, Mt 21:18-22)
d) Authority over the physical world (calming of the Sea, Mk 4:35-41)
e) Authority over the spiritual world (Mt 9:1-8)
f) New creation miracles which are exorcisms (Mk 5:1-20) and resurrection (Jn 11:38-44)
5. Messiah and Savior: Jesus is acknowledged as the Messiah in John 1:41 an`d 4:25. He never used the title
for himself because of the possibility for it to be misunderstood. “Christ” which is Greek for “Messiah” is
used so often in the New Testament, that some people think it is Jesus’ last name. However, since it was not
commonly used for “Messiah” before Jesus’ time, the Christian community was able to give this word the
special meaning of “Messiah” which Jesus came to be. Jesus is specifically referred to as Savior in Luke
2:11, John 4:42, and 2 Timothy 1:10.
D. The Teaching of Jesus
One of the first things noticed by the people who listened to the teaching of Jesus was that He taught with
exousia, (authority). Greek has a couple of words translated “authority” in English, but they imply different
things. The Scriptures say Jesus had exousia, a Greek word meaning:
a) Freedom of choice or right to act
b) The ability, capability, or power to do something
c) The authority, absolute power, warrant to do something
But in the Scripture it is also clear Jesus did not have role authority, huperokee (earthly power), which is a place
of earthly superiority or prominence. This term is used in 1 Tim 2:2 when Paul exhorts Timothy and his church
to pray for kings and others in “authority.” Matthew 7:29 tells us Jesus taught “as one having authority.” This
was in contrast to the scribes who would say, “According to Rabbi so and so, this would be interpreted this
way.” The people noticed Jesus spoke as one who knew what He was talking about. He spoke as one who had
the power to understand life and had the right to explain it to us. Luke also addresses the issue of Jesus’
authority in several different passages.
1. • He speaks with authority (power): 4:32
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2. • He acts with authority: 4:36

3. • He forgives sins with authority: 5:24
4. • He gives His disciples authority: 9:1-2
In Luke 20:1-8 His authority is questioned by Jewish leaders, but the question was insincere, designed to trap
Jesus into something they could twist into blasphemy, His power was God’s power or that He was God. So
Jesus answers with a question that would put them in a delicate position about John the Baptist, who was
executed by Herod.
E. Kingdom of God :
Kingdom of God is the Central Theme Mark and Luke who use the phrase “kingdom of God,” which probably
reflects a primarily Hellenistic audience. Matthew uses primarily “Kingdom of the Heavens,” with “Heavens”
being an alternative term for “God.” This reflects the Jewish practice of avoiding using the name of God for fear
of breaking the commandment found in Exodus 20:7, “You shall not misuse the name of the Lord your God.”
What did Jesus mean by kingdom of God? Many Christians and church theologians have assumed Jesus was
talking about the Church or community Jesus’ followers would form. In English, when we use the term
“kingdom,” we think of a territory ruled by a king.

But the Greek word translated into English as “kingdom” is basileia “more often means the activity of a king
rather than the territory he rules. And the Aramaic word which most scholars think Jesus himself used malkutha
certainly has that meaning. So we are justified in supposing that Jesus was talking about what we might call ‘the
kingship of God,’ rather than his ‘kingdom.’” Therefore the phrase kingdom of God means God’s reign or rule.
It does not indicate a territory God rules over. It indicates Jesus was not so concerned about a “new society” as
about the quality of life and the relationships people have with each other and with God.

In Jesus’ teachings, the kingdom of God is both future and present.

1. Future: Mark 14:25—The promise of final salvation is coming. Jesus is coming back to have fellowship
with His people and to bring ultimate salvation and justice.
2. Present: Luke 17:20-21—When Jesus was questioned by the Pharisees as to when the kingdom of God
would come, Jesus responded that the kingdom of God “does not come visibly” because the kingdom of
God is within or among you. In Luke 11:20, as well as other places, the implication is that the presence of
the kingdom of God depends on the presence of the King. So the kingdom of God is wherever Jesus is
present.

3.4 THEOLOGICAL ISSUES: JESUS, GOD’S AGENT OF SALVATION

Four very significant terms are used in the New Testament to elaborate and define Jesus’ roles in salvation. The
first title to discuss is Messiah. Jesus never directly used this term to describe himself because it was so colored
by the contemporary understanding of an apocalyptic, political deliverer of the Jewish people. The Messiah was
seen as a “king,” so it was a contradiction in terms for Him to be “anointed” and to “suffer.” In Luke 24:26 the
resurrected Jesus used the term “Christ” and reinterpreted the role of Messiah as Suffering Servant. Jesus uses
the phrase Son of Man describes the role in judgment as seen in his death and resurrection.

LECTURE FOUR
INTRODUCTION TO THE GOSPELS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The last few lectures have been discussing backgrounds of issues related to the New Testament as we have it
today. This lesson will introduce the preliminary of the gospels. The content of the preaching message about
Jesus as our Savior is referred to as the kerygma. It consists of information about John the Baptist, Jesus and His
life and ministry (especially His death and resurrection), and the meaning of these events for Christians and the
Church.
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4.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
O a) Discuss the content and message of the gospel of Luke and John 
b) Describe the complexity of Jesus’ social and religious world as
reported by Luke and John
c) Explore the importance of hospitality and table fellowship in the
ministry of Jesus

4.3 DEFINITION OF THE GOSPELS

The word “Gospel” comes from the Greek word euangelion, or “good news.” It is also the word that gives
Christianity the term evangelism. Early Christians viewed the story of Jesus’ life, death and resurrection to be
the “good news” (WHICH WAS FOR ALL PEOPLE). Paul uses the word to denote the message about Jesus
that became the content of the Church’s teaching and preaching. So, when the written collections of Jesus’ life
and teachings began to appear, the term Gospel was a fitting title for the books. In essence, the Gospels are not
history books in the modern sense, though they give details of the history of Jesus on the earth. But they are not
biographies of Jesus either. Modern scholarly histories and biographies are written using certain parameters
and format that did not exist in the 1 st century AD. Therefore, we should not expect the same degree of
historical reliability or the same standard of historiography in ancient manuscripts as are found in modern
histories.

The Gospels need to be seen as portraits of Christ, not pictures taken from a camera. A painted portrait
attempts to show the various facets of a person’s life and personality, where a picture encapsulates the moment
frozen in time. These collections of narratives or stories about Jesus are shaped for theological purposes and
should be addressed in literary terms rather than historical terms. All four gospels provide a different view of
Jesus and the stories of His actions and teachings. Each author portrays Jesus from a different perspective. So
questions asked of the text should concern why the stories are written the way they are, who are the characters
involved, and why the stories are arranged the way they are. The gospel writers were creative authors who were
inspired to give the story of Jesus from their own perspective. Two key historical attempts to deal with the
differing gospels reflect the extreme directions that can be taken.
1. Marcion, a second century Christian, accepted only Luke’s gospel and rejected the others
2. Tatian, another second century Christian, attempted to weave all four into one, called the Diatessoran. It
was a continuous narrative of the life of Jesus (means “through four”).

The church rejected both of these attempts to deal with the four gospel problem and decided to include all four
into the canon as is. Each gospel has something different to say about Jesus. All four function to provide a
“stereoscopic” view of Jesus and the disciples. Since the early church chose to keep four gospels requires us to
avoid new harmonizing attempts. Each gospel must be allowed to tell its own story about Jesus of Nazareth.
The Gospels are primarily narratives about Jesus, told with a theological purpose. The study of the gospels
discovers the individual and distinctive flavor within the portraits of Jesus through four different “artists.”
4.4 WHY WRITE THE GOSPELS?
The life of Jesus was dynamic and dramatic for those who lived it with Him. The daily teachings and activities
of Jesus most probably required a lot of energy and thought on the part of the eyewitnesses. The Gospel writer
John tells the reader that all he had written were there for the purpose of leading to belief in Jesus Christ, but he
also tells the reader that, “But there are also many other things that Jesus did; if every one of them were written
down, I suppose the world itself could not contain the books that would be written” (21:25). Immediately after
Jesus’ death, resurrection and ascension into heaven, the eyewitnesses were thrust into the travails and conflict
that came with beginning the Christian faith amidst the persecution of the Romans and Jews. Only many years
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later were the teachings and stories of Jesus written down for posterity. Until then the only knowledge of Jesus
came from the individual recollections of eyewitnesses passed on to new believers, which reflected most
prominent teachings and miracles of Jesus.

4.5 FACTORS FOR RECORDING THE LIFE OF JESUS

1. Imminent Return of Jesus - The earliest followers of Jesus believed He would return in their lifetimes.
There was little need to preserve His teachings as long as the belief that the Kingdom of God was at hand
was in force. As the years passed and imminent return of Jesus did not occur, the church realized the need
for a permanent preservation of the traditions.
2. Death of the Witnesses – The witnesses had served as verification of the authenticity of the teachings
concerning Jesus. They were approached with questions regarding the teachings of Jesus. When they began
to die, then a new authority was needed. Written records from the witnesses themselves or verified by the
witnesses filled this need.
3. Missionary Spread – The spread of Christianity throughout the Roman world required resources to use in
teaching new converts about Christian beliefs and practices. Thus, the collected traditions about Jesus
would serve as a valuable educational resource.
4. Development of Orthodoxy – Growth in numbers of believers resulted in various alternative beliefs and
interpretation of Jesus’ teachings. The four gospels served to validate the teachings of the early church
against these differing views. The four gospels selected for canonization became the orthodox, or correct,
understanding of Jesus Christ.
4.6 THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS AND SYNOPTIC PROBLEM
a) Synoptic Gospels: From the final canonization of the four gospels scholars have noted that three of the
gospels are similar while the Gospel of John is very different. Similarities between Matthew, Mark, and
Luke include:
1. They follow the same order in their presentation of Jesus and His activities.
2. They tell many of the same stories, and they contain similar sayings of Jesus, at times identical.
3. Because of these similarities Matthew, Mark, and Luke are called the Synoptic Gospels (meaning “to
view together”). Yet, a close examination finds that often only two will have a similarity that is missing
in the third. Matthew has material that is found only in it, as Luke does also.
b) The Synoptic Problem: The Synoptic Problem deals with all the similarities while also explaining the
differences. Did the writers have a common source that they used? Was one written first and used by the
others as a source? Did they each have sources apart from the common source? Where did the unique
materials found only in Matthew, or others in Luke, come from? Oral traditions are not uniform in content
so it is probable that one gospel was written first and then used as a source for the other two. The many
similarities would require a written source to serve as the template for construction of the text.
c) Possible solution
Since Mark is the shortest and contains the least details, it was probably written first. There would be no
need for a short gospel that contained only shorter recollections of Jesus than the other two contained.
Three reasons are given for the preeminence of Mark:
1. Both Matthew and Luke follow the order of Mark’s Gospel. Though each diverges to add their own
materials, they always return to Mark’s arrangement. Also, Matthew and Luke only agree in
arrangement with each other where they are following Mark’s pattern. (See Sermon on the Mount,
not in Mark)
2. Almost all of Mark’s Gospel is found in Matthew and Luke. Matthew contains 90% of Mark’s
Gospel, while Luke holds 50%. Only a few short stories in Mark are not found in the other Gospels.
It is more likely that Matthew and Luke expanded Mark’s work versus Mark leaving out so much
material that is found in Matthew and Luke.
3. When parallel passages are examined more evidence is available for Matthew and Luke to use and
alter the narrative of Mark than vice versa. Mark’s vocabulary is rough and his writing and grammar
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are not the best. Matthew and Luke “clean-up” the Markan text.

While the use of Mark by Matthew and Luke explains the similarities, what about the differences in content of
the latter two Gospels? Scholars have recognized that Matthew and Luke contain material that is similar in
content and location that is not found in Mark. They propose that another source was available at the time of
writing which they call “Q.” Scholars have compiled a list of probable “Q” teachings found in Matthew and
Luke. Overall, “Q” appears primarily to include: A collection of wisdom sayings, Prophetic and eschatological
pronouncements, and Ethical exhortations
LECTURE FIVE

THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO MATTHEW

5.1 INTRODUCTION
So far, we have studied the New Testament background and the formation of the four gospels. We now venture
into the book of Matthew, which is usually characterized as a Jewish-Christian Gospel. Matthew carefully
designed his gospel and introduced certain changes into the material from Mark as we shall learn.
5.2 Learning Outcome
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
a) Narrate the story of the spread of the gospel from Jerusalem to
O Samaria and North Africa noting key and event and apostles;
b) Describe the complexities of the social and religious barriers to the
spread of the gospel.
c) Compare and contrast the early church’s life, message, and method of
ministry with the contemporary church.

5.3 Gospel of Matthew: A Handbook for A Mixed-Church Under Persecution

Matthew became the favorite gospel of the early Church soon after its composition. Prior to the final selection
and order of the NT canon, Matthew was nearly always found at the top of the list of the gospel books, and of
all the books. Four reasons for the preeminent position that Matthew took within the Church include:
1. The Gospel is organized well in regard to teaching and preaching needs for the Church (Sermon on the
Mount).
2. Matthew specifically addresses issues of Church authority and discipline (16:13-20; 18:15-35).
3. Material in Matthew such as the Lord’s Prayer and the Beatitudes served the worship needs of the Church.
4. Matthew supplies a fuller and more complete portrait of Jesus’ life and teachings than did the other Gospels,
especially Mark (though only the second longest).

Contemporary preference for this Gospel continues. Matthew’s version of the Lord’s Prayer and the Beatitudes
are usually quoted or preferred over Luke’s version.
5.3.1 Date of Writing
If the construct theory that Matthew was dependent upon Mark is maintained, then Matthew cannot be dated
before the composition of Mark. Since Mark is usually dated around AD 70, then Matthew could not have been
written sooner than AD 72-3. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch quoted from Matthew in AD 107 in several letters. So
the Gospel had to have been in circulation long enough to find acceptance as authoritative by then. Matthew’s
reference to the king that “burned their city” in 22:1-14 probably indicates that Matthew knew of the destruction
of Jerusalem in AD 70.

On the other hand, the argument regarding the narrative relationship between Luke & Acts introduces a
different dating possibility. Working backwards, Acts shows no knowledge of the Jerusalem destruction nor
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reveals any theological implications from the epistles of Paul. Therefore the dating of Acts could be placed at
the end of the 60’s soon after or even before the death of Paul at the hands of Nero. If Acts is a sequel to the
Gospel of Luke, then the date for Luke’s writing must pre-date Acts. Further, the Synoptic argument that Luke
used Mark as a source would require Mark’s composition to precede Luke. Thus, the availability of Mark for
Matthew’s use is moved back to the early-mid 60’s.

Further, Matthew displays an awareness of the growing tension between the new Church and Judaism that
developed in the last third of the 1 st century. Matthew designates the synagogues as “theirs” or “yours” when
discussing the Jews (4:23; 9:35; 10:17; 12:9; etc.). Clearly the implications of Matthew’s statements include the
distinction between Judaism and the intended audience. Compare Jesus’ response to the rich, young ruler in
Mark 12:34 and in Matthew 22:34-40.

Finally, Matthew seems to have a developed understanding of ecclesiastic issues within the Church. These
issues indicate a later theological development within the history of the early Church. The internal and external
evidence seems to reveal a date toward the end of the 1st century, probably around AD 85-90.

5.3.2 Authorship
Tradition indicates that the author was the disciple Matthew, a tax collector called by Jesus (Matt 9:9; Mark
3:18; Luke 6:15). The Gospel itself does not provide the author’s name. Yet, the title, literally “According to
Matthew” was supplied to the Gospel fairly early in its circulation. Papias, a bishop in Asia Minor who lived
AD 60-130, stated that Matthew was the author. Yet, if the date of writing was AD 85-90, then Matthew the
disciple would have been an extremely old man. Also, if Matthew used Mark as a source, then a true disciple
and eye-witness of Jesus used the writings of one who was not a disciple and probably not an eye-witness. Still,
no conclusion can be reached on authorship.
5.3.3 Intended Audience
Since the Gospel was written in Greek, the logical audience was a Greek-speaking community. Studies of the
Gospel have brought three images that clarify the community which constituted the original audience.
1. Both Jewish and Gentile believers made up the intended audience. Matthew shows awareness and
respect for certain Jewish concerns, such as using Kingdom of Heaven, versus the Kingdom of God
(Jews do not use the word God). Yet, Matthew also shows specific concern for Gentiles (see
especially the genealogy). The universality of the message is proclaimed by Jesus in that the Gospel
was to be taken to all the world (28:19-20).
2. The community was probably a materially prosperous group. Matthew uses much larger monetary
amounts in the stories dealing with money than do Luke or Mark (See Mark 6:8 and Matthew 10:9).
Mention of the poor is scant in Matthew. While only in Matthew is Joseph of Arimethea called a
rich man (27:57).
3. The community that Matthew wrote to was an urban rather than rural community. Where Mark
notes the word polis (city) only 8 times, Matthew uses the term 26 times. Mark mentions villages 7
times while Matthew only 4 times.

