UNIT 2 VIRUSES

Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Discovery of Viruses
2.2.1 Nature of Viruses
2.2.2 Definition of Viruses
2.2.3 Morphology of Viruses
2.2.4 Morphology of Bacteriophage
2.2.5 Multiplication/Replication
2.2.6 Cultivation of Viruses
2.2.7 Transmission of Viruses
2.2.8 Inclusion Bodies
2.2.9 Virus Mutations
2.2.10 Host Specificity
2.3 Classification of Viruses
2.3.1 Disease Producing DNA Viruses
2.3.2 Disease Producing RNA Viruses
2.3.3 Hepatitis Viruses
2.3.4 HIV and AIDS
2.4 Control of Viral Diseases
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Key Words
2.7 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
l define virus;
l learn the historical background of viruses;
l state the nature and morphology of viruses;
l describe how the virus multiplies in the host cell;
l differentiate between virus and bacteriophage;
l explain the methods of cultivating and transmitting viruses;
l define inclusion bodies, viral mutations and host specificity;
l classify viruses;
l list the important DNA and RNA viruses and the diseases caused by them;
l learn the different types of viral hepatitis;
l discuss HIV and AIDS in humans; and
l explain how viral diseases can be controlled.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Viruses form a very important group of obligate intracellular living organisms, the structure
of which can only be studied under electron microscope. Often when the doctor is not quite
sure what is wrong with the patient, he says “probably it is virus” and he is probably right
because, with the development of new improved techniques a large number of new viruses 17
Microbiology-II causing one disease or the other have been detected, isolated and identified. Diseases such
as polio, mumps, rabies, herpes, chicken pox, small pox, dengue fever, hepatitis B, etc. are
all caused by one or the other type of virus. The life threatening very serious disease AIDS
with almost 100% fatality rate is also caused by a virus. There are many viruses, which
may cause even the host cell to multiply causing tumours or cancers. Since viruses are
obligate parasites, one may think that all viruses are pathogenic but it is not so. There are
many viruses, which may develop host guest relationship with the host. In other words, the
virus may simply stay inside the host cell as a guest. It may neither benefit nor harm the
cell. Such viruses are called temperate or lysogenic phages.

In this unit, you will learn the definition, discovery, nature, structure and reproduction in
viruses. You will also study their cultivation, transmission, mutation, host specificity,
inclusion bodies, classification and types of bacteriophages. You will also become familiar
with some of the well known viral diseases caused by DNA or RNA viruses. We shall also
discuss hepatitis viruses and some of the rapidly rising severe and life threatening
infections such as AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) and PGL (Persistent
Generalized Lymph Adenopathy). In the end, the role of antibiotics/drugs and vaccines in
the prevention of viral disease is also included.

2.2 DISCOVERY OF VIRUSES

Virus is a Latin word meaning ‘poison’ or ‘venom’. It was generally believed that the
‘viruses’ or poisons were carried in the night air and cause many unexplained diseases.

By the late 1800, Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch and other pioneer bacteriologists had
demonstrated that many diseases in man and other organisms were caused by bacteria.
Some diseases puzzled them because they could find no bacteria or other organisms that
were responsible for the disease symptoms. One such disease was tobacco mosaic disease
(TMD) occurring in tobacco plants. In 1892, a Russian biologist Iwanowski was the first
one to find out that the causative agent of TMD was a filterable tobacco mosiac virus
(TMV) which could be transmitted from an infected organism to a healthy organism of the
same kind. After this, scores of viral diseases of plants were known. In 1898, Beijerinick, a
Dutch microbiologist, confirmed the work of Iwanowski and described the cause of
infection in tobacco plant as ‘Contagium Vivum Fluidum’, Latin words, meaning ‘living
fluid infectants’ or ‘living infectious fluid’.

In 1900, Walter Reed with his co-workers discovered the virus of yellow fever, the first
viral disease of man. After that a large number of human viruses have been known and
isolated.

Viruses that attack bacteria were first observed in 1915 by a British Scientist Twort. Later
in 1917, French investigator d’Heralle fully studied these bacterial viruses and named them
as ‘bacteriophages’ or ‘phages.’

The year 1935 was very important year in the field of virology. It is in this year, that
electron microscope had been constructed which could magnify as much as 300,000 times
and W.M. Stanley an American Microbiologist studied TMV under electron microscope.
Stanley in 1946 isolated TMV from the host cell and was awarded noble prize for his
wonderful work.

Check Your Progress 1

State the contributions of Stanley towards virology.
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2.2.1 Nature of Viruses

The viruses deserve special consideration in our survey of distinctions between living and
18 non-living matter because they show characteristics of both.
Non-living Characters Viruses

i) Viruses do not have a cellular organisation.

ii) They do not have protoplasm as cell do.
iii) They do not carry on respiration as in cellular life nor they take in food.
iv) They do not respond to external stimuli.
v) They do not multiply by binary fission and are not capable of independent existence
and growth.
vi) Outside the cell, they behave like chemical molecules.

Living Characters
i) They reproduce only in living cells.
ii) They have the capacity for growth in size and numbers.
iii) They undergo mutations of their genes and as in living; they also have the ability to
undergo changes in hereditary characters.
iv) They can adapt themselves to their environment through natural selection.

Thus, we can say that although viruses seem to be almost on the border line between living
and non-living, the two characters of living viz. mutations and their adaptation through
natural selection are not known anywhere outside living things. Therefore, it seems
reasonable to classify viruses as living ones, though they are very primitive and do not
exhibit all the characters found in other forms of living matter.

2.2.2 Definition of Viruses

Viruses may be defined as extremely small obligate intracellular living forms containing
only one type of nucleic acid either DNA or RNA. Earlier they were called ‘ultra-
microscopic viruses’ because they could not be seen with light microscope. They were also
called ‘Filterable Viruses’, since they pass through very fine filters which hold the bacteria
back. Now they are simply called ‘viruses’. A mature virus particle is called ‘virion’.

2.2.3 Morphology of Viruses

After learning the nature and definition of viruses, you will now be interested to know the
morphology of viruses.

