Starter Cultures: General Aspects
I B Powell and M C Broome, Dairy Innovation Australia, Werribee, VIC, Australia
G K Y Limsowtin, Formerly Australian Starter Culture Research Centre, Werribee, VIC, Australia
ª 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Modern cheesemaking makes use of advanced engi-
neering, biotechnology, and food science. Even so,
cheesemaking is fundamentally an ancient process and
many of the standard cheesemaking procedures are
based on traditional practices. It was not until 1873
that Lister isolated the first pure starter cultures and
thereby confirmed bacterial involvement in cheesemak-
ing. The handling and manipulation of bacterial
cultures emerged as a technology by the 1890s, through
Conn in the United States, Storch in Denmark, and
Weigmann in Germany. Advances in the selection,
propagation, and handling of starter cultures were
essential in enabling cheesemaking to become indus-
trialized and continue to influence cheesemaking
practice today. Growing understanding of the biochem-
istry, physiology, and genetics of lactic acid bacteria has
allowed more targeted use of specific cultures and
promises even greater control over culture performance
and cheese flavor.
This article addresses general concepts surrounding
the use of starter cultures. Further details can be found
in articles addressing specific cheese types and specific
starter species.
Functions of Starter Cultures
Production of Lactic Acid
Cheese starter cultures are predominantly composed of
lactic acid bacteria (see Lactic Acid Bacteria: Taxonomy
and Biodiversity), although other bacteria and yeasts
may also be involved. In cheese manufacture, the pri-
mary role of starter cultures is the production of lactic
acid from lactose at a predictable and controlled rate
(see Cheese: Overview). It is the consequent decrease in
pH that then affects a number of aspects of the cheese
manufacturing process and ultimately cheese composi-
tion and quality.
Effect of pH on Cheese Flavor and Texture
Acid alone can lead to coagulation of the milk caseins to
form curd, but for most cheese types a preparation con-
taining a proteolytic enzyme (rennet or, in more general
552
terms, coagulant) is used to induce curd formation.
During the vat stage of cheese manufacture, the decrease
in pH directly affects the proteolytic activity of both
coagulant and natural milk proteinase. At the point of
separation of curd from whey, the pH can influence the
amount of coagulant retained in the curd. This retained
coagulant will continue to carry out proteolysis within the
maturing cheese, releasing peptides and amino acids
(which may impart brothy or bitter flavor defects or act
as precursors for more complex flavor development) and
causing a gradual breakdown of the curd structure and
softening of the cheese.
Different coagulants display different properties, with
some showing greater pH dependency than others. For
example, the coagulant chymosin (either in traditional
calf rennet or in a purified form) operates optimally at
low pH (e.g., pH 2–4) and retention within the curd is also
greater at lower pH. Cheese milk is typically set at a pH
of 6.5–6.7 and the pH at which the whey is drained
influences the amount of chymosin retained in the curd.
Consequently, cheeses with a high acid level, particularly
those that are not highly cooked, may develop a bitter
flavor due to specific peptides originating from caseins as
a result of coagulant activity. Plasmin, an indigenous milk
proteinase with an alkaline optimum pH, also plays a role
in cheese ripening but has little activity in low-pH
cheeses.
The rate of curd contraction and whey expulsion
(syneresis) is enhanced as the pH decreases, and this
directly affects the final cheese moisture content and
subsequently cheese texture and the rates of the various
biochemical reactions involved in flavor compound for-
mation. Cheese texture is also influenced by the level of
pH-dependent dissolution of colloidal calcium phosphate
from the casein micelles, particularly if this occurs prior
to whey removal. Generally, cheeses with low pH tend to
be crumbly while those of a higher pH tend to be more
elastic.
It is important to note that these effects are not simply
related to the final pH of the cheese but depend on the pH
of the cheese at crucial points during manufacture, espe-
cially the pH at the point of curd/whey separation and
during syneresis. Predictable acid production by the star-
ter culture throughout the process can be crucial to
predictable control of cheese texture and flavor
development.

