SKET4643 OPTICAL MATERIALS AND SENSORS

DR AHMAD SHARMI ABDULLAH

DR ASRUL IZAM AZMI
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
OBJECTIVE: TO EXPLORE THE RESPONSE OF MATERIALS TO AN APPLIED HEAT ENERGY
MOTIVATION
 Temperature is one of measurands, which an optical
sensor is able to detect.
 The transfer of heat from the surrounding into optical
fiber may lead to certain changes in material
characteristics.
 The changes depend on certain thermal properties of
the materials, e.g. heat capacity, thermal expansion
coefficient, and thermal conductivity.
 As an engineer, you should be able to explain how the
thermal properties of certain materials could be
manipulated to develop an effective fiber optic based
temperature sensor.
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

 It covers topics such as heat capacity, thermal expansion and thermal

conduction.
 Heat capacity topic will include:
 Definition of heat capacity and specific heat capacity.
 Influence of Vibrational energy of atoms on heat capacity.
 Temperature dependence of the heat capacity.
HEAT CAPACITY – DEFINITION
 Heat capacity, 𝑪𝑪 is defined as
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶 = [J/mol. K]
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 It describes the amount of energy dQ required to produce a
dT of change in temperature typically for a mole of
materials.
 Specific heat capacity, 𝒄𝒄 is defined for the heat capacity per
unit mass [J/kg. K].
 Heat capacity can be measured in two conditions:
 Constant volume, 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 .
 Constant external pressure, 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 .
HEAT CAPACITY – VIBRATIONAL ENERGY OF ATOMS
 The integration of thermal energy in most solid
materials is by the increase in vibrational energy of
the atoms.
 Atoms in solid materials are constantly vibrating at
very high frequencies but with relatively small
amplitudes.
 The vibration produces travelling lattice waves or
simply sound waves, having short wavelength, very
high frequencies, and propagate at the velocity of
sound.
 Only certain vibrational thermal energy values are
allowed, which are termed phonons (i.e. analogous to
the quantum of electromagnetic radiation, the
photon).
HEAT CAPACITY – TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE
 The 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 is zero at 0 K.
 It increases rapidly with temperature, which corresponds to
an increased in ability of the lattice waves to enhance their 3𝑅𝑅
average energy with increasing temperature.
 At low temperatures, the 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 is related to the absolute
temperature 𝑇𝑇 as,

Heat capacity, 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣

𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 = 𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 3
where, 𝐴𝐴 is a temperature-independent constant.
 Above Debye temperature 𝜽𝜽𝑫𝑫 , the 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 levels off and
becomes essentially independent of temperature at a value
of approximately 3𝑅𝑅 (𝑅𝑅 is the gas constant).
 It indicates that the quantity of energy required to produce a
0
unit degree temperature change is constant for temperature 0 𝜃𝜃𝐷𝐷
above 𝜃𝜃𝐷𝐷 (which is less than room temperature for many solid
materials). Temperature, K
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