1) Size
All viruses are extremely small and cannot be seen with a compound microscope. The
following three basic techniques are used to determine the size of virus:
a) Filteration through graded membrane;
b) High speed centrifugation;
c) Direct observation under Electron Microscope.

Viruses are measured in millimicrons (mµ, one millimicron is 1000th of a micron) and vary
considerably in size. The size ranges from 15 mµ to 450 mµ. The smallest virus is of a foot
and mouth disease of cattle (15 mµ) and the largest virus is of a parrot fever (450 mµ). In
humans, the smallest virus is of yellow fever (20 mµ) and the largest virus is pox virus (400
mµ).

2) Shape
Viruses, like other microorganisms, vary in shape. The shape remains constant for any
particular kind of virus but varies from one type of virus to another. These may be
spherical, rod shaped, cuboidal, rhomboidal (multisided), needle shaped etc. Rabies virus is
bullet shaped, TMV is rod shaped, polio virus is spherical, pox virus is rectangular or brick
shaped. Some viruses are irregular in shape. Bacteriophages have head and tail like sperms
(virus of bacteria is called bacteriophage or phage, sub-section 2.2.4).

3) Structure
Viruses have a relatively simple structure as compared to other living things. Virus particle
is called virion, which consists of two parts viz. the central core or nucleic acid core and
protein coat. 19
Microbiology-II The Central Core or Nucleic Acid Core: It may be either ribonucleic acid (RNA) or deoxy
ribo-nucleic acid (DNA). Plant viruses contain RNA while animal viruses have DNA or
RNA. The two together are never found in a virus.

The Protein Coat: The protein coat covers the central core and is called capsid. The capsid
itself is formed of a number of subunits known as capsomeres. Some viruses are
surrounded by an envelope which is lipoprotein in nature as seen in herpes virus, pox virus,
rabies virus etc.

Envelope may have protein subunits, projecting on its surface which are called peplomeres.
A virus may have more than one type of peplomere as in Influenza virus which contain two
types of peplomeres [see Fig. 2.1(a)&(b)]. If there is no envelope surrounding the virion, it
is called as naked virion.

Capsid

RNA

Capsomeres

(a) Virus without Envelope (Naked Virion)

Envelope

Peplomeres

DNA

Capsid

Capsomeres

(b) Virus with Envelope

Fig. 2.1: Structure of a virion

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Check Your Progress 2 Viruses

1) On what basis do we consider viruses to be living rather than non-living?

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2) What is a virion?
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3) What are Capsomeres?
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2.2.4 Morphology of Bacteriophage

The viruses that infect bacteria are called ‘bacteriophages’ or ‘phages’. They are so named
because they destroy bacteria (phage, i.e. eat). They are usually present in polluted waters,
soils, decaying plants and in the discharges (urine/faeces) of humans and other animals.
They are frequently found in old cultures of bacteria. Bacteriophages differ from other
viruses only in their choice of host cells.

1) Structure
Bacteriophage has two distinct parts, namely, hexagonal head and a cylindrical tail. The
head in its central portion contains DNA surrounded by a protein coat or capsid. The tail
consists of a hollow tube surrounded by a contractile sheath. The tail at its base has a base
plate which is connected with six long thin tail fibres. The most extensively studied group
of bacteriophage is T series that invade the non-motile strain of Eschierichia coli. T series
bacteriophages are of fairly large size and easy to culture and purify (Fig. 2.2).

Head

DNA

Protein coat

Demarcation between
head and tail

Tail

Sheath
Base plate

Tail Fibres

Fig. 2.2: Structure of Bacteriophage 21

Microbiology-II 2) Types
Lytic or Virulent Type: These are the bacteriophages in which the infection is apparent.
They infect the host cells and the DNA of the host cell produces large number of new
phages. The host cell bursts releasing new phages to infect the new host cells.

Temperate or Avirulent Type: These are also called as lysogenic bacteriophages. These are
the bacteriophages in which the infection is not apparent. They do not infect the host cells.
These simply persist indefinitely in the host cells in a quiescent state.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Define bacteriophage.
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2) Distinguish between lytic and Temperate Virus. What words are used as synonyms for
these terms?
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2.2.5 Multiplication/Replication
For understanding how these viruses cause diseases in their hosts, let us now learn how
they enter the host cells and multiply.
Viruses multiply by a much more complex process than binary fission. They do not
reproduce in inanimate media, but they can be grown by inoculation into animals,
embryonated eggs or tissue cultures. They lack the machinery to synthesize their own
proteins; instead, they synthesize their proteins from the machinery of the host cell. The
phenomenon of viral multiplication was first studied in bacteria and later in animal cells.
Although the pattern of multiplication in bacteria and animal viruses is more or less
similar, there are also important differences.

2.2.6 Cultivation of Viruses

Viruses cannot be grown artificially in any culture medium. Live cells are necessary for the
growth of viruses. The following three methods are used for their cultivation:

1) Animal Inoculation
It is one of the oldest methods for the growth of viruses. In this method, animals are
inoculated with virus. The virus grows in these animals in the form of a disease.

2) Cultivation in Chick Embryo

In this method, chick embryo at a suitable stage of development (5 to 10 days) is
inoculated with virus. A small hole is made in the shell and virus material is inserted with a
needle or capillary pipette in the hole. The hole is closed with paraffin wax and the egg is
reincubated. The virus multiplies in the cells.

3) Cultivation in Tissue Culture

In this method, many tissues of animals including humans can be grown outside the body
in nutrient fluids. When the tissue growth has reached the desired stage, it is inoculated
with virus. The virus grows in the tissue.