Production of Flavor and Aroma Compounds
Flavor development in cheese is largely dependent on the
combined proteolytic activity of a number of proteolytic
agents, including natural milk proteinases, coagulants,
starter bacteria, adventitious non-starter bacteria, and
adjunct organisms. Starter cultures possess an array of
predominantly intracellular peptidases that degrade pep-
tides formed by proteolytic agents to amino acids, which
then act as precursors for a range of volatile flavor com-
pounds (see Cheese: Biochemistry of Cheese Ripening;
Starter Cultures: Specific Properties). When starter
culture cells lyse in cheese, the intracellular peptidases
are also available to act upon peptides in the cheese
matrix itself.
Starter culture metabolism can also directly affect
cheese flavor development by forming various com-
pounds from lactose and citrate. One of the key branch
point metabolites in lactose metabolism is pyruvate, the
vast majority of which is converted under normal growth
conditions to lactic acid by the enzyme lactate dehydro-
genase. However, when starter bacteria are fermenting
galactose or fermenting glucose or lactose at growth-
limiting rates, products other than lactic acid can be
formed from pyruvate. A number of strains of starter
bacteria can also metabolize citrate, which is present at
low concentrations in milk and cheese, to form pyruvate
and acetate. The pyruvate can then be converted to
various flavor compounds. For example, production of
diacetyl and CO2 is responsible for the characteristic
aroma and eyes of Gouda cheese.
Control of Adventitious Organisms
The growth of many acid-sensitive pathogenic organisms
in cheese is inhibited to some extent by the reduced pH as
well as by the undissociated lactic acid molecules.
However, as many pathogens can still grow at the pH of
cheese, pH acts as one part of a hurdle system that serves
to inhibit the growth of pathogens, operating in cheese
along with low temperature, low water activity, salt con-
centration, organic acids other than lactic (e.g., acetic
acid), and low oxygen availability. Both organic acids
and reduced oxygen tension are by-products of starter
metabolism. Water activity is discussed below.
Water Activity
Lactic acid production contributes to the depression of
water activity in cheese through the formation of solutes
either directly (e.g., lactic acid) or indirectly through the
increased dissolution of colloidal calcium phosphate with
decreasing pH. The influence of lactic acid production on
the moisture content of cheese also significantly affects
water activity. In Cheddar cheese, decreasing water
Cheese | Starter Cultures: General Aspects 553
activity has been shown to inhibit lactate formation and
bacterial growth while there is an increase in the produc-
tion of the flavor compound diacetyl.
Lactate Metabolism
Lactose is converted principally to L-lactate by starter
bacteria, but some starter bacteria and many adventitious
non-starter lactic acid bacteria present in cheese can
produce D-lactate from pyruvate or racemize L-lactate
to D-lactate. The calcium salt of the racemic DL-lactate
is less soluble than calcium L-lactate and can precipitate
in cheese, causing white specks of calcium lactate. These
are undesirable in most cheese types. Control of the
lactose and lactate content of cheese depends on predict-
able starter activity throughout cheesemaking.
L-Lactate can be oxidized to acetate, a contributor to
cheese flavor, by non-starter lactic acid bacteria but this is
dependent on the availability of O2. Lactate oxidation
also contributes to the reduction in redox potential,
which in turn affects the growth of potential pathogens
and possibly the rate of formation of various flavor
compounds via nonenzymic pathways. In Swiss-type
cheeses, the propionibacteria metabolize lactate to
propionate and acetate, both flavor contributors, and
CO2, which is responsible for eye development.
Redox Potential
Little information is available on the effect of redox
potential on the various chemical and enzymic reactions
within maturing cheese. However, in Cheddar cheese, the
Eh decreases during ripening (reported in one study to be
104 mV initially, decreasing to 217 mV after 5–6
months), and this appears to be necessary for the devel-
opment of good flavor. The initial decrease in Eh has been
attributed to starter bacteria as they remove oxygen dur-
ing lactose metabolism, but once cell numbers become
limiting, the Eh rises again before slowly returning to a
low Eh level, presumably due to the increasing numbers of
non-starter lactic acid bacteria.
Starter Types
Starter cultures can be classified in several ways.
