Building and Environment 46 (2011) 1993e2002

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Building and Environment

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Numerical investigation of influence of human walking on dispersion

and deposition of expiratory droplets in airborne infection isolation room
Jinliang Wang, Tin-Tai Chow*
Building Energy and Environmental Technology Research Unit, Division of Building Science and Technology, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon,
Hong Kong SAR, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper introduces a numerical simulation model for investigating the influence of moving subjects
Received 7 February 2011 on the dispersion and deposition of expiratory droplets, rather than on the dispersion of surrogate
Received in revised form gaseous counterparts generally adopted in related research works. In our work, the Lagrangian discrete
4 April 2011
trajectory model is used for tracing the motion of droplets, the Eulerian RANS method is used for solving
Accepted 5 April 2011
the airflow field, and the dynamic mesh model for describing the human movement. The model vali-
dation was performed through result comparisons with published data from literatures. A case study on
Keywords:
the influence of human walking on the dispersion and deposition of expiratory droplets in an airborne
Droplet
Human movement
infection isolation room (AIIR) is then presented. Our findings show that the human walking disturbs the
Dynamic mesh local velocity field with wake formation. The increase of walking speed could effectively reduce the
Lagrangian model overall number of suspended droplets, which may have a positive impact on releasing the infection risk
Isolation room of health workers in AIIR.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The application of dynamic mesh techniques has aroused

Saliva droplets coughed out by patients with infectious respi-
ratory diseases are considered to be the main transporters in the
droplet infection of diseases such as SARS, influenza etc. due to the
viruses adhering to their surfaces [1]. A multidisciplinary system-
atic review by Li et al. [2], suggested that ventilation rate and
airflow pattern have direct contribution to the airborne spread of
infectious agents. On the other hand, the experimental work of
Bjørn and Nielsen [3] indicated that a moving person could create
quite strong air movement due to the wake behind the person.
Micallef et al.’s field monitoring showed that airborne particulate
concentration correlated well with human movement [4].
Mazumdar and Chen [5] found that airflow and contaminant
transport inside a commercial airliner cabin could be influenced by
moving crew and passengers. In addition, the research done by
Matsumoto et al. [6,7] as well as Mattsson and Sandberg [8] also
indicated that moving objects could have large influence on indoor
airflow and contaminant transport. Nevertheless, so far the inves-
tigations on human respiratory droplets transport have been
mostly performed without considering human movement [9e14].
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ86 852 34427622; fax: þ86 852 34429716.
E-mail address: bsttchow@cityu.edu.hk (T.-T. Chow).
considerable interests in recent years, ranging from internal
combustion engine, flapping airfoil and design of chemical mixing
vessel to sports performance optimization and so on [15e18]. In
some recent works, there have been attempts to involve human
movement on studying indoor airflow pattern and contaminant
distribution, like the dynamic mesh method adopted by Shih et al.
[19,20]. Mazumdar et al. [21] studied the effects of moving objects
such as walking visitor, changing of sheet, swinging of door on the
contaminant concentration distribution in a single inpatient ward.
However, in all these research works, researchers substituted
gaseous contaminant such as carbon dioxide for patient respiratory
droplets. Their results could be more credible if they used expira-
tory droplets rather than surrogate gaseous counterparts.
When a patient coughs, sneezes, talks or breathes, pathogen-
laden droplets are released. The exhaled droplets are in the poly-
disperse form. Depending on the different expiratory modes of the
patient, the size distribution of droplets can be quite different. In
literatures, there are discrepancies in the report of droplet size
range. The early studies [22e24] indicated that the diameters of
droplets exhaled by human are in majority in the supermicron
ranges. On the contrary, researches conducted by Papineni and
Rosenthal [25] and Morawska et al. [26] showed that the majority
of droplets exhaled by human are in submicron ranges. Recent
research done by Chao et al. [27] revealed that the mean diameters

