MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING
FULL
HANDWRITTEN
NOTES
By
Bhushan Shrirame
 GME SYLLABUS FOR ONLINE TEST

Candidate must have sufficient knowledge in the following subjects and are required
to revise prior appearing for online test.
These topics have already been taught during the graduation.
 INTERVIEW SYLLABUS FOR GME’s

Candidate must have sufficient knowledge in the following subjects and are required to revise
prior appearing for interview. These topics have already been taught during the graduation.

1. MECHANICS/ FLUID MECHANICS/ HYDROSTATICS

a. Work, power, energy, concept of force, vectors and concept of friction/lubrication.
b. Theory of viscosity, flow, nozzles, venturi
c. Bernoulli’s and Archimedes principle
d. Operating theory and principle of different types of pumps.
e. Reciprocating Air Compressors Basics.

2. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
a. UTS, Young’s modulus, Poisson ratio , stress/strain
b. Shear force and bending moment.
c. Material testing / NDT

3. MATERIAL SCIENCE/ METALLURGY

a. Iron and manufacturing process
b. Property of iron and its alloys
c. Theory of failure (fatigue, creep, stress hotspots etc.)
d. Different types of failures. Heat treatment process
e. Corrosion

4. THERMODYNAMICS
a. Basic gas laws,
b. State the laws of thermodynamics. What do you understand by a Heat Engine and Heat
Pump? Basics of refrigeration cycle.
c. Basic cycles, efficiency , different process ( adiabatic, isothermal etc)
d. Heat transfer theory
e. AC and Ref theory. Enthalpy diagrams, entropy charts, Mollier charts etc. Types of
refrigerants used in marine industry.
f. Air compressor theory
g. Types of Boilers and safety fittings

5. ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND BASIC ELECTRONICS/INSTRUMENTATION

a. Basic theory of electricity , its laws and network theorems, electromagnetic theory
and faradays laws of electrolysis
b. AC and DC circuits. How AC and DC is generated.
c. Basic knowledge of semiconductors. Transducers, measuring devices and control circuit
terminology. d. Theory of operation of Induction motors.

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6. WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY
a. Mechanics of machining, single and multi-point cutting tools, tool geometry and materials, tool life
and wear; economics of machining; principles of non-traditional machining processes; principles
of work holding.
b. Metrology and Inspection: Limits, fits and tolerances; linear and
angular Measurements; comparators; gauge design;
interferometry; form and finish Measurement; alignment and
testing methods
c. General workshop tools including hand tools.

7. MATERIAL SCIENCE/ METALLURGY

a. Describe the process of production of pig iron from iron ore. Describe the principle of production
of steel from pig iron by the following process: - open hearth, Bessemer converter and modern
process. Explain the following properties of materials used in engineering: - Elasticity,
brittleness, hardness, strength, toughness, ductility, malleability, plasticity and workability. How
is steel categorized on basis of carbon percentage?
b. Define the term isotropic. What do you understand by the terms:-cold working, hot working, strain
hardening, forging, and stress concentration. State the composition of the following materials: -
Cast Iron, Cast Steel, Mild Steel, Stainless Steel and high tensile steel. Briefly compare their
properties characteristic and list their use.
c. Define the terms corrosion and erosion. Give examples. Explain the principle of a Galvanic cell.
List the metals in their electro chemical potential. Identify the noble metal and the sacrificial metals
in the list. List the different types of corrosion and explain their causes.

8. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES / DIESEL ENGINE CYCLE

a. Basic knowledge of 2 stroke and 4 stroke engine. Main Components of Diesel
Engine , and valve timing diagrams.
b. Draw the pressure vs volume curves for the Otto, Diesel and Dual cycle and compare the process.
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of these cycles. How is the actual cycle process
measured in an operating engine? Define ENGINE. Define INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINE. What is the meaning of SI and CI engine? Diesel engine is what type?
c. Explain a 2 stroke and a 4 stroke cycle. Compare the cycle for a 2 stroke and a
4 stroke diesel engine. Draw p-v curves and identify important phases of the stroke in it.
d. Prove mathematically: - the area under a P-V curve is the work done. Derive the equation for
power output P= Pm x L x A x n
e. Marine Exhaust gas Turbocharger.

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IC ENGINES

What is heat engine?

Heat engine is the device which convert chemical energy into the heat energy and then this
heat energy converted into mechanical work
Type of engine
I. External Combustion engine: -
In external combustion engine, the combustion of fuel take place outside the cylinder
in furnace. The heat energy of hot products of combustion, directly used to produce
mechanical power in a gas turbine

II. Internal combustion engine: -

In these engines, the combustion of fuel takes place inside the cylinder arrangement to
develop mechanical power

Advantage of IC engine over external combustion engine

 These are compact and efficient
 These have low weight to power ratio
 They need less operating cost hence maintenance and operating cost is low
 These are suitable for mobile application

Disadvantages of IC engines over external combustion engine

 It used costly fuel like petrol and diesel whereas external combustion engine can use
cheaper fuel like coal
 These are not suitable for large capacity power plant\

Application of heat engine

 Gas turbine, diesel and steam power plant for power generation. Also these are used
for naval ships
 Automobile, airplane, Industrial application

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 Fig – Internal combustion engine

Working of 2 stroke engines

 First stroke – intake and combustion

 Second stroke – expansion and exhaust

In a two-stroke engine, the working cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or one
revolution of the crankshaft
(TDC – Top Dead Centre, BDC- Bottom Dead Centre)
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Valve timing diagram of 2 stroke engine

