COMPUTATION OF AREAS General-Calculation of Areas from the plan-Graphical Method-Area by Geometrical FiguresBy Division into Triangles, By division into Squares~Areas by the application of Formulae, The trapezoidal Rule, The Simpson's Rule- Examples on the application of various Formulae-Instrumental Method—The Amslar Polar Planimeter, Zero circle, use of Planimeter, Precautions~Examples on Areas by Planimeter—Areas by the direct use of the field-notes~Examples— Exercise No. 4. ‘ General-The calculation of areas forms an important part of Land Surveying. By the term “Area” is meant the area of atract of land as projected upon a horizontal plane and not the actual area of the surface of land. Areas may be determined : (A) from the previously plotted plans and (B) by the direct use of the field-notes. The first method is less trouble-some and is more common while the second one is more accurate because the errors of plotting and scaling are eliminated. 4.1. Calculation of Areas from the Plan : The following two methods are generally adopted to find the areas from the previously plotted plans :— 1. Graphical method. 2. Instrumental method. 1. Graphical Method. In this method, the required data is obta. ‘ed from measurements of the plan. The area may be found (i) by the help of some geometrical figures or (ii) by the application of various formulae. (i) Area by Geometrical Figures. The area may be found Out by any of the following meth- (a) By Division into Trian- Bles. This is the most common Method. In this method, the whole figure is divided into a number of ‘riangles. The base and altitude of108 each triangle are scall by altitude, When the boundari® by al equaling orgie andi Haye) as infig 41. The they exclude (give) as muc ‘as they include (take) as in BE: 3 Rigs is thus Paice by a polygon which is then divided into triangles. wi yee the two parallel sides x (b) ByDivision into Squares. ee jistance between them. Tt consists in placing over whe Area of the first = 2040, tg Faure piece of tracing paper ruled trapezoid = S091 xq 9 i eerinto squares (fg. 42) each tie dt dsb doo dont square representing 2 definite 9s second}, 2: ta CEeOateg FIG.43 Sunt of area. The number of 2 Complete squares within the ei poundary is counted and in aaa xd oo lest On-1+On ee xd ‘2dditionto the incomplete squares ‘which are more than half are counted as comp! Tess than half are neglected. The required area is equal (0 the total Total eae a umber of squares multiplied BY 4 (004 201+ 202+ nn. + 20m + Or) the amount of area which each ee square presents. es | Oo+On (li) Areas by the application of Formulae. Various formulae suchas 2 (O,+0,+03+... On| Trapezoidal rule, “Simpson’srulemay beapplied for finding the areas: 2 eareen the adjacent survey lines and he PP rved boundaries. This method is weds { Istord.+ast ord. ps of ground as those otcupied Dy A railway ora +(the sum of all the remaining ordi >} ii s+ (Eqn. 4.1, a) suitable for long narrow str Text BOOK OF SURVEY! led and its area is foun’ far, they are replaced by straight ——_—_— COMPUTATION OF ING AND LEVELLING d = the common di the ordinates. stance Deel ‘We know that the area of a trapezoid .d out by multiplying half the base ese lines are so drawn that By addition, we get, a and divided intoa number of road. A base line is taken through the area: parts, The ordinates ateach rhe points of division are drawn and) () Si i Te trapezoidal rule assumes that the boundaries between the extremities OF cntidandy gate Rule. In this method, the boundaries b theordinatesare straight, while ‘Simpson'srule assumes that they are portions Simpaon's ah sumed to'be arcs of a parabola. The results obtained - Br paraboic arcs andi, wherefore, sometimes called as the Paraboli accuncy soa ‘scoutate and theresore i) is used only by using is i . |. It may when great In this method, the area is assumed to b “Add the Ge So a eee we ordinates sum of twice the (a) The Trapezoidal Rule. ids. This is more accurate than the first divided into series of trapezoi methods. This may be stated as follows : f the first: and last ordinates to thesum of the: remaining odd ordinates: ordinates. = i and four time: ana multiplied by one third: seu coua distance, ae Saceue “Add half the sum o smengediate ordinates, Thetoal sum tus obtained multiplied bythe: tance between te poins, gives the requied area.” Area a/ 20 ‘Area, A=d [oeece +(01, 02+. 3 {(O1 + On) + 203 +05 Ona) + Oz404..tOr—D} so HO Osanna where On, Os, etc. (the 2nd, 4th, 6th, F ‘The formula may be derived as under : 2, Os, O7 Fe Tet . O7 etc. (3rd, 5th, 7th, etc.) are odd ordinates. e formula may be derived as under : In fig. 43, Oo, O1, 02. sO = the ordinates taken at equal intervals. In fi 7 fine AC ae ne ee ab'eC) enclosed between the . the parabolic arc ab'c, and the end ordinates Aa and Cc. base, ING AND LEVELLING of SURVEY! A Text BOOK 110 Through b' draw abe pars Now, th = area of the trapez . area of the segment ab'chd Be tween the parabolic arc ab’ ‘the chord abe. ‘Area of trapezoid AaCC = atte 2a 5 : Fig. 44 2 x area of the enclosing P: 3 | = 014035 24 ; ‘Area of the segment ab’cha = (0,404) and AC = 2d where, Bb’= 02— |p | The required area [2 0)+05)t5,4) 210,403 4) | 210, -| 4] } x24) x tsa (24 -{ 15) a vs (Orr Os) —(Oxts iam 4 (0,46) 4 Sathe 5 Similarly, the area for the next wo divisions = (tO 140 = 4£ (03+ 404 +05) and oon At Os te =4 (01 +402 +03) $: Area of the last two divisions = 4.244014 3 Adding all such area, we have, Total area = Ee (0140) +2 (03+05+ +0n—2)+4(O2 + O44... .... + On-D) d or = 7[(Istord.+ last ord.) + 2 (the sum of the ordinates) + 4 (the sum of the even ordinates)) a Note. (i) As we take two divisions at a time such as Ist and 2nd, 3rd and 4th etc., therefore, this method necessitates an even number of divi- sions of the area i.e. the total number of ordinates must be odd. If there be an odd number of divisions the area of the last division must be calculated separately and added to the result obtained by applying Simpson's rule to the remaining divisions. (ii) For the applications of Simpson's and Trapezoidal rules, the interval between the succesive ordinates must be uniform throughout the length of the base line. If it is not the same, then the base line may be divided into different sections, each having the same interval. The area of these sections should be calculated separately and added together to obtain the required area. EXAMPLES ON THE APPLICATION OF VARIOUS FORMULAE Example 4.1. The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 20m intervals from a base line to an irregular boundary line : 5.9, 12.4, 16.5, 15.3, 18.4, 20.9, 24.2, 21.8 and 19.2 metres. Calculate the area enclosed between the base line, the boundary line and the first and last offsets by (i) Trapezoidal rule (li) Simpson’s.rule. ‘Solution : The common distance between the offsets, d = 20 m. (i) Area by Trapezoidal Rule, From the Eqn. 4.1. (a) Area = ¢ { (istord + last ord J + he sum fal te remaining ona =20 (as +165 + 153 +184 + 209 + 242+ 21s = 20 (12.55 + 1295) 20 x 142.05 = 2841 sq. metres (Ans) (Gi) Area by Simpson's Rule From the Eqn. 4.2 (a), A= 4 tat ord + tas ont) + 2 he sum of te remaining odd ordinates+ 4 sum of even ordinates)] Ist ordinates + last ordinates =5.9+19.2 =25.1m © the sum of the remaining odd ordinates = 16.5 + 18.4 + 24.2= 59.1m the sum of even ordinates = 12.4 + 15.3 + 20.9 + 218= 