Check Your Progress 4

Name the three ways of cultivating an animal virus.
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2.2.7 Transmission of Viruses

Human viruses are transmitted in a variety of ways, some of which are as under:
i) Through Aerial Droplets: Viruses that cause infection of the respiratory tract are
expelled in droplets by coughing, sneezing or talking. Some common diseases spread
in this way are common cold, influenza A, B, C, viral pneumonia, mumps, common
22 measles and German measles.
 ii) Through Faeces: Some human viruses such as polio virus, gastroenteritis virus, Viruses
viruses of infectious hepatitis etc. are excreted in faeces and are transmitted through
faecal-oral route.
iii) Through Arthropod Vectors: Flies may carry the virus to food or water.
Mosquitoes transmit encephalitis, yellow fever, dengue fever; tick can transmit
haemorrhagic fever.
iv) Direct Physical Contact : Warts and blisters etc. are transmitted through contact.
Skin to skin contact can cause herpes, small pox and chicken pox. Direct physical
contact, through blood or semen, causes AIDS, Hepatitis B.

2.2.8 Inclusion Bodies

Many animal viruses form round oval bodies inside the cell they infect. These bodies are
known as inclusion bodies. They may occur in the nucleus or in the cytoplasma of the cell.
They are known as Negri Bodies for rabies and Guarnieri bodies for small pox.

2.2.9 Virus Mutations

Viruses, like all living cells, occasionally undergo mutations of their genes and form mutant
cells. These mutant cells are very much different from their parent cells and produce
offsprings just like themselves and not like their parent cells.

2.2.10 Host Specificity

All viruses including bacteriophages are highly specific and more or less remain restricted
to their host cells. Examples: Rabies virus will infect any mammal. Yellow fever virus is
restricted to humans and certain monkeys. Among bacterial viruses a particular phage is
restricted to a single species of bacteria.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF VIRUSES

Let us now study the classification of virus. Till 1950 little was known about the basic
properties of viruses. Viruses were first classified on the basis of virus host relationship
(plant viruses, animal viruses and bacteiral viruses) and later on the basis of virus host
cell relationship (Neurotropic, Dermatotropic, Viscerotropic, Pneumotropic and enteric
viruses). In early 1950, viruses were classified into two main divisions depending on the
type of nucliec acid (DNA or RNA) they possessed viz. Disease Producing DNA and
Disease Producing RNA viruses as shown in Tables 2.1 and 2.2. However, the dreaded
diseases viral hepatitis and AIDS are discussed separately under sub-section 2.3.3 and
sub-section 2.3.4 respectively.

Table 2.1 : Disease Producing DNA Viruses

i) Variola and Vaccinia Viruses

1) Variola Viruses (small pox virus)
a) Variola major
b) Variola minor
2) Vaccinia virus (cow pox virus)
ii) Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)
iii) Varicella Zoster Virus (VZV) (chicken pox virus)
iv) Adeno Viruses
v) Human Parvo Viruses
vi) Papova, polyoma and Papilloma Viruses
vii) Cytomegalo Viruses (CMV)
viii) Epstein Barr Virus (EB)
ix) Hepatitis B Virus (HBV)

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Microbiology-II Table 2.2: Disease Producing RNA Viruses

i) Poliomyelitis Viruses
ii) Rhino Viruses
iii) Orthomyxo Viruses (Influenza Viruses)
iv) Paramyxo Viruses
1) Mumps Virus (Rabula inflans)
2) Measles Virus (Rubeola or Morbilli)
3) Parainfluenza Viruses
v) Rhabdo Viruses (Rabies Viruses)
vi) German Measle Viruses (Rubella Viruses)
vii) Arbo Viruses (Arthropod Borne Viruses)
a) Mosquito Borne Arbo Viruses
1) Chikungunya Viruses
2) JBE Viruses (Japanese B Encephalitis Viruses)
3) Yellow Fever Viruses
4) Dengue Fever Viruses
b) Tick Borne Arboviruses
KFD Viruses (Kyasanur Forest Disease Viruses)
viii) Corona Viruses
ix) Rota Viruses
x) Retro Viruses (Oncogenic or Tumour Producing RNA Viruses)
a) HTLV (Human T cell Leukemia Viruses HTLV-1 and HTLV-2)
b) HIV (Human Immuno Deficiency Virus HIV-1 and HIV-2)

2.3.1 Disease Producing DNA Viruses

Now you will learn about some well known DNA viruses.
i) Variola and Vaccinia Viruses (Fig. 2.3 a, b)
Variola Virus (small pox virus) is the causative agent of small pox, one of the most
highly communicable diseases. It is brick shaped and multiplies in the cytoplasm.
There are two variants of this virus pathogenic to humans viz. Variola major and
Varioa minor. Variola major causes severe illness and claimed many human lives.
Variola minor causes a very mild variety of small pox. Variola virus consists of
central biconcave DNA core covered by two coats (inner and outer). It also contains
a lateral body on either side of DNA core. The small pox disease is characterised by
vesicles deeply embedded in the skin. The vesicles breakdown, scabs fall off and
pitted permanent scars are left. Variola virus can even cause conjunctivitis or
blindness. It may be remarked here that small pox has been almost completely
eradicated from the world and there is no longer any need for smallpox vaccination.
Vaccinia Virus is almost similar to Variola virus in its biological properties. It is an
artificial virus and does not occur in nature. Jenner originally used this cow pox
virus for vaccination against small pox. Commercial vaccines were prepared by
inoculating vaccinia virus in the skin of calves, sheep and buffalo.
ii) Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV): Humans are HSV’s only natural host. HSV is
spherical and multiplies in the nucleus. Two serotypes are reconized; HSV type 1
and HSV type 2. HSV is responsible for many types of infections such as Occular
Herpes a type of eye disease; genital herpes a veneral disease transmitted by sexual
intercourse; neonatal herpes (mother to baby); Herpes labialis (border of lip is
involved); Herpes Simplex Dermatitis, Herpes Simplex Hepatitis, Herpes Simplex
Encepalitis, Herpes Simplex Meningitis etc. The usual vehicles for transmission are
contaminated saliva; secretions from eyes, pharynx or genitalia. Skin to skin contact
can spread the virus. It may be mentioned here that HSV type 1 and 2 can often
cause cancer in certix.
iii) Varicella Zoster Virus (VZV): It is almost similar to HSV in its morphology. It
causes Chicken Pox.
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 Viruses