Working of 4 stroke engines

In a four-stroke engine, the

working cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston or one revolution of the crankshaft.
The cycle of operation for an ideal four- s t roke SI engine consists of the following
four strokes

(i)suction or intake stroke;

(ii) compression stroke;

(iii) expansion or power stroke and

(iv) exhaust

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 Valve timing diagram of four stroke engine

Inlet valve
 Inlet valve opens few degrees before TDC when the pressure drops below the atm
fresh charge is admitted
 When the piston reaches BDC and starts its compression stroke the charge continue to
move into the cylinder due to kinetic energy to take its advantage the inlet valve is
kept opened for few degrees after BDC

Exhaust valve
 The exhaust valve opens few degrees before BDC and close few degrees after TDC
 The exhaust valve remains open even after the inlet value has opened this period of
value overlaps helps in driving out the exhaust gases efficiently

Ignition
 Due to time lag between the supply of spark and ignition of charge the spark is
provided few degrees before the end of the compression stroke called as ignition
advantage

Scavenging
 It is the process of removing exhaust gases from the combustion chamber of the
engine cylinder and drawing fresh charge inside the cylinder.
 Improper scavenging will deduce the thermal efficiency, volumetric efficiency, power
output and increase specific fuel consumption.
Type of scavenging
 Crossflow scavenging
 Back flow or loop scavenging 6
 Uniflow scavenging
S.no Parameter SI Engine CI Engine
1. Definition It is an engine in which the spark is used to It is an engine in which heat of compressed air
burn the fuel. is used to burn the fuel.

2. Fuel used Petrol is used as fuel. Diesel is used as fuel.

3. Operating cycle It operates on Otto cycle. It operates on Diesel cycle.

4. Compression ratio Low compression ratio. High compression ratio.

5. Thermal efficiency High thermal efficiency. Less thermal efficiency.

6. Method of ignition Spark plug is used to produce spark for the Heat of compressed air is used for the ignition.
ignition.

7. Engine Speed High speed engines. Low speed engines.

8. Pressure generated Low pressure is generated after combustion. High pressure is generated
after combustion.

9. Constant parameter during Constant volume cycle. Constant pressure cycle.

cycle

10. Intake Air + fuel. Only air.

Weight of engine Si engine has less weight. CI engine are heavier.

12. Noise production It produces less noise. It produces more noise.

13. Production of hydrocarbon Less Hydrocarbon is produced. More hydrocarbon is produced.

14. Starting The starting of SI engine is easy. The starting of CI engine is difficult.

15. Maintenance cost Low High

16. Vibration problem Less Very High

17. Cost of engine Less cost High cost

18. Volume to power ratio Less High

19. Fuel supply Carburetor Injector

20. application It is used in light commercial vehicles like It is used in heavy duty vehicles likes bus,
motorcycle, cars etc. trucks, ships etc.
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Comparison between SI and CI Engines
Two Stroke Engine Four Stroke Engine

The weight of the two-stroke engine is lighter. The weight of the four-stroke engine is heavier.

The cost of a two-stroke engine is less compared to a four-stroke engine. The cost of a four-stroke engine is high.

The two-stroke engine used in motorcycles, scooters, and many more. The following example is a bus, truck, car, and so on.

Here more wear and tear happens while moving. But in four-stroke less wear and tear.

The consumption of lubricating oil is more in two strokes. The consumption of lubricating oil is less in four strokes.

It has more thermal efficiency compared to a two-stroke

The two-stroke has less thermal efficiency.
engine.

This is an air-cooled engine which means when the engine gets heated it is cooled
The water or air is used for cooling an engine.
by air.

In two stroke engine the mechanical efficiency is more because of less friction in There is more friction in the parts therefore the
the parts. mechanical efficiency is less.

Here two revolution of the crankshaft is required for one

There is only one power stroke for one revolution of the crankshaft.
power stroke.

The cost of the engine is more compare to the two-stroke

The cost of the engine is a less comparatively four-stroke engine.
engine.

The two-stroke engine consists of two ports inlet and outlet ports. In four-stroke, there are inlet and exhaust valves.

There is a simple lubrication system. Here the lubrication system is complicated.

A two-stroke engine takes less space and the four-stroke engine takes more space.

In two-stroke, there is high torque generated. But in four-stroke, there is less torque generated.

But The four-stroke produces fewer smokes compared to

The two-stroke produces more smokes.
a two-stroke engine.

It requires more lubricating oil because some oil burns with the fuel. Here it requires less lubricating oil.

But in the four-stroke engine, the power to weight ratio is

In terms of power to weight ratio, it has more ratio than a four-stroke engine.
low.

The Air and fuel mixtures which are known as charges, first enter into the Here in four-stroke The Air and fuel mixtures directly
crankcase then enter into the cylinder. enter into the cylinder.

The two-stroke engine takes place scavenging process. No scavenging process.

The output power is less. The output power is more.

Here there are more parts, therefore, the maintenance

The maintenance cost for two-stroke is less.
cost is more.

Engine starting is very easy compare to a four-stroke engine.