704m[a TEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLING (025.1) + 2659-1) + 4(70.4)} = 20 x 474.9 3 = 2832.67 sq. metres (Ans.) te 42, A series of offsets were taken from a chain line to a i ey line at intervals of 20 m in the following order : 0, 7.2, 5.4, 6.0, 6.8, 7-4, 8:2, 0 metres Find the area between the chain line, the curved boundary’ line and the offsets, by () Trapezoidal Rule (il) Simpson’s Rule. Solution : i) By Trapezoidal Rule. From the Eqn. 4.1. (@), Rice (sora oe sumofalltbereminingotina L 1 =m) io 245.446.0468+7.4482| > Gi) By Simpson's Rule. In this problem, since the number of ordinates is even, we directly apply the Simpson's Rule, Therefore, the area enclosed the chain line, the curved boundary line and the first and. seventh may be calculated separately by the direct application of Simpson's and the area enclosed between the seventh and last offset may be fo out by the Trapezoidal Rule and then added together to find out the total area ‘Area between the first and the seventh offsets by Simpson's rule, A -2 ((0+ 8.2) +254 +68) +4(7.2+6+7.4)] =D iersmas924) 20 s a: x 115 = 766.667 sq. metres. Area of the End Division by Trapezoidal Rule, (8.2401 A= 20 lisa COMPUTATION OF AREA. “113 = 82 sq. metres, Total area, A= Ay + Ay = 766.667 + 82 = 5, Example 4.3 The tollswiagaa nih aia tre : hain 5 act line toa hedge : Distance in-metres : 0 20 40 60 Offsets in metres : ahi = alee 2420 16 «12158 10 14 Calculate the area enclosed by the chain a ies ape ro ena ‘Trapezoidal Rule. offsets by (a) Simpson’s Rule (b) Solution. When the interval between the 6 7 Offsets is not regular through the survey line, the line may be divided into different sect uniform interval, ‘THe Wea Bie Gitteeadletee er 2 cae separately and then addedtogethertoobtantherequiredarca, nahin the survey line is divided into three sections, the first one hay i 201 7 intervs a the second one having 40 m interval and the thd one having 30 mn inte oy between the offsets. mae Let A__ = the required total area Ai = the area of the first section Az = the area of the second section. ‘Aa = the area of the third section. (® By Simpson's Rule. At -2 [(24 + 8) + 2(16) + 4(20 + 12)] = 1280 sq, metres. Ar = 2 {(8 + 20) + 2(14) + 4(10 + 16)] = 2133.333 s, metres A = 2 (204+26) +200) +422) = 1340. mewes . = 4753.333 Sq. metres (Ans.) (ii) By Trapezoidal Rule : AL =20 {2S anei6+1} = 1280 sq, metres Ay =40 [222 -a0+14+10} = 2160 sq. metres.a ee ee 115) io ue A-TEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLIN vernier. The number of complete revolutions made by the roller wheel are read on the counting disc or dial. The tg disc is ives into 10 equal parts and advances one line at every tum of the wheel and performs one svi at every 10 tums of the wheel. Thus’each reading i consists of four hate the units being read on the counting disc, the tenths Ain sibseten: and hundredths on the measuring wheel, and the thousandth the vernier. 0 = 4790 i i os ; 280 + 2160 + 1350- od ons When the instrument is placed on the paper ready for use, there are a mental Method. Ths at "is 8 cca 4 three points of contact viz, the tracing poimt, the pole point and the rim of area of a given figure by the use Of PST is ea the measuring Wheel. When the tracing point is moved round the outline Se Ncaren ceva pediious metho ae by of the figure, the wheel partly rotates and partly slips and slides. As the ee vpose oblained By other ees ‘Be axis of the wheel partly rotates to the tracing arm and the plane of wheel is — re field-notes is made. r (@ te Fg common USE: perpendicular to the tracing arm, the normal component of the motion causes rotation while the axial componen ip wi cout affecting the reading. Thus the rotation of the wheel measures total normal displacement and thereby the area of the figure. 7 Planimeter can be used in two ways: (i) with the int outside figure, and (i) with the pole pointinside the figure. ace econ for measuring small areas while the second is used for large areas. However iftheareaislarge and itis desired to place the pole outside the figure, the figure may be divided into parts, the area ofeach part being measured separately with the pole point outside the outline, and the results added together to obtain the required area. ( Pole Point outside the Figure. Area of the figure is equal to distance between the tracing point and the hinge point multiplied by the product of the circumference of the measuring wheel and the number of revolutions made by the wheel. (ii) Pole Point inside the Figure. In this case the area of the zero circle expressed as a constant and usually given by the maker will have to be added totheabove areaas given in (i) because the planimeterin this case records only the area of the annular space between the given figure and the zero circle. As = 30 {526.2} = 1350 sq. metres hinge (B) as shown of fixed length. I into the paper mounted é : Zero Circle. It is the circle round the circumference of which, if the F. Pole point tracing point is moved, no rotation of the wheel takes place but actually B. Hinge yet or Rolling Drum G. Magnifier the wheel only slides on the paper without changing the reading. This Pigs happens when the line joining the pole point to the wheel is at right angles D. Tracing Pi ptanieter oe ‘0 the line joining the tracing point to the wheel. The pole point is the The saat ‘am called the tracing arm (A) ¥ centre of the zero circle and the line joining the pole point to the tracing drawing board 4 can slide in a sleeve and clamped to 0 Point is its radius, adjustable length an 1 (D) by means of which the oul The area of the zero circle may be determined by the following one end camies the tracing poin! z joving it al methods: fully followed by m figure to be measured is very carefully by ort soe ‘directions, The recording or measuring ia (By Using the Planimeter, $ beit of into 100 parts of its circumference, the tenths or a part ing a Find the area of a figure of known ‘area with the pole point inside thell na AND LEVELLING EY! A TEXT BOOK OF SURV! can coal be ‘area of the zero circle May then of the FB find its areal the measured area te Know! 8 Ten it Note : Ifthe area of the fig a planimeter with the pole point ovsie the fig (Gi) By Using the Formulae. | (@) Radius of the zero circle, 116 found figure. The ure and 2 mallards the hinge to the tr where, L = the length of the tac 1g arm from heel. nae the hinge to the WHE os ees poe arm from the bine 19 the pole eel the wheel is placed beyond the hinge and Pus sign is sed when te We spaced between from tracing point while mi 2LL1 +17?) (b) Area of zero circ Where, M = the multiplier nei ce value is either marked on the = the constant. whos “mar t ‘ isa ‘am just above the scale division oF supplied maker on a separate Use of the Planimeter. steps f ‘ e niNedite ine mark on the bevelled edge of the slide to the se i has been drawn. seer sg ng ot i poinis on te periphery ofthe figure can be reached without any ‘and then fix the pole point firmly. : (iil) Mark a definite point called dead point on the 0 figure and set the tracing point exactly on it i (iv) Read the counting disc and wheel and record it as reading (LR) : (v) Move the tracing point in the clockwise direction unless again at the starting point. Again read the disc and wheel recorcil final reading (FR.) (vi) Note the number of times the zero mark of the cov! vod passes the fixed index mark in a clockwise or counter-clockwise while the tracing point being moved along the outline of the figure: 1] (vii) The area of the figure may then by calculated by the: Area = M (F.R. — LR. + 10N +C) chart. i ‘The use of the Planimeter is € plain ‘(COMPUTATION OF AREA ; 17 where, M = the multiplier, the number of the measuring wheel whose value is mine Of area per revolution to the scale division, bt ip aL. FR.