a) Pox Viruses

Lateral Body

Outer Coat

DNA Inner coat

Lateral Body

b) Structure of Pox Virus

Fig. 2.3 (a, b): Pox virus

Chicken Pox: Chicken pox is one of the commonest childhood infections and it may
occur at any age. The incubation period varies 2 to 3 weeks. It is transmitted by
coughing or sneezing or by direct contact with the patient. The vesicles are
surrounded by red rim. There are rarely depressed scars as seen in small pox. If the
infection is severe it may lead to complications such as haemorrhagic eruption,
leukaemia, viral pneumonia, encephalitis etc.
iv) Adeno Viruses: The name is derived from the fact that they were first found in
adenoid tissue removed by surgical operations. They multiply in nucleus and have
no envelope. They enter through the respiratory tract and exit through the
respiratory secretions. The adenoviruses have more than thirty three serotypes and
type 12, 18, 31 can cause tumours in humans. The diseases produced by adeno
viruses are pharyngitis, pneumonia, acute respiratory disease and pharyngo-
conjunctival fever. Sometimes they infect the eye to cause mild conjunctivitis.
Transmission is through nasopharyngeal secretion or sputum of saliva or through
physical contact or droplets.
v) Human Parvo Viruses: They are small and simplest DNA viruses without
envelope. They often cause disease in animals. Parvo-virus B-19 is the only one
which infects humans. The first human parvo-virus was discovered by Paver in
1973 in stool specimens. The second was found in the serum of blood donors and a
third type was recovered from human tissue.
vi) Papova, Polyoma and Papilloma Viruses: They are small DNA tumour producing
viruses which cause a variety of tumours in different parts of the human body.
vii) Cytomegalo Virus (CMV): It was first reported in the early years of 20th century.
The virus is present in saliva, urine, semen, uterine cervix, blood and human milk.
It can spread through saliva or by inhalation or sexual intercourse. It is a source
of cytomegalo inclusions disease but it can also cause tumours.
viii) Epstein Barr Virus (EB): It was first reported in 1964 in African children. It
causes tumour in jaw. Infection occurs through respiratory tract by close contact
with patients. The common mode of infection is believed to be by kissing; hence the
25
Microbiology-II disease is also known as kissing disease. It is characterised by sore throat and
presence of abnormal lymphocytes in the peripheral blood.
ix) Hepatitis B Virus (HBV): It is a DNA virus and can cause carcinoma in humans
(see details in sub-section 2.3.3).

2.3.2 Disease Producing RNA Viruses

After learning DNA viruses, you will now be interested to know RNA viruses.

i) Poliomyelitis Viruses
These are smallest spherical viruses present in the cytoplasm of infected cells and cause
poliomyelitis (Infantile paralysis) disease. There are three distinct types of poliomyelitis
viruses (Type I, II and III) and each type includes a number of strains. Type I is the
commonest and responsible for the epidemic. These viruses can survive in faeces for
several weeks. Faeces of patient and carrier is the important source of polio virus. The
disease spreads through contaminated drinking water, sewage etc.

Its principal portal of entry is the gastrointestinal tract via mouth. These viruses multiply in
the mucous membrane of the pharynx and intestine and then spread to the blood and finally
reach the nervous system. They cause inflammation of the spinal cord, damage motor cells
and the motor responses to the affected parts are weakend or destroyed. The incubation
period is about ten days with range from 4 days to 4 weeks. Two types of vaccines viz.
Sabin’s live polio vaccines and Salk’s killed polio vaccines are available. Salk’s vaccine is
given by injection and Sabin’s vaccine is given orally. Sabin’s vaccine is economical and
single oral dose gives life long immunity. Salk’s vaccine is given by injection in 2 or 3
doses and it is followed by booster doses.

Poliomyelitis is world wide in distribution. Originally the position of polio disease was
similar in all countries but now in advanced countries it is almost eradicated and in
developing countries including India, immunization has brought down the incidence. In
India all steps are being taken to eradicate polio disease from every part of the country.

ii) Rhinoviruses
Rhino means nose. They are so named because of their special adaptation to grow in the
nose. There are at least more than 100 serotypes of Rhinoviruses. Because of so many
serotypes, it has not been possible to make ideal efficient composite vaccine. They are
responsible for the common cold. The disease is trasmitted by droplets. The incubation
period is 2 days. Human is the only natural host of rhinovirus.

iii) Orthomyxo Viruses (Influenza Viruses)

They are mostly spherical viruses and multiply in nucleus as well as in cytoplasm. They are

Spikes

RNA

Protein coat
Envelope

Neuraminidase

26 Fig. 2.4: Orthomyxo virus (Influenza virus)

enveloped with spikes on its surface (Fig. 2.4). Influenza viruses are of three main types, A, Viruses
B and C. There are many strains in type A and B and new strains are still appearing in both
these strains. Type A and B cause epidemic influenza but type C causes very mild disease.
Influenza is an acute infectious disease of the respiratory tract of man, the incubation
period being 1-3 days.

iv) Paramyxo Viruses

They resemble orthomyxo viruses in morphology but are much larger in size. This virus
multiplies in cytoplasm and is enveloped with spikes on its surface (Fig. 2.5). These
include mumps viruses, measles viruses and parainfluenza viruses etc.

Spikes

RNA

Protein coat

Envelope

Fig. 2.5: Paramyxo virus (Mumps virus)

1) Mumps Virus (Rabula Inflans)

It causes mumps disease and humans are the only natural hosts. The incubation period is 21
days. Infection may be by inhalation or through the conjunctiva. Since mumps virus causes
acute inflammation of the parotid glands, the disease is also called epidemic paratitis. To
begin with, the parotid glands show inflammation with marked swelling behind the ear and
there is difficulty in swallowing. Mumps virus may produce complications in brain,
meninges, thyroid, pancreas, breast, ovaries, testes and the heart. Inflammation of the testis
is common in adult males which may sometimes even lead to sterility.