After the destruction of the Temple and Jerusalem in AD 70, Judaism struggled with issues in redefining
its faith. Matthew’s community was probably a prosperous, urban group of Jews and Greeks but firmly
rooted in the teachings of the Torah. Thus, Matthew portrays a group who is also struggling to define
itself in light of the changes in Judaism that separated Christianity from rabbinical Judaism.
5.3.4 Use of Scripture
No other Gospel quotes from the OT as much as Matthew. Often a stereotypical formulation precedes the
quotes, “This was to fulfill what had been spoken by the Lord through the prophet.” Often these quotes appear
out of context from the original meaning of the OT text (Hosea 11:1 and Matt 2:13-15). This was a common
approach in the 1st century to interpret the ancient texts in light of contemporary events. Most important is that
 18

like the other biblical writers, Matthew turned to the OT to understand the identity and significance of Jesus
Christ. Matthew saw Jesus as the fulfillment of OT prophetic hopes for a messiah, thus was able to interpret
scripture in light of Jesus as the Messiah.

5.3.5 Structure
Matthew arranges the material in his Gospel in a creative and literarily skillful way. The Gospel groups
materials together that are similar in form. Examples include the Beatitudes (5:3-12), parables (13:1-52), and
woes (23:1-36). Further Matthew uses a repeated statement to define the major sections of the book, “Now
when Jesus had finished saying these things. . . .” This statement in one form or another appears five times
within the Gospel (7:28; 11:1; 13:53; 19:1; and 26:1). Each occurrence divides the book into a section. Each
section includes a narrative section and a discourse/teaching section. These five sections are preceded by the
birth narratives and followed by the account of Jesus’ death and resurrection. Thus an outline of Matthew
would be:
I. The Birth and Infancy of Jesus (1:1-2:23)
II. A Higher Righteousness (3:1-7:29)
1. Narrative (3:1-4:25)
2. Teaching (5:1-7:29)
III. Discipleship (8:1-11:1)
1. Narrative (8:1-9:35)
2. Teaching (9:36-11:1)
IV. The Kingdom of Heaven (11:2-13:53)
1. Narrative (11:2-12:50)
2. Teaching (13:1-53)
V. Instructions for Christian Community (13:54-19:2)
1. Narrative (13:54-17:27)
2. Teaching (18:1-19:2)
VI. The End of the Age (19:3-26:2)
1. Narrative (19:3-23:39)
2. Teaching (24:1-26:2)
VII. The Death and Resurrection of Jesus (26:3-28:20)
5.3.6 Prominent Themes And Portrait In Matthew
Matthew arranged the material according to the social and historical context of his audience, resulting in a set of
particular key ideas and themes.
a) Messiah: The opening verse lays out Matthew’s view of Jesus Christ, He is “the Messiah, the Son of
David, the Son of Abraham.” Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah but not as a military leader, but as a
humble prince of peace predicted by the Prophet Zechariah. He is the Davidic Messiah, the King of the
Jews (at birth, 2:2; and at death, 27:11, 29, 37, and 42). As son of Abraham, He is the fulfillment of
God’s promise of a blessing for all nations (Gen 12:3; 22:18).
b) Son of God: Matthew’s portrayal of Jesus as the Son of God promotes his continuing theme of Jesus’
obedience to the Father (11:27). It also carried royal, messianic overtones in that the phrase “son of . . .”
was used in the royal bloodline in addressing hereditary succession.
c) Son of David: Jesus is called Son of David seven times in the Gospel to display Jesus’ place as the
Messiah expected from the lineage of David. Yet, Matthew makes clear that Jesus surpasses the
expectations of the people regarding the concept of Messiah (15:21-34).
d) Higher Righteousness: Jesus is called righteous and calls His disciples to surpass the righteousness of
the scribes and Pharisees (1:19; 3:15; 5:20). Authentic righteousness is not religious acts performed as a
public demonstration, but righteousness is doing the will of God. Jesus is portrayed as the ultimate
example of obedience to the will of God.
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e) The Law and the Prophet: Jesus and the Old Testament scriptures are single, continuous story of
revelatory events. Jesus has not come to abolish the law but to fulfill it.
f) Weeping and Gnashing of Teeth: Matthew uses this phrase as a threat of final judgment
g) End of the Age: this deals with the end times, Jesus coming the second time.
h) Discipleship: Matthew gives a positive portrait of the disciples in that they may be “of little faith” but
are not complete failures. They are pictured as disciples in training. Where Mark’s final scene includes
the disciples deserting Jesus, Matthew adds Jesus commissioning them to take His Gospel in teaching
and preaching throughout the world, teaching to obey all that Jesus commanded them (28:20). The call
is to be disciples and to make disciples.
i) Church and Synagogue: Matthew is the only Gospel to use the word ekklesia, church (16:18; 18:17).
While only used twice, the entire document is church related in dealing with issues and instruction
probably relevant to the community that was the original audience. Matthew’s treatment of Judaism and
the synagogues is a profound polemic against the religious leaders and faith of the religious Jews. In
Matthew the synagogues are often defined as “your” or “their” places of worship (4:23; 9:35; 10:17;
12:9; 13:54; 23:34) as if Jesus was not Jewish. The situation reflects the growing tension between
Christianity and Judaism of post-70 Palestine than of the time of Jesus.
j) A Teacher than Moses: in Matthew Jesus is much more than a Davidic Messiah, a teacher with great
authority than even Moses.
5.3.7 Holy Week
1. Sunday: The Triumphal Entry (Mt 21:1-11; Mk 11:1-10; Lk 19:29-44; Jn 12:12-19)
2. Monday: Jesus cleanses the Temple (Mt 21:12-13; Mk 11:15-18)
3. Tuesday: Jesus teaches in the Temple and Jesus anointed at Bethany (Mt 21:23-23:39; 26:6-13, Mk 11:27-
12:44, 14:3-9; Lk 20:1-21:4, Jn 12:2-11
4. Wednesday: The plot against Jesus (Mt 26:14-16; Mk 14:10-11; Lk 22:3-6)
5. Thursday: The Last Supper , Gethsemane and Jesus’ arrest and trial (Mt 26:17-29; Mk 14:12-25; Lk 22:7-
20; Jn 13:1-38, Mt 26:36-46; Mk 14:32-42; Lk 22:40-46,Mt 26:47-27:26; Mk 14:43-15:15; Lk 22:47-23:25;
Jn 18:2-19:16
6. Friday: Jesus’ crucifixion and death and Jesus’ burial in Joseph’s Tomb (Mt 27:27-56; Mk 15:16-41; Lk
23:26-49; Jn 19:17-30, Mt 27:57-66; Mk 15:42-47; Lk 23:50-56; Jn 19:31-42)
7. Sunday: The Empty Tomb at Jerusalem and other, Resurrection appearances (Mt 28:1-8; Mk 16:1-8; Lk
24:1-10; Jn 20:1-9)
LECTURE SIX
THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO MARK
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The last lesson introduced us to the life and death of Jesus Christ and his various teachings. We now usher in
another portrait of Jesus Christ found in Mark. Mark is the fast-action gospel which seems to want to get the
facts down so they can be preserved and passed onto the next generation.

6.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
O a) Discus the significance of Pauline letters to our spiritual journey,
b) Summarize the major theological themes in Pauline Letters and their
application to our contemporary society 
c) Evaluate Paul’s ethical instructions and apply them to the contemporary
Christian life.

6.3 DATE OF WRITING

External evidence for the date of authorship is scant. Oldest copy that still exists is from the mid-third century
AD. Papias, in the second century, speaks of Mark’s Gospel as a “recollection of the teachings and preaching
 20

of Peter.” If Peter was killed by Nero around AD 64 then the gospel can be no later than that, if Papias was
correct. Internally, however, a few clues are available that might amend Papias’s view.

Chapter 13 refers to persecution, suffering, war, and the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple, which took place
in AD 70. While issues of persecution fit well within Nero’s reign, Mark’s apparent goal is to equate the
suffering of the believers with the suffering of Christ. Thus, the goal appears to be to offer encouragement and
hope to the beleaguered Christians.

Predictions of the Jerusalem Temple destructions are lacking details, which might preclude a pre-70 date for
composition. Though there is little agreement among scholars on an exact date, most will place the date of
writing between AD 65-72, with the date of 70 most likely.
6.4 PLACE OF WRITING
For the Gospels, the place of writing was probably also the audience’s home since no indications of the Gospel
being sent as an epistle is found. Papias noted that the Gospel was written in Rome. While some Latin
terminology is seen in Mark, Latin is found in writings from all over the Empire.

Mark does emphasize the suffering and death of Jesus (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34) in relation to the suffering of the
disciples (8:34-38; 10:38-45), and predictions of coming persecution (13:9-13). Nero’s Rome would certainly
fit this scenario and emphasis. But persecution was also rampant in Palestine and Syria during the Roman-
Jewish wars of AD 66-74. Thus, no conclusion for place of writing can be deduced.
6.5 INTENDED AUDIENCE AND PURPOSE
Mark clarifies and explains many Jewish customs (7:3-4; 14:12; 15:42) which suggests that the audience was a
group of mostly Gentile believers who lived outside of Palestine. Along with the concern of persecution and
death, this explanation reveals a group that was Christian, mostly gentile, outside of Palestine who were facing
persecution. The purpose of Mark was to tell the good news of the kingdom
6.6 THE STORY IN MARK
A good storyteller gives clues to important ideas and motifs, provides insight to interpretation, and arranges
material in a way that helps understanding and memory. Mark’s Gospel has often been maligned for its
apparent lack of skilled construction. Yet, Mark has apparently worked a narrative about Jesus that reflects an
intentional construction that was more than a putting together of sources. Several key features exist in Mark’s
composition:
a) Urgency: Anyone who reads the Gospel discovers Mark’s impatience in getting the story out. Mark
uses the term “immediately” as a literary device rather than an historical statement. Urgency is also seen
in Mark’s use of the term kai, or “and.” Using run-on sentences is an inelegant style of writing but does
predicate the sense of urgency that Mark was trying to instill in the audience. Further, Jesus is constantly
on the move in Mark. The focus on his activities is non-stop. The first 10 chapters quickly summarize
the activities of Jesus around the Sea of Galilee over the course of many months. Yet, the final six
chapters slow to review the final days, including the crucifixion.
b) Series of Three: Mark’s Gospel displays an affinity to series of three throughout the book. Jesus
predicts his death three times (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); Peter denies Christ three times (14:68, 70, 71);
three opinions about Jesus (8:28); Jesus goes off to pray alone in the Garden of Gethsemane and three
times comes back to find three disciples Peter, James, and John asleep (14:32-42); Pilate asks the crowd
three questions (15:9, 12, 14); Mark mentions three three-hour intervals during Jesus’ crucifixion
(15:25; 33; 34). This three-fold pattern draws attention to certain themes and ideas.
c) Intercalation: This literary technique brackets one narrative by the beginning and ending of a
second narrative. NT scholarship calls these occurrences as Markan sandwiches. A good example of
this technique is found in 11:12-25. The cleansing of the Temple is bracketed by the story of the Fig
Tree.
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d) Irony: Irony occurs when a speaker makes a statement that has an unintended and often opposite
meaning to the literal and surface meaning. An example is found in 15:18 where the Roman soldiers
mock Jesus by calling him “King of the Jews.”
e) Narrator: The Gospel of Mark, as well as the other Gospels, uses a narrator who is omniscient in
knowing more than the actual characters in the story. The narrator speaks to the audience through
musings and explanations that the audience needs to know. In fact, in 13:14 the narrator says, “Let
the reader understand.”
f) Characters: Main characters :
1. Jesus
2. His disciples
3. The religious and political leader

6.7 STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE

A careful reading of Mark reveals that the writer was not concerned about chronology or history. Consensus on
the structure of Mark has not been found. It is a unique literary and theological construct.
a) Prologue (1:1-13)
b) Jesus begins his ministry (1:14-3:6)
c) Jesus continues his ministry in Galilee (3:7-6:6)
d) Jesus Expands his ministry beyond Galilee (6:7-8:21)
e) Jesus turns toward Jerusalem (8:22-10:52)
f) Jesus teaches in Jerusalem (11:1-13:37)
g) Jesus faces Death (14:1-15:47)
h) Jesus is Resurrected (16:1-8)

6.8 MAJOR THEMES

a) Messiah—used only four times in the Gospel. Like Matthew, Mark opens his Gospel by declaring the
Messiahship of Jesus.
b) Son of God—3:11; 5:7 by demons, 1:11; 9:7 called “my son” by God the Father
c) Son of David—Fulfillment of promise to David. Note the Blind beggar Bartimaeus (10)
d) Son of Man—Jesus’ favorite self-designation in the Gospel.
e) Messianic Secret: Demons, healed individuals, and the disciples are told to keep silent about Jesus’ miracles
or activities.
f) Jesus’ suffering: rejection, crucifixion, and suffering are prophesied by Jesus (8:31, 9:31; 10:33-34). In
Mark, Jesus is the suffering servant, the Son of Man, who “came not to be served but to serve, and to give
his life a ransom for many” (10:45).
g) Discipleship: Mark notes that Jesus called his disciples early in his ministry. Yet, Mark portrays the
disciples as failures in the last days of Jesus’ life. They continuously fell asleep, Peter denies him three
times, the other disciples deserted him and fled to the desert, and Judas betrayed him. In Mark the path of
discipleship is not easy. Failures and misunderstanding occur in the life of discipleship but Christ on the
cross provided the grace needed to keep moving into true discipleship.
LECTURE SEVEN

THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO LUKE

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The last lecture informed us that Mark tells a story in hurry. It ushers us to the gospel of Luke who is usually
characterized as the Gentile Christian Gospel concerned for the common person. It is symbolized in art and
literature by a man or a man’s face representing Christ’s humanity, His human sympathy, wisdom, and
character. The author of Luke APPARENTLY also wrote the Book of Acts. The two books combined equal a
 22

full quarter of the NT. Parts that are unique to Luke include the story of Jesus’ birth in a manger “because there
was no room in the inn,” the parables of the prodigal son and of the Good Samaritan.

7.2 learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
O 1.  Evaluate the significance of The Christological emphasis in universal letters
2.  Identify the historical and theological issues relative to the universal letter.
3.  Evaluate the practical and theological importance of the Book of Revelation.

7.3 DATE OF WRITING, AUTHORSHIP AND PLACE OF WRITING

Thought among scholars is that the Gospel of Luke was written around AD 80-85. The argument for this date is
like the argument for Matthew’s date. Use of Mark as a source requires a date no earlier than AD 65. Luke
also shows an awareness of the Jerusalem and Temple destruction (19:43; 21:20). The argument for the link
between Luke & Acts, as well as the Synoptic issues could allow a date of 65-68.

The excellent Greek grammar and writing style of Luke is among the best in the NT. Plus, the author’s use of
dedication paragraphs at the beginning of Luke and Acts, all reveal a well-educated individual whose native
language was Greek. The author was not an original follower of Jesus in that he does not indicate himself as an
eyewitness. He also indicates that he used other sources for the Gospel (1:1-4). Many scholars hold the
traditional author as the traveling companion of Paul, the physician Luke. Others note that the author did not
know that Paul had written letters to churches during his journeys, therefore could not have been a traveling
companion. Neither Luke nor Acts provides any indication of the place of composition. The only consensus
that can be reached is that the Gospel was written outside of Palestine in a Greek-speaking area.
7.4 INTENDED READERS
Since the Gospel is written in fluent Greek the audience was obviously a group of Greek-speakers. Luke
translates Hebrew titles and terms found in Mark and the possible “Q” source into Greek (i.e. Master, Lord,
instead of Rabbi, 9:33; 16:41). Also, Luke omits material that is of primary interest to Jewish Christians. There
is a strong emphasis on the universality of the salvation act of Christ for all peoples. Thus, the audience was
Greek-speaking gentile Christians.

