Fitting in Process Piping

 Elbows – for making angle turns in piping.

 Nipples – for making close connections. They are threaded on both ends with the
close nipple threaded for its entire length.
 Couplings – for connecting two pieces of pipe of the same size in a straight line.
 Unions – for providing an easy method for dismantling piping.
 Tees and Crosses – for making branch line connections at 90º.
 Y-bends – for making branch line connections at 45º.
 Return Bends – for reversing direction of a pipe run.
 Plugs and Caps – for closing off open pipe ends or fittings.
 Bushings – for connecting pipes of different sizes. The male end fits into a
coupling and the smaller pipe is then screwed into the female end. The smaller
connection may be tapped eccentrically to permit free drainage of water.
 Reducers – for reducing pipe size. Has two female connections into which
the different sized pipes fit. May also be made with one connection eccentric for
free drainage of water.

Reducers in Process Piping

A reducer is a kind of pipe fitting used in process piping that reduces the pipe size from a larger bore to a
smaller bore (inner diameter).
A reducer allows for a change in pipe size to meet hydraulic flow requirements of the system, or to
adapt to existing piping of a different size. The length of the reduction is usually equal to the average of
the larger and smaller pipe diameters.
There are two main types of reducer:
Concentric reducers
Eccentric reducers
Reducers are usually concentric but eccentric reducers are used when required to maintain the same
top-or bottom-of-pipe level.

Concentric Reducer
In Concentric Reducer the reduction of the pipe size is achieved by decreasing the diameter of the fitting
at a constant rate over a specified length, maintaining symmetry around the fitting. Concentric Reducers
are used to join pipe or tube sections of different diameters on the same axis. They provide an in-line
conical transition between pressurized pipes of differing diameters. Thus, concentric reducers connect
pipes of unequal size but have a common centerline. The same fitting can be used in reverse as an
concentric expander
Eccentric Reducer
In Eccentric Reducer the reduction of the pipe size is achieved by decreasing the diameter of the fitting
at a constant rate over a specified length, maintaining one side of the fitting horizontally. An eccentric
pipe reducer fitting is manufactured with the smaller outlet off center to the larger end, which allows it
to align with only one side of the inlet. The same fitting can be used in reverse as an eccentric expander.

Uses of Concentric and Eccentric Reducers

In horizontal liquid piping, eccentric reducer must be installed with flat side up so that it can prevent
trapping air in the piping system. As an exception, same is flat side down in piperack where same
Bottom of Pipe (BOP) has to be maintained. Other exception is with control valves. A eccentric reducer
with flat side down will give a more constant flow through the control valve rather than a concentric
reducer or eccentric reducer with flat side up, which will give your more flow disruption and will cause
problems with your control valve.
In horizontal gas / vapor / steam piping, eccentric reducer must be installed with flat side down which
allows condensed water or fluid to drain at low points.
Eccentric reducers are used at the suction side of pumps to ensure air does not accumulate in the pipe.
The gradual accumulation of air in a concentric reducer could result in a large bubble that could
eventually cause the pump to stall or cause cavitation when drawn into the pump.
Reducers in vertical lines are generally concentric unless the layout dictates otherwise.
Introduction to Flanges
Flanges are used when the piping joint needs dismantling. These are used mainly at
equipment’s, valves and specialties. In certain pipelines where maintenance is a
regular feature, breakout flanges are provided at definite intervals. A flanged joint is
composed of three separate and independent although interrelated components; the
flanges, the gaskets and the bolting. Special controls are required in the selection and
application of all these elements to attain a leak-proof joint.

Classification of flanges is done in several alternate ways as follows;

Based On Pipe Attachment

Flanges can be classified based on the method of attachment to the piping as below;