8 Starting an engine is not easy.
 Cycle Analysis of IC Engine
Assumptions of Air Standard Cycle
 The working medium in the cylinder is air
 The air behaves like an ideal gas it obeys the gas laws and its specific heat is constant
at all the temperature
 The charging and discharging operation are omitted therefore a constant mass of the
medium is carried through the entire cycle
 Friction is neglected
 The heat energy added to the working medium is transfer from a heat reservoir

Engine Nomenclature
Stroke (L) : The nominal distance through which a working piston moves between
two successive reversals of its direction of motion is called the stroke and is designated
by the letter L and s expressed usually in millimetre (mm).
Swept Volume :- volume swept by the working piston when travelling from one dead
centre to the other is called the Swept volume. It is expressed in terms of cubic
centimeter (cc) and given by

V=

if there are K cylinders in an engine, V = K X

Clearance volume: - The nominal volume of the combustion chamber above the piston
when it is at the top dead center is the clearance volume.

Compression Ratio (r) : It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when the
piston is at the bottom dead center

r = V1/V2 = (Vc+Vs)/Vc = 1 + Vs/Vc

Mean piston speed:- In one stroke the shaft the shaft complete half resolution
(180 degree ) therefore the piston covers
9 ‘2L’ in one resolution

C(mean speed) = 2LN/60

Otto cycle

 1-2 – rev. adiabatic compression

 2-3 – constant volume heat addition

 3-4 rev adiabatic expansion

 4-1 – constant volume heat rejection

Mean effective pressure :- It is the hypothetical (imaginary) constant pressure which

gives same net work as that of the actual cycle for the same swept volume.(same size
of engine)

Pm
1 = Wnet/Vs
0
 Diesel Cycle

Rc = compression ratio

Re = expansion ratio

R = Re*Rc

Efficiency of diesel cycle depends on compression ratio and cutoff ratio

Efficiency of diesel cycle increases with increase n compression ration

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Dual Cycle
In actual engine heat is neither added at a constant volume nor at constant pressure a dual
cycle is developed and it has features of both otto and diesel cycle

Efficiency otto > Efficiency Dual> Efficiency Diesel

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Engine performance parameters
Indicated power: - The power develop inside the cylinder is known as indicated power.
Indicated power of a 2-stroke engine

Brake thermal efficiency :-

Indicated specific fuel consumption: -

Brake thermal fuel consumption

Volumetric efficiency: -
it represents the breathing capacity of the cylinder. It is the ratio of actual volume of the fluid
entering the cylinder per cycle to the swept volume
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Fuel Air Cycle
 In case of idealized cycles so far discussed, it was assumed that the working substance
is air which behave like a perfect gas and the specific heat of air remains constant
throughout.
 But in case of actual engines the working substance is mixture of air and fuel with
presence of residual gases. In other words, working substance is entirely different than
air cycle.
 The specific heat of gases increases with the increase in temperature.
 It also observed that at high temperature the products of combustion tend to associates
since these are not stable at temperature beyond 1200 Celsius,
 So that ideal cycle is nowhere near to actual cycle.

SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

Section 1: - Carburetion
The process of preparation of mixture of atomized fuel and air before admission to
cylinder is called carburation.

Carburetor: - The device which supplies the meter spray of fuel mixed with correct
amount of air for efficient combustion in cylinder at all operating condition is called
carburetor

Basic fuel feeding system SI engine

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Air fuel ratio and mixture requirement
 A hydrocarbon fuel mainly consists of carbon and hydrogen as its constituents
 Petrol fuel used in SI engine is mainly octane(C8H18) for which chemically correct air
fuel ratio is 15:12:1 by mass approximately
 Rich Mixture give more power in the ratio of 11:1 to 15:1 of air and fuel and work or
lean mixture of about 16&18:1 give better fuel economy.
 Rich mixture having air fuel ratio below 11:1 and lean mixture above 20:1 cannot be
burn effectively.

Requirement of good carburetor

 To meter the liquid fuel so as to produce the required air fuel ratio at all operating
condition like during idling low load running, cursing range and maximum power
range.
 Prepare the homogenous mixture of fuel and air as far as possible.
 Provide rich mixture for ease of starting the engine.
 Provide the require rich mixture during acceleration

Simple carburetor:-

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Application :-
 Simple carburetor only suitable for small stationary engines to run at constant speed
Type of carburetor :-

Knocking in SI engine: -
Knocking is the sharp sound produce by preignition of charge inside the cylinder before
piston reach TDC. It will damage component of engine and decrease the efficiency.
Reasons: -
 Due to high compression ratio
 Burning particle remaining inside the cylinder

Effect of detonation in SI engine: -

 Mechanical failure
 Local melting piston and ring
 Noise and roughness
 Power efficiency
 Pre-ignition
Due to high rate of heat transfer and increase temp of hot gases it may cause of local heating
of certain point in combustion chamber and specially spark plug may became a redhot. In
such case it will act as ignition source to ignite the mixture of fuel and air before the supply
of spark thus causing pre-ignition and detonation of the engine causing severe damage to the
engine before pre-ignition detected.
Pre ignition can be detected by shutting off the 1ignition if the engine continuous firing it is
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possible that the engine is subjected to preignition.
Compression ignition engine
The requirement of fuel injected system
 Meter the correct quantity of fuel to be injected per cycle as per the load and speed of
the engine.
 Maximum power obtained at minimum fuel consumption.
 It should atomize the fuel in fire provides.
 To ensure the uniform distribution of fuel throughout the combustion chamber.
 To spray pattern should be such that it ensure into rapid mixing of fuel with air