= the final reading IR. = the intial reading N= the number of times the zero mark of the counting dsc passes the fixed index mark. Use plus si asses tea Shay en If the ! clockwise direction (¢.g. 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, 1, 2. oc) Hat aes pit in a counter clock-wise direction (e.g. 3, 2, 1, 0, 9, 8, 7, ay 7 only if the pole point is fixed inside the just above the scale divisi : chart, ion or supplied by the maker on a. Precautions., The following precauti bserved in usi cee ig Precautions should be ol inusing the 1. The plan should be kept in a hori iti Bi ‘ua See ‘tin a horizontal position and the surface of the 2, As far as possible, the pole point should be fixed outsi 3 While moving, the racing point mustbekepttroughoutesaety coche coulline of the figure. For this tracing point may be guided by a straight edge or French curve along the outline of the figure. 4. The area of the figure should be found out twice or thrice with different positions of the pole point and the mean should be taken. 5. The area of the figure should be found out estimati compared with that obuined by the planimeter as a cuesen ee are EXAMPLES ON AREA BY PLANIMETER ~ Example 4.4, The following readings were obtained when a figure was traversed clockwise with the anchor point and with the tracing arm set to the natural scale giving the multiplier as outside 100 sq.cm. The zero mark of the counting disc passed the fixed index mark twice in the clockwise direction, Initial reading = 8.378 ; final reading = 1.436 Calculate the area of the figure Solution : From Eqn. 4.3, Area = M (F.R. —L.R. + 10N+C) The anchor or pole point being fixed outside the figure, the constant C is Nottobeadded. Since the zero mark of the counting disc passed the fixed index mark twice in the clockwise direction, the value of N is 2 and is positive. Substituting the values, we have, Area = M (FR, —LR. + 10N) 100 (1.436 — 8.378 + 10 x 2) = 100 (13.058) = 1305.8 “. Area of the figure = 13056.8 Sq. em (Ans.)a Me! A TEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LE\ E : 10 Example 4.5. Calculate the area of a figure drawn fq with the metres to I cm traversed clockwise with the pole-point inside lowing tracing arm set to the natural scale (metric system) from Initial reading = 4.547 Final ‘= 8.932, and C = 23.535 once in the Final reading = 8.932 209 © 0 the xed index =" reverse direction. Solution. From Eqn. 4. "Area = MFR. —LR.+ 10N+© so ne metric system, Where, "Mf = 100 sq. em forte natural ssl? 3 FR. =8.932 il LR. = 4.547 index mark once Nn eine aay mnt the dat pase te FE ta in the reverse direction) a C =23.535 % Sosiuting we vals 5 sg7 101+ 23.535) se = 1792 sq. cm. = 100 x 17.920= 17! ‘pcrefore, 1 sq. sm on the paper = Since the scale is 10 metres to 1 em a 100 sq. metres on the ground. ‘| ‘Area ofthe ground = 170-0 a 92 Ares (Ans.) ‘ilo ter of 2 rectangle 15° tra veal scale (M= 10sq. rm set to the inside and tracing arm se ee ing = 9.862 ; the fixed index mark twice in the oo ays were obtained. when Example 46. The following Tt ainersed clockwise —- Initial reading = 0.349; ‘The zero of the counting ‘disc reverse direction. Find the area of the zero circle. * ‘Solution. Arca of the rectangle mee is oe ae at rectangle = . — LR. — Measured area ofthe 625701 69 — 0.349 — 10x 2+0) = = 10 (— 10.487 + C) i ing the two values, we have me 10 (—10.487 + C) = 105 C= 20,987 ‘Area of the zero circle = M x C = 10 x 20.987 09.87 sq, in (Ans.) Example 4.7. The area of a square, 9 cm side, was measured planimeter with the pole point outside the figure and the initial and fi readings were found to be 8.324 and 9.214 respectively. With the s setting of the tracing arm and with the pole point outside, another was traversed clockwise and the initial and final readings were be 6.439 and 8,693 respectively. What is the area of the figure? Solution : Arca ofthe figure = M(F.R. — LR. + 10N+C) COMPUTATION OF ARE, Inthe firstcase, N=0, and C j the figure. bo : 9x9=M 00.214 119 ies ieee ‘added since the pole points outside 8324) = Mx 0.890 again N= 0, and C is not to be added, 81 : Area = 51 (g.693_ 0.59 8936439) = 81 9 954 = 205.14 sq.cm(Ans) 8? Example 4.8. The following sets of readings were obtained wh = the area of the same figure was measured by i @ planimeter, > the tracing arm of which was so set that measuring wheel measures 100 sq. cm on the paper: Nuton of the IR ORR. Position of Remari . . pole point " 8 109 Ouside the "The izero of the counting diac # Passed the fixed index mark once in the clockwise direc- 4373 7.691 The: Inside the The zero of the counting disc figure assed the fixed index mark twice in the reverse direction. Find the area of the zero circh Solution : ()) Area ofthe figure in the first case MER.—IR-+10N) 100 4.109 —8.710+ 10x) x 5.399 sq. cm. = Gi) Area of the Glee Rie eeeet 4 =M@R.—IR —10N+O) = 100 (7.691 — 4373 — 10x 2+¢) a = 100 (— 16.682 + ©) sq, em quating the two values, we get i 100 (— 16.682 + C) = 539.9 . C= 22.081 Area of the zero circle = M x C= 100 x 22.081 = 2208.1 sq. cm (Ans.) nee by the Direct Use of the Field-Notes : mi aot plot may be determined by the direct use of the field-notes nee fs ‘aff Survey. In this method of surveying a chain line is run side of it an ae of the area so that the offsets to the boundaries on either ae os fairly equal. These offsets are taken in order of their chainages. 's-staff is used to set out the perpendicular directions of the offsetsA TEXT BOOK OF ‘SURVEYING AND LEVELLING ork, an optical th. For accurate 74 into right 120 which are usually more than 15 m in leng square or a prism square is preferably used. angled triangles and trapezoids, and the area is in the following examples. ofa Example 4,9. Plot the following cross-staff survey calculate its area. jot is divi i The picid oot #8 expla field and D Solution : Fig. 4.6 shows the field. ABCDEF. The given chainages and offses are entered as shown in the following table = COMPUTATION OF AREA. 6744 sq. metres. . Area of the field 67 Ares and 44 sq. metres (Ans.)COMPUTATION OF AREA, a A TEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLIN' sr sur Example 4.10. Sketch the following cross-stal ABCDEF and calculate its area D66 E268 F334 FET BOO PEER BOT cad oor 8 709 897 799 oe 709 8 T06 9980 ve 7068 8°98 OR 89 vel 898 BEL 890 8 Y0Z vel SELB TOO OCB TEL str 709 8 OT 99 ORTEL vb BECP HOT IEE ime] : Ont ‘ w w cman] eter [oo von wn of a field (-suy) un -bs opgp pun soay st = w'bs op'8bSz = _PIOY oui Jo Vary ORree ‘ g “ 4 z ee . 