 Slip On Flange –
The Slip On type flanges are attached by two fillet welds, inside as well as outside
the flange. The calculated strength from a Slip On flange under internal pressure
is of the order of two-thirds that of Welding Neck flanges, and their life under
fatigue is about one-third that of the latter. Normally, these flanges are of forged
construction and are provided with hub. Sometimes, these flanges are fabricated
from plates and are not provided with the hub.The disadvantage of the flange is
that a combination of flange and elbow or flange and tee is not possible because
named fittings have not a straight end that complete slid in the Slip On flange.
 Socket Weld Flange –
The Socket weld flanges are attached by only one fillet weld, only on outside, and
are not recommended for severe services. These are used for small-bore lines
only. Their static strength is equal to Slip On flanges, but their fatigue strength is
50% greater than double-welded Slip On flanges. The thickness of connecting
pipe should be specified for this type of flanges to ensure proper bore
dimension.In socket weld flange, before welding, a space must be created
between flange or fitting and pipe. ASME B31.1 Preparation for Welding (E)
Socket Weld Assembly says:In assembly of the joint before welding, the pipe or
tube shall be inserted into the socket to the maximum depth and then withdrawn
approximately 1/16″ (1.6 mm) away from contact between the end of the pipe and
the shoulder of the socket.The purpose for the bottoming clearance in a Socket
Weld is usually to reduce the residual stress at the root of the weld that could
occur during solidification of the weld metal. The image shows you the X
measure for the expansion gap.The disadvantage of socket weld flange is right the
gap, that must be made. By corrosive products, and mainly in stainless steel pipe
 systems, the crack between pipe and flange can give corrosion problems. In some
processes this flange is also not allowed.

 Screwed Flange –
The Screwed or Threaded flanges are used on pipe lines where welding cannot be

carried out. A threaded flange or fitting is not suitable for a pipe system with thin
wall thickness, because cutting thread on a pipe is not possible. Thus, thicker wall
thickness must be chosen.ASME B31.3 Piping Guide says:
Where steel pipe is threaded and used for steam service above 250 psi or for
water service above 100 psi with water temperatures above 220° F, the pipe shall
be seamless and have a thickness at least equal to schedule 80 of ASME
B36.10.Socket welding and threaded flanges are not recommended for service
above 250°C and below -45 C.
 Lap Joint Flange –
The Lap joint flanges are used with stub ends when piping is of a costly material.
For example, in a stainless steel pipe system, a carbon steel flange can be applied,
because flange will not come in contact with the product in the pipe. The stub
ends will be butt-welded to the piping and the flanges are kept loose over the
same. The inside radius of these flanges is chamfered to clear the stub end
radius.These flanges are nearly identical to a Slip On flange with the exception of
a radius at the intersection of the flange face and the bore to accommodate the
flanged portion of the Stub End. Their pressure-holding ability is little, if any,
better than that of Slip On flanges and the fatigue life for the assembly is only one
tenth that of Weld Neck flanges. Thus this flange connections are applied in low-
pressure and non critical applications.
 Weld Neck Flange –
Welding Neck Flanges are easy to recognize as the long tapered hub, that goes
gradually over to the wall thickness from a pipe or fitting. The long tapered hub
provides an important reinforcement for use in several applications involving high
pressure, sub-zero and / or elevated temperatures. The smooth transition from
flange thickness to pipe or fitting wall thickness effected by the taper is extremely
beneficial, under conditions of repeated bending, caused by line expansion or
other variable forces.These flanges are bored to match the inside diameter of the
mating pipe or fitting so there will be no restriction of product flow. This prevents
turbulence at the joint and reduces erosion. They also provide excellent stress
distribution through the tapered hub.The Weld neck flanges are attached by butt-
welding to the pipes. These are used mainly for critical services where all the
weld joints need radiographic inspection. While specifying these flanges, the
thickness of the welding end also should be specified along with flange
specification.
 

 Blind Flange –
Blind Flanges are manufactured without a bore and used to blank off the ends of
piping, Valves and pressure vessel openings.From the standpoint of internal
pressure and bolt loading, blind flanges, particularly in the larger sizes, are the
most highly stressed flange types.However, most of these stresses are bending
types near the center, and since there is no standard inside diameter, these flanges
are suitable for higher pressure temperature applications.