2) Measles Virus (Rubeola or Morbilli)

It causes measles, one of the most common infectious world wide viral diseases of
children. The incubation period is 10 to 12 days. After 10 days the patients begin with
fever, cough and respiratory infection in the upper tract. Spots called kaplik’s spots appear
on the buccal mucosa. The disease is sometimes complicated by secondary bacterial
infection such as pneumonia, bronchitis and very rarely severe infection encephalitis can
also occur.

3) Parainfluenza Viruses
They are classified into 4 types: parainfluenza types 1-4. Type 3 causes lower respiratory
tract infections (bronchitis, bronchiolitis) while type 4 causes minor respiratory infection.
Type 1 and 2 cause severe infections.

v) Rhabdo Viruses
The term rabies is derived from the Latin word “Rabidus” meaning “Mad”. These viruses
are bullet shaped and multiply in neuroplasm but at times these also multiply in salivary
glands. It is surrounded by lipoprotien envelope from which project spikes. In infected
brain the characteristics cell inclusions known as negri bodies are present in the
nucleoplasm. Rhabdo virus causes the disease rabies also called hydrophobia because the 27
Microbiology-II patient shows fear of water and is unable to drink in spite of being very thirsty. The
incubation period varies from 1 to 3 months though it may be as short as 10 days or as long
as 3 years. The incubation period depends upon the site of the wound and its distance from
the brain. If the site of the wound is near the brain the incubation period will be fairly
short. The disease is transmitted chiefly through the saliva of rabies dog. Humans are
infected by the bite of a rabid dog or any other rabid mammal and the virus spreads from
the wound through the nerve fibre to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
From central nervous system virus spreads to salivary glands and other tissues.

Spikes

Protein coat

Envelope

RNA

Fig. 2.6(a): Rhabdo Virus (Rabies virus)

The disease is characterised by depression, itching at the site of primary infection, fever,
paralysis of the face muscles, eyes and tongue and then spreads to the limbs. Fear of water
is the dominant symptom which leads to convulsions, coma and death. Since the virus is in
the saliva, precautions must be taken to prevent its entrance into cuts and scratches. Human
rabies can be checked by vaccination of pets and destruction of stray animals. Brain of
suspected animal should be examined for negri bodies. Failure to find negri bodies does
not exclude the possibility of rabies. If there is any doubt, anti-rabies injections should be
given before symptoms appear.

Neuroplasm

Nerve cell

Nucleus Negri Bodies

Fig. 2.6(b): Large nerve cell from human brain showing Negri bodies

Activity 1

1) Examine the stained slide of brain of rabid dog or any other rabid mammal in the
nearby laboratory and look for the negri bodies.
2) If a person has been bitten by a dog, suspected to be rabid, what will be your
contribution or advice as a nurse to him?
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vi) Rubella Virus (German Measle Virus) Viruses

Rubella virus causes German measles. It is surrounded by an envelope with spikes, on its
surface. It is not so highly infective as measles but it has a tendency to develop
complications. The virus is inhaled and grows in mouth and throat and small white patches
are seen in the mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract. After the incubation period
(16 to 18 days), the patient develops fever and skin shows blood rashes. The virus may also
spread up to middle ear and attack lymph glands. Arthritis is common complication
especially in females. The infection may be transmitted by the pregnant mother to the
foetus and the foetal cells may be damaged. The foetus may die or develop some serious
heart abnormalities, large liver, large spleen, etc. It is transmitted by nasopharyngeal
secretions borne in the air or dust.

vii) Arbo Viruses (Arthropod Borne Viruses)

‘Arbo virus’ is a short form of ‘arthropod borne virus’. It is enveloped spherical virus and
multiplies in arthropods (mosquito and tick). Arbo Viruses may be mosquito borne (Chikun
gunya viruses, JBE viruses, Yellow Fever viruses, Dengue Fever Viruses) or tick borne
(RSSE viruses, KFD viruses).
a) Mosquito Borne Arbo Viruses
1) Chikungunya Viruses: They cause chikungunya disease in man and are transmitted
by Aedes aegypti mosquito. It occurred in Africa in 1952, Thailand in 1958 and in
India in 1963. In India it caused very extensive epidemic in Kolkata, Tamil Nadu
and other areas. In 1975, it occurred as an endemic in Maharashtra. The disease is
characterised by fever, joint pains, conjunctivitis and lymphadenopathy.
2) JBE Viruses (Japanese B. Encephalitis Viruses): This disease is transmitted through
Culex mosquito. It occurred in Korea, Japan, India and Malasia. In 1935 it occurred
in Japan as a very severe epidemic. It was recognized in India in 1955 and
epidemics have been reported in West Bengal, Bihar and Assam in 1973 and latest
in 1978. The disease is characterised by chill, fever, headache, nausea, vomiting and
pain. The patient feels drowsy and in several cases it may result in mental
confusion, coma and death. The incubation period is between 4 to 21 days.
3) Yellow Fever Viruses: Yellow fever virus is the first human virus which was
discovered in 1900 by Walter Reed. It causes yellow fever in man but it does not
occur in India. It is spread by Aedes aegypti mosquito and the incubation period is 3
to 6 days. The disease starts with high fever, chills, headache, nausea, vomiting and
backache and does great damage to the liver, kidney and blood vessels causing
jaundice, albuminaria, and haemorrhages in the gastro-intestinal tract and the
patient may die of hepatic and renal failure.
4) Dengue Fever Viruses: These are transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquito from man
to man and cause Dengue Fever in India. There are four strains of this virus: Den-1-4.
All the four strains are identified in India but it is Den 2 and Den 3 virus which
claimed the lives of hundreds of people in Delhi in 1996-97. Dengue Fever is also
called as break bone fever because there is severe backache. The symptoms are very
high fever, low platelets count, vomiting with blood and black coloured stool,
headache, joint pains, stiffness etc. When a person suffers from dengue and it
reaches the haemorrhagic stage, the functioning of the bone marrow, where all the
blood components are made, gets affected. Fresh blood stops flowing in the arteries
and the existing platelets are consumed. There is a sudden fall in the platelets count
resulting in internal bleeding. Timely fluid therapy and platelets transfusion only
can save a patient.
b) Tick Borne Arbo Viruses
Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) Viruses: These viruses are tick borne and cause
Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD), first noticed in Kyasanur forest area in Karnataka State
in India. They are carried from human to human by ticks and the patient develops
haemorrhages in skin, mucosa and viscera. This disease is also called haemorrhagic
fever.