4 é 3 Sb 3 bv a a Geel 4 é 2 * % : 8 g Pee be | Oar 2 7 aef eg a & 3 3 z s a = shown in the following table : Solution : Fig. 4 offsets are entered as FIG.47tic and surveyors’- the prismatic at - Compass, t m 7 eons f bearings, Deng it ape tnt wn: Den tt ae F 1d back bearings- Ex: yaaa of Aigies om be ee Calculation of bearings from eee 1 an ee Reso Tape Digs Mopac hed Mit Bc Sen te hoop: anc Dstt z ‘ fi S ‘i ss Cee ee eee ol ee Error in Compass Surveyit ae Au cn ges ot EnCay Work Testing and Adjusting the Compass- Exercise No. General .ccording to the method employed, surveying is: a Triangulation surveying and Traverse Surveying. x ae Se survey lines of known lengths and directions is called a trav is i not possible to divide the area into network sk ieee em Ci 2 i it loyed. In y Triangulation, traversing method is empl peepee pee erinisiieacatote surveyed, whose lengths are measured with chain or tape as usual and directions are determined with angulat instruments. é eet nated recon Fe ae eae ee it is inclined either to its adjacent line or to a fixed reference line meridian. The instuments commonly used for the measurement of angles and determining the direction of the survey lines are :- (i) Acompass. (ii) A theodolite. (iii) A box-sextant 5.1 Compass Surveying : In traversing, when compass is used for making angular a ments, it is known as compass traversing or compass surveying, In cone surveying, the compass i$ used to determine the direction of a of the frame-work of the traverse by measuring the angles whi 128 lines make with magnetic meridian, COMPASS SURVEYING 129 The process of chaining and offset- ting is the same as in chain surveyin, inning of check lines is. not necessary. The compass surveying is suitable = (When the survey details are re e.g. a road, railway, stream etc. (0) When surveying is done in a (vi) When the country is hilt error. ‘The compass surveying is unsuitable in places abounding in magnetic rock or iron ore. It is less it performed rapidly. Therefore, where speed and not the ing and night marching f 5.2. is read at the graduated Compass : ig and ru quired along the long narrow strips jungle or in a dense forest. ly where chaining is tedious and liable to i rough surveys oe curacy is main consideration such as in sketch, for military purposes etc. circle. The comy between the two lines dit wo lines, firstly their Separately and then equal to angle ber common use.:- 1. 2. 1 commont Main ¢ WS its sectic \ consists of aMeter, in the ce i Which is alread: ID of Y a rey the difference The Prismatic Compass ‘The Surveyor’s Compass ‘The Prismatic Compass. 'y used for rough surveys ‘onsideration, It Was inventer ional elevation, y attached to the na 2Bate cap (5). ‘The ring i Mlecting prism (7) which ie P rectly. If it angles with the cylinderical metal bo) ‘Ntre of which is a of the two values is found which is ‘tween the lines. The: in {Wis very valuable instrument and is where speed and not the accuracy is 4 by Captain Kater in 1814. Fig. 5.1 x (1) of about 8 cm to 12cm. Pivot (2) carrying a magnetic needle raduated aluminium ting (4) with the Braduated to half a degree and is read rotected from dust moisture etc. by the aI Ss\ LEVELLING JRVEYING AND TEXT BOOK OF SU 190 a iam is the object vane (12) ically opposite to the prism is tne Obie an object prism cap (8). Diam ea ose it (pole belo Binge is vieced,_ The ove i applied ed Grell in the : ‘the rin; ‘ . yraduations on jiagonal of the prism. “The sighting SL) Mise reflected from the Gig the eye graduations can be ‘The Prismatic Compass 10. Coloured glasses. box. tea : 11. Focussing screw. 3. Magnetic needle. 12, Object-vane. 4,Graduated ring. 13, Horse hair, 5. Agate cap. 14. Reflecting mirror. 6.Glass cover. 15. Brake pin. 7. Prism 16. Spring brake. 8.Prism cap. 17. Lifting pin. 9. Sighting slit 18. Lifting lever. the focus’ made clearly visible by adjusting the prism to the eye sight by the sing screw (11). Both the horizontal and vertical side faces of the pfst ‘weal are made convex (0 give magnified readings. To prevent undue ha. oh COMPASS SURVEYING the pivot point the object vane is brought down on the face of cover (6) which presses against a lifting pin (17) and the medion automatically lifted off the pivot by the lifting lever (18). To oscillations of the needle before taki i i ing a reading and to bring i quickly, the Tight spring brake (16) sate 7 13 et S on the object vane is and image oblained in itis bisected by the horse hate eae glasses (10) shell have to be int between the slit and the coloured vane when the Sun or some other luminous object is to be bisected. A metal cover fits over the glass cover s 8 well as the object vane when the compass is not in use. Working of the Prismatic Compass. This can be used while holding itin hand, but for better accuracy, it is usually mounted on a light tripod which carries a vertical spindle in the ball and socket arrangement to which the compass is Screwed, By means of this arangem can be placed in position easily. Its worki steps. (Centering (i) levelling, and (it) observing the bearing. {© Centering. The centre of the compass is placed vertically over the Sation-point by dropping a small piece of stone below the centre of the compass so that it falls on the top of the peg marking that station, i edvelling. By means of ball and socket arrangement, the compass {huben levelled so that the graduated ring swings quite freely. I may be ‘ested by rolling a round pencil on the compass box ci) Observing the bearing. Having centered the instrument over the {ition and levelled it, raise or lower the prism until the graduations on the ring are clearly visible when looked through the prism. ‘Turn the Teahass box until the ranging rod at the forward station is clearly visible. Use the brake-pin and bring the ring at rest and then take the reading at hich the hair line appears to cut the graduated ring. Readings are usually estimated up to nearest 15 minutes. Tay be noted that with this compass. the sighting, of « object and reading of the Braduated ring are done si ‘Mmultaneously, 5 rent the compass involves the following three The Surveyor’s It was formerly fluch used for land surveys but now-a-days, it is litile “sed. Itis similar to a pris~ matic compass except /ELLING ING AND LEV! ‘oF SURVEY! TEXT BOOK 12 1 has another plain sight having a that it Face of the prism and tiat it carries an edge bar needle, vertical slit in plac ig. $2 (a) i place of ELEVATION ‘broad form needle (Fig. 5.2. (b)} oT ‘Sigg i PAN Fig. 5.2 (b) ference the Prismatic Compass and the Surveyor's cma The falwing are the points of difference between the two types of compasses Prismatic Compass 1. The graduated ring being attached 1 the magnetic needle remains stationary when the ‘compass-box and the sightvane is rotated. 