0360-1323/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.04.008
1994 J. Wang, T.-T. Chow / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 1993e2002

of droplets from coughing and speaking are 13.5 mm and 16.0 mm.
Meanwhile, it is also believed that droplets larger than 20 mm will
rapidly deposit onto surfaces [28], while droplets between 0.5 and
20 mm will stay in the air for a much longer time [29]. Considering
all these, four size groups of expiratory droplets i.e. 0.5 mm, 5 mm,
10 mm and 20 mm have been chosen in this study, as detailed in the
following sections. In addition, since droplets initially exhaled by
patients are composed of inner dry droplet nuclei and outer moist
coating and mucus, the evaporation effect of droplets may influ-
ence the dispersion and deposition of droplets. Nicas et al. [30]
estimated that the shrinkage time from the original droplets to
droplet nuclei is rapid and is in the order of 0.5 s. The experimental
work of Morawska et al. [26] also showed that non-equilibrium
droplet evaporation is not detectable for particles between 0.5
and 20 mm. Chen and Zhao [31] found that modeling the transient
process from a droplet to a droplet nucleus due to evaporation can
be neglected when the normalized evaporation time is less than
0.051, corresponding to the initial droplet diameter of 100 mm.
Therefore, for the four size groups examined in this study, the
droplet evaporation effect is deemed negligible. Initial velocities of
Fig. 1. Geometric configuration of AIIR.
exhaled droplets also depend on expiratory modes. Gupta et al.
[32,33] indicated that exhaled flow rate over time can be repre-
data [11]. The density of droplets is 600 kg/m3, according to Zhao
sented as a sinusoidal function for breathing, a constant for talking
et al. [10]. The coughing or sneezing lasting time is assumed 0.5 s.
and a combination of gamma-probability-distribution functions for
Four droplet sizes i.e. 0.5 mm, 5 mm, 10 mm and 20 mm were adopted,
coughing. Zhu et al. showed that the peak cough velocity varied
as explained in the Introduction section. The overall number of
from 6 to 22 m/s [11]. Chao et al. [27] reported that the average
droplets coughed or sneezed out is 10,000, with equal allocation to
expiration air velocity was 11.7 m/s for coughing and 3.9 m/s for
each size.
speaking. The differences of initial velocities reported by different
In our investigation, the walking man is initially positioned at
researchers can be mainly attributed to different measurement
0.75 m away from the wall with the air supply. His straight line
techniques. In fact, droplets are aerosols; some of their physical
walking along z direction is assumed to be back and forth for one
characteristics such as gravitational deposition and inertia are very
time, during which the overall walking distance is 5.0 m. He will
much different from those of the gaseous counterparts. Direct using
remain stationary. Three steady walking speeds of 0.25 m/s, 0.5 m/s
surrogate gaseous counterparts in studying the influence of indoor
and 1.0 m/s are respectively investigated in this study.
human walking on exhaled droplets may lead to findings much
deviated from the real situation.
Airborne infection isolation room (AIIR) is a specific place where
inpatients infected with highly airborne infectious diseases are 3. Mathematical model
treated. In order to better prevent the transmission of airborne
diseases in AIIR, a full understanding of the impact of human 3.1. Governing equations and numerical methods for airflow
walking on the dispersion and deposition of expiratory droplets is
very important. The following introduces a new computational Indoor airflow is generally turbulent. There can be three simulation
fluid dynamics (CFD) approach that models the dispersion and approaches, namely DNS (Direct Numerical Simulation), LES (Large
deposition of expiratory droplets in the presence of human Eddy Simulation) and RANS (ReynoldseAveraged NaviereStokes)
movement. The model accuracy was verified by result comparisons simulations. The application of DNS and LES to turbulent simulation
with published data from literatures. This numerical model is requires very demanding computer memory and calculation speed
subsequently used to explore the influence of human walking on [35]. The RANS method with modified standard k  e turbulence
the dispersion and deposition of expiratory droplets in AIIR. model was then adopted in this study. The approach is similar to the

Table 1
2. The AIIR model
Physical dimensions of AIIR model.