 Reducing Flange –
The Reducing flanges are used to connect between larger and smaller sizes
without using a reducer. In case of reducing flanges, the thickness of the flange
should be that of the higher diameter. These flanges normally come in blind, slip-
on, threaded and weld neck flanges. They are available in all pressure classes and
provide a good alternative to connecting two different sizes of pipe. This type of
flange should not be used if an abrupt transition would create unwanted
turbulence, such as at a pump.
 Integral Flange –
Integral flanges are those, which are cast along with the nozzle neck or the vessel
or pipe wall, butt-welded thereto, or attached by other forms of arc or gas welding
of such a nature that the flange and the nozzle neck or vessel or pipe wall is
considered to be the equivalent of an integral structure. In welded construction,
the nozzle neck or the vessel or pipe wall is considered to act as a hub. Thickness
of integrally cast flanges and welded on flanges differ in certain sizes.
Based On Facing
The flanges can also be classified based on the facings as below:
 Raised Face Flange (RF) –
The Raised Face flange is the most common type used in process plant
applications, and is easily to identify. It is referred to as a raised face because the
gasket surfaces are raised above the bolting circle face. This face type allows the
use of a wide combination of gasket designs, including flat ring sheet types and
metallic composites such as spiral wound and double jacketed types. The purpose
of a RF flange is to concentrate more pressure on a smaller gasket area and
thereby increase the pressure containment capability of the joint. For 150# and
300# flanges, the raised face is of 1.6 mm (1/16 inch) and is included in the
thickness specified. For higher rating, the flange thickness does not include the
raised face thickness. The raised face thickness for higher rating is 6.4 mm (1/4
inch). The typical flange face finish for ASME B16.5 RF flanges is 125 to
250 µin Ra (3 to 6 µm Ra).
 Flat Face Flange (FF) –
The Flat Face flange has a gasket surface in the same plane as the bolting circle
face. Applications using flat face flanges are frequently those in which the mating
flange or flanged fitting is made from a casting. Flat face flanges are never to be
bolted to a raised face flange. ASME B31.1 says that when connecting flat face
cast iron flanges to carbon steel flanges, the raised face on the carbon steel flange
must be removed, and that a full face gasket is required. This is to keep the thin,
brittle cast iron flange from being sprung into the gap caused by the raised face of
the carbon steel flange.

 Ring Type Joint (RTJ) –

The Ring Type Joint flanges are typically used in high pressure (Class 600 and
higher rating) and/or high temperature services above 800°F (427°C). They have
grooves cut into their faces which seats ring gaskets. The flanges seal when
 tightened bolts compress the gasket between the flanges into the grooves,
deforming the gasket to make intimate contact inside the grooves, creating a metal
to metal seal. An RTJ flange may have a raised face with a ring groove machined
into it. This raised face does not serve as a part of the sealing means. For RTJ
flanges that seal with ring gaskets, the raised faces of the connected and tightened
flanges may contact each other. In this case the compressed gasket will not bear
additional load beyond the bolt tension, vibration and movement cannot further
crush the gasket and lessen the connecting tension.

Ring Type Joint gaskets are metallic sealing rings, suitable for high-pressure and
high-temperature applications. Ring Type Joint gaskets are designed to seal by
“initial line contact” or wedging action between the mating flange and the gasket. By
applying pressure on the seal interface through bolt force, the “softer” metal of the
gasket flows into the microfine structure of the harder flange material, and creating a
very tight and efficient seal. Most applied type is style R ring that is manufactured in
accordance with ASME B16.20 used with ASME B16.5 flanges, class 150 to 2500.
Style “R” ring type joints are manufactured in both oval and octagonal configurations.

The octagonal cross section has a higher sealing efficiency than the oval and would be
the preferred gasket. The sealing surfaces on the ring joint grooves must be smoothly
finished to 63 microinches and be free of objectionable ridges, tool or chatter marks.
They seal by an initial line contact or a wedging action as the compressible forces are
applied. The hardness of the ring should always be less than the hardness of the
flanges.

For more on Gaskets, check out: Introduction to Gaskets.

 Tongue and Groove (T/G) – 
One flange face has a raised ring (Tongue) machined onto the flange face while
the mating flange has a matching depression (Groove) machined into it’s
face. The Tongue and Groove faces of this flanges must be matched. Tongue-and-
groove facings are standardized in both large and small types. They differ from
male-and-female in that the inside diameters of the tongue-and-groove do not
extend into the flange base, thus retaining the gasket on its inner and outer
diameter. These are commonly found on pump covers and Valve Bonnets.
Tongue-and-groove joints also have an advantage in that they are self-aligning
and act as a reservoir for the adhesive. The scarf joint keeps the axis of loading in
line with the joint and does not require a major machining operation.