2 The graduations are marked on the ring in a clock-wise direction with or 360° at South end of the needle so that 90° is marked at the West, 180° at the North and 270° at the East (Fig 53()]. The figures are writen Upside down as shown in [Fig. 5.3 (b)) 3. The sighting ofan object and reading of the bearing are done simultaneously 4 This can be used without a stand -_ Surveyor’s Compass ‘ The graduated ring being attached 10 the compass-box moves with the sighis and the needle remains stationary when the box is moved. a The graduations are marked. the clockwise and counter clockwise directions dividing the graduated ring into four quadrants and the graduations ‘are numbered from O° to 90° in each quadrant. The zero points are marked at north and south and 90° at east and west (Fig. 5.4]. The cast and west have been inter-changed from their tue Positions. An object is sighted first and the beat ‘ng is then read with the naked eye bj 20iNg vertically over the middle poill “This cannot be used without a stand. COMPASS SURVEYING 133 Fg53(@) Fig4 s Fig 5.3 (0) Note. @ Why Zero is marked at South in the Prismatic 5. Since the bearing of the North direction ig zero, therefore when the North the sof the needle and object vane point towards the prism shoul \d be zero. But since the prism is placed ‘ev cana 7270 But since the prism is placed exactly opens, Pe gbleet vane, the south end will be bnder ane Braduation of th e Prism. Hence, the zero ¢ ring must be placed at South end of the needle. tneiie Figs.S tained clockwise from North. East and West are interchan, letters E and Way bearings are obi The (i) Why \ged in the Surveyor's Ce are interchanged from their true positions i onder toATEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING (AND LEVELLING. oy proper . the bearing of a ling . + quadrants. Supposing, aN peat ae ad an tached tote Po ito i moves with the SNS WHE IO Oe ing and the sighs moye femal trom ef to ight when the point Ps bisected (Fig: 9.5). Thus through pee ‘of the compass moves away from the North end ot a th Fe ile he aclal west comes near, Therefore he ee set erchanj nal : Naot ante mange from, Whe reading cbserved will De N 30° W, which is wrong 5,3. Bearing of a Line: : S fine makes with some reference vi ina aa ih» Ie mae i the following : 1. Ave meridian 2. Amagnetic meridian 3. An assumed meridian ~ |, True Meridian, True meridian of a place is a direction indicat. cana imaginary circle passing round the earth through that place and the (wo (north and south) geographical poles. The horizontal angle be- tween a line and the true meridian is called true bearing of the line. Itis also known as azimuth. » 2. Magnetic Meridian. The direction indicated by a freely sus: pended and properly balanced magnetic needle unaffected by local attrac: Live forces is called the magnetic meridian. The horizontal angle which a line makes with this meridian is called magnetic bearing or simply bearing of the line, az 3. An assumed or Arbitrary Meridian. For small surveys, ay convenient direction may be taken as a meridian. It is usually the direc: sion of the first line of survey of the direction from a station to some well- defined permanent object. of being invariable and its direction can be recovered whenever required if the stations defining it are permanently marked or fixed by the measure: ‘ments from permanent objects. The horizontal angle between a line this meridian is called assumed or arbitrary bearing of the line. 5.4. Designation of Bearings : ‘The bearings are expressed in the following two ways : 1. Whole circle bearings 2 Quadrantal bearings 1. Whole Circle Bearings. The horizontal angle which a line makes wits the noth rection of the meridian measured in the clockwise ~ upto p cl le cl bearing (WCB) of dee oe tthe whole circle, is known as whol The prismatic com pass mea ines in the whole clecle sysens ‘asures the bearings of lines in the Such a meridian also has the advantage of | COMPASS SURVEYING 136 2. Quadrantal Bearings. The horizontal angle which a line makes with the north or south direction of the meridian whi j. ‘ whichever is nearer the line measured in the clockwise or counter clockwise direction towards east or west and can value upto 90° i.e. one quadrant of a circle is known as quadrantal bearing of the ling. The surveyor's compass measures the bearings of lines in the quadran- tal system. Reduced Bearings. The whole circle bearing when exceeds 90° may be converted or reduced into the corresponding bearing in the quadrantal system, which has the same numerical values of the trigonometrical func- tions. The bearing thus obtained is known as the reduced bearing (R.B.) The following table may be referred to convert the whole circle bearings to the reduced bearings. Table 5.1 Tae fo 5.5. Fore and Back Bearings : Every line has two bearings one, observed at each of the line. The bearing of a line taken in the progress of the survey or in the forward direction is the fore or forward bearing (F.B.) of the line ; while its bearing laken in the reverse or opposite direction is known as reverse or back bearing (B.B.) The bearing of a line AB (Fig. 5.6) expressed in the direction A to B, (observed at A by sighting towards B) is the EB. of AB. The bearing of AB when recorded in the opposite direction ic. from B to A is B.B of AB or F.B. of BA Fig56 In the whole circle system, the fore and back bearing of a line differ exactly by 180° B.B. of aline = F.B. + 180° «AB gn 5.1) Use Plus sign if the given F.B. is less than 180° ; and minus sign if't exceeds 180°,. ATEXT BOOKOF SURVEYING AND LEVELLING quadranal system, fore and back bearings are numerically but i «ait cardinal points. Back bearings of a line may, theret cai cavby simply substituting N for S, or S for N 3 and E for W ot for E in its fore bearing. ‘Supposing F.B. of a line is N 30°E, then its B 1 S30°W. b a EXAMPLES ON BEARINGS Example 5.1. Convert the following whole circle bearings to rs, oT : baton (ti) 140° — 20" ; (il) 255° - 10° 5 (lv) 336°— 40) Solution : Applying the rules given in the table 5.1 under article 5.4, @ W.C.B.=65°— 30; which is less than 90° : “= RB.=N (the same as W.C.B.) E=N 65° - 30' E (Ans) Gi) WCB. = 140° = 20" ; which is between 90° and 180° RB. = (180° - 140° 20') E = S 39° 40" E (Ans.) : (ii) W.C.B. = 255° 10°: which is between 180° and 270°) RB. = (255°10' - 180°) W = S75° - 10' W (Ans.) (iv) W.CB. = 336° — 40! ; which is between 270° and 360° RB. =N (360° - 336%0') W = N 23° 20' W (Ans.) Example 52. Convert the following reduced bearings to the whole circle bearings : () NSe-30'E; (iy) N1S*- 10° W. Solution : (i) RB. =N56°-30E &, which is in the NE quadrant, *, WCB. = the same as R.B. = 56° - 30" (Ans.) (ii) RB. = $ 32° - 15" E, which is in the SE quadrant, . W.CB. = 180° - 32°15'= 147°-45' (Ans.) (iii) RB. = § 85° — 45' W, which is in the SW quadrant, W.CB. = 180° + 85° 45' = 265° - 45" (Ans.) if (iv) R.B.=N 15° — 10 W, which is in the NW quadrant, WCB. = 360" - 15° 10'= 344-50" (Ans.) (ii) S$ 32° = 15'E ; (ili) S 85° - 45'W5 Example 5.3. Find back bearings of the following observed (|, bearings of lines AB, 63° - 30; BC, 112° - 45° ; CD, 203° = 45'5 Solution. From the Eqn. 5.1., B.B. = F.B + 180° FB. of AB = 63*- 30, which is less than 180° B.B. of AB = 63° 30'+ 180" = 243° - 30" (Ans-) FB. of BC = 112° - 45', which is less than 180° COMPASS SURVEYING B.B. of BC = 112°45'+ 180° = 292° 45" (Ans) FB. of CD = 203° — 45', which is less than 180° ~ B.B. of CD = 203° - 45'- 180° = 23°45 (Ans) FB. of DE = 320° — 30’, which is more than 180° B.B. of DE = 320° 30'- 180" = 140-30 (Ans.) Example 5.4, The foll Pac, fe following are the fore bearings of lines. Find Line FB. AB N 28° - 30" E BC S45*-10'E cD S16 -15'W OE N63*—45' W lution : If the fore bearit ine is given in the quadrant system, then its back: bearing is aoe iealye cial pean Ca tne leer of cardinal direction are reversed .N for S, and E for W and FB. of AB = N 28° 30'E, B.B. of AB = S 234-30’ W (Ans.) FB. of BC = $ 45° 10'E, . B.B. of BC=N45°-10'W (Ans. FB. of CD=S 16° -15'W, B.B. of CD=N16°-15'E _ (Ans.) F.B. of DE=N 63° -45' W, B.B. of DE=S63°-45'E —(Ans.) 5.6. Calculation of Angles from Bearings : The ordinary compass cannot read directly the angle between two lines. The angles can be determined by observing the bearings of the (wo lines from their point of convergence. When the two lines meet at a point, (wo