SKET4643 OPTICAL MATERIALS AND SENSORS

DR AHMAD SHARMI ABDULLAH

DR ASRUL IZAM AZMI
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
OBJECTIVE: TO EXPLORE THE RESPONSE OF MATERIALS TO AN APPLIED MAGNETIC FIELD
MOTIVATION
 Magnetic field is one of measurands, which an optical
sensor is able to detect.
 Magnetic fluid (MF) is often used to react with the
magnetic fields that are to be measured.
 Due to its magneto-optic characteristic, the reaction
also affects optical properties of the fluid material.
 The sensitivity and efficiency of an MF-based optical
sensor is dependent on the magnetic properties as
well as the optical properties of the magnetic fluid.
 Therefore, knowledge on magnetic properties of
certain materials can assist engineer to develop more
sensitive and effective fiber optic based magnetic
field sensor.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

 It covers topics such as magnetic behavior, types of magnetism, and

domain and hysteresis.
 Magnetic behavior of materials topic will include:
 Magnetic dipoles and dipole moments.
 Field vectors and magnetic polarization (magnetization).
 Origins of magnetic moments in materials.
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR – MAGNETIC DIPOLES

 Magnetic dipoles exist in magnetic materials, and are

analogous to electric dipoles.
 Magnetic dipoles can be imagined as small bar
magnets composed of north and south poles, instead
𝒎𝒎
of positive and negative electric charges.
 A magnetic dipole moment m can be illustrated as an
arrow, directed from south pole to north pole on the
inside of the bar magnet.
 Magnetic dipoles tend to align with the direction of an
external magnetic field.
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR – FIELD VECTORS AND MAGNETIZATION
 The strength 𝑯𝑯 [Ampere/meter] of an
external magnetic field, if is generated by a
solenoid structure, then can be written as
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝐻𝐻 = [A/m]
𝑙𝑙
where, 𝑁𝑁 is the number of turns, 𝐼𝐼 is the applied
current, and 𝑙𝑙 is the length of the solenoid.
 The magnetic flux density 𝑩𝑩 [Tesla]
represents the internal field strength within
a substance subjected to the 𝐻𝐻 field.
𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝐻𝐻 [T] The relative permeability, 𝝁𝝁𝒓𝒓
𝜇𝜇
where, 𝜇𝜇0 = 4𝜋𝜋 × 10−7 H/m is the magnetic 𝜇𝜇𝑟𝑟 =
permeability of vacuum. 𝜇𝜇0
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR – FIELD VECTORS AND MAGNETIZATION

 In the presence of a magnetic field 𝐵𝐵, a magnetic dipole

is forced to align with the applied field. B=0

 The process of magnetic dipoles alignment is termed m

magnetization, 𝑴𝑴 [Ampere/meter].
B≠0

B≠0

M≠0 m
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR – FIELD VECTORS AND MAGNETIZATION

 Magnetization may also be thought of as the

total dipole moments per unit volume of the
material. B≠0

 Magnetization reinforces the 𝑯𝑯 field as, Volume, V

𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝐻𝐻 + 𝜇𝜇0 𝑀𝑀
M≠0
 and it is proportional to 𝑯𝑯 as,
𝑀𝑀 = 𝜒𝜒𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻 [A/m]
where, 𝜒𝜒𝑚𝑚 is the magnetic susceptibility, which is
related to the relative permeability as,
𝜒𝜒𝑚𝑚 = 𝜇𝜇𝑟𝑟 − 1
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR – ORIGINS OF MAGNETIC MOMENTS

 The macroscopic magnetic behavior of

materials is a result of magnetic
moments associated with individual
electrons. Nucleus

orbiting

 There are two conditions of electrons,

Electron

which result in magnetic moments: spinning

Materials

 Orbital motion around the nucleus.

 Spinning around an axis.
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR – ORIGINS OF MAGNETIC MOMENTS

 The most fundamental magnetic

moment is the Bohr magneton 𝝁𝝁𝑩𝑩 ,
which has a magnitude of 𝟗𝟗. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ×
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 [A.m2]. Nucleus

orbiting

 Materials composed of atoms having

Electron

completely filled electron shells are not spinning

Materials
capable of being permanently
magnetized (e.g. inert gases and some
ionic materials).
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR – ORIGINS OF MAGNETIC MOMENTS

 Interaction between an external magnetic field with the magnetic

dipole moments of an atom governs the behavior of a material.
 This behavior, which is depends on the structure of the materials, is
used as a basis for classifying materials as:
 Diamagnetic,
 Paramagnetic, or
 Ferromagnetic (antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism).
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

 It covers topics such as magnetic behavior, types of magnetism, and

domain and hysteresis.
 Types of magnetism topic will include:
 Diamagnetism and paramagnetism.
 Ferromagnetism.
 Antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism.
 The influence of temperature on magnetic behavior.
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR – ORIGINS OF MAGNETIC MOMENTS (REVISED)
 The macroscopic magnetic behavior of
materials is a result of magnetic moments
associated with individual electrons.
Nucleus
 There are two conditions of electrons,
which result in magnetic moments: orbiting
Electron

 Orbital motion around the nucleus.

spinning

 Spinning around an axis.