Historically, they have been described in terms of the
procedures used to prepare them, the form in which
they are delivered to the vat, the products made using
them, the flavors, aromas, or other product qualities gen-
erated by them (i.e., the biochemical properties of the
starter), the incubation and manufacturing temperatures
under which they are used, and, most recently, in terms of
the species of microorganisms present or the number of
strains used. These various overlapping classifications
554 Cheese | Starter Cultures: General Aspects

address different aspects of the traditional art and the
modern science of cheese starters.
Defined and Undefined Cultures
Traditionally, artisan cheesemakers prepared starters
without any formal microbiological knowledge.
Although there are many variations (some purely regio-
nal, others depending on the cheese being made), there
are essentially two approaches. One approach relies on
incubating milk under selective incubation conditions
(without the addition of any culture) to encourage the
dominance of temperature and acid-tolerant organisms
already present in the milk. The other approach involves
using some of a successful product batch (or whey derived
from it, often after a selective incubation) as starter for the
next batch (see Table 1).
Traditional starter preparation methods are still in use
for some European regional cheeses, and have been
adapted to limited industrial scale. However, industrial-
scale cheese production requires starters that give repro-
ducible performance and are free of undesirable
organisms. These goals are difficult to achieve using tra-
ditional methods. Industrial starters are produced by two
different approaches: propagating carefully from pre-
served, tested archive stocks of good artisanal cultures
or the use of defined mixtures of purified, characterized
bacterial strains.
Mesophilic and Thermophilic Cultures
Traditional preparation of an undefined starter, using
some of a successful product batch (or whey from it) as
the starter source for the next batch, results in selective
enrichment of microorganisms that survive and multiply
under cheesemaking conditions. Thus, traditional starters
for any particular cheese contain bacteria suited to the
traditional manufacturing process (especially the manu-
facturing temperature profile) for that cheese. This
interrelation also applies in industrial-scale
cheesemaking.
Mesophilic cheese cultures grow and produce lactic
acid at a moderate temperature, whereas thermophilic
cultures function at higher temperatures. There is no
universally recognized exact definition of these terms,
but the cultures are easy to distinguish in practice.
Mesophilic undefined cultures, dominated by strains of
Lactococcus lactis, have a typical optimum growth

Table 1 Culture types and their preparation

Culture type Description Comments

‘Natural’ milk cultures Artisanal. Milk is incubated under conditions that
favor the growth of naturally occurring
thermophilic lactic acid bacteria, and then used
as starter
Back-slopped starter Artisanal. Use some of a previous product batch as
starter
Whey cultures Artisanal. Starter is produced by incubating cheese
whey under conditions that favor the growth of
desirable (typically thermophilic) lactic acid
bacteria
Undefined mixed Cultures (typically descended from artisanal
cultures cultures with desirable properties) are
(propagated in sequentially subcultured at the cheese factory
cheese factory)
Undefined mixed Cultures (typically descended from artisanal
cultures cultures with desirable properties) are preserved
(maintained in and propagated under controlled laboratory
laboratory) conditions. Supplied to the cheese factory in
frozen or freeze-dried form
Defined-strain Laboratory-purified selected strains, free of
starters microbiological contaminants, are preserved and
propagated under controlled laboratory
conditions, and then blended to give a mixed
culture with desired properties. Supplied to the
cheese factory in frozen or freeze-dried form
Low cost. Undefined composition. Highly variable
composition and performance. Prone to
undesirable contamination; microbiologically
hazardous
Low cost. Undefined composition. Highly variable
composition and performance. Microbiologically
hazardous
Low cost. Undefined composition. Variable
composition and performance. With careful
handling and quality control testing, whey
cultures are used on an industrial scale for making
some traditional Italian and Swiss cheese types
Undefined composition. Variable composition and
performance, but less variable than whey
cultures. With careful handling and some quality
control testing these are still in limited use, but
have largely been replaced by laboratory-
maintained cultures
Undefined composition. Variability greatly reduced
through maintenance of stable stocks (usually
frozen) and production of each batch with
minimal sequential subculturing. Used as bulk
starter or direct vat inoculum
Defined composition, usually of only a small
number of strains. This gives a high degree of
control over starter performance parameters and
product properties, as long as strains are
carefully selected and managed. Novel blends
with specific properties can be made. Used as
bulk starter or direct vat inoculum

temperature of about 30  C and are capable of acid pro-
duction (although not necessarily growth) at a cheese
cook temperature of 38–40  C. Some strains (especially
Lc. lactis subsp. cremoris) are more temperature-sensitive
than others, and this has been exploited extensively when
choosing strains for use in defined-strain cultures for mild
Cheddar manufacture.