angles (interior and exterior) and formed. The sum of these two angles is equal to 360°. The following rules may be employed to find the angles between the lines whose bearings are given. The bearings of lines may be given in (i) the whole circle system, or (ji) the quadrantal system. (Given the Bearings of the lines in. the Whole Circle System. There may further be two cases : (a) When bearings of the two lines measured from their point of intersection are givenTEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING ANO LEVELLING one, The differ. er bearing from the greater i rete on Te if itis less than 180°. But if the differ. hey a ‘Then obtain the interior angle Rule il if ae San 180°, It will be exterior angle. by suberacting the difference from 367", clear from the solved example 5.5. Tinie haem measured not from their point of (t) When bearings of the two lines ven. te vrs oth the bearings as if they are aoe from the point where te ines intersect and then apply the above le. or example, if te bearings of the lines BA and AC are given, then to, sind angle at A, te bearings of AB must be obtained. ‘he beanie is the back bearing of BA and is equal to bearing of BAt180°. angle BAC can then be obtained by the application of the above rule. This rule is made clear from the solved example 5.6. (ii) Given the Bearings of the lines in the Quadrantal System. In this case, to avoid unnecessary labour, firstly draw a rough sketch showing the directions of the lines and then proceed as follows. Rule (a) If the lines are on the same side of the meridian and in same quadrant (Fig. 5.7, a) the included angle = the difference of the two reduced bearings. ZAOB = difference of bearings OA and OB. ; (HIE the lines are on the same side of the meridian and in the different quadrants (Fig. 5.7, b), the included angle = 180° — sum of the two reduced bearings. AOB = 180° - sum of the reduced bearings of OA and OB. N N 8 N s . A o} oj B 8 ®) ) 4 Fig. 5.7 (0) If the lines are not 1 Se aare ee oe ine sane side of the meridian but they are if COMPASS SURVEYING 139 the included angle = sum of the two reduced bearings. -. ZAOB = sum of the bearings of OA and OB. (d)If the lines are not on the same side of the meridian and also not in the adjacent quadrants (Fig 5.7. d). the included angle = 180° - difference of the bearings OA and OB. The above rules are made clear from the solved example 5.8. 5.7. Calculation of Bearings from Angles : Bearings of lines may be calculated if bearing of one of the lines and the included angles measured clockwise between the various lines are given bearing + included angle, ‘The above rule is made clear from the solved example 5.7. Note. In a closed traverse, where local attraction is not suspected ie. difference between F.B. and B.B. of all lines is exactly 180°, we can find the angles and bearings in a shorter way as follows : Let ‘a’ be the interior angle required at a station, ‘P” be the F.B. of the line coming from the previous station and “F’ be the F.B. of the next or forward line. Then, (For a Clockwise Traverse (Fig. 5.8. (a)] : a=P-F + 180° . F=P-at180° w= se = (Eqn. 52.) soon oe (Eqn. 53.) Clockwise Traverse Anti-Clockwise Traverse Fig. 5.8. (li) For an Anti-Clockwise Traverse a=F-P+180° we ae see (Eqn. $4.) F=P+at 180° (Eqn. 5.5) The above rules are made clear from the solved examples 5.9, 5.11, S12 and §,13, (Fig. $.8. (6))140 A TEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLING The signs (+) of (-) im the above equations are to be used according as (P-F) ‘or (FP) is less or more than 180°. Importa i from the bear. inte Unless and otherwise stated or apparan ings. a traverse should be considered as an anti-clockwise one. EXAMPLES ON BEARINGS AND ANGLES Example 5.5. Find the angle between the lines OA and OB if their respective bearings are : : (i) 25*~30" and 160° - 30° . (ii) 25° - 30" and 340° - 15". (ii) 126°- 0" and 300° - 15', iy Solution . Since the. lines are meeting at the same point O, the included angle will be the difference of the two bearings. La @ ZAOB = bearing of OB — bearing of OA = 160° 30’ - 25° 30’ = 135° - 0° (Ans.) Gi) ZAOB = bearing of OB - bearing of OA = 340 15'- 25° 30" = 314° — 45! aa Since the difference is greater than 180°, it is an exterior angle ; and to obtain the interior angle it must be subtracted from 360°. °. interior angle AOB = 360° - 314° 45' =45°-15' (Ans,) (iii) ZAOB = bearing of OB - bearing of OA = 300° 15'- 126°0" = 174° 15'(Ans,) Example 5.6. Find the angle between the lines AB and BC if thelt respective bearings are : (a) 140*- 15" and 50° - 45' (b) 65° - 45' and 117° ~ 30° Solution : Since the first bearing of each set is that of AB as mea sured from A, and the second that of BC as measured from B ; fi Convert both the first bearings as if measured from the point of intersectio# (B) of the two lines AB and BC, and then find their difference with the second bearing (a) Bearing of AB = 140° - 15° Bearing of BA = 140° 15' + 180" = 320° - 15° Bearing of BC = 50° — 45: ZABC = 320° 15'— sor ZABC = 360 - 269° 30) = : 30 jor angle. The interior 269° 30), the exterior ang! 90° -30' (Ans.) COMPASS SURVEYING 141 (b) Bearing of AB = 65° — 45° +. Bearing of BA = 65° 45' + 180° = 245° - 45° Bearing of BC = 117°~ 30° ZABC = 245° 45'— 117° 30° 128215" (Ans.) Example 5. ‘The bearing’ of a line AB is 164° — 15' and the angle ABC is 117° — 30'. What is the bearing of BC ? Solution: Bearing of AB = 164° — 15' Bearing of BAG Lote 15151e00bAM4 15 || Now bearing of BC = bearing of BA + ZABC ego Cates FGs)— Py = 461° - 45 ° Since it is more than a complete circle, deduct 360. Fye- 4 *'* Bearing of BC = 461° 45° — 360° = 101° — 45° 3 (Ans.) Example 5.8. The following bearings are given j calculate in each case, the angle BAC. AB AC @ N2s°-30'E N85*-15'E (i) N20°-15'E (iii) $70°-0' E (iv) _N 40° - 30" W (v) NS0°-30'E (vi) S45°-45'W Solution meridian an N60" -0'W (i) Since both the lines lie on the same side of the the same quadrant, therefore, Using Rule (a) article 5.6. (ii), ZBAC = difference of the bearings ~ 85° 15' - 25° 30' = 59° - 45" (Ans.) (ii) Both the lines lie on the same side of the meridian and in the Are Gifferent quadrants, therefore, using Rule (b), article 5.6 (ii). BAC = 180° — sum of the bearings 80° - (20° 15' + 52°30! 80° - 72 45' = 107° - 15" (Ans.) (Ui) Both the lines do not lie on the same side of the meri im the adjacent quadrants, therefore, using Rule (c), article 5.6 ZBAC = sum of the bearings = 70°0' + 10° 0' = 80° - 0 (Ans.)AND LEVELLING A TEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING (joy The case is similar to (il) above, therefore, using Rule (C), article 5.6 i, : ZBAC = sum of the bearings. = 40° 30' + 46° 0! = 86° - 30° Cae ee s ide of .eridian a i rts eto oie Rule (4), article 5.6 (ii), ZBAC 80° — difference of bearings = 180° - (50° 30" 20° 30), = 180° - 30° = 150° - 0" (Ans.) (vi The case is similar to (i) above, therefore, using Rule (b), article 5.6 (i), ZBAC = 180° —sum of the bearings = 180° — (60° + 45° 45') = 180° — 105° 45' = 74°- 15" (Ans.) : Note ZBAC in each of the above cases can also be calculated by drawing a sketch of the bearings of two lines and proceeding in a similar way as in the solved example 5.10. Alternatively, convert the given reduced bearings to the whole circle bearings and then calculate the angle BAC by finding the difference of the two bearings in each