viii) Corona Viruses

They are enveloped viruses with widely spread club shapes projections on its surface.
Corona virus has many serotypes and it is responsible for common cold and acute
respiratory infections.
29
Microbiology-II
Protein Coat

Club Shaped Projections

RNA

Envelope

Fig. 2.7: Corona Virus

ix) Rota Viruses

The name is derived from rota meaning wheel. These viruses are characterised by well
defined outline like rim of wheel and on its outer rim short projections are present. Rota
viruses are the most common cause of diarrhoeal diseases in infants and children. The
incubation period is 2 to 3 days. (Fig. 2.8)

Fig. 2.8: Rota virus from the faeces of a child

x) Retro Viruses
Two types of retro viruses viz., Human Tcell Leukemia Virus (HTLV) and human immuno
deficiency virus (HIV) are responsible for causing human diseases. At present there are
two strains of HTLV, viz. HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 which have been isolated and both are
basically similar. They are enveloped viruses that develop by budding through the host cell
membrane and cause leukemia disease, a type of blood cancer formed by the excessive
growth of leucocytes. They are usually transmitted from mother to the child. HIV also has
two strains HIV-1 and HIV-2 giving rise to slowly developing disease AIDS. We will
discuss this disease separately under the title HIV and AIDS (see sub-section 2.3.4).

Check Your Progress 5

1) Name two DNA viruses with envelope and two without envelope.
.............................................................................................................................................
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30
2) What are negri bodies? Where are they found? Viruses

.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
3) Distinguish between Rubella and Rubeola virus.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
4) How are Dengue Fever Viruses transmitted from one individual to another?
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
5) Name two types of Retroviruses causing human diseases.
.............................................................................................................................................
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2.3.3 Hepatitis Viruses

Hepatitis virus causes viral hepatitis which is a systemic disease with inflammation in the
liver. Till now there are seven types of hepatitis viruses known so far viz. A, B, C, D, E, F
and G and all contain RNA genome, except B which contains DNA. Most of the viral
hepatitis resemble each other clinically but infection caused by hepatitis B is most severe.

Virus Hepatitis Type A (HAV)

It is non-enveloped spherical RNA Virus occurring mainly in children and young adults. It
enters the body by ingestion and multiplies in the intestinal epithelium and then through
blood it reaches liver and causes infectious hepatitis, which may lead to chronic hepatits or
cirrhosis of the liver and may end fatally. In most cases the disease hepatitis is anicteric
(without jaundice) and spreads from person to person by faecal-oral route or sexual
intercourse. The incubation period is fairly short 2 to 6 weeks.

Hepatitis A virus

Fig. 2.9: Spherical forms of hepatitis A virus

Virus Hepatitis Type B (HBV)

It is non-enveloped DNA virus. Type B hepatitis patient shows three types of virus particles
viz.
a) The most abundant small spherical particles,
b) Tubular structures of varying lengths, and
c) Double shelled spherical structures. 31
Microbiology-II It causes serum hepatitis. The disease is similar to type A but more severe and mortality
rate is higher. It may even cause liver cancer. The incubation period is usually long 2 to 6
months. It is transmitted through blood transfusion, injection of serum and other blood
products. This disease is common in drug addicts due to sharing of unsterile syringes;
prostitutes and homosexuals. It may be transmitted by sharing of razors, by kissing and
sexual intercourse. Dentists and barbers may infect their clients.

Tubular

Shelled spherical

Spherical

Fig. 2.10: Three morphological forms of hepatitis B virus

Organisms have been found in various body fluids such as saliva, menstrual and vaginal
discharges, seminal fluid and breast milk. These are rarely seen in urine, bile, faeces, sweat
and tears. Hepatitis B vaccine is now available for prevention against hepatitis B.

Virus Hepatitis Type C (HCV)

These are spherical or filamentous RNA particles. It is responsible for 10% to 50% cases
of all hepatitis infections. HCV infection is found in many intravenous drug abusers. The
incubation period varies from 5 to 10 weeks. HCV is a major cause of death due to chronic
liver disease and cirrhosis. HCV virus particles have been detected in blood.

Virus Hepatitis Type D (HDV)

It was identified in 1977 in Italy. It is RNA virus in association with Hepatitis B Virus and
may lead to acute and chronic hepatitis or sometimes severe hepatitis. It replicates only in
HBV infected cells. HDV replicates in the nucleus while HBV replicates in the cytoplasm.
Incubation period varies from 2 to 12 weeks or may be even shorter.

Virus Hepatitis Type E (HEV)

It is RNA virus and resembles Hepatitis A but is serologically different from Hepatitis A.
The infection is spread by the ingestion of contaminated water and food and has occurred
in many countries including India. In pregnancy, the mortality rate is very high.

Check Your Progress 6

State at least four characters to differentiate virus Hepatitis A from B.
....................................................................................................................................................................
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32
2.3.4 HIV and AIDS Viruses

HIV (Human Immuno Deficiency Virus) belongs to retrovirus group of RNA viruses. At
present there are two strains of HIV known as HIV-1 and HIV-2 originated from Central
Africa and West Africa respectively. Both these strains of HIV cause the life threatening
disease Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) which is of a very serious type
and often fatal. The fatality rate for AIDS is very high reaching 100% in some countries.
There is yet no cure for AIDS. A lot of research work is going on in this field of virology
and scientists are busy in the development of vaccine against HIV. Until treatment and
vaccines are available, urgent programmes need to be devised with regard to public health,
social and sexual behaviour.