Type of injection system

1) Air injection system: -

In case of air injection, the fuel is injected by means of high-pressure air at about 10 bars into
the combustion chamber, it needs a compressor to supply compressed air and the fuel pump
to draw the fuel from fuel tank both to be supplied to the injection.
Drawbacks
 It can not be used for portable engines due to requirement of air compressor and pump
 Air compressor need extra maintenance
 System is bulky and expensive 1
Note: - this system is not used nowadays 7
2) Solid Injection System
  In case of solid injection system fuel is directly injected into cylinder without the
help of compressor for the reason this system is called solid or airless mechanical
system.
 In this system the air is first compressed in the cylinder to a high temperature due
to high compression ration employed by CI engine.
 High temperature of air help in vaporing the fuel when injected

Main components of injection system

 Fuel tank
 Fuel filter
 Fuel feed pump
 Injection pump
 Governor
 Injector

Type of solid fuel injection system

1) Mechanical
2) Electrical

a) Common Rail direct injection system: -

In this system the fuel is injected through a mechanical controlled valve using the fuel
stored in a receiver.
b) Individual pump: -
It has a separate metering and compressing pump for each cylinder of engine.
c) Distributor: -
It uses a single pump for metering and compressing fuel and a distributor for
distributing the fuel to the various cylinder.
d) Unit injector system: -
In this system the high-pressure pump and the injector are combined in one unit which
is mounted on the injector is provided which open at a pressure much lower than
injection pressure.

Knocking of CI engine
 In case of SI engine, it was the end part of the gas which was responsible for produce
detonation if delay period and flame speed are low.
 While in case of CI engine it is the first part of the charge which is responsible to
produce knock and rough running of the engine.
 In case of CI engines, the fuel is injected and its combustion is by way of auto
ignition. If the delay period of the fuel is long, a large amount of fuel will be injected
and accumulated in the combustion chamber during the delay period.
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 During the period of uncontrolled combustion,
8 the fuel accumulated in the combustion
will suddenly be exploded which shall give very high rate of pressure rise with very,
 high pressure.
 A high-pressure hike is equivalent to a sudden increase in load on engine structure.
 Instantaneous increase pressure of gases will give a direct blow on engine structure.

Important notes
In case of CI engine, the tendency to knock will be reduced by the engine variable which
tend to reduce the delay period
Factors which will reduce knock in CI engine
1) Increased intake pressure, temp and compression
2) Fuel with low ignition temp
3) Increase injection pressure do that delay period coil get decreases

Review of knocking and detonation in SI and CI engine

 In SI engine the detonation occurs near the end of combustion where in CI engine
knock occurs in the beginning of combustion.
 To reduce the knocking and detonation from SI engine the delay period should be
large where for CI delay period should be less as possible.
 The engine variable which promotes detonation in SI engine will reduce knock in CI
engine.
 Which engine is overloaded the SI engine have rough running while CI engines run
smoothly.

Factors SI engine CI engine

Compression ration
Inlet temperature
Inlet pressure
Self-ignition temp
Delay period
Load on engine
Wall temp
spud
Size of cylinder

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2
0
2
1
2
2
Turbo charger Supercharger
Driven by exhaust gases Driven by crankshaft power by belt
There is turbo lag There is no turbo lag
More efficient Less efficient
Less acceleration More acceleration
More popular because driven by exhaust Most used in racing car and super car
gases

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 REFRIGERATION AND AIR
CONDITIONING

Refrigeration is the cooling of a system below the temperature of its surrounding.

Refrigeration is completely based on second law of thermodynamics
Unit of refrigeration
The practical unit of refrigeration is expressed in terms of ‘tonne of refrigeration’ (briefly
written as TR). A tonne of refrigeration is defined as the amount of refrigeration effect
produced by the uniform melting of one tonne(1000kg) of ice from and at 0 degree in 24hr.
1 US tonne = 2000lb
Latent heat of ice 144BTU/lb
1 TR = (1 * 2000 *144)/24 = 12000BTU
But 1BTU = 1.055 kj
1 TR = (1200 * 1.055)/ 3600 = 3.517 KW
1TR = 3.517KW
Energy ratio or coefficient of performance
The performance of a heat engine is described by its thermal efficiency. The performance of
refrigerating machine or a heat pump is expressed by the ratio of useful heat to work called
the energy ratio or coefficient of performance (COP)
COP (cooling) = Desired effect / Work input
Heating energy ratio or COP for heating
COP (heating) = 1 + COP (cooling)
NOTE
 The ratio of the actual COP to the theoretical COP is known as relative coefficient of
performance
 For vapour compression system COP (cooling) is of the order of 3 for water cooled
and 2 for air cooled air condition application
2 and 1for domestic refrigerators.
 For air cycle refrigeration system COP =1 4 and for vapour absorption system it is well
below unity.
  Power consumption of a refrigeration
 Energy efficiency ratio (EER) = cooling capacity in watts / input wattage in watts

Air Refrigerator Working on Reversed Carnot cycle

In refrigerating systems, the Carnot, cycle considered is the reversed Carnot cycle. We know
that a heat engine working on Carnot cycle has the highest possible efficiency. Similarly, a
refrigerating system working on the reversed Carnot cycle, will have the maximum possible
coefficient of performance. We also know that it is not possible to make an engine working
on the Carnot cycle. Similarly, it is also not possible to make a refrigerating machine
working on the reversed Carnot cycle. · However, it is used as the ultimate standard of
comparison.
A reversed Carnot cycle using air as working medium (or refrigerant) is shown on p-v and
T-s diagrams in Fig. 10.5 (a) and (b) respectively.

