UNIT 2: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Characteristics of Prenatal Development

This period, which begins at conception and ends at birth, is approximately 270 to 280 days in length, or
nine calendar months and is the shortest developmental period.

1. The hereditary endowment, which serves as the foundation for later development, is fixed, once and for
all, at this time. While favorable or unfavorable conditions, both before and after birth may and probably
will affect to some extent the physical and psychological traits that make up this hereditary endowment, the
changes will be quantitative not qualitative.
2. Favorable conditions in the mother's body can foster the development of hereditary potentials while
unfavorable conditions can stunt their development, even to the point of distorting the pattern of future
development.
3. The sex of the newly created individual is fixed at the time of conception and conditions within the
mother's body will not affect it, as is true of the hereditary endowment except when surgery is used in sex
transformation operations.
4. Proportionally greater growth and development take place during the prenatal period than at any other
time throughout the individual's entire life. During the nine months before birth, the individual grows from a
microscopically small cell to an infant who measures approximately twenty inches in length and weights, on
the average, 7 pounds. It has been estimated that weight during this time increases eleven million times.
Development is likewise phenomenally rapid.
5. The prenatal period is a time of many hazards, both physical and psychological.
6. The prenatal period is the time when significant people form attitudes toward newly created individuals.
These attitudes will have a marked influence on the way these individuals are treated, especially during their
early, formative years.

Stages of Prenatal Development

 Conception
Conception occurs when an egg from the mother is fertilized by a sperm from the father. In humans, the
conception process begins with ovulation, when an ovum, or egg — the largest cell in the human body —
which has been stored in one of the mother’s two ovaries, matures and is released into the fallopian tube.
Ovulation occurs about halfway through the woman’s menstrual cycle and is aided by the release of a
complex combination of hormones. In addition to helping the egg mature, the hormones also cause the lining
of the uterus to grow thicker and more suitable for implantation of a fertilized egg.
As the sperm reach the egg in the fallopian tube, they release enzymes that attack the outer, jellylike
protective coating of the egg, each trying to be the first to enter. As soon as one of the millions of sperm
enters the egg’s coating, the egg immediately responds by both blocking out all other challengers and at the
same time pulling in the single successful sperm. Given the longevity of egg and sperm, the window of
opportunity for conception is about six days in a women’s menstrual cycle.

 Germinal Stage (Weeks 1-2)

The germinal period is the period of prenatal development that takes place in the first two weeks after
conception. It includes the creation of the fertilized egg, called a zygote, cell division, and the attachment of
the zygote to the uterine wall.
Rapid cell division by the zygote continues throughout the germinal period, this cell division occurs through
a process called mitosis. By approximately one week after conception, the differentiation of these cells—
their specialization for different tasks—has already begun. At this stage, the group of cells, now called the
blastocyst, consists of an inner mass of cells that will eventually develop into the embryo, and the
trophoblast, an outer layer of cells that later provides nutrition and support for the embryo. Implantation,
the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall, takes place about 11 to 15 days after conception.

Starvation: The zygote will die of starvation if it has too little yolk to keep it alive until it can lodge itself in
the uterine wall or if it remains too long in the tube. Lack of Uterine Preparation: Implantation cannot
occur if, as a result of glandular imbalance, the uterine walls are not prepared in time to receive the zygote.
Implantation in the Wrong Place: If the zygote becomes attached to a small fibroid tissue in the uterine
wall or to the wall of the Fallopian tube, it cannot get nourishment and will die.

 Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3-8)