Luke does give indication of one of the intended audiences in a dedicatory prologue addressed to “the most
excellent Theophilus.” Many believe the name to be symbolic (meaning “lover of God” or loved by God”),
standing for all true children of God. Others believe that Theophilus might have been a new convert in need of
instruction on the teachings of Jesus. Still others see Theophilus as the benefactor that financially supported the
writing of Luke and Acts.
7.5 CHARACTERISTICS AND LITERARY STYLE
Luke was probably the most gifted in the literary arts of the Gospel writers. Luke is a more sophisticated book
than the others. Luke’s stylistic and narrative techniques include:
a) Sources: Luke states in the first few verses that only after “investigating everything carefully from the very
first” was he able to write the Gospel. Thus, he implies the use of sources for the Gospel’s content. While
Luke probably used 50% of Mark, he also used information not found in Mark or Matthew.
b) Style: Again, Luke had a skillful use of Greek. The Greek is still koine but approaches a level of
sophistication of cultured Greek. Material borrowed from Mark shows grammatical and stylistic polishing
and improvement of the overall grammar (i.e. improved sentence structure with no run-ons).
c) Characters: Again, Jesus is the central character but unlike Matthew and Mark’s opening proclamation of
Jesus’ messiahness, Luke waits until the middle of the 1 st chapter to introduce Jesus. Where Matthew
stresses that Jesus is the Righteous One who calls others to righteousness, and Mark pictures Jesus as the
One who suffered on behalf of others, Luke emphasizes that Jesus is the Savior of the entire world (of all
humanity).
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d) Disciples: are shown in a much better light than Mark, or even Matthew. Luke omits the story of the two
disciples seeking special status in Jesus’ kingdom. The disciples who slept in the garden of Gethsemane did
so only once and then because of their grief (22:45). Nor does Luke note the disciples abandoning Jesus at
the hour of death.
e) Religious authorities: are still the opponents of Jesus. Yet, even here the conflict is not as harsh. Jesus
even eats meals with the Pharisees in Luke (11:37; 14:11). Luke does not dwell on the intense animosity
between Jewish leaders and Christian faith. The religious leaders function more as hindrances to those
seeking the kingdom of God (11:52).
7.6 STRUCTURE
Luke follows the basic outline of Mark with several changes. Jerusalem plays a greater theological and
geographical prominence in Luke. The Gospel begins in Jerusalem, unlike the others, with the announcement
of John the Baptist birth. Jesus goes to the Temple as a boy of 12. Plus, the largest section of unique Luke
material (9:51-18:14) is also a journey to Jerusalem. Jerusalem is a city of suffering to Luke, where God’s
prophets are killed (note Jesus’ statement that he must go to Jerusalem “because it is impossible for a prophet to
be killed outside of Jerusalem” 13:33). Jerusalem is the place of God’s salvation act. The outline of Luke is
shaped by his focus on Jerusalem.
1. Prologue (1:1-4)
2. The Infancy Narratives (1:5-2:52)
3. The Period of Preparation (3:1-4:13)
4. The Galilean Ministry (4:14-9:50)
5. The Journey to Jerusalem (9:51-19:27)
6. The Jerusalem Ministry (19:28-21:38)
7. The Passion Narrative and the Resurrection Appearances (22:1-24:53)
7.7 MAJOR THEMES
Luke’s literary prowess is demonstrated by his emphases on motifs and ideas.
7.7.1 Fulfillment of Scripture:
Here as in Matthew, Luke depicts Jesus as fulfillment of scripture, but in a different way than Matthew. Where
Matthew quoted many scriptures to define who Jesus is, Luke is more general in his statements. Jesus fulfills
“all that is written” (21:22) or the things that are “in all the scriptures” (24:17). The events of Jesus’ life, death
and resurrection are part of God’s plan previously determined. Luke uses the term “it must” for numerous
events as a way of showing the fulfillment of God’s plan (9:12; 17:25; 24:7). This approach attempted to verify
the truth of the Christian message to the non-Palestinian readers.
7.7.2 Identity of Jesus:
1) Son of God: Here the title points to the unique relationship between Jesus and God (“no one knows . . . who
the Father is except the Son and anyone to whom Son chooses to reveal him 10:22).
2) Messiah: appears frequently in Luke. The angels pronounce Messiah to the shepherds in the birth narrative
(2:11). Simeon knows the promise of Messiah was fulfilled in Jesus (2:26). Jesus is the long-awaited
Messiah. But Luke is careful to show that Jesus is not a Messiah in a political sense. Pilate’s and Herod
Antipas’ declaration of Jesus’ innocence clearly shows that Jesus was not an insurgent political or military
Messiah (23:4, 14, 15, 22). Jesus was the Messiah who would “suffer . . . and then enter into his glory”
(24:36).
3) Savior: Luke alone uses this term to describe Jesus, and then only at the pronouncement to the shepherds of
His birth (2:11). In 1:47 the title is applied to God. Though the term is used only once, Jesus is presented in
salvific terms. His mission is to “seek and save that which is lost” (19:10), and that the faith of the people
had “saved” them (7:50; 8:48; 17:19; 18:42). Also, in the birth narratives both Simeon and Zechariah speak
of Jesus as God’s mean of salvation (1:71, 77; 2:30). This background promotes the irony seen in the
crucifixion scene where Jesus’ saving ability is ridiculed three times.
4) Universal Salvation: God’s mercy is inclusive in the Gospel to Luke. The universal significance of Jesus’
birth is seen in the international setting described in the birth narrative. Jesus came during historic events.
 24

The angels proclaim his birth as good news “for all the people” (2:10). Simeon proclaims the salvation
through Jesus “in the presence of all people” (2:31-32). Luke traces Jesus’ genealogy back to Adam, the
father of all humanity.
5) Concern for the Outcasts: Luke shows a clear indication of Jesus’ concern for the outcasts of society,
from the announcement of his birth to the shepherds, to his birth in a manger, to the choice of a lowly
girl whose song of joy includes the lowly and poor will be exalted. Jesus reads from Isaiah 61:1-2 in the
synagogue in Nazareth proclaiming good news to the poor, recovery of sight for the blind, and freedom
for those who are oppressed (4:16-20). Jesus is at odds with the Pharisees because of his ministry with
religious and social outcasts (15:1-32). The parable of the Good Samaritan is unique to Luke (10:25-37)
where the hero is a social reject called a Samaritan.
6) Concern for Women: Luke portrays Jesus associating and respecting women though this was socially
unacceptable in Palestine. He had women followers and often used women as the center of his
illustrations (15:8-10; 18:1-8). The birth narrative focuses more on Mary where Matthew emphasizes
Joseph.

7) Discipleship: Luke gives a fairly positive picture of the disciples as followers of Jesus who understand
the teachings of Jesus and the scriptures (24:45). Luke notes that the disciples were witnesses to the
crucifixion in contrast to other portrayals of the disciple’s cowardice and flight.
8) Holy Spirit: The Holy Spirit is in evidence throughout the Gospel from the births of Jesus and John the
Baptist, to Jesus’ baptism, temptation, and ministry, as the Holy Spirit guides and empowers. The Holy
Spirit will be given to those who ask (11:13).
9) Prayer: Jesus is seen in prayer numerous times in the Gospel (5:16; 6:12; 9:18, 28; 10:21-22; 11:1;
22:39-46). He prays for the forgiveness of those who crucified him (23:34). His final word at his death
is a prayer (23:46). He gives the disciples a model for prayer (11:1-4). He commands and exhorts them
to pray diligently (18:1) and for strength (21: 36), as well as to be kept from trials (22:40, 46). Jesus
also prayed for Peter that he would have courage though he would deny him (22:32).

LECTURE EIGHT
THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO JOHN
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The last lecture ends the synoptic gospels. We now turn to the gospel according to John. It is characterized as
the theological or reflective Gospel because it tends to dwell on the meaning of Jesus’ life and His divinity. The
Gospel of John is unique in numerous ways from the synoptic gospels. There is a wide difference in content
with very little similarities with the synoptic gospels. In style and in theology, John is much different from the
others also. Internal and external evidence gives thought to a composition date much later than the other
gospels. We will learn that the key to understanding the Gospel according to John is found at the end of the
Book, in 20:30-31: “Jesus did many other signs in the presence of his disciples which are not written in this
book; but these are written that you might believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that by believing
you might have life through his name.”
8.2 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
1. Describe the unique features of the gospel of John
O 2. Understand the genres, purpose, and content of John
3. Gain insight into John’s portrait of Jesus

8.3 AUTHORSHIP
The traditional author of the Gospel is the apostle John, one of the original disciples of Jesus. Many have
questioned John’s authorship, with one key question arising from its date of composition. Its final form took
shape around AD 90-95, which would mean that John would have been in his 90’s at the time of its writing.
 25

The many theories about authorship, however, are not as convincing as the argument for the apostle John. Key
evidence that supports the authorship by John includes:
1. The gospel shows evidence of being written by an apostle, an eyewitness.
Notes experiences and emotions that only an apostle would know about, plus his statements, “we beheld
his glory” (1:14; 19:35)
2. Shows evidence of an author aware of Galilee, shows great knowledge of geography and sites until
recently unknown (i.e. Cana).
3. The author was a Jew familiar with Jewish traditions.
4. Identified as the “beloved disciple” though which disciple that was is in question. Other members of
Jesus’ inner circle are mentioned in third person (Peter, James, etc.) except for John.
8.4 DATE OF WRITING
The oldest manuscript still in existence is a small fragment containing 5-6 verses from John 18. It was found in
Egypt and dates to around AD 125. Allowing time for the gospel to circulate and find acceptance, and then
reach Christians in Egypt pushes the latest it could have been written to AD 100-110.

Internal evidence of clear tension and possibly an actual break between Christianity and Judaism reveals the
post-70 Jerusalem destruction era in Palestine. The schism between Judaism and Christianity would place the
probable date for composition to AD 90-95. Most scholars propose a multi-stage composition of the Gospel in
which it was expanded, revised, and reorganized until it reached its final form in AD 90-95. The earliest stages
may have indeed reached back to AD 70. Still, the canon contains only the final form.
8.5 INTENDED READERS
Internal evidence again precludes an audience that feels excluded from the synagogue though perhaps not
officially (9:22, 34; 16:2). Jewish believers were apparently afraid to make this known publicly during the
composition of the Gospel (12:42-43). The Gospel appears to encourage these secret Jewish Christians in the
face of persecution by the Jews.

Further, John uses references to Jewish motifs and images from the Hebrew Bible (Moses, Exodus tradition,
etc.) and from Jewish practices (Passover). This fact probably infers that the main audience was composed of
primarily Jewish believers. Yet, John often clarifies these Jewish references, thus indicating a number of
Gentile believers also. The original audience may have been Jewish believers but in the course of editing it was
expanded for a mixed audience.
8.6 PLACE OF WRITING
Traditionally, the Gospel of John was written in Ephesus in Asia Minor. Yet, a Palestinian Jewish background
is detected in the text. Again, it appears that the text may have begun in Palestine and was put into final form in
Ephesus. Church leaders in the 2nd century affirm an Ephesus origin (Ireneaus, bishop of Lyon). Final
determination of place of origin remains unsettled.
8.7 LITERARY AND STYLISTIC CHARACTERISTICS
The Gospel of John is written in the easiest Greek found in the NT. John uses different vocabulary, writing style
and structure than any of the other gospels. Jesus does not tell parables and only mentions “the Kingdom of
God” twice (3:3, 5). Jesus’ own self-awareness and characteristic speech and language is also different in John.
a) Style: The language is influenced by a strong Semitic background with a poetic or quasi-poetic
character. It is written in somber tones and with parallelisms and rhythmic patterns.
b) Irony and Misunderstanding: John seems to enjoy giving the readers information that the characters in
the story do not know. This use of irony draws the reader into the inner circle of those who know the
truth. Examples of these uses of irony include: 1:46; 4:12; 7:27, 35-36; 8:22; 9:40; 11:50-51). This
includes Jesus and the Samaritan woman in 4:1-42 where Jesus’ reference to living water is interpreted
as flowing water by the woman. The reader is given the inside “scoop” of the story in relation to the
“fog” for the characters.
 26

c) Figurative and Symbolic Language: Metaphors abound in the gospel. These metaphors include Jesus
as:
1. Lamb of God
2. Bread of life
3. Light of the world
4. Gate of the sheep
5. Good shepherd
6. Resurrection, the way, the truth
7. The vine
d) Dualism symbols: also are used to add richness to the language and style. Choice is necessary between
being for God or against God, a life of faith or a life of unbelief. Other dualisms include: light/darkness,
above/below, spirit/flesh, life/death, truth/falsehood, heaven/earth, and God/Satan.
e) Characters: John notes that “in the beginning” Jesus was the divine logos who created the world. Thus
John goes back further than Jesus’ baptism or even His birth to declare Jesus’ divinity. There is no
“messianic secret” in John. John uses various characters throughout the Gospel to declare Jesus
messiah. Jesus is usually held in contrast to a group of characters called “the Jews.” They represent
unbelief, the ones who reject light for darkness. They are the opponents of Jesus. First, John makes no
differentiation between types of Jews. There is no mention of the Sanhedrin, Sadducees, Herodians,
scribes or elders. The Jews are lumped into the distaining group called the Pharisees. Thus, John’s
portrayal of the Jews is stereotyped. Second, the term “The Jews” serves as a literary device rather than
an historical statement. The Jews make up the negative side of John’s dualism. They “from below”;
they reject the light; they do not know God; they reject Jesus. Thus the Jews are a caricature of the
unbelieving world. Jesus speaks of “their law” or “your law” as if he were not Jewish. In actuality,
John is speaking to Jewish believers who were facing a struggle with Judaism.
8.8 SOURCES
John wrote independently of the sources used in the synoptic gospels. In fact, he makes no indication that the
other gospels existed, which they did by the time of John’s final formation. John’s use of “signs” as evidence
for faith may represent a “sign source” but no clear cut source is seen in the gospel.
8.9 STRUCTURE
John arranges his material in a totally different structure than the synoptic gospels. While the synoptic gospels
place Jesus’ primary ministry in Galilee over the course of about one year, John focuses upon a Jerusalem
ministry where Jesus visits many times. John mentions three separate Passovers, meaning at least three years of
ministry. In contrast to the synoptic view of Jesus cleansing the Temple right before his death, John depicts
Jesus cleansing the Temple at the beginning of his ministry.

The major division in John comes at 13:1. Prior to this point, Jesus’ “hour” had not come. Following 13:1, his
“hour” is at hand. The first half finds Jesus focusing his ministry on “the world.” In the latter half he focuses
on teaching and preparing his disciples.