The Four processes of the cycle are as follows:

1.  Isentropic compression process - This process is represented by 1-2 on the p-v

and T-s diagrams. During this process, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
2.  Isothermal compression process - This process is represented by 2-3 on p-v and
T-s diagram. During this process, heat is rejected by the air. We know that the
heat is rejected by the air during isothermal compression per kg of air. 
    q1-2 = Area 2-3-3′-2 = T3 (s1-s2) = T2 (s2-s3)
3.  Isentropic expansion process - This process is represented by 3-4 on the p-v
and T-s diagrams. During this process, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
4. Isothermal expansion process - This process is represented by 4-1 on the p-v
and T-s diagram. During this process, heat is absorbed by the air. We know that
the heat absorbed by the air (or heat extracted from the cold body) during
isothermal expansion per kg of air,
q4-1= Area 4-1-2’3’= T4 (s1-s4) = T1 (s2-s3)

We know that work done during the cycle per kg of air = *Heat rejected – Heat absorbed
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= T2 (s2-s3) -T1 (s2-s3) = (T2-T1) (s1-s3)
Coefficient of performance of the refrigeration system working on reversed Carnot Cycle,…

 (C.O.P)R = Heat absorbed / Workdone  = T1(s2-s3) / (T2-T1) (S2-S3) = T1 / T2-T1

 (C.O.P)R = Heat absorbed / Work done  = T1(s2-s3) / (T2-T1) (S2-S3) = T1 / T2-T1

The C.O.P of the reversed Carnot Cycle may be improved by, …

1.  Decreasing the higher temperature (i.e., the temperature of hot body, T2)
2. Increasing the lower temperature (i.e., the temperature of cold body, T1)
NOTE –

 The COP of a domestic refrigeration is less than the COP of the domestic air
conditioner.

 In a refrigeration machine, heat rejected is more than heat absorbed.

Air Refrigeration working on Bell-Coleman Cycle (or Reversed Brayton or joule Cycle) .

1-2: Isentropic Compression

The Air drawn from refrigerator to air compressor cylinder where it compressed
isentropically (constant entropy). No heat transfer by the air. During compression, the
volume decreases while the pressure and temperature of air increases.

2-3: Constant pressure cooling process.

The warm compressed air is then passed through cooler, where it cooled down at constant
pressure.
The heat rejected per kg of air during this process
2 is equal to
q2-3 = Cp(T2-T3) 6
 3-4: isentropic expansion
No heat transfer takes place. The air expands isentropically in expander cylinder. During
expansion, the volume increases, Pressure P3 reduces to P4. (P4 = atmospheric pressure).
Temperature also falls during expansion from T3-T4.

4-1: Constant pressure expansion

Heat transfer from the refrigerator to air. The temperature increases from T4 to T1.
Volume increases to V4 due to heat transfer. Heat absorbed by air per kg during this
process is equal to
q4-1 = Cp(T1-T4)

Equation of Coefficient of performance (COP) of Bell Coleman cycle

Heat absorbed during cycle per kg of air q4-1 = Cp(T1-T4)
Heat rejected during cycle per kg of air q2-3 = Cp(T2-T3)
Then the work done per kg of air during the cycle is = Heat rejected – Heat absorbed
= Cp(T2-T3) - Cp(T1-T4)
Coefficient of performance;

For isentropic compression process 1-2

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For isentropic expansion process 3-4
Since, P2 = P3 and P1 = P4, therefore from equation (ii) and (iii)

Substitute equation (iv) in (i)

Advantages of the Bell Coleman air refrigeration system

1. Cheap and abundant refrigerant, highly reliable:

2 Air is used as refrigerant, which is
easily available and inexpensive. 8
2. Charging of refrigerant is very easy.
 3. Design and construction is simple, No complicated parts and its maintenance cost is
low.
4. Refrigerant (Air) is non-toxic, non-flammable, non-corrosive. There is no danger of
any kind of leakage.
5. There is no phase change (liquid- gas) during the operation of system.
6. The cold air can be directly used for refrigeration; it is useful in aircraft refrigeration at
high altitude.
7. There would be no significant change in the performance of air refrigeration if it is
operated much away from its design conditions.
8. It can produce very high temperature differences between hot and cold region. So the
same system can be used for both cooling and heating effects. It also helps to achieve
very low temperature.
9. Air refrigeration is used in aircraft due to availability cold air at high altitude and it
can can achieve both air-conditioning, as well as the pressurization of the cabin.

Disadvantages of the Bell Coleman air refrigeration system

1. Lower C.O.P. compared to other refrigeration cycle.

2. Running cost is high.
3. The mass of air required to circulate in the system is very high when compared to
other type of refrigeration cycle due to low specific heat capacity.
4. System components are bulky, large space per ton of refrigeration.
5. The chance of frosting at expander is more due to moisture content in the air.
6. Air contains pollutant particle, so do regular cleaning of air filter in open system.