1) History
AIDS was first recognized as a disease in USA (New York and Los Angeles) in 1981 in
homosexuals and drug addicts who suffered either from pneumocystis carinii pneumonia or
from Kaposis Sarcoma (KS) disease. In 1984, Dr. Robert Gallo isolated HIV from AIDS
patients in National Institute of Health, USA and stated that under electron microscope it
exhibits characteristic exotic flower appearance.

In India, AIDS was first discovered in 1985 among six heterosexuals in Tamil Nadu. Since
then it has spread to every part of India at an extremely rapid rate and the highest ever
documented rate of HIV spread in the world was in Pune, India. In 1996, it was soon
established that there were more new HIV cases in South Asia than any other region in the
world. The number is rapidly increasing every year and it is estimated that in the next few
years India will have 20-50 million people infected with HIV.

2) How do People Get AIDS?

HIV is different in its mode of producing disease as compared to other viruses. HIV is
present in all the body fluids (blood, semen, vaginal secretion and breast milk) of human
beings infected with AIDS. It enters the body through cuts in the skin or through mucous
membranes and is transmitted by any of the four body fluids into the blood stream. After
entering the blood stream, there is a fight between HIV and the body’s immune system.
HIV gradually starts destroying the body’s immunic system cells T4. During this period
when the immune system and HIV are fighting, the HIV infected person will look normal
and healthy and there are no symptoms of AIDS. Once enough T4 cells are destroyed, the
body becomes defenseless and the victim develops AIDS. The incubation period for AIDS
is 8 to 12 years. In India, it takes 5 to 10 years for an HIV infected person to become full
blown AIDS patient. It may be remarked here that AIDS itself does not kill the person but
the victim dies of some other infection in the body such as sarcoma, tuberculosis,
pneumonia, malnutrition etc. If such infections are controlled, chances of getting AIDS will
automatically be minimised.

3) Mode of Infection
AIDS is a communicable disease but it is much different from other communicable viral
diseases of human beings. AIDS can be caused only if HIV enters the blood stream of
human blood. There are four main modes of spread. These are through
a) sexual intercourse among homosexuals and heterosexuals;
b) infected blood and blood products (blood transfusion);
c) infected needles, syringes and surgical instruments; and
d) infected mother to her newborn baby through breast milk.

Whether it can spread by contact with large amounts of infected saliva is not known as
saliva has natural compounds that inhibits HIV infection.

HIV does not spread through casual contact such as sharing food utensils, towels, beddings,
telephones or toilet seats. Also, it does not spread by insects like mosquitoes, flies or bed
bugs.

4) Structure of HIV
HIV under electron microscope appears like an exotic flower. It is a mature virion, the central
part containing two identical copies of viral ribonucleic acid (RNA), which is unusual
among viruses. RNA is surrounded by a protein coat with two proteins (P 17/18 and P24/25) 33
Microbiology-II
Protein coat P17/18

Envelope

Protien coat P24/25

GP 41
RNA

GP 120

Fig. 2.11: Structure of HIV

and an envelope with projecting spikes. The envelope is rich in glycoproteins (GP41, GP 120
and GP 160). When the virus enters the cell, first the outermost envelope is lost at the site of
entry, then the protein coat is also cast off and RNA starts replicating in the cell and thus a
large number of virions are formed in the cell.

Ultimately the cell dies and newly formed virions bud out through the cell membrane and
infect fresh cells. These virions suppress the body’s immune system by killing T4 cells and
an unusual neoplasm develops resulting in skin rashes, fatigue, fever, weight loss,
breathing problems, chronic diarrhoea, white patches on tongue, oral candidiasis,
lymphadenopathy and finally AIDS disease.

5) Protection Against HIV

1) Abstinence from sex is the only 100% best and safe protection against HIV and also
against other sexually transmitted diseases (STD) such as Gonorrhoea, Genital
Herpes, Hepatitis B, Syphilis, etc.
2) Only disposable needles should be used. If it is not possible then needles must be
sterilized with bleach or savlon.
3) Avoid sharing needle while using intravenous drugs, shaving razor or any sharp
object for body piercing of any kind including nose and ear.
4) Blood must be tested for HIV before blood transfusion. Always prefer accepting
blood from voluntary blood banks and not commercial blood banks. In fact more
than 85% of Mumbai’s commercial blood donors are HIV positive.
5) HIV positive mother can transmit HIV to the baby during birth process. Caesarean
sections reduce the risk of HIV transmission to the child. Mothers who are HIV
positive should not breast-feed their children.
6) If a person is HIV positive, deep kissing should be avoided because of possible cuts
or sores in the mouth.

2.4 CONTROL OF VIRAL DISEASES

Now, we shall discuss the role of antibiotics and vaccines in the prevention of viral disease.
Prevention against HIV is already stated in this unit.

Earlier, it was believed that, since viruses used the protein synthesizing machinery of the
34 host cell to synthesize their proteins, their replication could not be inhibited without
damaging the host cell. But now, with the development of new genetic techniques and Viruses
technologies, vaccine strains can be produced with the desired antigenic characters and
the viral infection may be checked by attacking virus at special areas without damaging
the cell.
i) Control of viral diseases by antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents: Viruses
are not susceptible to antibiotics or chemotherapeutic agents. Antibacterial
antibiotics have produced very poor results against viruses. As viruses are
intracellular parasites, any chemical used to inhibit the viral replication also
damages the host cell. Most of these drugs are highly toxic and cannot be used for
human beings. Attempts are being made to synthesize antiviral drugs with low
toxicity and some degree of success has already been achieved in few cases. Anti-
AIDS drugs such as Zidovudine and Lamivudine are now available for AIDS. These
are given, in cases of needle stick injury or unprotected sex, three times daily for
one month starting within forty eight hours.
ii) Control of viral diseases by vaccines/vaccination: Vaccination, unlike the use of
drugs, is the simplest and safest method to prevent viral diseases. Edward Jenner
was the first one who in 1798 gave the idea of live organisms as vaccines. He
developed cowpox vaccine against small pox in human beings. Since then many
vaccines have been produced from living or killed microorganisms to prevent viral
diseases. By using such effective vaccines great success has been achieved in
controlling small pox and polio and there is a huge decline of several other viral
diseases such as yellow fever, measles, mumps etc. Now-a-days, vaccine is also
available for the dreaded disease, e.g. Hepatitis B, but unfortunately no vaccine has
yet been made for the most dangerous disease AIDS.