Outline
1. Prologue (1:1-18)
2. Jesus’ Revelation to the World (1:19-12:50)
Testimonies to Jesus (1:19-51)
From Cana to Galilee to Samaria (2:1-4:54)
Jesus at the Festivals (5:1-10:42)
Intimations of Jesus’ Death (11:1-12:50)
3. Jesus’ Revelation to his Disciples (13:1-20:31)
Farewell Discourse (13:1-17:26)
Death and Resurrection of Jesus (18:1-20:31)
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4. Epilogue (21:1-25)
8.10 MAJOR THEMES
a) Identity of Jesus: In John, the titles used for Jesus are staggering: Word made Flesh, Son of God, Messiah,
King of Israel, teacher come from God, one sent from God, Son of Man, rabbi, bread of life, Holy One of
God, light of the world, gate for the sheep, good shepherd, the resurrection and the life, the way, the truth,
and the life, King of the Jews, the true vine, Lord, and God. Most of these are unique to John. Also, where
Mark portrays a messianic secrecy and Matthew and Luke show a reticent Jesus in accepting his
messiahship, John’s Jesus makes no effort to deny or correct these identifications. Jesus speaks freely of his
special relationship with his Father, God. Also, John portrays Jesus in a higher plane than the synoptic
gospels. John gives Jesus “pre-existence” status not seen in the other gospels. Jesus uses the phrase “I AM”
to provide his identity, calling back to Exodus 3:14 where God proclaims his name as “I AM.” In John,
acceptance and belief in Jesus is clearly acceptance and belief in God. “No one comes to the Father, except
through me” (14:6).
b) The Death of Jesus: Where the synoptic gospels portray the crucifixion as a dreary affair that smacks of
defeat, John show the crucifixion as a victorious conclusion to the “hour” of Jesus. Jesus declares his
mission to die for the world early in 3:16. Thus death is his enthronement as king, his glorification, and his
exaltation. Jesus must be “lifted up” which contains a double meaning of being raised on a cross and being
exalted through the crucifixion (3:14; 8:28; 12:32, 34). His death, resurrection and ascension are all part of
one dramatic movement in the Gospel according to John.
c) Miracles as Signs: In John, belief comes through “signs” which is John’s word used for miracles. There are
seven signs in John that represent the totality of Jesus’ miraculous abilities. They were apparently chosen
and placed where they are with the intent to bring “belief” (20:21-30). They all are found in the first 11
chapters:
a) Changing water into wine (2:1-11)
b) Healing of the Nobleman’s son (4:45-54)
c) Healing the lame man (5:1-9)
d) Feeding the five thousand (6:1-14)
e) Walking on water (6:16-21)
f) Healing the blind man (9:1-12)
g) Raising of Lazarus (11:1-46)

The seven signs are arranged from least to greatest to the crowning miracle of life given to Lazarus as the
climactic sign of Jesus power over death. These signs, again, are given that “belief” may be found in the
hearer. These signs reveal the overarching goal to show that He is the very Son of God.
d) Realized Eschatology: Eschatology refers to beliefs concerning the end-times, or the last things. The
synoptic gospels refer to an apocalyptic eschatology of Jesus returning at the end times. John includes this
view of eschatology but also adds the fulfillment of these future acts in the present or realized eschatology.
Judgment takes place now (3:17-21) NOT JUST IN THE FUTURE. Eternal life is a present reality and not
relegated to after death (3:36; 5:24). Resurrection is a current experience for believers brought from death
to life (5:21, 24). The goal is an appreciation for the life believers may have in Christ today. While the
future is important, the present is crucial for the future.
e) Spirit/Paraclete: John uses the Greek term “parakletos” as the promised Holy Spirit. A paraclete is
literally “one who comes alongside” someone else. This word denotes an advocate who represents the
believer. The paraclete is a promise to the believer and not just for the disciples at Pentecost. Jesus
breathed on the disciples the Holy Spirit (20:22). The paraclete functions as the presence of Jesus Christ in
the lives of the disciples, and in the lives of all believers in all times. The Gospel of John provides an image
of Jesus far different from the portraits of the synoptic gospels. John’s simple language is off set by a more
theological picture of the Son of God. The teachings are designed for one thing only, to lead to belief in
Jesus Christ as the Son of God.
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LECTURE NINE

THE BEGINNING OF THE NEW COMMUNITY: THE BOOK OF ACTS

9.1 INTRODUCTION
We have now finished discussing the gospels and we turn to the beginning of the new community. We found
that Luke also wrote the book of Acts which is a continuation of Luke’s story. The Acts of the Apostles serves
as the influential link between the story of Jesus and the beginnings of the Christian Church. Thus, Acts is
unique among the books of the NT. It is the closest account in the Bible to what modern people call history.
The book serves as the main source of information concerning the first century AD and the development of
early Christianity. The record of the Holy Spirit christening the birth of the Church on the Day of Pentecost
(Acts 2) represents the turning point in NT history. Luke’s gospel was written to tell “most excellent
Theophilus” what Jesus the Christ did while he lived on earth through his physical presence (Luke 1:1-4). The
Book of Acts is Luke’s second work to Theophilus to detail what Jesus the Christ was doing while in heaven
through his spiritual presence within the Church, the body of believers.
9.2 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. Narrate the story of the spread of the gospel from Jerusalem to Samaria
and North Africa noting key and event and apostles;
O 2. Describe the complexities of the social and religious barriers to the
spread of the gospel.
3. Compare and contrast the early church’s life, message, and method of
ministry with the contemporary church.

9.3 OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK ACTS

First century Christian faith, as revealed in the Book of Acts, was filled with vitality and dynamic activity. Acts
depicts the clear example and plan of world evangelism. The book is nearly divided into two sections and
around two key characters in the early church. The first half focuses primarily on the ministry of Peter. The
second half is the story of Paul’s transformation from persecutor to the greatest evangelist and theologian the
church has ever known. The lesson will reveal that the main character in the Book of Acts is the Holy Spirit
who is at work in the lives of the NT church and in Christians today.

Luke’s gospel ends with the resurrection of Jesus and the Book of Acts picks up right where the gospel left off.
Acts begins with the resurrection of Jesus, and records his ascension. Just prior to Jesus returning to heaven, he
gives the marching orders of the church by first giving the power behind the mission: “But you shall receive
power when the Holy Spirit comes upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and
Samaria, and to the ends of the earth” Acts 1:8. Thus chapters 1-5 portray the coming of the Holy Spirit, birth
of the church, and the early developments of that early Jerusalem Church. Chapters 6-12 shows the crucial
event of Stephen’s martyrdom and new persecution of believers which resulted in the spread of believers
throughout the region (and the spread of the gospel). Then, through the ministry and transformation of Peter,
the first gentile believers are depicted. The rest of the book details the conversion, ministry, and journeys of
Paul and his companions.


9.4
Where Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John record the gospel through the life of
Jesus Christ, Acts reveals the gospel lived out in the lives of those who followed
him.
AUTHORSHIP
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While Acts is actually anonymously written, not even the title indicates authorship; nearly every tradition
ascribes the author to be Luke, the Physician-traveling companion of Paul. The two main reasons for this
assertion involve:
1. The Book of Acts is addressed to the same recipient as the gospel and, again, begins where the Gospel
of Luke ends.
2. The author indicates personal presence in the events found in three specific sections of the book: 16:10-
17; 20:5-21:18; 27:1-28:16.

The external evidence for Lukan authorship includes the oldest extant list of NT writings (the Muratorian
Fragment) which dates to the latter half of the second century. This list states that the third Gospel and the
Book of Acts were written by Luke. In his writings in the early second century Ireneaus took Luke’s authorship
of Acts for granted. Other early church leaders who claimed Luke’s authorship include Clement of Alexandria,
Tertullian, and Origen. The internal evidence includes the similarity in style and language between the Gospel
and the Book of Acts. Other evidence of note is the use of medical terminology found commonly in Acts,
which requires the author to be a physician. Colossians 4:14 notes that Luke was a physician, therefore the
evidence is strong supporting Luke’s authorship.
9.5 DATE AND PLACE OF WRITING
The date cannot be determined in a precise manner. The language, vocabulary, and style reflect 1 st century
literature. Further, the author has a command of the facts and details of the facts given in Acts, which would
indicate an eye-witness account. Further, the tone of the text would reveal a pre-Domitian persecution of the
church (AD 81-96). Further, non-canonical books such as the Epistle of Barnabas (AD 100) and a text by Justin
Martyr (AD 150) possibly allude to the Book of Acts.
Internal evidence shows that the soonest the book could have been written was two years after the Roman
imprisonment of Paul began (28:30-31). Many conservative scholars place the date AD 62-68 but a case may be
made for the earlier date. The excitement seen in the “we” statements of Luke reflects a close relationship
between event and authorship. Also, no mention is made at all of the Jerusalem destruction of AD 70. Finally,
the abrupt ending of the book may reveal Luke’s need to finish the book before Paul’s release from prison so
that he could join for the next journey (the account of which he never had opportunity to pen).

If this argument is correct then a date in the late 60’s would indicate the place of authorship as Rome during
Paul’s imprisonment. As Paul’s physician, Luke had time to write the accounts while Paul was under house
arrest (perhaps with input from Paul).

9.6 STRUCTURE
Acts was not designed to stand on its own. From its beginnings it was a continuation of the Gospel of Luke.
Further, the fact that it is written as a semi-narrative history of the early church belies an attempt to find clearly
defined sections of teaching. Still, Acts can be divided into five major sections:
I. Introduction (1:1-11)
II. The Origin of the Church: Jerusalem (1:12-8:3)
III. The Period of Transition: Samaria (8:4-11:18)
IV. The Expansion to the Gentiles:
The Pauline Mission to Antioch and the Empire (11:19-21:16)
V. The Imprisonment and Defense of Paul:
Caesarea and Rome (21:17-28:31)

Further, the book is defined by periods of growth. In 2:47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; and 19:20 notices of
numerical and spiritual growth maintain the books concern with the progressive development of the body of
believers.
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9.7 PURPOSE
Although the Book of Acts does not contain a clear statement of purpose like the Gospel of John, its connection
with the Gospel of Luke cannot be forgotten. Since Acts is a continuation of the story found in Luke then the
purpose described in Luke carries over the Book of Acts. This purpose is laid out in Luke 1:1-4.

Due to the rapid expansion and numerical growth of the church throughout the entire Roman world, the many
new believers needed an account of the life of Jesus Christ lived out within those who were his closest disciples.
This account needed to be authoritative and written from a different perspective since the audience appears to
be mostly new converts in the Roman/Hellenistic world unaware of the many events of biblical history that led
Jesus to the cross and the subsequent birth of the church through the activity of the Holy Spirit. Thus, the
beginning and development of the church, the preaching of Peter, and the missionary activity of Paul became
the key motifs under the overarching promise and command of the resurrected Jesus, “You shall receive power .
. . to be my witnesses.” Luke then writes the most accurate history of the mid-1 st century, from the ascension of
Jesus around AD 29-30 to the imprisonment of Paul in Rome around AD 62.

9.7.1 Things accomplished In Acts:

1. It tells the story of the expansion of Christianity, describing the fulfillment of Jesus’ command to be
witnesses in Jerusalem, in Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the Earth (1:8)
2. It portrays the beginnings of this amazing movement that permeated the world with only 120 people
basically hiding in a room (1:15) according to the command of Jesus to wait in Jerusalem (1:4). The basis
of the story is the work of the Holy Spirit who comes to the 120 on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2). Then, it
is the Holy Spirit that calls and commissions every outgoing movement of the church into the world.
a) Philip to the Ethiopian eunuch (8:29)
b) Peter to the Gentile Cornelius (10:19)
c) Paul and Barnabas at Antioch for the first missionary journey (13:2)
d) Acceptance of Gentile members (15:28)
e) Paul from Asia Minor to Europe (16:7)
This fact gives the rationale for calling Acts in all actuality the Acts of the Holy Spirit.
3. It clearly defines for us the message of the early church. The book gives us summaries of speeches by Peter
(2:14-36; 3:12-26; 4:8-12; 4:24-30); by Stephen (7:2-53); and by Paul (13:16-41; 14:15-17; 17:22-31).
These summaries, while probably not full depictions of these occasions, nevertheless give the very
substance of the basic message that dominated early church preaching and teaching, the essence of the early
Christian message:
- The new age has dawned, and it came through the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
- Jesus’ life and all that happened to him, and especially his death and resurrection, are the fulfillment of
prophecy.
- Jesus will come again to judge the living and the dead.
- Repentance for sin, forgiveness through Christ, and the gift of the Holy Spirit are the basic building blocks
of Christianity.
- Refusal of repentance results in dire consequences.
One key ingredient in these early sermons/speeches, the early Christian preachers never failed to emphasize the
resurrection of Jesus Christ. The resurrection was of great significance to the early church.

9.8 MAIN THEME OF THE BOOK OF ACTS

The dominating theme is the activity of the Holy Spirit in sanctifying, calling, and guiding those who will
believe and be obedient. The Spirit is given to Jews (2); to Gentiles (10); guides the preachers (8:29; 16:6);
directs the church (13:2); leads the early church leaders in difficult decisions (15:28); speaks through the
prophets (11:28); and appointed the early church leaders as the development and expansion of the church began
(20:28), and revealed the power of the Spirit through the Apostles as they fulfilled their calling.
 31

The Book of the Acts of the Apostles serves as both a sequel to the gospels and as a background to the
following epistles of the New Testament. It is a pivotal book that bridges the Life of Christ on earth and the
Life of Christ within believers. It portrays the impetus for missions, a plan and calling for missions, and
examples of obedience in missions. As Christ came “and dwelt among us” in the gospels, so believers are to go
and dwell among the lost, sharing the good news of salvation, baptizing and teaching new believers, and living
out their Christian faith in the power of the Holy Spirit. The Book of the Acts of the Apostles portrays the
power of the Holy Spirit that helped the church overcome persecution, prejudice, politics, pride, greed,
geography, and other hindrances to growth that faced the first members.

LECTURE TEN
Pauline Epistles: Romans, I & II Corinthians and Galatians (part 1)
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The previous lecture talked about the new community of faith which now needs guidance and teaching. This
lesson will reveal that New Testament scholarship has numerous non-biblical Greek and Latin letters from the
1st century AD, as well papyrus fragments of thousands of Egyptian letters dealing with everyday life of
business, home, family, etc. Letters tend to follow a format that allows the reader to recognize them for the
form of literature they are. This is still true today. New Testament letters also show a standardized format that
allows scholars to better interpret the text and for the reader to know it is a letter. This is true for Romans and I
and II Corinthians

10.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
a) Discus the significance of Pauline letters to our spiritual journey,
O b) Summarize the major theological themes in Pauline Letters and
their application to our contemporary society 
c) 3. Evaluate Paul’s ethical instructions and apply them to the
contemporary Christian life.

While there are variations among the NT epistles as far as the format is


concerned, generally four parts are found in these letters: 1) Opening formula,
2) Thanksgiving, 3) Body or message, and 4) Concluding Formula.

10.3 Ancient Letters

Three basic elements are found in the opening formula of Greek and Roman letters that are also seen in most
NT epistles. Another element is added on occasion that extends the greeting to include a wish for good health,
or a note on the good health of the author. The three key elements of the opening formula are:
10.3.1: Sender:
The author will include his personal name, and will often include a title to the name. I & II Thessalonians only
depict the name Paul. But nine other epistles add the title “servant of Christ Jesus” or “apostle through Christ
Jesus.” In Titus, Paul is “the servant of God.” Of the Catholic Epistles, only II & III John provide a title (the
Presbyter) yet without an attached name.

Also, eight of the Pauline epistles note a co-sender in various combinations: Timothy six times, Silvanus in two,
and Sosthenes in one. Perhaps special relationships between the addressed groups and the co-senders provide
the impetus for their addition into the text, but this possibility does not give a full answer. In some way the co-
senders were involved in the actual composition of the letters.
10.3.2: Addressee:
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The name or group that the letter is addressed to is usually noted at the beginning of the NT epistles. The
simplest form of course is the personal name. The rare occurrences of a single name as the addressee usually
include further identification or terms of affection (III John’s “to the beloved Gaius). The majority of NT
addressees are groups or communities in regions or cities. Five Pauline letters note the addressees as the
“church in” (I & II Thess., I & II Cor., and Galatians), while four note the addressees as “saints in” (Philippians,
Romans, Colossians, and Ephesians).
- Greetings: While occasionally omitted, the greeting in most Jewish letters began with an expression of
“peace to you.” The Greek form of greeting was actually the word “greetings.” Yet, NT letters tend to use
combinations of these and other words in the greeting section. Nouns used include: grace, peace, mercy,
love. These nouns characterize these gifts as coming from the Father and from Jesus Christ. Almost all of
Paul’s letters favor “Grace and Peace” as the greeting to the church.
- Thanksgiving: Hellenistic letters tended to follow the opening formula with a statement that presents the
author as thankful to the gods for any number of special reasons such as deliverance from calamity. Paul’s
pattern for thanksgiving (lacking in Galatians and Titus) is usually: “I give thanks to (my) God because . . .
.” Often main themes of the letter as a whole are found in this statement, anticipating further discussion.
Admonitions may appear in this section in a paraenetic (urging) tone. Sometimes the thanksgiving section
will serve as a complement to put the readers in a good mood before addressing demands or warnings, or
addressing difficult issues in the letter.
- Body or Message: The opening of the body of the letter introduces the occasion for the letter’s
composition. It attempts to show the relationship between the topic, the writer, and the readers.
Commonality of writer and reader is emphasized (Phil 1:4; I Tim 1:4; Philemon 7; James 1:2-3; II John 3-
4).
- Transition: Another feature of the body-opening is to serve as transition to the main message by submitting
a petition or request. Certain properties are found in this request/petition:
1) A background for the petition is usually given a prelude, often in terms of joy over the state of the
addressee.
2) The petition itself is expressed in the use of one of four Greek terms for asking.
3) The addressee is written to directly in the vocative.
4) There is an expression of courtesy and the desired action is described.
10.3.3: Concluding Formula:
Greco-Roman letters contain two characteristic expressions in closing letters: wish for good health (perhaps a
duplication of the greeting wish), and a word of farewell. During the Roman period that produced the NT
letters, a third element was usually added that closed the letter with additional greetings. Pauline letters do not
follow the traditional closing but will contain greetings from co-workers with him and directed to people whom
he knows in the audience community. “Give greetings to every saint in Christ Jesus; the brothers who are with
me send greetings; all the saints send you greetings, especially those who are of the household of Caesar” (Phil
4:21-22). Both II & III John have greetings sent to the addressee from the community where the letter
originated. III John notes that those being addressed should be greeted “by name” similar to Paul’s habit of
naming individuals by name.