*Vapor Compression Refrigeration System*

A schematic diagram of a simple vapor compression refrigeration system is shown below. In
this system, a suitable working substance (known as refrigerant) such as ammonia, carbon
dioxide sulphur dioxide or Freon 12 is used. It consists of the following five essential parts:-

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Components of vapour compression refrigeration cycle
1)Compressor
The low-pressure saturated vapour refrigerant from evaporator drawn into the compressor
through suction valve. The refrigerant then compressed to high pressure and temperature
by the compressor and then this high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant is
discharge into the condenser through the delivery valve.

2) Condenser or Cooler
Condenser or cooler consist of coil of pipe in which the high pressure and temperature
vapour refrigerant is cooled.

3) Receiver and expansion valve

The condensed liquid refrigerant from the condenser is stored in vessel known as receiver
from where it is supplied to the evaporator through expansion valve or refrigerator control
valve

4) Expansion valve
The expansion valve (also known as a refrigerant
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control valve or throttle valve) allow
the liquid refrigerant at high pressure to pass0 to the evaporator at a controlled rate after
reducing the pressure and temperature. The output of expansion valve is the mixture of
 liquid and vapour refrigerant at low pressure and temperature (adiabatic flash
evaporation).

5) Evaporator
Evaporator consists of coils pipe in which the liquid-vapour refrigerant at low pressure
and temperature is evaporated and changes into vapour refrigerant at low pressure and
temperature.

Note

In any compression refrigeration system, there are two different pressure condition. One
is called the high-pressure side and the other is known as low pressure side. The high-
pressure side includes the discharge line (i.e., piping from delivery valve to the
condenser), receiver and expansion valve. The low-pressure side includes the evaporator,
piping from the expansion valve to the evaporator and the suction line (i.e., piping from
the evaporator to the suction valve)

Vapor compression cycle

A vapour compression cycle with dry saturated vapour after compression is shown on T-s
and p-h diagrams in fig. 10.8. it is essentially consists of compression, condensation,
expansion or throttling and evaporation as discussed below:

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1. Compression process – The vapour refrigeration at low pressure and temperature
from the evaporator is drawn into the compressor where it is compressed
isentropically. The pressure and temperature rise from p1 to p2 and T1 to T2
respectively. The workdone during isentropic compression per kg of refrigeration is
given by

W = h2 -h1

h1 = Enthalpy of vapour refrigerant at temperature T1 i.e., at suction of the

compressor

h2 = Enthalpy of vapour refrigerant at temperature T2 i.e., at discharge of the

compressor

2. Condensing process – The high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant from the
compressor is passed through the condenser where it is completely condensed
pressure and temperature. The vapour refrigerant is changed into liquid refrigerant.

3. Expansion process – The liquid refrigerant at high pressure temperature is expanded

by throttling process through the expansion valve to a low pressure and temperature.
Some of the liquid refrigerant evaporates as it passes through the expansion valve, but
the greater portion is vaporized in the evaporator.
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4. Vaporising process – The liquid vapour mixture of the refrigerant is evaporated and
 change into vapour refrigerant. During evaporation, the liquid vapour refrigerant
absorbs its latent heat of vaporization from the medium (air, water or brine) which is
to be cooled. This heat which is absorbed by the refrigerant is called refrigerating
effect (Re)

The refrigerating effect or the heat absorbed or extracted by the liquid vapour
refrigerant during evaporation per kg of refrigerant is given by

Undercooling or subcooling of refrigeration

Sometimes, the refrigerant after condensation process is cooled below the saturation
temperature before expansion by throttling. Such a process is called undercooling or
subcooling of the refrigerant. The ultimate effect of undercooling is to increase the valve of
coefficient of performance.

The process of undercooling is generally brought about by circulating more quantity of

cooling water through the condenser or by using water colder than main circulating water.
Sometimes this process is also bought about by employing a heat exchanger. In actual
practice, the refrigerant is superheated after compression and undercooled before
throttling.

Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System 3

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It is one of the oldest methods of producing refrigerating effect. This system may be used in
both the domestic and large industrial refrigerating plants. The refrigerant commonly used
in this system is ammonia. The vapour absorption system uses heat energy, instead of
mechanical energy as in vapour compression systems, in order to change the conditions of
the refrigerant required for the operation of the refrigeration cycle

The vapour absorption system as shown in fig consist of an absorber, pump, generator and a
pressure reducing valve.
These components perform the same function as that as that of a compressor in vapour
compression system. In the vapour absorption system, the vapour refrigerant from the
evaporator is drawn into an absorber where it is absorbed by weak solution of the refrigerant
forming a strong solution. This strong solution where it is absorbed by weak solution of the
refrigerant forming a strong solution. This strong solution is pumped to the generator where
it is heated by some external source. During the heating process, the vapour refrigerant
driven off by the solution and enters into the condenser where it is liquified. The liquid
refrigerant then flows into the evaporators and thus the cycle is completed.

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Domestic Electrolux (Ammonia Hydrogen) refrigerator
the main purpose of domestic Electrolux refrigerator is to eliminate the pump so that in the
absence of moving part, the machine becomes noise-less. This type of refrigerator is also
called three-fluids absorption system. The three fluids used in this system are ammonia,
hydrogen and water. The ammonia is used as refrigerant because it possesses most of the
desirable’s properties. The hydrogen being the lightest gas, is used to increase the rate of
evaporation of the liquid ammonia passing through the evaporator. The hydrogen is also
non-corrosive and insoluble in water. The water is used as a solvent becase it has ability to
absorb ammonia readily.
The COP of this type of refrigerator is given by the ratio of heat absorbed in the evaporator
to the heat supplied in the generator.