The embryonic period begins once the zygote is implanted in the uterine wall. It lasts from the third through
the eighth week after conception. Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called an embryo. Now
blood vessels grow, forming the placenta. The placenta is a structure connected to the uterus that provides
nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord.
During this period, cells continue to differentiate. Basic structures of the embryo start to develop into areas
that will become the head, chest, and abdomen. During the embryonic stage, the heart begins to beat and
organs form and begin to function. At 22 days after conception, the neural tube forms along the back of the
embryo, developing into the spinal cord and brain. 
Growth during prenatal development occurs in two major directions: from head to tail
(cephalocaudal development) and from the midline outward (proximodistal development). This means
that those structures nearest the head develop before those nearest the feet and those structures nearest the
torso develop before those away from the center of the body (such as hands and fingers). Organogenesis is
the name given to the process of organ formation during the first two months of prenatal development.
The head develops in the fourth week and the precursor to the heart begins to pulse. In the early stages of the
embryonic period, gills and a tail are apparent. But by the end of this stage, they disappear and the organism
takes on a more human appearance. The embryo is approximately 1 inch in length and weighs about 4 grams
at the end of this period. The embryo can move and respond to touch at this time.
About 20 percent of organisms fail during the embryonic period, usually due to gross chromosomal
abnormalities. As in the case of the germinal period, often the mother does not yet know that she is
pregnant. It is during this stage that the major structures of the body are taking form making the embryonic
period the time when the organism is most vulnerable to the greatest amount of damage if exposed to
harmful substances.
Miscarriages: Falls, emotional shocks, malnutrition, glandular disturbances, vitamin deficiency, and serious
diseases, such as pneumonia and diabetes, can cause the embryo to become dislodged from its place in the
uterine wall, resulting in a miscarriage. Developmental Irregularities: Maternal malnutrition; vitamin and
glandular deficiencies; excessive use of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco; and diseases, such as diabetes and
German measles, interfere with normal development, especially that of the embryonic brain
 Fetal Period (Weeks 9-40)

When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus. From 9–12 weeks, the sex organs
begin to differentiate. By the 12th week, the fetus has all its body parts including external genitalia. In the
following weeks, the fetus will develop hair, nails, teeth and the excretory and digestive systems will
continue to develop. At the end of the 12th week, the fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 28
grams.
At about 16 weeks, the fetus is approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and toes are fully developed, and
fingerprints are visible. During the 4-6th months, the eyes become more sensitive to light and hearing
develops. The respiratory system, reflexes and cycles of sleep and wakefulness develop during the 5th
month. Throughout the fetal stage, the brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size from
weeks 16 to 28. The majority of the neurons in the brain have developed by 24 weeks.
The first chance of survival outside the womb, known as the age of viability is reached at about 22 to 26
weeks. By the time the fetus reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks) hearing has developed and
the internal organs, such as the lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, have formed enough that a fetus born
prematurely at this point has a chance to survive outside of the mother’s womb.
The fetus gains about 5 pounds and 7 inches during this last trimester of pregnancy which includes a layer of
fat gained during the 8th month. By week 37 all of the fetus’s organ systems are developed enough that it
could survive outside the mother’s uterus without many of the risks associated with premature birth. 
Miscarriages: Miscarriages are always possible up to the fifth month of pregnancy; the most vulnerable
time is when the woman's menstrual period would normally occur. Prematurity: Fetuses who weigh less
than 2 pounds 3 ounces have less chance of surviving than heavier fetuses and a greater chance of
developing malformations. Complications of Delivery: Maternal stress affects uterine contractions and is
likely to lead to complications during birth. Developmental Irregularities: Any of the unfavorable
environmental conditions present during the period of the embryo will also affect the development of fetal
features and retard the whole pattern of fetal development.