Paul occasionally added a doxology of God in closing also (Romans 16:25-27; Phil 4:20) and a benediction of
the recipients. Eight of the Pauline Epistles contain variations of the benediction; “The grace of our Lord Jesus
Christ (be) with you.” This is expanded in II Cor 13:13, 14 with “the love of God and the fellowship of the
Holy Spirit.” Five letters have a shorter form: “grace be with you.” These features are seen in other NT epistles
as well. Hebrews and I Peter have both greetings and a benediction. Hebrews adds a doxology, along with II
Peter, and Jude. III John and I Peter have “peace” instead of “grace.” Ephesians 6:23-24 combines “peace” and
“grace,” while Galatians 6:16 uses “peace” and “mercy.” Clearly “peace” was an alternative benediction in
Christian letters.
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Finally, concluding greetings were to be with a “holy kiss” in I Thess., I & II Cor and Romans, as well as in I
Peter. Public kisses were not common in Roman society. In Roman society, these kisses were usually for
reconciliation or in greeting relatives after separation. Christian communities must have adopted the “holy kiss”
as a sign of fellowship. Since it was exchanged among saints the kiss was holy.


The closing of the body of Greek and Roman letters have predictable qualities.
The writer solidifies or recapitulates what has been written in the body, creating
a bridge for further correspondence or communication (Rom 15:14, 15, 32;
Philemon 21-22; I Cor 16:5, 13; II Cor 13:10-11; II John 12; III John 13-14).
Letters that address certain disputes within the recipient community, a visit by
the apostle may be promised followed by admonitions, and exhortations. (I Cor
16:5, 13; II Cor 13:10-13). II & III John also close with a promise of the
“Presbyter’s” visit.

10.4 ROMANS, I CORINTHIANS & II CORINTHIANS

10.4.1 The Epistle to the Romans: The Gift of God’s Righteousness through Faith in Christ
The Epistle to the Romans serves as the “Constitution of Christianity” and has been called the “Christian
Manifesto” and the “Cathedral of Christian Faith.”
Romans lays out the basic doctrines of Christianity better than any other book in the Bible. The Epistle portrays
Paul’s view of humanity’s self-justification, which is denial of a need for grace. For Paul, the truths of God
found in Jesus Christ demolish any attempt to self-justification through actions or claims of birth. Paul carefully
and logically answers every argument used against the claims of God.

a) Authorship: The opening verse, even the opening word, pronounces Paul as the author. There has not been
a single argument against Pauline authorship of Romans throughout Church history. Within the letter a
number of historical references that match well the known facts of Paul’s life are presented. The doctrinal
content is consistent with other letters noted as written by Paul. Further, internal evidence is based on 1:1,
plus several personal references that can only be applied to Paul (11:13; 15:15-20). Compared to the other
letters of Paul, Romans is written in the same style, argument, and theology. External evidence includes
notice of Paul’s authorship in the works of Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Justin Martyr, Polycarp, Hippolytus,
Marcion, and the Muratorian Canonical writings since the time of Iraneaus. All these date to AD 130-202.
b) Date and Place: Considerable evidence points toward the early spring of AD 57, though possibly 56 or
58. Very likely Paul was close to ending his third missionary journey, heading toward Jerusalem with the
offering collected from the mission Churches of Asia Minor for the poverty-stricken believers suffering
from famine and persecution in Jerusalem (15:24-27). 15:26 suggests that Paul had already received
donations from the Churches in Macedonia and Achaia, so he was already at Corinth or had already been
there. Since he had not visited Corinth before writing I Cor on his third journey, the writing of Romans had
to follow that of I & II Cor which were written around 55/56. The most likely place of authorship is either
Corinth or Cenchrea which was around six miles from Corinth. With reference to Phoebe of Cenchrea
(16:1) and Gains, Paul’s host (16:23) who was probably Corinthian (I Cor 1:14), and Erastus (16:23), who
also was probably Corinthian (2 Tim 4:20) then one of these two sites is most probable.
c) Audience: The original audience of the letter was a mix of Roman Jews and Gentiles who made up the
Church of Rome (1:7). Though predominately Gentile, the Roman church had a substantial Jewish minority
in the congregation (4:1; Chapters 1-14).
d) Major Theme: The plan of salvation that was justification by faith and sanctification through the Holy
Spirit (1:16-17) is the major theme of Romans. Within the Book of Romans is found the doctrines of
justification, sanctification, divine election, condemnation, the perseverance of the saints, total depravity,
the last judgment, the fall of man, the revelation of God in nature, the final restoration of the Jews, and
others.
 34

e) Purpose: Paul’s purposes for writing the book include:

1. To prepare the way for his visit to Rome and for a proposed mission to Spain (1:10-15; 15:22-29).
2. To present the basic system of salvation to a Church that had not received “official” training or visit
from an apostle.
3. To explain the relationship between Jew and Gentile in God’s overall plan of Redemption. The
Jewish Christians were being rejected by the larger Gentile group in the church (4:1) because the
Jewish believers still felt constrained to observe dietary laws and sacred days (14:2-6).
f) Content: The spiritual condition of all humankind is the focus of Paul’s initial discussion. All people, Jew
and Gentile, are sinners and in need of salvation. This salvation is provided through God and the death of
His Son, Jesus Christ through the redemptive work on a cross. It is a provision, however, that must be
received by faith. Faith is the principle of God’s work throughout history, exemplified by Abraham.
Salvation is only the beginning of Christ’s work in believers. Paul shows how believers may be freed from
sin in their lives, and freed from the law of death. This provision is through union with the living Christ and
accepting His death and resurrection as one’s own, and through the power of the indwelling Holy Spirit.
Though Israel is in a state of unbelief, it still has a role in God’s sovereign redemptive plan. While only a
remnant in Paul’s time, which allowed the salvation of the Gentiles, Israel will be saved when the time
comes (11:26). The letter concludes with an appeal to the readers to work out their Christian faith in
practical ways both in the church and in the world. None of Paul’s other letters states so profoundly the
content of the gospel and its implications for both the present and the future.

10.4.2 I CORINTHIANS: CHURCH PROBLEMS

a) Author and Date: Paul is named as the author within the letter (1:1-2; 16:21) and by the early Church
fathers. His authorship was attested by Clement of Rome as early as AD 96. Today the vast majority of NT
scholars agree that Paul was the author. The letter was written around AD 55 toward the end of Paul’s three
year residency in Ephesus (16:5-9; Acts 20:31). Paul refers to staying in Ephesus until the Day of Pentecost
in the letter. This would indicate a stay of less than an additional year when he wrote I Corinthians.
b) The City of Corinth: Commerce: The city was located near the Corinthian Isthmus which was a
crossroads for travel and trade. The city had two harbors: Cenchrea, six miles east on the Saronic Gulf, and
Lechaion, a mile and a half west on the Corinthian Gulf. Goods flowed through the city from Spain and
Italy to the west and from Asia Minor, Phoenicia, and Egypt on the east.
1. Culture: Greek culture dominated Corinth. Though not as scholarly oriented as Athens, Greek
philosophy and a concern for wisdom drew the interest of the inhabitants.
2. Religion: Corinth was home to at least 12 temples, though it is unclear whether they were all in use
during Paul’s day. The Temple of Aphrodite was most infamous where worshipers practiced
prostitution in honor of the goddess of love. Temples to Apollo and Aclepius also dominated the city.
Yet, a Jewish synagogue also existed and an inscription from it is in a museum in Corinth.
c) Immorality: Corinth was a typical large city in being openly immoral. Prostitution (Aphrodite worship)
included 1,000 sacred prostitutes in the temple. The immorality of Corinth became to well known that the
saying “to Corinthianize” came to mean “to practice sexual immorality.” In this setting the Corinthian
Church was plagued by numerous problems.
d) Occasion and Purpose: The Church of Corinth was founded by Paul during his second missionary
journey. The church had become infected by the immoral behavior surrounding it. While Greeks were very
proud of their education and philosophy, they were incredibly immoral. The Greeks were especially fond of
oratory and rhetoric. One eloquent Jewish Christian named Apollos arrived in Corinth and captured the
imaginations of the Greek Christians (Acts 18:24-28; I Cor 1:12). This led to comparisons of Apollos’
smooth tongue and other religious leaders. This comparison was to the detriment of Paul, whose appearance
was not overly impressive (2 Cor 10:10). This is probably the primary clue to the various schisms in the
church (1 Co 1:11-13).
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The letter tells us that Paul had received information from many sources concerning the conditions of the
church in Corinth. Members of Chloe’s household had told him of the divisions and factions that had
formed in the church (1:11). Three individuals named Stephanas, Fortunas, and Achaicus visited Paul in
Ephesus from Corinth. They may have been the members of Chloe’s household (16:17).

Some reports about the church revealed moral irregularities in the church (chap 5-6). Immorality had
plagued the Corinthian assembly almost from the start. From 5:9-10 it is apparent that Paul had written
previously to Corinth in regard to this immorality issue, urging them to “not associate with sexually
immoral people (5:9). Due to some misunderstanding of his previous instruction Paul needs to clarify his
teachings on immorality (5:10-11) and urge drastic and immediate action to quell the activity (5:3-5, 13).

Other Corinthian visitors had brought a letter from the church that requested counsel on several subjects (see
7:1; 8:1; 12:1; 16:1). The church was a gifted people (1:4-7) but were immature and unspiritual (3:1-4).
Thus Paul’s purposes for writing include:
a) To instruct and restore the church in the areas of weaknesses, correcting practices such as divisions
(1: 10-4:21), immorality (chap 5; 6:12-20), litigation in pagan courts (6:1-8); and abuse of the Lord’s
Supper (11:17-34).
b) To correct false teaching concerning the resurrection (chap 15).
c) To give instruction concerning the offering for the poverty-stricken believers in Jerusalem (16:1-4).

e) Theme and Relevance: The letter revolves around the theme of problems in Christian conduct in the
church. It thus has to do with progressive sanctification, the continuing development of holiness character.
Obviously, Paul was personally concerned for the Corinthian’s problems, revealing a pastoral heart as a
shepherd. Though a first century document the letter is still timely for today, both to instruct and to inspire.
Most of the questions and problems that confronted the Corinthian church are still with the modern church.
These problems include immaturity, divisions, jealousy and envy, lawsuits, marital difficulties, sexual
immorality and misuse of spiritual gifts. Yet, despite these problems the book contains some of the most
familiar and loved chapters in the Bible such as chap 13 on love and chap 15 on the resurrection. Paul’s
desire for the Corinthian church was to purify the church from separation, divisiveness and immorality,
which was the primary purpose of the letter.

10.4.3 II Corinthians: Paul’s Conceptions of His Own Ministry

a) Author, Date and Audience: Paul is the author of the letter (1:1; 10:1). It is stamped with his style and
it contains more autobiographic material than any other of his letters. The available evidence indicates that
AD 55 is a reasonable estimate for the writing of this letter. While 1 Cor was written from Ephesus before
Pentecost (1Cor 16:5-8), 2 Cor was written later that same year before winter began and probably from
Macedonia (2:13; 7:5). The opening salutation of the letter states that it was addressed to the church of
Corinth and to the Christians throughout Achaia, the Roman province comprising all the territory of Greece
south of Macedonia.
b) Purpose: The Corinthian church had survived the schisms and divisions seen in 1 Cor, but had been
infiltrated by false teachers who were challenging both Paul’s personal integrity and his authority as an
apostle. Because he had announced a change in his itinerary where he would visit Corinth with one long
visit instead of two short visits, they declared his word was not to be trusted. They were also saying he was
not a genuine apostle and that he was putting the money collected for Jerusalem in his own pocket. Paul
asks the Corinthians to consider his personal life in their midst was always honorable and that his life-
transforming message of salvation was true. He urges them to prepare for his impending visit by
completing the collection they had started the year previous and by dealing with the troublemakers in their
midst. He warns them that he is serious in his direction and with what he says.
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c) Structure: The structure of the letter relates primarily to Paul’s future visit to Corinth. The letter may be
laid out in three clear sections:
1. Paul explains the reason for the change of itinerary (chap 1-7).
2. Paul encourages the Corinthians to complete the collection in preparation of his arrival (chap 8-
9).
3. Paul stresses the certainty of his coming; his authenticity as an apostle and his readiness as an
apostle to exercise discipline if necessary (chap 1-13).
10.4.4 Galatians: The Defense of Christian Liberty
a) Law in Christianity: A controversy that raged within the early church was the place of the Law in
Christianity. The letter written to the Galatians reflects the Pauline concern for freedom in Christ. Neither
Jews nor Gentiles can be delivered from their sins by their self-effort in keeping an ethical standard of
principles. “Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law, having become a curse for us . . . that we might
receive the promise of the Spirit through faith” (3:13-14).
b) Author, Setting and Date: The first word in the first verse proclaims Paul’s authorship of the letter. The
letter contains discussion of Paul’s conversion and call (1:15-16), his travel experience (1:17, 18, and 21),
and of his visit to Jerusalem with Barnabas (2:1-10).

Paul and Barnabas preached in the towns of Galatia during their first missionary journey which ended
around AD 48. Soon after arriving back in Antioch a controversy arose among the gentile believers when
some Jews demanded the gentile believers to obey Jewish law (Acts 15:1-2). In essence they wanted the
gentiles to become Jews before becoming Christians. This controversy resulted in a council meeting in
Jerusalem that resulted in rejection of the Jewish demands upon the gentiles (Acts 15:6-29). The same
controversy was raging among the churches in Galatia. It is probable that Paul wrote to address the
controversy just prior to the Council meeting around AD 48-49.
c) Audience: Galatia is the name given to a territory in north-central Asia Minor settled by the Gauls in the
3rd century BC. The Romans took control of the region and placed Galatia within a larger province called
Galatia. This larger province included cities such as Antioch, Iconium, Derbe, and Lystra. This is the
probable audience of the letter, as a circular letter among the churches founded in these cities.The members
of the churches in Galatia were predominately Gentile yet with a strong minority of Jewish believers, as the
controversy indicates.
d) Content: The initial message of Paul to the believers in Galatia of justification by faith rather than by
works had been assailed by the Judaizers, corrupting the Gospel message of new life in Christ. Thus Paul
writes an impassioned rebuttal of the Judaizer’s argument. Paul’s personality is quite evident in the letter as
his indignation at the false teaching reaches a spiritual fervor. A simple outline reveals the symmetrical and
logical thought of Paul’s argument:
1. Introduction: Liberty 1:1-9
2. The Biographical Argument 1:10-2:21
3. The Theological Argument 3:1-4:31
4. The failure of legalism 5:1-6:10
5. Conclusion: Liberty 6:11-18
e) Evaluation: If the dating argument is correct then this is Paul’s earliest canonical letter. Christ “gave
himself for our sins, that he might deliver us out of this present evil world” (1:4). This provision is available
to those who put their full trust in him, not on their works. This message remains important in the
contemporary church and Christian life. The key teaching of Paul in Galatians is summarized in 2:20: “For
I am crucified with Christ; and it is no longer I that lives but Christ who lives within me; and that life which
I now live in the flesh I live in faith, the faith which is in the Son of God, who loved me, and gave himself
for me.” Through Paul, the doctrine of justification by faith alone, apart from the law, was recognized by
the church and was the accepted position.
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LECTURE ELEVEN
PAULINE EPISTLES: EPHESIANS, PHILIPPIANS AND COLOSSIANS (part II)
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The previous lesson dealt with the major epistles of Apostle Paul. We now focus to the Christological Epistles,
a term applied to Paul’s letters to the churches at Ephesus, Philippi, and Colossae. These short but powerful
letters contain some of Paul’s highest and finest expressions of Christology. These letters along with Philemon
as we shall see are called Prison Epistles or Captivity because Paul was in prison at the time of their writing. Let
us turn to each of these letters separately.