case (@ W.CB. of AB = 25° - 30° W.CB. of AC = -1S ZBAC = 85° 15'— 25° 30° (i) W.C.B. of AB = 20° - 15° W.CB. of AC = 180° ~ 52°30 = 127° - 30° ZBAC = 127° 30' - 20° 15 (iii) W.C.B. of AB = 180° - 70° 110° - 0° W.CB. of AC = 180° + 10° 0' = 190° - 0" ZBAC = 190° 0'- 110°0 (iv) W.CB. of AB = 350° - 40° 30' = 319° - 30° WCB of AC = 46° - 0) = 59° 45' (Ans.) = 107° - 15' (Ans.) = 80° - 0" (Ans.) ZBAC = 319° 30° - 46° 0' = 273° 30, the exterior angle the interior BAC = 360° - 273° 30) = 86 - 30' (Ans) (vy) W.CB. of AB = S0P - 39° W.CB. of AC = 180° + 20P 30' = 2047 - 30° ‘COMPASS SURVEYING 143 :. ZBAC = 200° 30' - 50° 30' = 150°- 0" (Ans.) (vi) WCB. of AB = 180° + 45° 45' = 225° — 45! | W.CB. of AC = 360° + 0' 60° 0' = 300° - 07 . ZBAC = 300° - 225° 45' = 74° - 15' (Ans.) | Example 5.9. The bearings of the sides of a traverse ABCDE are 2s follows : side FB a | AB. on 15 277-15" BC 12°-0' 192°-0" cp 271° = 30' 91°= 30" | DE 189° - 15" EA 124° - 45' Calculate the interior angles of the traverse. Solution : A rough sketch of the taverse is drawn as shown in fig. 5.9, which will help considerably while working out the example. Bearing of AE .B. of EA 304° — 45° FB. of AB F je — 15" difference 107° — 30" interi 160° — 207° 30° Bearing of BA B. of AB FB. of BC ! difference = 265° 15° imerior 2B = 360° - 265° 15’ Bearing of CB FB. of CD difference Ze Bearing of DC FB. of DE difference difference “From his line onwards, calculate the comect bearings of the other atone regard tothe correct included angles calculated in step (i)above, (i) Finding the Included Angles : ZA= 191" 45'— 147" 45° = 44 00 39° 30° - 13° - 13° 00" 26° 30 ZC =227°30'- 22° 15 = 200° 15' (the ext. angle) : im. ZC = 360" 00'- 200° 15' = 159° 45) ZD = 242° 45'— 200° 30° =42 15 ZE= 330" 15'- 60" 45! =r Sum of all the angles 5 red sum of the angles = (2x 5-4) 90° The required sum. =Ox5- Error in the five angles = 542 — S40 42 Correction for five angles =-) Correction of each angle Comtect ZA'= 44" 00-24" » ZB=26" 30-24 » ZO= 159 45° 24° » LD=4r 15°24" »ZE= 269° 30'- 24° sum COMPASS SURVEYING (ii) Oncomparing fore and r back bearingsof all the! those of AB differ the least from 180", and the differe difference of a 1° = 374" to each of the Teadings as below : Correct FB. of AB = 191°45° + 0» 374+ Correct B.B. of AB = 13° 00'— 0» 374: difference (ii) BB. of AB=F.B. of BA AddZB Correct F.B. of BC Add Correct B.B. of BC = F.B. of CB Ada ZC SUM sn Subtract Correct F.B. of CD ‘Ada Correct B.B. of CD = F.B. of DC Add 2D Correct F.B. of DE Subtract Correct B.B. of DE = FB of El Subtract Conect B.B. of DE = FB. of ED Add Zi Correct F.B. of EA Subtract Correct BB. of F Cheek. Add ZA = FB. of AE Comed EB. OF AB ~ 15 is removed ‘by distributing half the error i 187 ines. itis found that nee = 1° 15" The = 192'224" = I22h' = 180°00° = 1222 4° = 26°06' (ZABC) = 387281" 180700" = 218°284" = 159°21'(ZBCD) = 377494" e000" = 17494" 18°00" = loTe49h~ Ist" (ZCDE) = 2397401" 269°06' (Z DEA) 328464" = 180°00" = 14°46!" 43°36 (ZEAB) = 192221"158 A TEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLING ‘The result may be tabulated as below : bs : re ow c=1se21' | 17494 8 + Dearsst' I239e404" 34 1 z a B= 26°60 | 328464: found tobe N79°E. There 5.20. The bearing of aline AB was wi bere at A. Inorder to determine the correct bearing of the aac point O was selected at which there was no local attraction, The teak of line AO was $53°45' E and that of OA was N 57°30! Ww the correct bearing of line AB. : ae Since there is no local attraction at O, therefore, F.B. of OA = N 57°30! W (correct) Correct B.B. of OA = correct bearing of AO = $ 57°30'E But observed bearing of AO = Sa E ae = the error at A. On drawing a rough sketch of corrected and observed bearings of AO, it will be found that north is deflected towards west at A by 3°45". Observed bearing of AB =N Ts Subtract = 3°45 Correct bearing of AB =N 75°15" E (Ans.) 5.8. Dip of the Magnetic Needle : i Before magnetisation, the needle remains in the horizontal position ifitis Properly balanced ; but after being magnetised, it cannot remain in the = Position due to magnetic influence of the earth, One end of the needle defl i downward towards the magnetic pole. In northern hemisphere, the north a of the needle is deflected downward ; and in southern hemisphere, the it end points downward. This inclination of the needle with the horizontal known as the dip of the needle Fig. 5.13 The amount of dip is not unio but it varies in different parts of the earth, It is zero at the equator a maximum i¢. 90° at the poles. To keep the needle in the horizontal position : int over itis balanced by placing a brass siding weight or rider at a suitable pointo' the higher end of the needle COMPASS SURVEYING. 5.10, Magnetic Declination, Except in few places, the magnetic meridian at a place does not coincide wit the true meridian at that place. The horizontal angle which the magnetic musdtitiiotion makes with the true ‘meridian is known as the ‘magnetic declination orsimply declination of the needle at that place, When is aire ume azencies. The lines joining the places of equat same time are called isogonic lines, and the charts sae talled isogonic charts. The lines joining the places Of zero declination are known as agonic lines, Variation of Declination. The declination at any but is subjected to fluctuations or vai imegular, 1. Regular or Periodic Variations. This class of variation may itself be analysed into several components of Gifferent periods and amplitudes. They are (i) secular, (ii) ) annual, and (iii) diurnal or daily. 10) Secular Variation, Place is not ‘constant, vairations which may be regular or gradually comes to rest an (i) Annual Variation remain constant at any place. (ii) Diurnat Variation. It is an Oscillation of the needle from its mean Position during the day. The amount of this variation varies from 1 minute ‘0 about 12 minutes at different Places. This is greater in high latitudes a near the equator, and ore in summer than in the winter at the same lace 2 Irregular Variations. These are caused by magnetic storms such Trthquakes or volcanic erruptions and thers amount may be even 1° or time, Rounced anao%’ Variations, secular and diumal are sufficiently _pro- wnced and be kept in view by the surveyor. When magnetic bearings 4 Survey, it is always desirable to note on the plan, the date of ioe and the magnetic declination on that date and its annual varia- the sure’, SUFVey line can easily be retraced if magnetic declination when "Ye, Was made and the present declination are knowniG 2 A TEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLIN aps which are to 5.11. Calculation of True Bearings + All er ale witha form 8 permanent record such as revenue survey maps ae pd a ferene to the true meridian. Andif the survey ism cadet iene es bearings lowin, be converted to the true h i eee cel on ofaline = Magnetic bearing of the line + deci Fig. 5.13 os Use (+) sig vied the declination is east as in fig. 5.13. (a) and (i st as in fig. 5.13 (b). . : Teen oaher and, the magnetic bearing ofa line can be deduced from is bearing by the following rule : i 7 Rule 2. Magnetic bearing of a line = True bearing of the Hine + dectination, Use (11-) sign, when the declination is east, and (+) sign then it is west. Note. The above rules apply only to the W.C.B, EXAMPLES ON DECLINATION Example 5.21. The magnetic bearing of a