 It covers topics such as heat capacity, thermal expansion and thermal

conduction.
 Thermal expansion topic will include:
 Definition of thermal expansion and its coefficient.
 Atomic perspective of thermal expansion.
 Thermal expansion of metals, ceramics and polymers.
THERMAL EXPANSION – DEFINITION
 Most solid materials expand or contract when heated or cooled
respectively.
 The change in length 𝒍𝒍 with temperature 𝑻𝑻 may be expressed as,
𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓 − 𝑙𝑙
= 𝛼𝛼𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 − 𝑇𝑇
𝑙𝑙
or
∆𝑙𝑙
= 𝛼𝛼𝑙𝑙 ∆𝑇𝑇
𝑙𝑙
where, 𝑙𝑙 and 𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓 represent, respectively, initial and final lengths with
temperature change from 𝑇𝑇 to 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 .
 Linear coefficient of thermal expansion 𝜶𝜶𝒍𝒍 [1/°C] indicates the
extent to which a material expands upon heating.
THERMAL EXPANSION – DEFINITION
 Heating or cooling affects all the dimensions of a body that
result in the change in volume.
 The change in volume 𝑽𝑽 with temperature 𝑻𝑻 may be
expressed as,
∆𝑉𝑉
= 𝛼𝛼𝑣𝑣 ∆𝑇𝑇
𝑉𝑉
where, ∆𝑉𝑉 and 𝑉𝑉 are the change in volume and original volume,
respectively.
 Volume coefficient of thermal expansion 𝜶𝜶𝒗𝒗 [1/°C]
indicates the extent to which the volume of a material
expands upon heating.
 The 𝜶𝜶𝒗𝒗 is approximately 𝟑𝟑𝜶𝜶𝒍𝒍 for materials in which the
thermal expansion is isotropic.
THERMAL EXPANSION – ATOMIC PERSPECTIVE
 Thermal expansion is reflected by an
increase in the average distance between
the atoms.
 The equilibrium interatomic spacing at 0 K,
is at 𝑟𝑟0 .
 The vibrational energy rises (i.e. 𝐸𝐸1 , 𝐸𝐸2 , …)
with increasing temperature.
 The average vibrational amplitude of an
atom increases accordingly (yellow lines).
 The average interatomic spacing also
increases from 𝑟𝑟0 to 𝑟𝑟1 to 𝑟𝑟2 , and so on.
THERMAL EXPANSION – METALS, CERAMICS AND POLYMERS
 For each class of materials, the greater the
atomic bonding energy, the deeper and
narrower the potential energy plot (trough).
 As a result, the rises in temperature will cause
minor increase in interatomic spacing, yielding
small value of 𝛼𝛼𝑙𝑙 .
 Metals have intermediate value of 𝛼𝛼𝑙𝑙 ranges
from 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟔𝟔 and 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟔𝟔 [1/°C].
 Ceramics have comparatively low value of 𝛼𝛼𝑙𝑙
ranges from 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟔𝟔 and 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟔𝟔 [1/°C].
 Polymers have very large value of 𝛼𝛼𝑙𝑙 ranges
from 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟔𝟔 and 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟔𝟔 [1/°C].
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

 It covers topics such as heat capacity, thermal expansion and thermal

conduction.
 Thermal conduction topic will include:
 Definition of thermal conduction and thermal conductivity.
 Mechanisms of heat conduction.
 Thermal conduction in metals, ceramics and polymers.
THERMAL CONDUCTION – DEFINITION
 Thermal conduction is the phenomenon by which heat is
transported from high to low temperature regions of a body.
 Thermal conductivity is the property that characterizes material
ability to transfer heat.
 It is defined in the expression of
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑞𝑞 = −𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where, 𝑞𝑞 [W/m2 ] represent the heat flux per unit time per unit area, 𝒌𝒌
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[𝐖𝐖/𝐦𝐦. 𝐊𝐊] is the thermal conductivity, and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is the temperature gradient
through the conducting medium.
 The expression only valid for situations in which the heat flux does
not change with time.
 The negative sign indicates that the direction of heat flow is from hot
to cold, or down the temperature gradient.
THERMAL CONDUCTION – MECHANISMS OF HEAT CONDUCTION
 Heat is transported in solid materials by phonons (lattice vibration) and free
electrons.
 Thermal conductivity is related to these mechanisms as,
𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘𝑙𝑙 + 𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒
where, 𝑘𝑘𝑙𝑙 and 𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 represent the lattice vibration and electron thermal conductivities
respectively.
 The 𝑘𝑘𝑙𝑙 contribution results from a net movement of phonons from high to low
temperature regions of a body across which a temperature gradient exists.
 The 𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 contribution increases with increasing free electron concentrations
participate in the migration from hot to cold regions.
 They bring the kinetic energy imparted to them in the hot regions, and then
transfer to atoms (as vibrational energy) in the cold regions.
THERMAL CONDUCTION – METALS, CERAMICS AND POLYMERS

 For each class of materials, the phonon or free electron mechanism of

heat transport predominates the heat conduction.
 Free electrons are much more efficient mechanism in high purity
metals, which value of 𝑘𝑘 ranges from 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 and 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 [𝐖𝐖/𝐦𝐦. 𝐊𝐊].
 Phonons are the primary mechanism in nonmetallic materials, such
as ceramics and polymers (i.e. 𝑘𝑘𝑙𝑙 ≫ 𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 ).
 The value of 𝑘𝑘 for ceramics ranges from 𝟐𝟐 and 𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟎 [𝐖𝐖/𝐦𝐦. 𝐊𝐊], while it
is on the order of 𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟑 [𝐖𝐖/𝐦𝐦. 𝐊𝐊] for most polymers.