Cheeses manufactured using a high fermentation tem-
perature (such as Italian and Swiss cheese types with
temperatures from about 37 to over 50  C) typically use
undefined mixed starter cultures dominated by thermo-
philic bacteria with optimum growth temperatures of
around 42  C, mainly Streptococcus thermophilus and various
Lactobacillus species. Other bacteria (e.g., Lc. lactis,
Enterococcus faecium) may also be present at lower numbers.
Defined-strain starter cultures for making these cheeses
usually contain Sc. thermophilus and Lactobacillus helveticus.
Matching the Starter to the Product
The primary function of all cheese starter cultures is
acidification (metabolism of lactose to lactic acid by lactic
acid bacteria). However, other starter properties have
important effects on the characteristics of the cheese.
For example, the dominant characteristics of Emmental
depend on the production of gas and propionic acid by
strains of Propionibacterium. Gouda relies on gas and
diacetyl production by citrate-utilizing (Citþ) Leuconostoc
and Citþ Lc. lactis. The texture and stretch of Mozzarella
are affected by the level of proteolytic activity of starter
strains. Proteolysis and amino acid metabolism are pre-
cursors of complex Cheddar flavor. For any cheese, the
starter (in combination with any added ‘adjunct’ second-
ary cultures or adventitious non-starter bacteria) must
have the correct microbiological components to bring
about the biochemical conversions typical of that cheese.
Traditional cultures (including industrial undefined
mixed starters derived from artisanal precursors) typically
contain many strains of many microbial species, some-
times including yeasts and molds as well as bacteria.
These all contribute biochemically to the complexity
(and to the variability) of the final product. Cheeses
made using defined-strain starters containing only a few
strains of one or two key species (the dominant species of
the traditional product) usually have a ‘cleaner’ flavor and
aroma, that is, they are less likely to suffer from flavor
defects but may seem bland to some consumers. In
response to this issue, users of defined starter cultures
are making increasing use of flavor-enhancing adjunct
cultures. These cultures, which may themselves be
defined or undefined, are added at low levels to the starter
or separately to the milk in the vat, leading to enhanced
flavor development and increased control over the nature
of that flavor.
Cheese | Starter Cultures: General Aspects 555
Choosing Starter Cultures
A starter culture must satisfy three basic criteria for being
used in industrial-scale cheese manufacture: reproducible
rate of acid production under cheesemaking conditions,
predictable characteristics of the cheese produced, and
absence of pathogens or spoilage organisms. Artisanal
starter preparations are inherently undefined and vari-
able, and pose greater microbiological risks than the use of
well-tested cultures propagated by specialist laboratories
and culture suppliers. A general idealized scheme for
selection and management of starter cultures is presented
in Figure 1.
Cheesemaking characteristics
Starter cultures are often chosen on a historical basis; that
is, they are chosen for use in a particular factory or for a
particular product application because they have been
used successfully previously. This is especially true of
undefined mixed cultures. Defined-strain cultures allow
control over the composition and properties of the cul-
ture. Examination of key properties of each strain
(e.g., genetic or biochemical features as well as growth
and acid production characteristics) can lead to rational
mixing of strains to form a culture with a desirable set of
properties. However, this requires a high level of specia-
list laboratory testing backed by fundamental research to
define the key properties. In the current state of the art,
strain selection is guided by a mix of laboratory testing
and historical cheesemaking data. Strains are usually sub-
jected to cheesemaking trials before committing to large-
scale production.