Lithium bromide Absorption Refrigeration System

The lithium bromide absorption refrigeration system uses a solution of lithium bromide in
water. In this system, the water is being used as a refrigerant whereas lithium bromide,
which is a highly hydroscopic salt, as an absorbent. The lithium bromide solution has as
strong affinity for water vapour because of its very low vapour pressure. Since lithium
bromide solutions is corrosive, therefore inhibitors should be added in order to protect the
metal parts of the system against corrosion. This system is very popular for air conditioning
in which low refrigeration temperature (not below 0degree) are required.

Refrigerants
1. Low boiling point
2. High critical temperature
3. High latent heat of vaporization
4. Low specific heat of liquid
5. Low specific volume of vapour
6. Non-corrosive to metal
7. Non-flammable and non-explosive
8. Non toxic 3
9. Low cost 5
10.Easy to liquify at moderate pressure and temperature
11.Easy of locating leaks by odour or suitable indicator and mixes well with oil

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 AIR CONDITIONING
The air conditioning is that branch of engineering science which deals with the study of
conditioning of air.
Psychometry
The psychrometry is that branch of engineering science which deals with the study of moist
air mixed with water vapour or humidity.
1. Dry air – The pure dry air is mixture of number of gases such as nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen, argon, neon, helium etc. but the nitrogen and oxygen have
the major portion of the combination.
2. Moist air – It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour. The amount of water vapour,
present in the air, depends upon the absolute pressure and temperature of the mixture.
3. Saturated air – It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour, when the air has diffused
the maximum amount of water vapour into it.
4. Degree of saturation – It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a unit mass of
dry air to mass of water vapour in the same mass of dry air when it is saturated at the
same temperature and pressure.
5. Humidity – It is the mass of water vapour present in 1 kg of dry air, and is generally
expressed in terms of gram per kg of dry air (g / kg of dry air). It is also called specific
humidity or humidity ratio.
6. Absolute humidity – It is the mass of vapour present in 1m3 of dry air, and is
generally expressed in terms of gram per cubic metre of dry air.
7. Relative humidity – It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a given volume
of moist air to the mass water vapour in the same volume of saturated air at the same
temperature and pressure.
8. Dry bulb temperature – It is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer, when
it is not affected by the moisture present in the air.
9. Wet bulb temperature – It is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer, when
its bulb is surrounded by a wet cloth exposed of the air. Such a thermometer is called
wet bulb thermometer.
10.Dew point temperature - It is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer,
when the moisture (water vapour) present in its begins to condense, In other words,
the dew point temperature is the saturation temperature corresponding to the partial
pressure of water vapour.
Notes: - For saturated air, the dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature and dew
point temperature is same.

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Dalton’s Law of partial pressures
It states “The total pressure exerted by the mixture of air and water vapour is equal to the
sum of the pressure, which each constituent would exert, if it occupied the same space by
itself ‘’. Or in other words, the total pressure exerted by air and water vapour mixture is
equal to the barometric pressure. Mathematically, barometer pressure of the mixture,

Psychrometric Relations
The following psychrometric relations are important:
1. Specific humidity, humidity ratio or moisture content. It is the mass of water vapour
present in 1 kg of dry air (in the air-vapour mixture) and is generally expressed in g/ kg of
dry air. It may also be defined as the ratio of mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air
in a given volume of the air-vapour mixture. Mathematically, humidity ratio,

2.Degree of saturation or percentage humidity. It is the ratio of actual mass of water

vapour in a unit mass of dry air to the mass of water vapour in the same mass of dry air
when it is saturated at the same temperature (dry bulb temperature). In other words, it
may be defined as the ratio of actual
specific humidity to the specific humidity of saturated air at the same dry bulb
temperature Mathematically, degree of saturation,

3.Relative humidity: It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a given volume of
moist air to the mass of water vapour in the same volume of saturated air at the same
temperature and pressure. Mathematically, relative humidity,

Note : For saturated air, the relative humidity is 100%.

4.Pressure of water vapour. According to Carrier's equation, the partial pressure of water
vapour,

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5.Vapour density or absolute humidity. It is the mass of water vapour present in 1m3 of
dry

6.Thermodynamic wet bulb temperature or adiabatic saturation temperature. It is

temperature at which the air can be brought to saturation state, adiabatically, by the
evaporation of water into the flowing air.

Psychrometric Chart
It is a graphical representation of the various thermodynamic properties of moist air. The
psychrometric chart is very useful for finding out the properties of air (which are required
in the field of air conditioning) and eliminate lot of calculations. This chart is normally
drawn standard atmospheric pressure of 760 mm of Hg (or 1.01325 bar).

In a psychrometric chart, dry bulb temperature is taken as abscissa and specific humidity
(i.e. moisture contents) as ordinate, as shown in Fig .10.10. The saturation curve is drawn
by plotting the various saturation points at corresponding dry bulb temperatures. The
saturation curve represents 100% relative humidity at various dry bulb temperatures. It
also represents the wet bulb and dew point temperatures. The psychrometric chart
contains the following important lines:

1.Dry bulb temperature lines, these lines are vertical i.e., parallel to the ordinate and
uniformly spaced.

2.Specific humidity or moisture content lines, these lines are horizontal i.e., parallel to the
abscissa and uniformly spaced.

3.Dew point temperature lines. These lines are horizontal i.e. parallel to the abscissa and
non-uniformly spaced. At any point on the saturation curve, the dry bulb and dew point
temperatures are equal.