11.2 Leaning Outcome

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
1. Describe the context of Paul’s letters to Ephesians, Philippians and
O Colossians
2. Discuss the content and the message of Ephesians, Philippians and
Colossians
3. Describe the key theological themes of Ephesians, Philippians and
Colossians
4. Relate the message and meaning of Ephesians, Philippians and
Colossians to the church today

11.3 THE EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS: THE EPISTLE OF THE CHURCH

The letter to the Ephesians is one of four “Prison Epistles” of Paul (along with Philippians, Colossians, and
Philemon). All four note Paul’s bonds of imprisonment (Phil 1:12-13; Eph 3:1; 4:1; 6:20; Col 1:24; Philemon
1). Ephesians was written when many churches were in existence and after Paul had time to contemplate the
meaning of the new living Body of Christ. In the book, for the first time the word “Church” relates to the
universal church as well as the local church.
a) Author, Setting, and Date: While contemporary scholarship is debating the authorship of several
Pauline epistles, including Ephesians, the text itself bears Paul’s name. The argument against Paul’s
authorship is that someone who had collected the writings of Paul. He then edited the collection into an
introduction that became known as Ephesians. Yet, all the personal references mentioned in the book are
consistent with the known facts of Paul’s life. Again, Ephesians was written after many churches were
founded in Asia Minor. The mystery of body of Christ where there is no Jew or Gentile, no slave or free
reflects Paul’s vision of the new organization that had become the church. Paul’s imprisonment had given
him time to contemplate all the ramifications of the church. The necessity for writing Philemon opened the
door for the messenger to deliver other correspondence. Ephesians was written as a general encyclical letter
and sent at this time. While the prison epistles were all composed between AD 56/57 and AD 60/61, the
probable date for the correspondence was AD 60-61. The place of writing could be one of two places where
Paul was held in prison, Caesarea Maritima or after his transfer to Rome.
b) Content: The CHURCH is the key theme in Ephesians. The content reflects an intended audience of
mature believers rather than “baby” Christians. Certain themes recur consistently in the book:
1. The sovereign purpose of God in establishing the church (1:4, 5, 9, 11, 13, 20; 2:4, 6, 10; 3:11), in which
the redemptive purpose of God is seen in the salvation plan.
2. The conduct of the believer is emphasized in the word “walk,” which describes Paul’s model for
conduct (4:1, 17; 5:1, 8, 15) in contrast to his former way of life (2:1).
3. The sphere of Christian activities is in the “heavenliness” (1:3, 10, 20; 2:6; 3:10; 6:120, which is a
spiritual notation not physical.
4. The dynamic of church life is found in the Holy Spirit, the seal of acceptance (1:13), the means of access
to God (2:18), the source of revealed truth (3:5), the secret of universal power (3:16), the bond of unity
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(4:3-4), the mentor of thinking and speech (4:30), the stimulus of joy (5:18), and the armorer for conflict
(6:17).
c) Outline Of Ephesians
I. Introduction 1:1-2
II. The Constitution of the Church 1:3-14
III. The Consciousness of the Church 1:15-23
IV. The Creation of the Church 2:1-10
V. The Union of the Church 2:11-22
VI. The Calling of the Church 3:1-21
VII. The Conduct of the Church 4:1-6:9
VIII. The Conflict of the Church 6:10-20
IX. Conclusion 6:21-24
d) Evaluation: Ephesians serves as a collection of Paul’s theology of the church. Most of the teachings can
be found in his other books. But here he forms a manual of church that presents a new image of the church
as a single functioning body, created out of Jew and Gentile, with its own standards, and involved in
spiritual conflict. The goal is seen in 4:13: “the unity of the faith . . . the knowledge of the Son of God . . .
the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ.”
11.4 THE EPISTLE TO THE PHILIPPIANS: THE PERSONAL EPISTLE
Of all of Paul’s letters written to churches, Philippians is the most personal. Though a fairly short letter, Paul
uses the personal pronoun “I” one hundred times. This is due to the intense loyalty the church at Philippi had
shown towards him and his comfort with them in sharing his tribulations and spiritual ambitions. The letter was
written nearly a decade after the first visit to Philippi by Paul, Silas and Luke.

The Letter to the Philippians does not reveal a major schism or heresy in the church to which Paul was bringing
discipline. Reference to Judaizers is more of a warning of potential problems than of actual concern.
a) Author, Setting and Date: Philippians is one of the prison epistles of Paul. The letter itself notes that Paul
and Timothy are the senders (1:1), while the Philippians are given the title “saints.” Philippi had been very
receptive of Paul’s message from the beginning. They had supported his ministry for a while but as time
went by and Paul moved further away they had not done much in support of his ministry.

Evidently, word of his imprisonment in Rome had renewed interest and concern for Paul within the church
(4:10-14). That Paul was writing from Rome is supported by his notes on the salvation of “the household of
Caesar” (1:15-16) and of the Praetorian guard (1:13).

The date for the letter is uncertain but the prison epistles were written between AD 56/57 and AD 60/61. It
is possible that the letter was written towards the end of Paul’s two year imprisonment in Rome. Reasons
include the fact that word of his imprisonment had to reach Philippi, a collection taken in Philippi, and a
messenger sent to Rome from Philippi with the gift prior to Paul’s response. Epraphroditus, the messenger
sent by the church, had become seriously ill while in Rome. Paul notes that his recovery is an answer to
prayer (2:25-27). He would be the deliverer of the letter to Philippi upon his return home (2:28-29).
b) Contents: Dominating the epistle, two key topics are seen within the epistle:
1. The Gospel: mentioned nine times. Paul mentions their “partnership in the gospel” (1:5), of
“confirming the gospel” (1:7), the “progress of the gospel’ (1:12), the “defence of the gospel” (1:16),
being “worthy of the gospel” (1:27), “striving for the gospel” (1:27), “service in the gospel” (2:22),
“labor in the gospel” (4:3), and “the beginning of the gospel” (4:15). The use of gospel denotes a
body of faith, a message, and the sphere of activity in his preaching.
Two key phrases define the heart of the gospel in the letter:
a. “obedient unto death, the death of the cross” (2:8)
b. “having a righteousness . . . which is through faith in Christ” (3:9).
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2. Joy: Paul rejoiced in every remembrance of the Philippians (1:3), because Christ was preached
(1:18), in the growth in humility of the followers (2:2), in his personal sacrifice for Christ (2:17), and
the gifts and goodwill of his friends (4:10). While Paul’s future outcome was still in doubt, Paul’s
joy in faith shines in contrast to the darkness of his circumstances.

Two key passages in the epistle deliver Paul’s thoughts on the supreme obedience of Christ to the will of
God (2:5-11) and Paul’s own supreme passion to achieve the purpose for which God called him (3:2-
15).
c) Outline Of Philippians
1. Salutations 1:1-2
2. Thanksgiving for Personal Fellowship 1:3-11
3. Encouragement in Personal Circumstances 1:12-2:18
4. Personal Relations with Messengers 2:19-30
5. Personal Warning against Legalism 3:1-4:1
6. Concluding Counsel and Greetings 4:2-23
d) Evaluation: Philippians is a note of thanks for favors, prayers, and gifts received and an expression of
Paul’s personal Christian life. The two key passages contain first the theological truth of Christ’s
obedience to the will of the Father. This is one of the finest statements of the incarnation in the Bible.
The second statement provides the motive for all Paul did and suffered for. Paul’s life was summed up
“IN CHRIST.” To “gain” HIM, to “know” HIM, to be found “IN HIM,” to attain the goal set in him
was Paul’s consuming passion.
11.5 THE EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS: CHRIST PREEMINENT
Colossians and Ephesians are very similar in content that the argument against Paul’s authorship of Ephesians
says that Ephesians is just a copy of Colossians with some additions. Colossae was a city that Paul had
evidently not visited before since he says that they “had not seen his face in the flesh” (2:1). It is possible that
the city had been evangelized by Timothy and Epaphras (1:7) who traveled around while Paul was in Ephesus.
The city was known for its black wool that was grown around the city. In Paul’s day the city was typically
immoral.
a) Authorship, Date, and Setting: Again, Colossians is one of the prison epistles of Paul. These epistles
were written between AD 56/57 and AD 60/61. Again, the prison epistles were written from either
Caesarea or from Rome while Paul was held in either place. Within the letter to the Colossians is seen a
heresy that had developed in Colosse and resulted in Paul’s writing of the letter. This heresy was a result of
its position on the oriental trade route. The Colossians were Phrygian Gentiles (1:27) whose religious
background included emotional mysticism. They were attracted to the teachings of ones who claimed a
mystic knowledge of God and the opportunity to know the fullness of God. The heresy’s tenets included:
1. Voluntary humiliation/ascetic practices (2:18; 20-21)
2. The worship of angels, who were intermediaries between God and humans (2:18)
3. Abstinence from certain foods and drinks, along with observance of feasts and ceremonial days
(2:16)

Many interpreters believe the heresy was a matter of syncretism of Jewish and oriental religious elements.
They appear to have venerated the “elemental spirits of the universe” (2:8) and also kept a Jewish ritualistic
observance of various food and ceremony rites (2:16). Paul’s answer was not an extended argument but a
careful representation of the person of Christ.
b) Content: Colossians contains a clear statement of Paul’s Christology (1:14-22). Redemption is prominent
in the teaching in the Colossians. IN CHRIST we have forgiveness of sins (1:14). Through the blood of his
cross we are reconciled to God (1:20, 22). The crimes written against us are abolished on the cross (2:14).
Key to Colossians is new life in Christ and the glorious mystery of Christ in you, the hope of glory.
c) Outline Of Colossians
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1. Salutation 1:1-2
2. Christ Preeminent in Personal Relationships 1:3-2:7
3. Christ Preeminent in Doctrine 2:8-3:4
4. Christ Preeminent in Ethics 3:5-4:6
5. Concluding Personal Greetings 4:7-18
d) Evaluation: Colossians was written to address the temptation to reject the simplicity of the gospel with a
desire for the secret mysteries and knowledge that leads to a special wisdom. False philosophies and
teachings will lead away from the simple truth of Christ crucified. IN CHRIST is found salvation, the
perfect picture of God. For Paul the gospel had clear ethical consequences not dependent on secret
knowledge. God has revealed the mystery and empowers the balance of knowledge and behavior.
LECTURE TWELVE
PAULINE EPISTLES: I AND II THESSALONIANS, TIMOTHY, TITUS AND PHILEMON (Part III)
12.1 INTRODUCTION
It has become evident from the last two lessons that Paul wrote his letters for specific purpose. This lesson will
introduce other sets of Paul’s epistles. The Thessalonians letters are addressed to a predominantly Gentile
audience where Paul gives a clear answer to the question: How shall Christians live until the Parousia (second
coming). These letters reflect Paul’s’ pastoral concerns for the congregation at Thessalonica. Paul’s primary
concern for them was the strength of their faith under persecution and the quality of character that they should
display in their lives until the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. In these two letters, Paul instructs the believers
at Thessalonica to live, work, and walk in a manner worthy of their calling. These epistles address pastoral care
of the churches, addressing Timothy and Titus. Therefore these letters are designed to facilitate the care of the
flock, the administration of the church, and the behavior within it. While Timothy and Titus are the named
recipients, clearly the books were written for the benefit of the churches they ministered within. All three letters
may be dated to soon after the events of Acts 28.

12.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture, you will be able to:
1. Discuss Paul’s relationship to the church at Thessalonica
O 2. Describe the context of Paul’s letters to the Thessalonians
3. Identify the key theological concerns found in I& II Thessalonians
4. Relate the message of Paul found in Thessalonians, Timothy, Titus,
and Philemon to the life of the Christians church today.
5. Discuss the content and message of Paul’s letters to Timothy, Titus
and Philemon.

12.3 THESSALONIANS
a) Authorship, Setting and Date: The traditional author of I & II Thessalonians was Paul. There is no
credible argument for denial of Pauline authorship. Though thought to be one of Paul’s earliest letters the
date and place of authorship is uncertain. The common date assessed for the composition is around AD 49-
54. The Church of Thessalonica was founded by Paul on his second missionary journey. In the city he met
violent opposition to his work yet reached a number of Jews and many Greeks. As Acts 17:1-10 shows the
establishment of a faithful church. The setting for the letter is found in the occasion of Timothy being sent
by Paul to the church. His challenge was to encourage and strengthen the church. Upon his return to Paul
and his subsequent report on the church, Paul was inspired to address the issues in the church described by
Timothy.
b) Main Themes and Structure and Content: The body of the letter contains a chain of commendations,
personal accounts and remembrances, counsel and exhortations. The central truth that is strongly
emphasized is the future hope of the coming Christ.
The letter is divided into six parts:
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1. The Commendation Sections 1:1-10

2. The Reminiscence Section 2:1-20
3. Paul reminds them of his ministry
4. The Messenger Section 3:1-13
5. The Exhortation Section 4:1-12
6. The Future Hope Section 4:13-5:11
7. The Duty Section 5:12-28
c) Evaluation: I Thessalonians gives a fresh view from Paul concerning his teachings on the second coming
of Christ (4:13-5:11). In 5:12-22 Paul’s position on personal duties in the Christian faith parallels the
teaching in Romans 12.
12.4 II THESSALONIANS: CORRECTIONS ON THE SECOND COMING
a) Authorship, Dating, and Setting: The author of II Thessalonians was Paul. The dating and place of
writing is probably soon after the first letter and from Corinth. The letter is written to the Church in
Thessalonica discussed above. Upon the arrival of Paul’s first letter, the church apparently misinterpreted
Paul’s teachings, specifically concerning the Lord’s second coming. Paul’s statement in I Thessalonians
that the time of Christ’s return was uncertain, his statement was interpreted to mean that His return was
imminent and at hand. This resulted in undue consternation and excitement that was taking away from daily
duties and activities. The converts were very concerned and unsettled (2:2). Their concerns were wrong
headed over the return of Christ, and it was upsetting their lives. Considering the wording in 2:2-3, some
scholars have posited a forged letter received by the church that confused the issue even more. Though this
is speculation, the confusion in the church was strong. Paul’s primary purpose in writing the letter was to
help the confused and anxious church to settle down and live a daily life of service and devotion.
b) Central Theme, Structure and Content: The central theme in “The Second Coming of Christ.” The
letter contains three main sections:
1. Salutations and Greetings 1:1-12
2. Warnings for the Future 2:1-17
3. The Apostle Confidence and Example 3:1-18
12.5 INTRODUCTION TO TIMOTHY
After his imprisonment in Rome (60-62), Paul probably began his fourth missionary journey. Before he left
Paul appointed Titus to represent Paul in Crete and Timothy to stay in Ephesus in charge of the church there.
Paul then most likely moved to Philippi in Macedonia (northern Greece) where he wrote his first letter to
Timothy and his letter to Titus (63-65). Later he traveled to Rome where he was imprisoned again and
eventually executed in AD 67-68. Just prior to his death, Paul wrote II Timothy. II Tim 4:6-8 may indicate that
the letter was his last epistle. The authorship of each of these epistles begins with the explicit identification of
Paul as the author (1 Tim 1:1; 2 Tim 1:1; Titus 1:1). Both early tradition and these internal salutations promote
a Pauline authorship. Contemporary scholarship is debating Pauline authorship due to the use of
uncharacteristic vocabulary and style, this argument is beyond the scope of this class and the traditional view of
Paul’s authorship is accepted.
12.5.1 THE FIRST EPISTLE TO TIMOTHY
a) Background and Purpose: Timothy was given care of the Church in Ephesus (1:3) while Paul went to
Macedonia. During his journey he came to realize that he would not return to Ephesus anytime soon (3:14-
15), if at all. So, he wrote this letter to Timothy to flesh out his challenge and charge to Timothy that he had
given to the young assistant (1:3, 18). This charge was to refute false teachings (1:3-7; 4:1-8; 6:3-5, 20-21)
and to supervise the affairs of the growing Ephesian congregation in worship (2:1-15) and leadership
appointments (3:1-13; 5:17-25). A major concern facing the church was the influence of Gnosticism,
decadent Judaism (1:3-7) and false asceticism (4:1-5).
b) Date and Recipients: At least eight years after Paul’s extended 3 year visit in Ephesus seen in Acts 19:8,
10; 20:31, thus after the events of Acts 28 (around 63-65). Paul writes to Timothy (1:2), who is a native of
Lystra (in modern Turkey). Timothy’s father was a Greek, while his mother was a Jewish Christian (Acts
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16:1). From his youth he was taught the Hebrew Bible (2 Tim 1:5; 3:15). Paul was probably the one who
led Timothy to Christ as he calls him his “true son in the faith” (1:3). Acts 16:3 tells us that Paul
circumcised Timothy so that he could work with Jews as he joined Paul on his second journey. Timothy
was with Paul during his long stay in Ephesus (Acts 19:22). He traveled with Paul to Macedonia and
Achaia (Acts 17:14-15). He apparently accompanied Paul all the way back to Jerusalem and Paul’s first
imprisonment.