Teratogens
A teratogen is any agent that can potentially cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and
behavioral outcomes. (The word comes from the Greek word tera, meaning “monster.”). Teratogens are
factors that can contribute to birth defects which include some maternal diseases, drugs, alcohol, and stress.
These exposures can also include environmental and occupational exposures. Today, we know many of the
factors that can jeopardize the health of the developing child. Teratogen-caused birth defects are potentially
preventable.
 Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs: Prescription as well as nonprescription drugs, however,
may have effects on the embryo or fetus that the women never imagine. Prescription drugs that can
function as teratogens include antibiotics, such as streptomycin and tetracycline; some antidepressants;
certain hormones, such as progestin and synthetic estrogen; and Accutane (which often is prescribed for
acne). Nonprescription drugs that can be harmful include diet pills and high dosages of aspirin.
 Psychoactive Drugs: Psychoactive drugs are drugs that act on the nervous system to alter states of
consciousness, modify perceptions, and change moods. Examples include caffeine, alcohol, and
nicotine, as well as illicit drugs such as cocaine, methamphetamine, marijuana, and heroin.
Caffeine: People often consume caffeine by drinking coffee, tea, or colas, or by eating chocolate. A recent
study revealed that pregnant women who consumed 200 or more milligrams of caffeine a day had an
increased risk of miscarriage.
Alcohol: Alcohol consumption, particularly during the second month of prenatal development, but at any
point during pregnancy, may lead to neurocognitive and behavioral difficulties that can last a lifetime. In
extreme cases, alcohol consumption can lead to fetal death, but more frequently it can result in fetal alcohol
spectrum disorders (FASD).  Children with FASD share certain physical features such as flattened noses,
small eye openings, small heads, intellectual developmental delays, and behavioral problems. Those with
FASD are more at risk for lifelong problems such as criminal behavior, psychiatric problems, and
unemployment. The terms alcohol-related neurological disorder (ARND) and alcohol-related birth defects
(ARBD) have replaced the term Fetal Alcohol Effects to refer to those with less extreme symptoms of
FASD. ARBD include kidney, bone and heart problems.
Nicotine: Cigarette smoking by pregnant women can also adversely influence prenatal development, birth,
and postnatal development. Preterm births and low birth weights, fetal and neonatal deaths, respiratory
problems, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS, also known as crib death), and cardiovascular problems are
all more common among the offspring of mothers who smoked during pregnancy.
Cocaine: Cocaine exposure during prenatal development is associated with reduced birth weight, length,
and head circumference. Prenatal cocaine exposure has also been linked to lower quality of reflexes at 1
month of age, impaired motor development at 2 years of age and a slower rate of growth through 10 years of
age, deficits in behavioral self-regulation, impaired language development and information processing.
Methamphetamine: Methamphetamine, like cocaine, is a stimulant, speeding up an individual’s nervous
system. Babies born to mothers who use methamphetamine, or “meth,” during pregnancy are at risk for a
number of problems, including high infant mortality, low birth weight, and developmental and behavioral
problems.
Heroin: Infants whose mothers are addicted to heroin show several behavioral diffi culties at birth. The
difficulties include withdrawal symptoms, such as tremors, irritability, abnormal crying, disturbed sleep, and
impaired motor control.
 Maternal Factors: A number of illnesses can have serious effects on the developing fetus, depending
partly on when a pregnant woman gets sick. Rubella (German measles) before the eleventh week of
pregnancy is almost certain to cause deafness and heart defects in the baby. The syndrome can be
prevented by immunizing women before pregnancy-ideally, by immunizing girls before puberty.
Diabetes, tuberculosis, and syphilis have also led to problems in fetal development, and both
gonorrhea and genital herpes can have harmful effects on the baby at the time of delivery. Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) may be contracted by a fetus if the mother has the disease or
even has the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in her blood. The contents of the mother's blood are
shared with the fetus through the placenta, and blood is a carrier of the virus that causes AIDS.Breastfed
infants of these mothers are more likely to develop the infection.

 Incompatibility of Blood Types: A problem resulting from the interaction of heredity with the prenatal
environment is incompatibility of blood type between mother and baby. When a fetus's blood contains
the Rh factor - a protein substance-but the mother's blood does not, antibodies in the mother's blood may
attack the fetus and possibly bring about spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, jaundice, anemia, heart
defects, mental retardation, or death.

 Environmental Hazards: Many aspects of our modern industrial world can endanger the embryo or
fetus. Some specific hazards to the embryo or fetus include radiation, toxic wastes, and other chemical
 pollutants. X-ray radiation can affect the developing embryo or fetus, especially in the first several
weeks after conception, when women do not yet know they are pregnant, Environmental pollutants and
toxic wastes are also sources of danger to unborn children. Among the dangerous pollutants are carbon
monoxide, mercury, and lead, as well as certain fertilizers and pesticides.

Stages of Birth
The birth process occurs in three stages.
 The first stage is the longest of the three stages. Uterine contractions are 15 to 20 minutes apart at the
beginning and last up to a minute. These contractions cause the woman’s cervix to stretch and open. As
the first stage progresses, the contractions come closer together, appearing every two to five minutes.
Their intensity increases. By the end of the first birth stage, contractions dilate the cervix to an opening
of about 10 centimeters (4 inches), so that the baby can move from the uterus to the birth canal. For a
woman having her first child, the first stage lasts an average of 6 to 12 hours; for subsequent children,
this stage typically is much shorter.
 The second birth stage begins when the baby’s head starts to move through the cervix and the birth
canal. It terminates when the baby completely emerges from the mother’s body. With each contraction,
the mother bears down hard to push the baby out of her body. By the time the baby’s head is out of the
mother’s body, the contractions come almost every minute and last for about a minute. This stage
typically lasts approximately 45 minutes to an hour.
 Afterbirth is the third stage, at which time the placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are
detached and expelled. This final stage is the shortest of the three birth stages, lasting only minutes.