Sensitivity to bacteriophages
Viruses that multiply by infecting bacteria are known as
bacteriophages (or phages) (see Bacteriophage:
Technological Importance in the Diary Industry). The
most sophisticated modern cheese factories use air filtra-
tion systems to exclude airborne phages and thorough
factory sanitation to inactivate phage particles that
might be present within the factory. However, the milk
used in cheesemaking may contain phages (associated
with their host bacteria) and these phages survive pas-
teurization. Phages can also enter the factory in lysogenic
(carrying temperate phages) starter strains or in phage-
contaminated starter cultures.
Infection, resulting in the death of infected bacterial
cells, leads to a reduced rate of lactic acid production by
the starter culture, which may necessitate an extended
fermentation or make it difficult to achieve the desired
pH and moisture levels in the cheese. Low levels of phage
can often be tolerated without effect on cheese produc-
tion, especially if good vat and pipeline cleaning systems
are operated between vat fills and whey from previous
vats is not permitted to contaminate a newly filled cheese
556 Cheese | Starter Cultures: General Aspects
Culture collection
(pure strains)
Phage challenge
Species confirmation
Strain identification
Performance testing
Flavor assessment
Phage-sensitivity testing
Design-defined mixed cultures
and culture rotations if desired
Trial cheesemaking
Production of bulk
starter inocula
direct-vat-inoculation
Bulk starter growth
in factory
Cheese production
Figure 1 A simplified scheme for selection and management of starter cultures. Dotted lines represent feedback (e.g., culture
performance information and whey samples for phage testing) from cheese factory to culture supplier.
vat. Most importantly, the starter inoculum into the vat
must be free of phage.
When a starter culture containing a mixture of bacter-
ial strains (and/or a mixture of species) is used, it is
unlikely that all strains will be infected by the phage
present in the cheese factory environment. However, kill-
ing of one or more components of the culture will affect
acid production, and could also alter the metabolic bal-
ance of the culture, which might significantly alter the
flavor characteristics of the cheese.
Using the same culture continuously provides ideal
conditions for phage numbers to increase to a potentially
disruptive level. The most widely used strategy to pre-
vent this is culture rotation. A set of cultures is used in
which the cultures (i.e., the strains in the cultures) differ in
their phage sensitivity. These cultures are used in rotation
(i.e., one after the other). Each culture is used for only a
short time (depending on the effectiveness of factory
sanitation systems and the virulence of extant phages,
this might be just a few cheese vats or it might be a
day’s production or more) so that phage levels remain
relatively low. Regular cleaning procedures will reduce
the phage numbers before the next use of each culture.
Before a culture is used in a factory, it should be tested
for sensitivity to phages that are already present in the
factory environment and it should be ascertained whether
strains in the culture are infected by phages that infect
any other strains that are likely to be used in that factory.
Ideally, no two strains used should share any phage sen-
sitivity, but this is often difficult to achieve.
Culture collection
(mixed cultures)
Phage challenge
Culture characterization
Performance testing
Flavor assessment
Phage-sensitivity testing
Design culture rotations
if desired
Production of
starter concentrate
Selection of phage-resistant variants
A supplier of undefined mixed cultures might have many
different cultures to choose from, each with different
performance, flavor, or phage-sensitivity characteristics.
Cultures with resistance to particular phages can be
selected (this is selection in the Darwinian sense) by
incubating a mixed culture in the presence of the phage.
Only strains resistant to the phage will survive. Selection
of phage-resistant strains also takes place within artisanal
mixed cultures propagated within the cheese factory and
exposed to any phages that may be present. In both cases,
the composition and characteristics of the derived culture
may be different from the original culture in ways that
alter its suitability for cheesemaking.
With defined-strain mixed cultures, it is possible to
identify which of the culture component strains is
infected by phage. As part of the culture management
strategy, this one strain can be replaced by another with
similar cheesemaking properties but different phage sen-
sitivity (leaving the rest of the culture unchanged).
Alternatively, a natural variant of that strain that is resis-
tant to the phage can be selected. Variants must be
checked to ensure that their cheesemaking properties
are not impaired.
Some starter strains carry naturally occurring genetic
factors (usually genes carried on plasmids) that diminish
their sensitivity to phage infection by cleavage (restric-
tion) of phage DNA or by interfering with intracellular
phage replication. Strains with these genetic factors are
now well known in the species Lc. lactis, but relatively

little research has been done on phage resistance in other
starter species. In many examples, the genes can be trans-
ferred between strains by the natural mating process
known as conjugation so that starter strains with enhanced
(but not absolute) resistance to phage infection can be
obtained.