Check Your Progress 7

1) Name four primary modes of HIV infection.
.............................................................................................................................................
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2) State the contribution of Edward Jenner towards virology.
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2.5 LET US SUM UP

l Viruses are extremely small obligate intracellular living forms containing only one type
of nucleic acid either DNA or RNA.
l They can even pass through very fine filters which hold the bacteria back.
l They do not have cellular organisation, protoplasm etc. as cells do and they reproduce
only in living cells.
l Virus consists of two parts—with the protein coat outside and nucleic acid inside.
l Virus that infects bacteria is called bacteriophage.
l Virus reproduction has been studied in bacteriophage and animal cells and it is much
more complex than binary fission.
l Like all other living cells, viruses also occasionally undergo mutation of their genes
and they are highly specific.
l Accounts of well known disease producing DNA and RNA viruses are included in this unit.
l Diseases like chicken pox, small pox, herpes are caused by DNA viruses while diseases
like influenza, mumps, measles, rabies, polio, dengue fever are caused by RNA viruses.
l Different types of hepatitis viruses are also discussed. Hepatitis B is most severe and is
transmitted through blood transfusion, injection of serum and other blood products.
l The life threatening, often fatal, disease AIDS is caused by HIV (Human Immuno
Deficiency Virus). An account of its history, immune system, mode of infection,
structure and protection is included in the text.
35
Microbiology-II l Viruses are not susceptible to antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents but many
vaccines have been produced to prevent and control viral diseases.
l Now-a-days vaccine is also available for hepatitis B but unfortunately no vaccine has
yet been made for AIDS.

2.6 KEY WORDS

Anicteric : Without jaundice.

Arthropod : A group of animals with jointed legs.
Attenuated : An attenuated strain is one, which was originally virulent but is
now of lowered virulence for a particular host.
Avirulent type : Avirulent types are those bacteriophages in which infection may
not be apparent.
Capsid : The protein coat of a virus is called capsid.
Carcinoma : It is a cancer formed from epithetical tissue
Dimorphic : Having two forms.
Epidemic : A sudden increase in the incidence rate of a disease affecting a
large number of people over a wide area.
Helical : Cylindrical structure.
Icosahedral or : Spherical in shape. It is a regular polyhedron with 20 triangular
faces
polyhedral and 12 corners.
Icteric : Jaundice.
Inactivate : To destroy the activity of a substance.
Incubation period : The elapsed time between exposure to infection and the appearance
of disease symptoms.
In vitro : Biological experiments performed in test tubes or other laboratory
vessels.
Leukemia : It is a blood cancer formed from leucocytes.
Macroscopic : Visible without the aid of microscope.
Negri bodies : These are a type of inclusion bodies found in the neuroplasm of
rabies patients
Orchitis : Inflammation of testis.
Pleomorphism : The existence of different forms in the same species or strains of
microorganisms.
Rash : Slight eruption on the skin.
Reticulo- : A system of cells in various organs and tissues such as the spleen,
endothelial system liver, bone marrow etc. which are important in resistance and
immunity.
Sarcoma : It is a cancer formed from connective tissue.
Scab : A crust formed over a sore.
Susceptibility : The state of being exposed to disease, opposite of immunity.
Tissue Culture : Growth of tissue cells in the laboratory media.
Variant : An organism showing some variation from the present culture.
Vertebrate : It is an animal with backbone.
Virion : Complete mature virus particle.
Widal Test : Agglutination test for typhoid or paratyphoid fever.
36 Wasserman Test : A complement fixation test for syphilis.
 Viruses
2.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
Stanley was the first one who succeeded in isolating virus from the host cell. He was
awarded noble prize in 1946 for his wonderful discovery.

Check Your Progress 2

1) The two characters of living viz. mutation and adaptation through natural selection are
not known anywhere outside living things. Therefore, it seems reasonable to consider
virus as living even though they are primitive and do not exhibit all the characters found
in living things.
2) Virion is a complete mature particle.
3) Capsomeres are subunits of the protein coat.

Check Your Progress 3

1) A virus that infects bacteria is called bacteriophage.
2) Lytic virus is a bacteriophage in which infection is apparent.
Temperate virus is a bacteriophage in which infection is not apparent.
Lytic’s synonym is a virulent and temperate’s synonym is avirulent.

Check Your Progress 4

a) Animal is inoculated with virus.
b) Chick embryo at a suitable stage of development is inoculated with virus.
c) Tissues are inoculated with virus.

Check Your Progress 5

1) Two DNA viruses with envelope are Herpes-simplex virus (HSV) and small pox virus.
The two DNA viruses without envelope are adenoviruses and parvoviruses.
2) Negri bodies are a type of cell inclusions found in the brain of rabies patient.
3) Rubella virus causes a disease called German measles. It is a benign infectious viral disease.
Rubeola virus causes a disease called measles. It is an acute, highly infectious viral disease.
4) Dengue fever viruses are transmitted from person to person by Aedes aegypti mosquito.
5) Human T cell leukemia Virus (HTLV) and Human Immuno-deficiency Virus (HIV).

Check Your Progress 6

Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) Hepatitis B Virus (HBV)

a) It is RNA Virus. It is DNA Virus.
b) It is spherical in shape. It has three types of particles; i) spherical;
ii) tubular; iii) double shelled spherical.
c) Incubation period is 2 to 6 weeks. Incubation period is 2 to 6 months.
d) Mortality rate is less. Mortality rate is high.

Check Your Progress 7

1) a) Through sexual intercourse among homosexuals and heterosexuals.

b) Through blood transfusion.
c) Through needles, syringes and surgical instruments.
d) Through mother to her new born baby and through breast milk.
2) Edward Jenner in 1798 developed cowpox vaccine against small pox in human beings.

37