APGAR Scale
The Apgar score is a scoring system doctors and nurses use to assess newborns one minute and five minutes
after they’re born. Dr. Virginia Apgar created the system in 1952, and used her name as a mnemonic for
each of the five categories that a person will score.
The Apgar Scale evaluates an infant’s heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, body color, and reflex
irritability. An obstetrician or a nurse does the evaluation and gives the newborn a score, or reading, of 0, 1,
or 2 on each of these five health signs. A total score of 7 to 10 indicates that the newborn’s condition is
good. A score of 5 indicates there may be developmental difficulties. A score of 3 or below signals an
emergency and indicates that the baby might not survive.
The Apgar Scale is especially good at assessing the newborn’s ability to respond to the stress of delivery and
the new environment. It also identifies high-risk infants who need resuscitation.
Newborn Reflexes

Newborn babies can exercise very little control over their bodies. Nature, therefore, equips them with certain
survival skills. One of these is reflex. Baby reflexes at birth can be defined as involuntary actions and
movements, performed by babies either as part of a usual activity or as a response to external stimuli. These
necessary reflexes can cause babies to twitch, kick and jerk seemingly without warning or visible reason,
and to some may appear abnormal. However, they are no cause for worry as they indicate that the baby’s
brain and nervous system are developing normally. Most of these reflexes are temporary and will disappear
as the baby grows.

 Tonic Neck Reflex

A baby shows the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex when they are lying down and the head is turned gently to
the side. This causes the baby to take on a “fencer” position. This means if the head is turned to the left, the
right arm flexes and the left arm reaches straight away from the body with the hand slightly opened. If the
baby’s head is turned to the right, the baby will assume the opposite position. This reflex is present until
about 6 months of age. This reflex helps develop hand eye coordination in babies.

 Babinski Reflex

The Babinski reflex is tested by stroking the underside of the baby’s foot, from the top of the sole toward the
heel. The baby’s toes will fan out and the big toe will move upward. In an adult, the foot and toes will curl
inward. This reflex disappears between 12 months and 2 years of age.

 Grasp Reflex

The palmar grasp makes babies grab onto things, allowing your baby to "hold" your hand—or, most likely,
your finger. When you touch the palm of your baby's hand, their fingers will curl around and cling to your
finger. If you try to remove your finger from their grasp, the grip will tighten. This reflex, which disappears
around 5 to 6 months of age, helps babies develop the skill of intentionally grabbing on to things.

 Moro Reflex

The Moro or startle reflex causes the baby to extend their arms, legs, and fingers and arch when startled by
the feeling of falling, a loud noise, or other environmental stimuli. Babies will typically exhibit a "startled"
look. The reflex typically disappears between the ages of 2 to 4 months. This reflex helps in preventing the
babies from falling.
 Rooting Reflex

The rooting reflex is one of the most well-known of the numerous involuntary movements and actions that
are normal for newborns. This one helps the baby find the breast or bottle to begin feeding. When a
newborn's cheek is stroked, they will turn toward the touch. This automatic response typically goes away by
4 months.

 Sucking Reflex

The sucking reflex is a key newborn reflex, especially when paired with the rooting reflex, as it enables
babies to eat instinctively. If you touch the roof of your baby’s mouth with your finger, a pacifier, or a
nipple, they will automatically begin sucking. Around 2 to 3 months of age, your baby’s sucking instinct
will transition to a conscious effort and is no longer considered a reflex.

 Stepping Reflex

The stepping reflex allows your baby to put one foot in front of the other when they are suspended just
above a surface. This isn't really walking and will disappear around 4 months of age.

 Withdrawal Reflex

Withdrawal reflex is another precautionary reflex and is a natural way for the baby to avoid colliding or
avoiding pain from any object. when the heel of the foot is pricked with a needle then the foot of the baby
will jerk backwards. This reflex keeps the exploring infant away from painful stimulus.

 Blinking Reflex

Blinking reflex protects the baby’s eyes from strong and potentially dangerous stimulus. When a light is
flashed in the baby’s eyes then the baby closes both the eyes.
Genetics vs Environment
 Genetic Foundations
Genetic influences on behavior evolved over time and across many species. The many traits and
characteristics that are genetically influenced have a long evolutionary history that is retained in our DNA.
Our DNA is not just inherited from our parents; it’s what we’ve inherited as a species from species that
came before us.
Each of us carries a “genetic code” that we inherited from our parents. This code is carried by our genes.
The nucleus of each human cell contains chromosomes, which are threadlike structures made up of
deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. DNA is a complex molecule with a double helix shape, like a spiral
staircase, and contains genetic information. Genes, the units of hereditary information, are short segments of
DNA.