Materials

 Incomplete cancellation of electron

orbital/spin magnetic moments results in
net atomic magnetic moment.
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR – ORIGINS OF MAGNETIC MOMENTS (REVISED)

 Interaction between an external magnetic field with the magnetic

dipole moments of an atom governs the behavior of a material.
 This behavior, which is depends on the structure of the materials, is
used as a basis for classifying materials as:
 Diamagnetic,
 Paramagnetic, or
 Ferromagnetic (antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism).
TYPES OF MAGNETISM – DIAMAGNETISM

 Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism.

 It is not permanent and exist only while an external
magnetic field is present.
 It is induced by a change in the orbital motion of
electrons due to the presence of external field.
 The magnitude of the induced magnetic dipole
moment is extremely small and in a direction opposite
to that of the external field.
TYPES OF MAGNETISM – DIAMAGNETISM

 The magnetic susceptibility 𝝌𝝌𝒎𝒎 is negative and

in the order of −𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟓𝟓 .
 The relative permeability 𝝁𝝁𝒓𝒓 = 1 + 𝜒𝜒𝑚𝑚 , is very
slightly less than unity.
� is
 The magnitude of the magnetic flux density 𝑩𝑩
less than that in a vacuum.
TYPES OF MAGNETISM – PARAMAGNETISM
 Each atom in some material possesses a permanent
dipole moment due to the incomplete cancellation of
electron spin and/or orbital magnetic moments.
 The orientations of these atomic magnetic dipole
moments are random without an external magnetic field
present.
 Consequently, no net macroscopic magnetization can be
observed from a piece of the material.
 Paramagnetism results once these atomic magnetic
dipole moments align by rotation with an external field.
 The atomic magnetic dipole moments are acted on
individually without any coupling to adjacent dipoles.
TYPES OF MAGNETISM – PARAMAGNETISM
 The magnetic susceptibility 𝝌𝝌𝒎𝒎 is positive and in the
order of 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟓𝟓 to 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟐𝟐 .
 The relative permeability 𝝁𝝁𝒓𝒓 = 1 + 𝜒𝜒𝑚𝑚 , is slightly
greater than unity.
� is
 The magnitude of the magnetic flux density 𝑩𝑩
slightly enhanced and therefore greater than that in
a vacuum.
 However, both diamagnetic and paramagnetic
materials are considered nonmagnetic.
 Magnetization only occurs when external field present.
 Magnetic flux density is almost the same with that of a
vacuum.
TYPES OF MAGNETISM – FERROMAGNETISM
 Ferromagnetism manifests very large and permanent
magnetizations.
 It is due to the presence of permanent magnetic dipole
moment in the absence of an external magnetic field.
 The permanent dipole moments result from the incomplete
cancellation of electron spin magnetic moments and with
small contribution from the orbital part.
 The electron spin magnetic moments are coupled to adjacent
dipoles causing the moments to align with one another even
without an external field.
 This mutual spin magnetic moments alignment exists over
relatively large-volume regions called domains.
TYPES OF MAGNETISM – FERROMAGNETISM
 The magnetic susceptibility 𝝌𝝌𝒎𝒎 is very high
and in the order of 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 .
 The relative permeability 𝝁𝝁𝒓𝒓 = 1 + 𝜒𝜒𝑚𝑚 ≅ 𝜒𝜒𝑚𝑚 ,
is extremely greater than unity.
�
 The magnitude of the magnetic flux density 𝑩𝑩
is greatly enhanced 𝐻𝐻 ≪ 𝑀𝑀 ,
𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝐻𝐻 + 𝜇𝜇0 𝑀𝑀 ≅ 𝜇𝜇0 𝑀𝑀
 In ferromagnetic materials, saturation
magnetization 𝑴𝑴𝒔𝒔 represents the
magnetization results when all the magnetic
dipoles are mutually aligned with an external
field.
TYPES OF MAGNETISM – ANTIFERROMAGNETISM

 Magnetic moments coupling between adjacent

dipoles also occurs in materials other than those of
ferromagnetic.
 In one group, the coupling results in the alignment of
the spin magnetic moments of adjacent dipoles in
exactly opposite directions or antiparallel coupling.
 The behavior is termed antiferromagnetism and as
consequence, the material as a whole possesses no
net magnetic moment.
TYPES OF MAGNETISM – FERRIMAGNETISM

 Ferrimagnetism is termed for ceramics that exhibit a

permanent magnetization.
 The macroscopic magnetic characteristic of
ferromagnets and ferrimagnets are similar.
 The distinction lies in the source of the net magnetic
moments.
 Moment coupling results in the antiparallel alignment
of the spin magnetic moments of adjacent dipoles.
 The net ferrimagnetic moment arises from the
incomplete cancellation of spin moments.
TYPES OF MAGNETISM – TEMPERATURE INFLUENCE
 Thermal vibrations of atoms increase with the increasing temperature
of materials.
 The atomic magnetic moments are free to rotate, hence randomize
the directions of any moments that may be aligned.
 The atomic thermal motions counteract the coupling between the
adjacent atomic dipole moments in ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic
and ferrimagnetic.
 Causing some dipole misalignment even with the external field
present, and results in a decrease in saturation magnetization 𝑴𝑴𝒔𝒔 .
 With increasing temperature, saturation magnetization decreases
gradually and then abruptly drops to zero at Curie temperature 𝑻𝑻𝒄𝒄 .
 At 𝑻𝑻𝒄𝒄 , the mutual spin coupling forces are completely destroyed, such
that for temperatures above 𝑻𝑻𝒄𝒄 , both ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic
materials are paramagnetic.