4. Wet bulb temperature lines. These lines are inclined straight lines and non-uniformly
spaced. At any point on the saturation curve, the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures are
equal. 4
5. Specific volume lines. These lines are obliquely
1 inclined straight lines and uniformly
spaced.
6. Relative humidity lines. These lines are curved lines and follow the saturation curve.
The saturation curve represents 100% relative humidity.

Psychrometric Processes

The various psychrometric processes involved in air conditioning to vary the

psychrometric properties of air according to the requirement are as follows:

1.Sensible heating. The heating of air, without any change in its specific humidity, is
known as sensible heating. Let air at temperature td1 passes over a heating coil of
temperature td3 as shown in Fig. 10.11 (a). The temperature of air leaving the heating coil
td2, will be less than td3.

The process of sensible heating, on the psychrometric chart, is shown by a horizontal line
1-2 extending from left to right as shown in Fig. 10.11 (b), The point 3 represents the
surface temperature of the heating coil. It may be noted that during sensible heating,
specific humidity remains constant (i.e. W1 = W2). dry bulb temperature increases from
td1 to td2, and relative humidity decreases

2.Sensible cooling. The cooling of air, without any change in its specific humidity, is
know as sensible cooling. Let air at temperature td1 passes over a cooling coil of
temperature td3, as show in Fig. 10.12 (a). The temperature of air leaving the cooling coil
(td2) will be more than td3

The process of sensible cooling, on the psychrometric chart, is shown by a horizontal line
1-2 extending from right to left, as shown in Fig, 10.12 (b). The point 3 represents the
surface temperature of the cooling coil. It may be noted that during sensible cooling,
specific humidity remains constant (i.e. W,= W.), dry bulb temperature decreases from
td1, to 1d2 and relative humidity increases from

3.Humidification and Dehumidification. The addition of moisture to the air, without

change in its dry bulb temperature, is known as humidification. Similarly, the removal of
moisture from the ail, without change in its dry bulb temperature is known as
dehumidification. The heat added during humidification process and heat removed during
dehumidification process is shown on the psychrometric chart in Fig. 10.13 (a) and (b)
respectively.

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It may be noted that in humidification, the relative humidity increases from Q, to @, and
specific humidity also increases from W1 to W2. Similarly, in dehumidification, the
relative humidity decreases from f, to %, and specific humidity also decreases from W1
to W2:

4.Cooling and Dehumidification. This process is generally used in summer air

conditioning to cool and dehumidify the air. The air is passed over a cooling coil or
through a cold water spray. In this process, the dry bulb temperature as well as the
specific humidity of air decreases. The final relative humidity of the air is generally
higher than that of the entering air. The dehumidification of air is only possible when the
effective surface temperature of the cooling coil (i.e. td4) is less than the dew point
temperature of the air entering the coil (i.e. td1). The effective surface temperature of the
coil is known as apparatus dewpoint (briefly written as ADP).
The cooling and dehumidification process shown in Fig. 10.14.

Under ideal conditions, the dry bulb temperature of the air leaving the cooling coil (i.e.
td4) should be equal to the surface temperature of the cooling coil (i.e. ADP), but it is
never possible due to inefficiency of the cooling coil. Therefore, the resulting condition of
air coming out of the coil is
shown by a point 2 on the straight line joining the points 1 and 4.

Actually, the cooling and dehumidification process follows the path as shown by a dotted
curve in Fig. 10.14, but for calculation of psychrometric properties, only end points are
important. Thus the cooling and dehumidification process shown by a line 1-2 may be
assumed to have followed a path 1-A (i.e. dehumidification) and A-2 (i.e. cooling) as
shown in Fig. 10.14. We see that the total heat removed from the air during the cooling
and dehumidification process is

5.Heating and Humidification. This process is generally used in winter air conditioning to
warm and humidify the air. It is the reverse process of cooling and dehumidification. The
process of heating and humidification is shown by line,1-2 on the psychrometric chart, as
shown in Fig. 10.15. The air enters at condition 1 and leaves at condition 2. In this
process, the dry bulb temperature as well as specific humidity of air increases. The final
relative humidity of air can be lower or higher than that of the entering air.

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Actually, the heating and humidification process follows the path as shown by a dotted
curve in Fig. 10.15, but for the calculation of psychrometric properties, only the end
points are important. Thus, the heating and humidification process shown by line 1-2 on
the psychrometric chart may be assumed to have followed the path 1-A (i.e. heating) and
A-2 (i.e. humidification). We know that sensible heat factor,

6.Heating and Dehumidification (Adiabatic chemical Dehumidification). This process is

mainly used in industrial air conditioning and can be used for some comfort air
conditioning installations requiring either a low relative humidity or low dew point
temperature in the room.

In this process, the air is passed over chemicals which have an affinity for moisture. As
the air comes in contact with these chemicals, the moisture gets condensed out of the air
and gives up its latent heat. Due to the condensation, the
specific humidity decreases and the heat of condensation supplies sensible heat for
heating the air and thus increasing its dry bulb temperature. The process, which is the
reverse of Adiabatic dehumidification adiabatic saturation process, is shown by the line 1-
2 on the psychrometric chart as shown in Fig. 10.16. The path followed during the
process is along the constant wet bulb temperature line or constant enthalpy line.
The effectiveness or efficiency of the dehumidifier is given as

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