The physical arrangements of the AIIR investigated in this study Name x-Direction y-Direction z-Direction
width (m) height(m) length (m)
are shown in Fig. 1. Our physical model is relatively the same as the
one in literature [19], except for the geometry of the lying patient. Room 4.0 2.5 4.0
Bed 0.9 0.2 2.0
In our study, this is represented by a rectangular block of 1.73 m
Bed-leg 0.1 0.85 0.1
(height)  0.2 m (thickness)  0.5 m (width), which is the same in Air supply 0.8 0.2 0
the work of Mazumdar et al. [21]. In AIIR the patient is covered Air outlet 0.8 0.2 0
either by sheet or by quilt most of the time. The rectangular Walking man
representation is deemed more realistic than the complex shape Body 0.3 0.675 0.2
used for modeling the walking man. Head 0.15 0.305 0.2
The detailed dimensions of the room, walking man and patient Left hand 0.1 0.575 0.2
Right hand 0.1 0.575 0.2
are given in Table 1. The opening size of the patient mouth [34]
Left leg 0.1 0.75 0.2
when coughing or sneezing is 0.01  0.02 m2. The patient head is Right leg 0.1 0.75 0.2
at 0.15 m from the lower edge of the air outlet. The coughing or
Lying patient
sneezing initial velocity of droplets is taken as 22 m/s, with Body 0.5 0.2 1.73
a vertical upward direction based on Zhu et al.’s PIV experimental
 J. Wang, T.-T. Chow / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 1993e2002 1995

Table 2
Initial and boundary conditions for simulation.

Name Initial conditions

AIIR Steady airflow solution with stationary walking man at the starting position
Boundary conditions
Air supply Air change: 12 h1; Temperature: 295.15 K; Turbulent intensity: 20%; Hydraulic diameter: 0.32 m; Lagrangian model: escape
Air outlet Pressure outlet: 8 Pa; Temperature: 295.66 K; Turbulent intensity: 10%; Hydraulic diameter: 0.32 m; Lagrangian model: escape
Walls Velocity: no slip; Temperature: adiabatic (except patient surfaces); Lagrangian model: trap
Patient surfaces Heat flux: 46.52 W/m2; Lagrangian model: trap

work of Shih et al. [19] and Huang and Tsao [36] in AIIR airflow
simulation.
The governing equations, including continuity, momentum,
energy, turbulent kinetic energy k and turbulent dissipation rate e,
can be written in the general format as follows:
vðrfÞ !

þ V$ðrf V Þ ¼ V$ Gf Vf þ Sf
vt
! sneezing out, the Lagrangian discrete trajectory model is adopted.
where r is the air density, V is the velocity vector, f represents each
of the three velocity components (u, v, w), and H is the air enthalpy.
When f ¼ 1, the equation becomes the continuity equation. Gf is
the effective diffusion coefficient for each dependent variable. Sf is
the source term.
In our model, the aforementioned conservation equations are
discretized into algebraic equations by the finite volume method
(FVM). The QUICK scheme is adopted for the discretization of the
equations and the SIMPLEC algorithm is used to couple pressure
and velocity. The Boussinesq model is employed to consider the
buoyancy effect. As for the boundary conditions, the no-slip
condition is used for the velocity quantities at the wall; the air
change rate is assumed 12 h1. The air temperature and turbulent
intensity at the air supply are 295.15 K and 20% respectively; the
pressure outlet boundary condition is specified at the air outlet
with a static pressure of 8 Pa and a turbulent intensity of 10%.
Since the residence time of the walking man is relatively short, his
body surface is assumed to be adiabatic. All other boundary walls
are also assumed to be adiabatic. The only heat source is then the
patient body with a heat flux of 46.52 W/m2 (corresponding to 0.8
met). The standard wall function is employed to treat the turbulent
flow properties in the near wall regions.
3.2. Lagrangian discrete trajectory model for droplets
Based on the discussions in the Introduction section, the evap-
oration effect from a droplet to a droplet nucleus can be neglected.
In this numerical study, the evaporation effect of droplets is not
considered, and the droplets herein are treated as droplet nuclei for
(1) simulation. The CFD tool FLUENT [37] was used in our simulation
work. In order to track the motion of droplet after being coughed or
The Lagrangian approach tracks particle phase separately through
the flow domain by solving the force balance equations of particle
movement. In this study, the following assumptions/simplifications
have been used: (a) the evaporation process of droplets is not taken
into account; (b) heat and mass transfer between air and droplet is
negligible; (c) no particle rebound and resuspension on solid
surfaces, such as walls, floor, ceiling and human surface; (d) coag-
ulation effect of droplet is negligible according to the findings of
Hinds [38]; (e) all droplets are spherical solid. For a particle, the
force balance in the i-direction can be written as:


 
dupi ui  upi gi $ rp  r
¼ þ þ Fai (2)
dt s rp
where ui and upi are respectively the velocity of air and particles
(m/s), gi is the gravitational acceleration (m/s2), s is the particle
relaxation time [39], rp and r are the density of particle and air
respectively (kg/m3), and Fai is the additional forces (besides drag
force and gravitation) exerted on unit particle mass in the i-direc-
tion (N/kg).
The additional force Fai may include pressure gradient force,
Basset force and virtual mass force caused by unsteady flow, Brow-
nian force, Saffman’s lift force due to shear, and thermophoretic
force due to temperature gradient. For room airflow involving fine

Fig. 2. Layout of mesh domain in AIIR. Fig. 3. Experimental case used for validation of Lagrangian discrete trajectory model.
1996 J. Wang, T.-T. Chow / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 1993e2002

in that the fluctuating velocity components are discrete piece-

wise constant functions of time. Their random values are kept
constant over an interval of time given by the characteristic
lifetime of eddies. The turbulence dispersion of particles is
simulated by integrating the trajectory equations for individual
particles, using the instantaneous air velocity u þ u0 ðtÞ, along
particle path during the integration. The initial and boundary
conditions for the Lagrangian discrete trajectory simulation are
listed in Table 2.

3.3. Dynamic mesh model

The integral form of the conservation equation for a general

scalar f, on an arbitrary control volume V with moving boundary
can be written as [37]:
Fig. 4. Verification of simulation results of particle concentration against experimental Z Z Z Z
d  !  ! !
data. rfdV þ rf !u  u g $d A ¼ GVf$d A þ Sf dV (3)
dt
V vV vV V
! !
particles, only the Brownian force and Saffman’s lift force are rela- where r is the fluid density, u is the flow velocity vector, u g is the
tively large [40]. The thermophoretic force due to temperature G
grid velocity of the moving mesh, is the diffusion coefficient, Sf is
gradient can be important in the case of nonisothermal airflow. the source term, and vV represents the boundary of the control
Therefore, in this study the Brownian force, Saffman’s lift force and volume. More details about the discretization of individual terms of
thermophoretic force have been included in the additional force Equation (3) can be referred to literature [37].
term. Details about these three forces can be found in literature [37]. We adopted the dynamic layering method, in which layers of
In this study, the effect of turbulence dispersion on particles cells adjacent to a moving boundary can be added or removed
has been based on the discrete random walk (DRW) model [37], based on the height of the layer adjacent to the moving surface [37].

Fig. 5. Comparison of transient static pressure distributions at y ¼ 1 m in this study with those in literature [19] (bold straight arrow denotes walking direction).
 J. Wang, T.-T. Chow / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 1993e2002 1997

This method can keep the grid size constant in the dynamic zone.
The applicability requires all cells adjacent to the moving boundary
zone to be either wedges or hexahedra. In our work, hexahedral
cells are generated for the whole grid system. The whole mesh
domain is split into two mesh zones: “static” and “dynamic”, as
shown in Fig. 2. The interface data exchange between the two is
realized by the grid interface principles for sliding mesh theory.
A user defined function (UDF) is dynamically loaded to realize the
stipulated back and forth walking style.
3.4. Validation of mathematical model
Our mathematical model was validated through two separate
steps: firstly the Lagrangian discrete trajectory model validation
and then the dynamic mesh model validation.
3.4.1. Lagrangian discrete trajectory model validation
The experimental case of Lu et al. [41] was employed for result
comparisons. As shown in Fig. 3, the overall dimensions of the two-

Fig. 6. Velocity vector distributions at y ¼ 1 m at different time instants and walking speeds.
 Fig. 7. Velocity vector distributions at x ¼ 3 m at different time instants and walking speeds.