 Male and Female (M/F) – 

With this type the flanges also must be matched. One flange face has an area that
extends beyond the normal flange face (Male). The other flange or mating flange
has a matching depression (Female) machined into it’s face. The female face is
3/16-inch deep, the male face is 1/4-inch high, and both are smooth finished. The
outer diameter of the female face acts to locate and retain the gasket. Custom
male and female facings are commonly found on the Heat Exchanger shell to
 channel and cover flanges. The female face and the male face are smooth
finished. The outer diameter of the female face acts to locate and retain the gasket.

General flange faces such as the RTJ, T&G and the F&M shall never be bolted
together. The reason for this is that the contact surfaces do not match and there is no
gasket that has one type on one side and another type on the other side.

Based On Pressure-Temperature Rating

The flanges are also classified by the pressure temperature rating in ASME B 16.5 as
below;

 150#
 300#
 400#
 600#
 900#
 1500#
 2500#
Pressure temperature rating charts, in the standard ASME B 16.5, specify the non-
shock working gauge pressure to which the flange can be subjected to at a particular
temperature. Flanges can withstand different pressures at different temperatures. As
temperature increases, the pressure rating of the flange decreases. The indicated
pressure class of 150#, 300#, etc. are the basic ratings and the flanges can withstand
higher pressures at lower temperatures. ASME B 16.5 indicates the allowable
pressures for various materials of construction vis-a-vis the temperature. ASME B16.5
does not recommend the use of 150# flanges above 400 °F (200 °C). The Pressure
Class or Rating for flanges will be given in pounds. Different names are used to
indicate a Pressure Class. For example: 150 Lb or 150 Lbs or 150# or Class 150, all
are means the same.

Based On Face Finish

There are two types of finishes done on to the facings.

 Stock Finish – 
The most widely used of any flange surface finish, because practically, is suitable
for all ordinary service conditions. Under compression, the soft face from a gasket
will embed into this finish, which helps create a seal, and a high level of friction is
generated between the mating surfaces. The finish for these flanges is generated
by a 1.6 mm radius round-nosed tool at a feed rate of 0.8 mm per revolution up to
12 inch. For sizes 14 inch and larger, the finish is made with 3.2 mm round-nosed
tool at a feed of 1.2 mm per revolution.

 Smooth Finish Flange – 

This finish shows no visually apparent tool markings. These finishes are typically
utilized for gaskets with metal facings such as double jacketed, flat steel and
corrugated metal. The smooth surfaces mate to create a seal and depend on the
flatness of the opposing faces to effect a seal. This is typically achieved by having
the gasket contact surface formed by a continuous (sometimes called
phonographic) spiral groove generated by a 0.8 mm radius round-nosed tool at a
feed rate of 0.3 mm per revolution with a depth of 0.05 mm. This will result in a
roughness between Ra 3.2 and 6.3 micrometers (125 – 250 micro inch).
 Serrated Finish – 
This is also a continuous or phonographic spiral groove, but it differs from the
stock finish in that the groove typically is generated using a 90-deg tool which
creates a “V” geometry with 45° angled serration. The serrations provided on the
facing could be concentric or spiral (phonographic). Concentric serrations are
insisted for face finish when the fluid being carried has very low density and can
find leakage path through the cavity. The serration is specified by the number,
which is the Arithmetic Average Roughness Height (AARH). This is the
arithmetic average of the absolute values of measured profile height deviations
taken within the sampling length and measured from the graphical centre line.

The smooth finish flanges are specified when metallic gaskets are specified and
serrated finish is provided when a non-metallic gasket is provided.

Based On Material Of Construction

The flanges are normally forged except in very few cases where they are fabricated
from plates. When plates are used for fabrication, they should be of weldable quality.
ASME B16.5 allows only reducing flanges and blind flanges to be fabricated from
plate. The materials of construction normally used are as follows;

 ASTM A105 – Forged Carbon Steel

 ASTM A181 – Forged Carbon Steel for General Purpose
 ASTM A182 – Forged Alloy Steel and Stainless Steel
 ASTM A350 – Forged Alloy Steel for low temperature services