Even when if the genes are identical, however, people vary. The difference between genotypes and
phenotypes helps us to understand this source of variability.

Genotype: All of a person’s genetic material makes up his or her genotype. In other words, it describes an
organism’s complete set of genes. 
 Phenotype: A phenotype consists of observable characteristics. Phenotypes include physical
characteristics (such as height, weight, and hair color) and psychological characteristics (such as personality
and intelligence).

 Genetic Principles
Dominant vs Recessive Gene Principle: According to this principle,in some cases, one gene of a pair
always exerts its dominant effects and has potential influence of the other. On the other hand, the other gene
which is not expressed is called the recessive gene. A recessive gene exerts its influence only if the two
genes of a pair are both recessive. For instance, if an individual inherits a recessive gene for a trait from each
of your parents, they  will show the trait. Alternatively, if they inherit a recessive gene from only one parent,
they may never know you carry the gene.
Genetic Imprinting: Genetic imprinting occurs when the expression of a gene has different effects
depending on whether the mother or the father passed on the gene.
Polygenic Inheritance Genetic transmission is a complex process. Few characteristics reflect the influence
of only a single gene or pair of genes. Most are determined by the interaction of many different genes; they
are said to be polygenically determined. 

 Chromosomal Abnormalities
Sometimes, when a gamete is formed, the male’s sperm and/or the female’s ovum do not have their normal
set of 23 chromosomes. This discrepancy can result in chromosomal abnormalities. Some of the most
prominent abnormalities are mentioned below.

 Behaviour Genetics
Behavior genetics is the field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual
differences in human traits and development. To study the influence of heredity on behavior, behavior
geneticists often use either twins or adoption situations.

Twin Study: the behavioral similarity of identical twins (who are genetically identical) is compared with the
behavioral similarity of fraternal twins. . Thus by comparing groups of identical and fraternal twins,
behavior geneticists capitalize on the basic knowledge that identical twins are more similar genetically than
are fraternal twins.

Adoption Study: investigators seek to discover whether the behavior and psychological characteristics of
adopted children are more like their those of their adoptive parents, who have provided a home environment,
or more like those of their biological parents, who have contributed their heredity.

 Hereditary-Environment Correlations

Individuals’ genes may influence the types of environments to which they are exposed. In a sense,
individuals “inherit” environments that may be related or linked to genetic “propensities.” 

Behavior geneticist Sandra Scarr (1993) described three ways that heredity and environment are
correlated :
Behavior geneticists have argued that to understand the environment’s role in differences between people,
we should distinguish between shared and non-shared environments. Shared environmental experiences
are siblings’ common experiences, such as their parents’ personalities or intellectual orientation, the family’s
socioeconomic status, and the neighborhood in which they live. Non-shared environmental experiences
are a child’s unique experiences, both within the family and outside the family, that are not shared with a
sibling. Even experiences occurring within the family can be part of the “nonshared environment.”

Critics argue that the concept of heredity-environment correlation gives heredity too
much of a one-sided infl uence in determining development because it does not consider the role of prior
environmental influences in shaping the correlation itself.
 The Epigenetic View: Gilbert Gottlieb (2007) emphasizes the epigenetic view, which states that
development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and the
environment. For example, A baby inherits genes from both parents at conception. During prenatal
development, toxins, nutrition, and stress can influence some genes to stop functioning while others
become stronger or weaker. During infancy, the same environmental experiences such as toxins,
nutrition, stress, learning, and encouragement continue to modify genetic activity and the activity of the
nervous system that directly underlies behavior. Heredity and environment operate together—or
collaborate—to produce a person’s intelligence, temperament, height, weight, ability to pitch a baseball,
ability to read, and so on.

 Gene × Environment (G × E) Interaction: It is interaction the interaction of a specific measured

variation in the DNA and a specific measured aspect of the environment. For example, One research
study found that individuals who have a short version of a genotype labeled 5-HTTLPR (a gene
involving the neurotransmitter serotonin) only have an elevated risk of developing depression if they
also have stressful lives. Thus, the specific gene did not link directly to the development of depression,
but rather interacted with environmental exposure to stress to predict whether individuals would develop
depression.