Fig. 8. Number of overall suspended droplets at different time instants and walking Fig. 9. Number of overall escaped droplets at different time instants and walking
speeds. speeds.
 J. Wang, T.-T. Chow / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 1993e2002
Fig. 10. Number of overall deposited droplets at different time instants and walking
speeds.
zone laboratory room are 5.0 m (X)  2.4 m (Y)  3.0 m (Z), with
a thin partition in the middle of the room having an opening 0.95 m
(Y)  0.70 m (Z) on the room centerline. The sizes of air inlet and
outlet are both 1.0 m (Z)  0.5 m (Y). The air change rate in the
experiment was 9.216 ACH. Oil smoke particles with sizes 1e5 mm
and density 865.0 kg/m3 were initially uniformly distributed in
zone 1. In our simulation exercise the initial positions of each size of
particle are uniformly distributed in zone 1 (Fig. 3 referred), with
the layout of n(X)  n(Y)  n(Z) ¼ 5  8  4 (i.e. a total number of
160). The initial particle velocity was set to zero. The particle
tracking simulation time was 27 min, based on the experimental
monitoring time. The comparison of numerical simulation results
of particle concentration in zone 1 with the experimental data is
Fig. 11. Droplets distributions at time ¼ 5 s with different walking speeds.
1999
shown in Fig. 4, which exhibits reasonably good agreement.
Therefore, the validity of our Lagrangian discrete trajectory model
has been successful.
3.4.2. Dynamic mesh model validation
Since the experimental data involving human movement in AIIR
are not ready available, our dynamic mesh model was validated by
model comparison with published data in literature [19]. Grid
independence tests were performed and a grid size of 531,907
number of cells was finally adopted in our computation. The steady
solution with stationary man at the starting position was used as
the initial condition of the unsteady simulation with human
walking at three different speeds. The result comparison of tran-
sient static pressure distributions at y ¼ 1 m is shown in Fig. 5. Our
simulation results are found in good agreement with the graphical
results presented in literature [19]. Hence, the dynamic mesh
model developed in this work was validated and can be subse-
quently used in the AIIR airflow investigation.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Impact of human walking on airflow field
The velocity vector distributions at y ¼ 1 m at different time
instants and walking speeds are shown in Fig. 6(a)e(f). Two
asymmetrical recirculation zones can be seen around the human
back (highlighted by curved arrows) when walking. The asymmetry
is caused by the confined room space.
The wake behind the human back is also readily observable.
From Fig. 6(b), (d) and (f), it can be concluded that the faster the
2000 J. Wang, T.-T. Chow / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 1993e2002

walking speed, the longer is the wake behind the human back.
However, as shown in Fig. 6, the influence of walking speed on the
velocity field at a distance from the walking site appears insignif-
icant; this is in line with literature [19]. This also leads to the
conclusions in literature [19] that the removal of gaseous contam-
inant exhaled by patient is not obviously affected by human moving
speed. Actually, depending on sizes of droplets and initial exhaled
velocity as well as expiratory direction, droplets can behave
differently from gaseous counterparts under the influence of
human walking. As illustrated in the following section, the walking
speed does have remarkable effects on the dispersion and deposi-
tion of expiratory droplets, which is different from the conclusions
given in literature [19].
Fig. 7(a)e(f) show the velocity distributions at x ¼ 3 m at
different time instants and walking speeds. It can be seen that
when the man walks towardtoward the wall with the air outlet,
there exist two recirculation zones: an upper zone close to the
upper back of the human head and a lower zone around the lower
part of the human back (as highlighted by the two curved arrows).
However, when the man walks back towards the wall with the air
inlet, at v ¼ 0.25 m/s the upper recirculation zone is tiny, and hence
this is not highlighted in Fig. 7(b). With the velocity increased to
0.5 m/s and 1.0 m/s respectively, the upper recirculation zone
becomes observable. Notwithstanding this, the lower recirculation
zone is not noticeable in all three cases in Fig. 7(b), (d) and (f).

Fig. 13. Number of escaped droplets with different diameters at different time instants
and walking speeds.