Genetically modified starter strains
Extensive research on the genetics of starter bacteria has
made it possible to use the techniques of in vitro genetic
manipulation to construct strains with particular charac-
teristics such as phage resistance or altered metabolic
properties. These genetically modified organisms have
been used extensively in laboratory research and have
contributed to much of our understanding of the details
underlying starter characteristics. Whether and when
they will be used in industrial cheesemaking will depend
on their usefulness (they must satisfy a need) and cost-
effectiveness (the research required to generate a strain
can be very expensive) as much as on regulatory approval
and market acceptance (see Lactic Acid Bacteria:
Genomics, Genetic Engineering).
Starter Delivery Systems
The conditions under which starter cultures are pre-
served, propagated, and distributed for industrial
cheesemaking are chosen to maximize consistency of
starter composition and acid-producing activity, and to
minimize the opportunities for phage infection or other
microbial contamination. Primary stocks of mixed cul-
tures and single strains are typically stored deep-frozen
(expensive, but most strains survive well) or freeze-dried
(cheap long-term storage, although some strains do not
survive the process well) on a laboratory scale.
Propagation is standardized (each culture producer will
have their own method, but consistency is important) and
the number of subcultures is kept to a minimum. This is
particularly important for undefined cultures in which the
relative cell numbers of different component strains
might change (some strains might even be lost) if condi-
tions are not controlled carefully.
The size of the starter culture inoculum required to
make cheese will depend on the manufacturing process
(i.e., the cheese type), on milk quality (i.e., milk composi-
tion and inhibitory substances), and on the inherent acid-
producing activity of the starter culture, but may be as
high as 109–1010 cells for each liter of cheese milk.
Laboratory stock cultures are used as the initial inoculum
for sequential growth of larger and larger cultures until a
sufficient inoculum for cheese manufacture is obtained.
Two alternative systems are employed for delivering
this inoculum to the vat: growth of a large volume of fresh
culture (bulk starter) in the cheese factory or prior
Cheese | Starter Cultures: General Aspects 557
preparation of a culture concentrate (frozen or freeze-
dried culture for direct inoculation of the cheese vat) by
an external culture supplier.
Bulk Starter Cultures
The inoculum for bulk starter production can be pre-
pared in-house, but it is now much more common to use
an inoculum (in frozen or freeze-dried form) prepared
by an external specialist culture supplier. The size of the
bulk starter growth vessel will depend on factory
requirements, but 10 000 l vessels are not uncommon in
large factories. Various growth media are used, including
milk (full-fat or skimmed, fresh or reconstituted, with or
without growth-enhancing supplements) and a range of
whey-based media with supplements (e.g., yeast extract)
and buffering agents. Media formulated to minimize
opportunities for phage infection during bulk starter
growth are typically whey-based and have added phos-
phate or citrate, which will sequester calcium (infection
by most phages of lactic acid bacteria requires free
calcium ions). The growth medium is sterilized by heat
treatment, either in the vessel or through an external
ultra-high temperature (UHT) heat exchanger.
The lactic acid produced during growth of the bulk
starter culture lowers the pH of the medium and is a
major factor in limiting the bacterial cell numbers
obtained. Greater cell numbers can be reached if the pH
is held higher during at least part of the culture growth.
This can be achieved using ‘internal’ pH control (addition
of buffering agents such as phosphate or carbonate to the
medium) or ‘external’ pH control (manual or automated
addition of alkali such as sodium hydroxide, potassium
hydroxide, or ammonium hydroxide) to raise the pH of
the medium during growth.
Reliable preparation of consistent bulk starter is
beyond the technical and economic reach of many
small-scale cheesemakers. Modern bulk starter growth
units are fully enclosed stainless steel vessels with thor-
ough cleaning-in-place systems, temperature control
(heating and cooling via a water jacket), pH control (pH
monitoring and alkali dosing systems), and an internal
positive pressure of sterile (filtered and/or UV-treated)
air to exclude entry of airborne contaminants (bacteria
and phages). To prevent entry of phages from the cheese
factory, starter growth should take place in a room with its
own treated air supply and isolated from the cheese vats
and any whey handling systems.