Paul’s admiration and closeness to Timothy is apparent in Paul naming him co-sender in six epistles (2 Cor,
Phil, Col, 1 & 2 Thess, and Philemon). To the Philippians Paul speaks highly of Timothy (Phil 2:19-22).
When Paul was near his end, he requested Timothy to come to Rome to be with him (2 Tim 4:9, 21).
Hebrews 13:23 mentions that Timothy himself was captured and later released. Timothy was not an apostle
or an overseer but was given instructions about overseers (3:1-7; 5:17-22). He should be considered an
apostolic representative, who was assigned a special assignment for Paul (Titus 1:5).
12.5.2 THE SECOND EPISTLE TO TIMOTHY
a) Author, Date, and Setting: Paul found himself in another Roman prison following his release in AD
62/63 and his fourth missionary journey. It was during t
b) Paul’s fourth journey: that he wrote 1 Timothy and Titus. Then Nero arrested him in around AD 66-67. It
was during this second imprisonment that Paul wrote the second letter to Timothy. While during his first
Rome imprisonment he was confined to a rented house (Acts 28:30), Paul was placed in a cold dungeon
under Nero (4:3), chained as a common criminal (1:16; 2:9). Some friends deserted him while others could
not even find where he was kept (1:17). Paul knew that his work was finished, and his life was nearly at an
end (4:6-8).
c) Reasons for Writing: Paul had three important reasons to write to Timothy a second time:
1. He was lonely. Phygelus and Hermogenes, “everyone in the province of Asia (1:15), and Demas
(4:10) had deserted him. Titus and Tychicus (4:10-12) were away, and only Luke was with him
(4:11). Paul wanted Timothy to join him in his last days. His love for Timothy is noted in
several places: “his fellow-worker” (Rom 16:21), who “as a son with his father” served with Paul
(Phil 2:22; 1 Cor 4:17). Paul said of Timothy, “I have no one else like him (Phil 2:20). Paul
longed for Timothy (1:4) and twice asked him to come soon (4:9, 21).
2. Paul was concerned about the welfare of the churches during this time of persecution under
Nero, and admonishes Timothy to guard the gospel (1:14), to persevere in it (3:14), to keep on
preaching it (4:2), and to suffer for it, if it comes to that (1:8; 2:3).
3. He wanted to write to the Ephesians church through Timothy.
d) Main Theme: The main theme of 2 Timothy is the counsel and exhortation of Paul to a young minister
about his personal conduct and ministerial work. The key verse in 2 Timothy is 3:16: “All Scripture is God-
breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training for every good work.”
12.6 THE EPISTLE TO TITUS: SOUND DOCTRINE
a) Author, Date and Setting: The book bears Paul’s name as author and was written near the same time as
1 Timothy around AD 63-65. When Paul left Ephesus for his fourth journey, he apparently left Titus in
charge on the island of Crete. The situation on Crete was poor, a disorganized church and members who
were careless in their behavior. The injunctions found in Titus 2 reflect lazy and careless men, old women
who were gossips and wine drinkers, and young women who were idle and flirtatious.
b) Recipients: Titus was a gentile convert who had been an acquaintance and associate of Paul for at least
fifteen years. He was converted in Antioch early in Paul’s ministry, serving as the prime example against
Judaizing in the general council in Jerusalem attended by Paul and Barnabas (Gal 2:1, 3). He served as
Paul’s emissary during the trying days of Paul’s third journey in Corinth when the church rebelled against
Paul (2 Cor 7:6-16). Titus is last mentioned in the NT in 2 Tim 4:17 that states he went to Dalmatia.
c) Purpose: With the above issues involved within the church, Paul writes to encourage a young pastor in a
difficult assignment. Six times Paul urges the Cretans to do good works. Evidently they did not see
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salvation by faith as leading to an ethical and industrious life. Believers must maintain good works in life
even though they do not save you (3:5).Key issues in the church included a combination of ethical laxity
which developed from the Cretan’s natural tendencies (1:12-13), and the problems caused by Judaizers
promoting Jewish commandments (1:10). These Judaizers were “godless” (1:10), unruly (1:10), divisive
(1:11), and mercenary (1:11).
d) Content: Paul’s letter to Titus includes two of the most direct statements of belief or creeds in the NT:
2:11-14; 3:4-7. These passages provide a good summary of NT theology. The letter was written when the
church was becoming an institution with standards of belief and portrays those doctrines that reflect the
church’s theological beliefs.
12.7 THE EPISTLE TO PHILEMON
a) Author, Date and Setting: The short letter to Philemon is one of the Prison Epistles of Paul written
between AD 56/57 and 60/61 from either Caesarea or Rome (most probably Rome). The letter was written
at the same time and under the same circumstances as Ephesians and Colossians.
b) Recipient: Philemon was a businessman in Colosse who owned a slave named Onesimus. This slave had
escaped to Rome with some of his master’s goods and property, trying to lose himself in the crowd of the
great city. In some way, Onesimus ran into Paul and was converted (v. 10).
c) Content: Paul’s ethical standards called for Onesimus to return to Philemon and to return the stolen goods.
Paul’s letter was to accompany Onesimus asking Philemon to forgive and receive his slave. Paul offered to
pay for the financial loss Onesimus caused Philemon (vv. 18-19). Paul mentions that he hoped to be
released soon and come for a visit. Forgiveness is the main theme of the book. While the letter is extremely
personal, Paul’s evaluation of forgiveness is crucial for Christian beliefs.
d) Evaluation: All the elements of forgiveness is found in the letter: the offense (11, 18), compassion (10),
intercession (10, 18-19), substitution (18-19), restoration to favor (15), and elevation to a new relationship
(16). “Forgive us our debts as we also forgive our debtors.”

LECTURE THIRTEEN
THE GENERAL/CATHOLIC EPISTLES AND APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The previous lecture discussed pastoral letters related to Paul’s epistles and now we turn to general epistles so
known for their universal advice. These are generally those NT epistles not written by Paul. Only Hebrews does
not fit the general scheme. Most of these letters are addressed to the Church rather than to one specific church,
region, or person. While 2 & 3 John appears to be addressed to individuals, they are appendices to 1 John that is
clearly general in nature. While Paul addresses specific churches or people regarding specific issues,
controversies, etc., the general epistles are general in content.

13.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1.  Evaluate the significance of The Christological emphasis in universal
letters
2.  Identify the historical and theological issues relative to the universal
letter.
3.  Evaluate the practical and theological importance of the Book of
Revelation.
13.3 THE EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS
The letter addressed to the Hebrews contains a unique presentation of the work of Jesus Christ. The imagery
produces valuable contributions to the doctrines of the incarnation, His substitutionary death, and His
priesthood. Jesus is viewed as better or Higher (Greater).
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Hebrews reveals a unique relationship between the Old and New Covenants as well as the interpretation of the
Old Testament. One of the best-known aspects in Hebrews is the discussion regarding the life of Faith.
Hebrews plays an invaluable role in the life of the Christian church. The lessons are timeless and relevant to all
generations even though little is known of its setting and background.
a) Authorship, Date, and Setting: There is little agreement over authorship. Many names have been
posited as possibilities, but the question remains unsolved. The author does not reveal him or herself yet
was well known by the original recipients for the letter’s acceptance. Suggestions for authorship include
Paul, Timothy, Barnabas, and Luke, Apollos, Priscilla, Clement and various others. Internal evidence for the
date indicates the Temple was still standing, meaning that it had to have been written prior to AD 70. The
reason for this argument is twofold:
1. If the letter dated after the destruction of the Temple, the author would surely have noted this since
the Jewish religious imagery plays such a key part in the book.
2. Yet, the author continuously uses the present tense when discussing the Temple and the priestly
duties of sacrifice (5:1-3; 7:23, 27: 8:3-5; 9:6-9, 13, 25; 10:1, 3-4, 8, 11; 13:10-11).
3. A date around AD 68-69 is most probable.
b) Recipients: Apparently most of the original audience were Jewish converts to Christianity who were
familiar with the Temple, priesthood, sacrificial system, and the OT. These Hebrew believers were
apparently being tempted to revert to Judaism or to Judaize the gospel (2:14). The converts appear to be in
constant danger of relapsing into Judaism, or of placing too much importance of Jewish ceremonialism and
ritual observance. Some scholars suggest that the audience may have been contemplating joining a group
such as the Essenes at Qumran. Another suggestion is that the group was from the large group of priests
who became obedient to the faith. Overall, when and to whom the letter was written has little importance in
relation to the overwhelming value the book holds for the church. The church has always regarded this
epistle as a powerful image of the message of God through His son, Jesus Christ.
c) Purpose: Immediate purposes:
1. To doctrinally establish the truth of the finality of Christianity, in contrast to the temporary and
typological nature of Judaism.
2. To show that Christ is the fulfillment of the earlier revelation to Moses, upon which Judaism was
formed.
3. To strengthen the believers in the face of persecution, actual and forthcoming, by weaning their hearts
from Judaism.
4. To prevent apostasizing to Judaism where leasers were probably noting the superiority of religious
structure and activity (covenant, OT patriarchs, Moses and Joshua, priesthood, Temple and vessels,
service and animal sacrifice) over a Christian faith that purely faith in an unseen Saviour.

To individuals raised in the Jewish tradition of honoring and trusting in these traditional matters, the argument
was convincing. Thus the author proposed tangible proofs of the superiority of Christ over the OT covenant.
The “better things” of Christianity are emphasized to proclaim the infinite and eternal superiority of Christ over
Moses, the prophets, the angels, Joshua, Aaron, and Temple sacrifices.
d) Theme: The supremacy of the person and work of Jesus Christ to the Mosaic religious culture and worship.
Jesus Christ is the absolute revealer and mediator of God’s new covenant of grace. There can be no turning back
to the former ways when the new way is far superior to the old way. God’s people must rely totally upon Jesus
work through His death, resurrection, and ascension which have opened the way into the true sanctuary of
God’s presence in heaven. While temptation to give up the struggle is difficult, believers must persevere in the
spiritual contest and race they are in.
e) Content: The outline of the letter to the Hebrews reveals the emphasis of the book clearly:
1. Jesus Christ is superior to OT prophets 1:1-3
2. Jesus Christ is superior to angels 1:4-2:4
3. Jesus Christ is superior to Adam’s Race 2:5-18
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4. Jesus Christ is superior to Moses 3:1-6

 (Exhortation to steadfastness 3:7-19)
5. Jesus Christ is superior to Joshua 4:1-13
6. Jesus Christ is superior to Aaron 4:14-10:25
 In His person 4:14-7:28
 In His work 8:1-10:25
7. The Christian life superior to Judaism 11:1-13:17
 A life of faith Ch 11
 A life of hope Ch 12
 Exhortation against rejecting New Covenant 12:25-29
 A life of love (13:1-17)
8. Conclusion 13:18-25

The key word in the book is BETTER, or SUPERIOR. These words lead to the flow of the letter through its
main thought.
1. Better Revelation 1:1-4
2. Better Hope 7:19
3. Better Priesthood 7:20-28
4. Better Covenant 8:6
5. Better Promises 8:6
6. Better Sacrifices 9:23
7. Better Possessions 10:34
8. Better Country 11:16
9. Better Resurrection 11:35
 Other key words and phrases include:
 “Sat down” in relation to the finished work of Christ 1:3; 10:12; 12:2
 “Heavenly calling,” 3:1; “Priest,” 4:14; “gift,” 6:4; “country,” 11:16; “city,” 12:22
A series of eleven “LET US” statements of exhortation:
1. Be careful, 4:1
2. (2) Labor, 4:11
3. (3) Come confidently to the throne of grace, 4:16
4. (4) Go on, 6:1
5. (5) Draw near, 10:22
6. (6) Hold fast, 10:23
7. (7) Consider one another, 10:24
8. (8) Throw off every hindrance and run with perseverance, 12:1
9. (9) Worship God acceptably, 12:28
10. (10) Go forth, 13:13
11. (11) Offer a sacrifice of praise, 13:15
Overall, the book can be divided into two primary sections: Primarily doctrinal and primarily practical. The
Epistle to the Hebrews provides images and perspectives of the work and position of Christ that are unique in
the Bible. The Faith chapter (11) provides a roll call of heroes throughout biblical history, all of whom dreamed
of Jesus’ day.

13.4. THE LETTER OF JAMES

a) Author, Date, and Setting: The book reveals that “James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ”
(1:1). Tradition has named this James as the “brother” or half-brother of Jesus. He was also the leader of
the Jerusalem council (Acts 15). Paul calls James the Lord’s brother (Gal 1:19). If the authorship issue is
correct then the letter must have a pre-AD 62 date for composition because James was executed by the
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Jews. Most scholars who accept James, the brother of the Lord as author, date the letter to the 50’s as a
countermeasure against a misinterpretation of Paul’s teaching on freedom in grace and salvation by faith,
not works. Paul faced the same issue in Rom 6:1ff. The general setting for the letter is unknown as far as
place of writing and destination.
b) Recipients: James 1:1 states that the letter is sent to “the twelve tribes scattered among the nations.”
Some believe that this refers to Christians in general, but the “twelve tribes” probably represents Jewish
Christians in a more natural terminology. These were probably Jewish believers who lived outside of
Palestine and possibly devout Diaspora Jews.
c) Main Theme: Practical Religion: Good works as part of the Christian lifestyle is the main teaching. James
2:26b says: “faith without works is dead.” Genuine faith must and will be accompanied by a consistent
lifestyle.

d) Content: The key issue in the letter is a debate over TRUE and FALSE RELIGION. The argument
presents TRUE religion versus FALSE religion throughout Ch 1-4. Chapter 5 provides warnings,
exhortations and instruction.
13.5 THE FIRST LETTER OF PETER
a) Author, Date, Place, Setting and Audience: Identified in the letter as Peter (1:1).5:13 notes that Peter
is in Babylon, but probably not the city in Mesopotamia. Possibilities: 1) a fortress in Egypt known as
Babylon, 2) Jerusalem, 3) Rome but probably a symbolic use of the name. Dating is speculative but must be
before AD 67-68 due to Peter’s death by Nero. “To the scattered elect throughout Asia Minor.” Probably
means the entire Christian church in the region, Jew and Gentile. To churches primarily founded by Paul,
Peter writes a spiritual message of encouragement, instruction, and admonition.
b) Purpose: Two important commands of Jesus are reflected in the letter is to encourage and strengthen the
brothers (Luke 22:32) and to feed the flock of God (John 21:15-17). The key word in the letter is
SUFFERING, which occurs at least fifteen times in the letter.
c) Central Theme/Message: Salvation and suffering as exemplified in the life of Christ, or suffering and
how to deal with it. The ability to handle persecution is best related in this book.
d) Content:
1. Salutations 1:1-2
2. The Glorious Salvation 1:3-21
3. The Believer’s Life 1:22-2:8
4. In the Light of the Great Salvation
5. The Believer’s Position and Duties 2:9-3:13
6. Instruction and Encouragement 3:14-4:19
7. About Suffering
8. Final Exhortation and Warnings 5:1-14
e) Images of Christ
1. Source of Hope 1:3
2. Sacrificial Lamb 1:19
3. Chief Cornerstone 2:6
4. Perfect Example 2:21
5. Ideal Sufferer 2:23
6. Sin-bearer 2:24
7. Shepherd of souls 2:25
8. Exalted Lord 3:22
13.6 THE SECOND LETTER OF PETER
a) Author, Date, Place, Audience and Setting: Identified as Simon Peter in 1:1. Peter’s life was at the
end (1:12-15). He had written a previous letter (3:1) to the same audience (I Peter). Since Peter was
 47

martyred during the reign of Nero in AD 67/68, the date for both letters most likely is found between 65 to
68.
b) Central Theme: A warning against false teachers and scoffers. In order to counteract the influence of
false teaching in the church, a great emphasis is made upon the Scriptures as God’s Word, and on the
fulfillment of the divine promises.
c) Purpose: While I Peter reflected on dealing with persecution outside the church, this second letter deals
with the problem of false teachers and evildoers who have entered the church (2:1; 3:3-4). His purpose is
threefold:
1. To stimulate Christian growth (ch. 1)
2. To combat false teaching (ch 2)
3. To encourage watchfulness in view of the Lord’s certain return (ch. 3)
d) Content:
1. Salutations 1:1-2
2. The Spiritual Life 1:3-21
3. False Teachers 2:1-22
4. Their Corrupt Character and Doctrines
5. Predictions concerning scoffers 3:1-18
6. The Coming Day of the Lord
7. An Exhortation to Steadfastness
13.7 THE FIRST LETTER OF JOHN
The Johannine literature (Gospel of John, I, II, & III John) were most likely written during the persecution of
the Roman Emperor Domitian (AD 81-96).
a) Author, Date, Place and Setting: Tradition states that I John was written by John, the son of Zebedee
(1:19-20), who was a disciple, apostle, and the probable author of the Book of Revelation. Yet, this is a rare
occasion in NT epistles where the author does not give his/her name. The date is noted above and cannot be
narrowed. The place of writing, while probably in Ephesus, is really uncertain. The readers were faced with
an early form of philosophical heresy known as Gnosticism. This teaching led to laxity in moral restraint
due to a false sense of freedom. This heresy was the most influential and dangerous within the church for
nearly 200 years. Its teaching was a strict dichotomy between the good of the spirit, and the evil of matter.
This dualism produced five key errors:
b) The human body is evil matter, thus in contrast to a spiritual God that is good.
c) Salvation is escape from the evil body achieved by special (secret) knowledge, not by faith.
d) Christ then could not be human in any way so two views arose: 1) Christ only appeared to have a human
body, a view called docetism (to seem), and 2) The divine Christ joined the man Jesus at baptism and
left him before he died, a view called cerenthianism, after the main spokesman Cerinthus. This second
view is the predominant view confronted by John.
e) Since the body is evil it is treated harshly, and this is called ascetism which is the background for
Colossians (2:21-23).
f) On the other hand, the dualism separated human physical responsibility from spiritual belief, leading to
moral laxity. Breaking the law physically had no spiritual significance.
g) Audience: Apparently the letter was written in general terms for the church throughout the world,
since it has no greetings, farewells, or other personal allusions of any type. Thus this is a
catholic/universal/general epistle (see 2:12-14). Yet, believers are given affectionate titles such as “dear
children”, 2:1, 18, 28; 3:7, 18; 4:4; 5:21, and “dear friends”, 3:2, 21; 4:1, 7, 11.
h) Purpose: With the background of Gnosticism, John wrote with two basic purposes in mind: Expose
false teachers (2:26) and to give believers assurance of salvation (5:13). John attacks their moral
depravity (3:8-10), while promoting the faith of the believers with his eye-witness account of the
incarnation of Christ (1:3). Four specific purposes for writing are also evident:
1. To add to their joy (1:4)
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2. To keep them from sin (2:1)