4.2. Impact of human walking on dispersion and deposition of

droplets

Fig. 8 shows the number of overall suspended droplets

Fig. 12. Number of suspended droplets with different diameters at different time
instants and walking speeds.
remained in room air at different time instants and walking speeds.
Fig. 9 shows the corresponding number of droplets leaving the
room and Fig. 10 shows those deposited on the solid surfaces. It can
be seen that the increase of walking speed can effectively reduce
the amount of suspended droplets in the room. This is by acceler-
ating the escaped amount via the air outlet. As a consequence, this
releases the infection risk of the walking man that can be
a healthcare worker. For instance, when the walking speed
increases to 1 m/s, within 5 s the number of overall suspended
droplets can decrease as much as 98%.
On the other hand, comparing between the stationary and the
walking modes in Fig. 10 suggests that walking within 0.25e1.0 m/s
is able to increase the deposition relative to the stationary mode.
This finding may not comply with the common sense that an
accelerated airflow near floor induced by walking should decrease
deposition. After some careful checking of the simulation results,
we find that both in stationary and walking modes the majority of
droplet deposition positions are actually on the vertical back wall
above the head of patient. In this case, the accelerated airflow by
walking will allow more droplets to deposit onto the vertical back
wall. Therefore, human walking in this AIIR case can enhance the
deposition of droplets as compared to the stationary man case. And
accordingly, this can help in reducing the amount of suspended
droplets. The spatial distributions of droplets at time ¼ 5 s with
different walking speeds are shown in Fig. 11. It can be seen that
a faster walking speed can result in less suspended droplets, which
supports the above findings.
 J. Wang, T.-T. Chow / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 1993e2002
Fig. 12 shows the number of suspended droplets with different
diameters at different time instants and walking speeds. From
Fig. 12(a) and (b), the general trend is that with an increase of
walking speed, the number of suspended droplets in all sizes
decreases. However, in Fig. 12(c) a different trend comes out: at the
walking speeds of 0.5 m/s and 1.0 m/s, the quantities of suspended
droplets in all sizes are more than their counterparts at the walking
speed of 0.25 m/s. A closer examination reveals that the occurrence
is owing to a change of status from walking to stationary. When the
time reaches 15 s, the person moving at 0.5 m/s (or 1.0 m/s) has
already gone back to the original starting position and kept
stationary for 5 s (or 10 s). As a result, the human disturbance of
turbulence has been abated. Fig. 13 shows the number of escaped
droplets with different diameters at different time instants and
walking speeds. It can be seen that with an increase of walking
speed from 0.25 m/s to 1.0 m/s, the number of escaped droplets of
all sizes increases. However, at one particular walking speed the
number of escaped droplets with diameters less than 10 mm is more
than that with diameters of 20 mm. On the other hand, Fig. 14
indicates the trend that with an increase of walking speed from
0.25 m/s to 1.0 m/s, the number of deposited droplets of all sizes
decreases. At the same walking speed, the droplets with diameters
of 20 mm have the largest deposition amount.
It is worth mentioning that since this study is a preliminary
exploration of the influence of human walking on exhaled droplets
indoors, the rebound and resuspension effects have been ignored in
our simulation runs. Human induced resuspension of droplets is
a complicated phenomenon. In future studies, such an issue in
relation to human walking deserves further investigation.
Fig. 14. Number of deposited droplets with different diameters at different time
instants and walking speeds.
2001
5. Conclusions
A numerical investigation on the influence of human walking on
expiratory droplets in AIIR has been presented. Our numerical
simulation model is developed to trace the dispersion and depo-
sition of exhaled droplets, rather than the dispersion of gaseous
counterparts; the latter is commonly adopted in related research
works. The validity tests of our numerical model were successfully
performed through result comparisons with published data. The
impacts of human walking, in the speed range of 0.25e1.0 m/s, on
the dispersion and deposition of expiratory droplets in a case study
of AIIR are summarized as follows:
(1) Human walking disturbs the local velocity field and affects the
expiratory droplet dispersion. The faster the walking speed, the
longer is the wake behind the human back. When the man
walks, two asymmetrical recirculation zones at opposite sides
of the body are developed. Two recirculation zones also exist at
his back e one is close to the upper back region of his head and
the other around the lower part of his back.
(2) Both in stationary and walking modes the increase of walking
speed is able to effectively reduce the overall number of sus-
pended droplets in AIIR, as well as in walking acceleration mode
to accelerate the escape of droplets via the air outlet and to
decrease the droplet deposition. Relative to stationary mode
walking enhances the droplet depositions, since the majority of
the deposition positions are on the vertical back wall in this case.
(3) The increase of walking speed, in the specific moving directions
relative to the patient position, decreases the number of
suspended droplets of sizes 0.5e20 mm. At the same walking
speed, the 20 mm droplets exhibit the largest deposition and
the least escaped amount.
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