Growth temperature and optimum pH will depend on
the starter being used. Typically, after 16–20 h of growth,
the culture is chilled using the cooling jacket or a heat
exchanger. The culture will retain good activity for at
least 24–48 h at 4  C, as long as the pH is not too low
(typically pH 5.0–5.2 for mesophilic cultures; thermo-
philes will generally tolerate more acidic conditions).
558 Cheese | Starter Cultures: General Aspects
If desired, this holding time can be used to check the
activity and purity of the culture before use, or one bulk
starter batch can be used for cheese production on
sequential days. The starter is delivered to the cheese
vats via calibrated dosing pumps or through a weight-
based dosing system.
Cultures for Direct Vat Inoculation
Cultures for direct vat inoculation (DVI) are grown in
much the same way as bulk starter cultures, except that
they are grown by a remote culture supplier (this guar-
antees isolation from the cheese factory), concentrated
(typically by centrifugation), and then frozen or freeze-
dried for storage and transportation to the cheese factory.
The concentrated culture is added directly to the cheese
vat or, in some applications, to a holding tank of chilled
medium for later dosing to the vats.
DVI is the obvious choice for factories that lack the
specialized facilities and trained personnel necessary for
reliable in-house bulk starter preparation. The external
supplier checks culture purity and activity before deliv-
ery to the cheese factory. In some cases, the cultures as
supplied are blended from separately grown components,
allowing defined combinations that are difficult to
achieve by growth as a mixed culture. Secondary
(adjunct) cultures, which are used to control or enhance
flavor, aroma, and eye formation in cheese, are ideally
suited to be supplied in DVI form.
Commercial frozen and freeze-dried cultures
Frozen DVI cultures have historically suffered from two
main drawbacks: bulkiness and a short shelf life. The
advent of pelletized frozen cultures has improved the
convenience of culture blending, transport, and use.
Freeze-dried cultures are more expensive to produce
but are more compact and convenient to store. Shelf life at
ambient temperature is typically more than 6 months, but
can be much longer if the cultures are stored refrigerated
or frozen. However, the bacterial physiology associated
with freeze-drying is not well understood and the freeze-
drying process is not applicable with the same efficiency
to all strains, even within the same species. For example,
there are only a few strains of Lb. delbrueckii subsp. bulgar-
icus that can be freeze-dried with high levels of survival
and activity. Because the number of strains that can be
freeze-dried economically is restricted, it can become
difficult to maintain a proper bacteriophage control
rotation.
All types of cheese can be made using bulk or DVI
starter cultures, but DVI starters can be relatively expen-
sive for the manufacture of cheeses that require rapid acid
production (e.g., Cheddar). This cost has been reduced in
recent years by the use of blends of Lc. lactis and
Sc. thermophilus instead of pure Lc. lactis, but this is not
without impact on cheese flavor development. In general,
larger cheese factories are more likely to find a long-term
cost advantage in bulk starters, but the relative costs of
bulk and DVI starters will differ depending on the scale of
cheese production and the mix of cheese varieties being
produced.
See also: Bacteriophage: Technological Importance in
the Diary Industry. Cheese: Biochemistry of Cheese
Ripening; Microbiology of Cheese; Overview; Starter
Cultures: Specific Properties. Lactic Acid Bacteria:
Genomics, Genetic Engineering; Lactobacillus spp.:
General Characteristics; Lactococcus lactis;
Streptococcus thermophilus; Taxonomy and Biodiversity.
Further Reading
Broome MC (2007) Starter culture development for improved cheese
flavour. In: Weimer BC (ed.) Improving the Flavour of Cheese,
pp. 157–176. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing.
Cogan TM (1995) History and taxonomy of starter cultures.
In: Cogan TM and Accolas JP (eds.) Dairy Starter Cultures, pp. 1–23.
New York: VCH Publishers.
Cogan TM, Peitersen N, and Sellars RL (1991) Starter systems. Bulletin
of the International Dairy Federation 263: 16–23.
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