3. To warn them about the false teachers (2:26)
4. To promote good life (5:13)
i) Central Theme and Content: The central theme is God is life, light, and righteous love. His
character calls for holy living and brotherly love by believers. The word “KNOW” appears over thirty
times in the letter. The letter is filled with “certainty” with many “we know” statements:
1. That a righteous life reveals regeneration 2:29; 5:18
2. That we shall be like Christ at His coming 3:2
3. That Christ came to take away our sins 3:5
4. That brotherly love indicates life 3:14
5. That He lives in us by the witness of the Spirit 3:24
6. That we have eternal life 5:13
7. That our prayers are answered 5:15
Outline:
 God is Light 1:1-2:29
 God is Righteous Love 3:1-4:21
 Faith and Love Overcome 5:1-20
 In the War between good and evil
13.8 THE SECOND LETTER OF JOHN
a) Author, Audience and Purpose: The author is Apostle John. “To the chosen lady and
her children.” This may presume a specific individual and her family in Ephesus or it may
refer to a church and its members personified. If the first possibility is correct, this is the
only letter addressed to a woman. The key Words are LOVE, four times, and TRUTH, five
times. The purpose of the epistle was apparently written to warn friends against heresy and
association with false teachers (vv. 7-11).
b) Main Theme
Content
I. Divine Truth in its relation to believers vv. 1-6
II. Worldly Error vv. 7-11
III. Concluding remarks vv. 12-13
13.9 THE THIRD LETTER OF JOHN
a) Author and Audience: The apostle John wrote it to someone named Gaius (v.1) for the
purposes of Christian Hospitality. Key verse is “We ought therefore to show hospitality to
such men so that we may work together for the truth.” V. 8.
b) Content: Three characters are seen Gaius, Diotrephes, and Demetrius, and some traveling
evangelists:
1. Gaius, to whom the letter is written vv.1-8
2. Diotrephes, a leader in the church vv. 9-10
3. Demetrius, excellent reputation v. 12
4. Christian evangelists vv. 7-11
5. Closing salutations vv. 13-14
13.10 THE LETTER OF JUDE
a) Author: The letter identifies the author as Jude (1:1), a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother
of James. Jude is a version of Hebrew Judah, or Greek Judas. It was a common name among
Jews. Tradition indicates that this was also a half-brother of Jesus (see Mark 6:3; Gal. 1:19).
The brothers did not believe in Jesus at first but after the resurrection they became followers,
Acts 1:14. Jude may not have felt worthy to note his relationship.
b) Audience, Main purpose and Content: The description given is very general (v.1) and
could apply to Jewish Christians, Gentile Christians or both. A location is not indicated. The
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main purpose is to WARN THE CHURCH is the main emphasis, to warn against immoral
teachers, heresies, and other problems endangering the faith of believers. The content
includes:
1. Salutation vv.1-2
2. Occasion of the letter vv. 3-4
3. Warnings from the past vv. 5-7
4. Characteristics of godless teachers vv. 8-13
5. References to prophecies vv. 14-19
6. Summary of Christian duties vv. 20-23
7. Benediction vv. 24-25
13.11 THE BOOK OF REVELATION
The Book of Revelation is a type of literature known as APOCALYPTIC. Apocalyptic literature refers to
literature usually written during persecution and involves deliverance of a small remnant of the faithful from an
overpowering foe. The issue between good and evil carries a tense feeling of who will win. For a time it
appears evil will triumph as large armies of evil nations gather for a final battle against the faithful remnant.
God enters the fray in the conflict and brings the ultimate victory.

The Book of Revelation is the only sustained apocalypse in the NT canon. Apocalyptic literature is seen in the
OT in portions of Ezekiel, Isaiah, Zechariah, and the Book of Daniel.
a) Characteristics of Apocalypse: Apocalypse is a genre with major characteristics:
1. The scope of apocalypse is cosmic, having characters moving with ease between heaven, earth, and hell.
Angels, immense human armies do battle with deity with the ultimate divine victory for the sake of an
oppressed and persecuted minority.
2. Apocalyptic cosmology is dualistic. Good and evil are in conflict within the world, almost equally
matched. In the desperate confrontation good will triumph.
3. Apocalypse is generally eschatological in that its focus is on the end of history and the final stages of
human existence. Yet, beyond eschatological concern for end times, apocalypse refers to revelation and
a writing that reveals the revelation. In this way an apocalypse may not relate to the end times at all.
4. The mode of presentation is usually ecstatic vision, dream, or supernatural journey experienced by the
author, who is usually a well-known figure from Israel’s history. The vision is filled with imagery that
is concrete in nature which provides meaning through allegory and symbolism.
5. Apocalyptic is extremely symbolic. Metaphoric images and symbolic images fill the text with meaning
(Christ as lion and lamb, etc.).
b) Keys to Interpretation of Apocalyptic Literature
1. To interpret a symbolic and metaphoric language literally is misinterpretation. Look for the meaning
behind the symbol. Almost everything is described figuratively not literally
2. Look for archetypes, which include image, plot, motif, character type, or another concept that might
appear with repeated regularity. Apocalyptic archetypes are defined through images that include: light,
darkness, blood, lamb, water, sea, throne, war, gold, and bride.
3. Recognize that apocalypse always originates in times of oppression and persecution imposed upon the
Hebrews by foreign powers. It is intended to encourage faith and hope in the oppressed. Therefore it
has a redemptive quality that brings victory in the end.
4. Look for OT allusions. The symbols in the Book of Revelation have roots in the Hebrew Bible.
Hebrew Scriptures are reworked and adapted in Revelation which is heavily dependent upon Daniel,
Ezekiel, and Zechariah.
5. Recognize that apocalypse is different than Hebrew prophecy. Apocalypse must not be interpreted as
prophecy.
 Prophecy carries contingencies of obedience of a group of people.
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 Apocalypse notes that things are beyond redemption and presents a predetermined and
unchangeable plan for human history.
 Prophecy is part of the course of history as a continuation of the present.
 Apocalypse the future is a decisive break from the present by the direct intervention of God.
 Prophecy is poetic.
 Apocalypse is narrative prose.
c) Authorship, Date, Place and Setting, and Audience: The book refers to the author as John on four
occasions (1:1, 4, 9; 22:8). Early Church fathers dating to the 2 nd century have declared this John as the
Apostle John, son of Zebedee. The imagery in the text portrays a Jewish author who knows the Hebrew
Scripture. Yet, the author was a well-known church leader among the churches of Asia Minor. While the
date is uncertain, traditionally the book is placed within the context of the persecution of Domitian, probably
around AD 96. If so, then John, if he was the apostle, was a very old man near the end of his life. The book
tells us that John was on the Island of Patmos in exile, “because of the Word of God and the testimony of
Jesus Christ.” Thus, the setting appears to be the persecution of the church within the Roman Empire at a
crucial time in the church’s history, the post-apostolic age. Rome was the most powerful empire on earth.
The smaller groups of people throughout the empire were helpless against the vast Roman army. Revelation
claims that the letter is written to the seven churches in Asia Minor. Within the book the number seven
carries a special significance in depicting completeness within the will of God. Thus, the seven churches
may reflect all of Christianity.
d) Methods of Interpretation: Numerous approaches to interpreting Revelation have been posited over the
centuries, while numerous theological constructs have attempted to define the meaning and prophetic nature
of the book. Four important approaches to understanding the imagery in the book reflect the many attempts
in existence:
1. The Preterist view sees the apparent prophecies of Revelation as being fulfilled already.
2. The Futurist view: sees a universal history forecast for humans and all of creation.
3. The Historicist view: sees the events in the book as symbolic portrayals of church history from the
first coming to the second coming of Christ.
4. The Eclectic view: sees the spiritual principles of the book as the emphasis rather than a dogmatic
definition of the future. There are three types of passages in the text: 1) texts that are clear in
teachings, 2) mysterious texts that still reveal elements of truth for instruction, and 3) texts so veiled
and mysterious that their meaning cannot be determined with our knowledge today.
The teachings or prophetic nuances contain both near and far elements that deal both with present concerns of
John’s age and future concerns at the end of time.

e) Purpose, Theme and Central Figure: The purpose entails that during persecution God WILL win in
the end. The theme is the moral and spiritual conflict of good and evil, and its final resolution. While the
central figure is THE LAMB, who is the final victor slain for the sins of the world yet the powerful
redeemer of His people. The image of the LAMB is noted at least thirty times in Revelation.
f) Contents: The final chapters of Revelation serve as an inclusio to the beginning chapters of Genesis. In
Genesis the Sun is created, sin enters the world, creation is cursed due to man’s sin, Satan triumphs, and
humans are banished from the presence of the Tree of Life. In Revelation the Sun is no longer needed, sin
is banished, the curse is removed, Satan in overthrown and punished, and all the faithful are given admission
to the Tree of Life.

Revelation is divided into a series of visions that lead to the final resolution to the world’s problems. These
visions depict the various veiled, partly veiled, and clearly presented images, and apocalyptic prose that
addresses the situations of the day and predicts for the future. Revelation is a difficult book to read, interpret
and to learn from but should be given careful attention due to the teachings of Jesus as the “One who IS,
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was, and is to come.” Revelation emphasizes the “is-ness” of God regardless of the age or the
circumstances.
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Glossary
1. Apocalypse: Apocalypse is generally eschatological in that its focus is on the end of history and the
final stages of human existence.
2. Apocalyptic: refers to literature usually written in the midst of persecution and involves deliverance of
a small remnant of the faithful from an overpowering foe.
3. Ascetism: Since the body is evil it is treated harshly
4. Atonement: is a comprehensive term referring to the work of Christ (or sacrifices in the Old Testament in
its function of overcoming the estrangement between man and God.
5. Authority of Scripture: Scripture as the only source of the Church’s beliefs and practices.
6. Basileia: (Greek) Kingdom
7. Canon: The word “canon” comes from the Greek term kanon which originally meant a “reed”
used for measuring.
8. Cerenthianism: The divine Christ joined the man Jesus at baptism and left him before he died.
9. Diaspora: the scattered ones
10. Diatessoran: weaving all four gospel into one,
11. Dictation: God dictated word by word the very word of the Bible to the authors
12. Docetism: Jesus just appeared to have human body and soul, but the spirit, mind was divine.
13. Dunamis: power
14. Dynamic Inspiration: Guidance of the Holy Spirit, Human writers recorded their understanding of
God’s self-revelation in their own language and for their specific culture under the direct guidance of the
Holy Spirit.
15. Eclectic: sees the spiritual principles of the book as the emphasis rather than a dogmatic definition of
the future.
16. Ekklesia: church
17. Euangelion: good news
18. Exegesis: This is the process of bringing the meaning” out of” the biblical text by the modern reader.
Exegesis is part of the hermeneutical process.
19. Exousia: authority
20. Futurist: sees a universal history forecast for the human race and all of creation.
21. Hasidim: These conservative religious leaders eventually matured into the group known as the
Pharisees of the NT.
22. Hellenization: spread of Greeek culture to the known world
23. Hermeneutics: This is the art of biblical interpretation.
24. Historicist: sees the events in the book as symbolic portrayals of church history from the first coming
to the second coming of Christ.
25. Huperokee: earthly power
26. Inspiration: When the term “inspiration” is used it means the involvement of God in the process of
communicating His revelation (self-disclosure) and usually refers to its written form.
27. Intercalation: This literary technique brackets one narrative by the beginning and ending of a second
narrative.
28. Inter-testamental period: four hundred years of silence
29. Irony: Irony occurs when a speaker makes a statement that has an unintended and often opposite
meaning to the literal and surface meaning.
30. Kerygma: The content of the preaching message about Jesus as our Savior.
31. Koine: The Greek spoken and written in the first century AD called “common” Greek.
32. Malkutha: (Aramaic – kingdom
33. Muratorian Fragment: oldest extant list of New Testament writings
34. Narrator: knowing more than the actual characters in the story.
35. Parakletos: Holy Spirit
36. Polis: city
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37. Preterist: sees the apparent prophecies of Revelation as being fulfilled already.
38. Reader Presuppositions: these presuppositions may be called assumptions but must not be synonymous
with beliefs or convictions.
39. Revelation: God’s self-disclosure to humanity through His words and actions.
40. Sadducees: Jews who held political power and helped in civil government in Herod’s reign.
41. Semeia: sign
42. Series of Three: Mark’s Gospel displays an affinity to series of three throughout the book.
43. Synagogues: places of worship
44. Synoptic gospels: three gospels viewing together
45. Tepas : wonders
46. Theological Presuppositions: Biblical truth is discovered and expressed within a particular universe of
meaning.
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Urgency: Using run-on sentences to tell the story
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General Bibliography
Recommended Textbook
1. Varughese, Alex, ed. Discovering the New Testament: Community and Faith. Kansas City: Beacon
Hill Press, 2006.
2. Any standard version of the New Testament
3. Tashjian, Jirair, et al. Discovering the New Testament: Community and Faith, The Foundry Publishing,
2004. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aunke-ebooks/detail.action?
docID=5639075.

Resources for Further Reading

1. Barnett, Paul. Is the New Testament Reliable? Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 1986.
2. Brown, Schuyler. Origins of Christianity: A Historical Introduction to the New Testament, Oxford University
Press, 1984. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aunke-ebooks/detail.action?
docID=273100.
3. Bruce, F. F. The Defense of the Gospel in the New Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Pub.,
1994.
4. Bruce, F. F. The Message of the New Testament: Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Company,
1972.
5. Crossley, James G.. Reading the New Testament : Contemporary Approaches, Taylor & Francis Group,
2010. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aunke-ebooks/detail.action?
docID=544038.
6. Dicharry, Warren. Human Authors of the New Testament. Collegevill, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1990.
7. Dunnett, Walter M. New Testament Survey. Marrion, Indiana: The Wesley Press, 1976.
8. Fee, Gordon and Stuart, Douglas. How to Read the Bible for All its Worth, second edition. Grand
Rapids: MI: Wondervan, 1993.
9. Gundry, Robberts H. A Survey of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: ZonderVan Publishing House,
1994
10. Johnson, Luke T. The Writings of the New Testament: An Interpretation. London: SCM Press Ltd.,1986.
11. Keck, Leander. The New Interpreters Bible New Testament Survey. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2005.
12. Martin, Dale B.. New Testament History and Literature, Yale University Press, 2012. ProQuest Ebook
Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aunke-ebooks/detail.action?docID=3421168.
13. Neyrey, Jerome H (Ed). The Social World of Luke-Acts: Models for Interpretation. Peabody, MA:
Hendrickson Publishers, 1991.
14. Rogerson, J. W.. An Introduction to the Bible, Taylor & Francis Group, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central,
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aunke-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1783345.
15. Tenney, Merril C. New Testament Survey: William Eerdmans Publishing Company: Inter-varsity Press
(revised), 1985.
16. The Essence of the New Testament : A Survey, edited by Elmer L. Towns, and Ben Gutierrez, B&H
Publishing Group, 2012. ProQuest Ebook Central,
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aunke-ebooks/detail.action?docID=4719187.
17. Video links provided on the student’s portal