line Is 197°, bearing, it the magnetic declination is 3° W. Solution : Since the magnetic meridian is deflected towards west ofl true meridian, true bearing of the line, = the magnetic bearing — declination (Rule 1, article §.11] =197°-3°= 194" (Ans) Example 5.22. If the magnetic bearing of a line is N 37° W and the ‘magnetic declinationis2°E find the true bearing. Solution : (Fig. 5.14) Magnetic bearing of the line = N 37° W Magnetic declination = 2° & True bearing = Magnetic bearing ~ Declination Find its true FIG. 5.14 COMPASS SURVEYING 161 =NG7_2)w = N 35° W (Ans) Example 5.23. True bearing ofa line is 217° and magnetic declination 1s 2°W. Find the magnetic bearing, Solution : Since the magnetic megdian is deflected towards west of the trve meridian, magnetic bearing of the line, = Tine Dearing of the line + declination Rute 2, article 5.11) =217°+2°=219° (Ans) _ Example 5.24. The magnetic and geographic bearings ofa lineare 327° = 14" and 324° ~ 37° respectively. Fina the value of the tic declination at the place of observation, sig If the annual change is 37° What would be the magnetic and Seographic bearing. of the line four years since the date of the above ‘measurement. Solution : MB of the line = 327° 14! Geographic or T.B. of the line = 324¢37° difference = 2° 37, w observation, and on drawin bearings of the line, it will be towards west of the 2°37" west (Ans.) Annual variation = 3° west Variation in four year = 4 x 3 = 12" {otal declination after four years = 2°37" 4 12'= 2°49" + ay oeraphic bearing or T:B. after 4 years The M.B. after 4 years = 324° 37 + 2° 49" west west 24°37" (the same as a now) its magnetic bearing 212° on an. old gnetic declination was 4W. To what bearing should it the present declination is 10 E.2 = Solution : Refer fig. 5.15. True t ‘aring of the line when the declination MN Was 4°W ow-y be set now if t =m declination ‘agnetic bearing of the line =212°_ 42 208° Fi Magnetic bearing at Present when the leclination is 10E = True bearing— nation = 208° ~ 19° = 19g t 15 The line Should be set now to the bearing of 198° Fig. 5, (Ans.)ann A TEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLING 162 bearing S 67° rtain line had a magnetic ing sae ere a aca at that place was 8 E. In 1964, the aoe are seciination was 4° W. Determinate the magnetic bearing ofthe magnetic declinat line in 1964. ite Solution : Refer fig. 5. oe bearing of the line in 1889, whem | : éeclination was 8° E = S(67* 30 8°) = S59 30E og i ‘of the line in 1967, Magnetic bearing of the I when the declination was 4° W = (5930-4) E =S 55° 30' E (Ans.) Fig. 5.16 Example 5.27. Find the value of the magnetic declination if the magnetic bearing of the Sun at noon is (2) 184,and (6) 3 Solution : (a) At noon the Sun is exactly on the geographical meridian. Since the magnetic bearing of the Sun is 184", itis atthe south pole is, therefore, 184°. Hence the magnetic bearing of the north pole is 4°. It is thus clear that the magnetic meridian is 4* to the west of the true or geographical meridian, Magnetic declination = 4*W (Ans.) é (a) FIG.5.17(a) . - (b) The magnetic bearing of the a ‘ being 354°, the magnetic vate or ew tue of geographical north is 354 hr magnetic meridian is, therefore, a) ke 354° = 6° (0 the east of the true met Ifig. 5.18 (by) ) we Magnetic declination = 6°E (AM FIGS 17(b) COMPASS SURVEYING 163 compass traverse : Line AB BC 15° cD 44°- 45" DA 127° - 00" Which stations are affected by local attraction and determine the correct bearings. Also find the true ‘the declination was 2°— is Solution : Since the fore and back bearings of line CD differ exactly by {20% therefore, stations Cand Dae free from local attraction Consequently, bearings taken at these stations are correct. Fore and back bearings of CD are correct, Also F.B. of DA 107° 45" (correct) Subtract 180° 00" Correct B.B. of DA But observed B.B. of DA 127209" difference 0° 45° = the error at A Since the observed bearing is less than the Corrected one, therefore, the ‘moral A is—ve and the correction is +ve. Observed F.B. of AB Correction at A Correct F.B. of AB Add Correct B.B. of AB But observed B.B. of AB 27° 45° difference * 00" = the error at B This error is +ve, the Correction must be — Observed F of BC =107°1 Correction at B =o Correct F. B. of BC = 106° 15" Add = 180° 0" Correct BB. f BC = 286° 15’, a meant of I 286° 15’, which agrees to the OBC observed at the station C which is free from local attraction, determine cnreeied the bearings of the lines their true bearings may be Nince te Y Subtracting 2° — 15! from the corrected bearings of the lines, follows Magnetic declination is west The result May then be tabulated as164 ING ATEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVEL ‘Observed Remarks, Declination syonseme [8201 wos) 9245 are q pur ) SuONEIS Slists MSI EW = 20 JOD 7 Buroq voneut}>9q it COMPASS SURVEYING 165 5.12. Field-work in Compass Surveying : 1, Field-Party. It will consist of four persons (0 Surveyor for taking bearings of the lines, recording ficld-notes and imparting instructions to other party members. (ii) Two chainmen for chaining the survey lines. (iii) One flagman, cum pegman o fix stations, directed by the Surveyor. 2. Equipment. The equipment in Com Prismatic Compass with tripod stand alongwith in chain surveying described in Chapter III 3. Traverse. A seties of connected survey directions is called a traverse. unclosed or open’ (a) Closed Traverse. A traverse is said to be closed when a complete Circuit is made i.e. when it returns (o the starting point forming a closed polygon as ABCDEA (fig. 5.18 (a)], or when it starts and ends at points whose positions on plan are known, as ABCDE [fig. 5.19 (b)] Pegs and ranging rods as pass Surveying consists of a all the instruments as required lines of known lengths and Itis of two types. viz. (a) closed, and (b) o (a) ©) Fig. 5.18 The survey work in a closed traverse can be checked and adjusted. [tis Stitable for the survey of moderately large arcas such as small towns and big willages etc., and for locating boundaries of forests, lakes etc. (b) Unctosed or Open Traverse. A traverse issaid to be unclosed or open When it does not form a closed polygon as ABCDEE (fig. 5.20). Tt consists Ar series of ines extending in the samme general direction and not returning to Ue starting point "is suitable for the survey of long narrow strips. g.,a road. railway, river, Coast-tine ete168 K OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLING Fig. 5.19) : a Closed Traverse. After performing reconnaisance Pas Se eae the station-points (A, B, C, D, ete. fig. 5.20) aw by fixing pegs and ranging rods all visible from one another and as near the boundry of the field as possible. ot FIG. 5.20 stowards The compass is set up at the starting station (A) and bearings torr eh | back and forward stations (D and B) are taken and recorded. > i ‘The compass is then set up there, bearings towards back and forwarc sutions (A andC) are recorded, the length ofthe 2nd ine (be measured and offsets are taken as before. The work is ti i wholecircuitis complete. Forrough work and. distant points such as:comers of build section of two bearings, Field-Check on Closed Traverse. described above, the compass is set up at fore and back bearings of each of the line chserved independently of the others, the errors do not accumulate, but tena Teor pensatte. The fore and back bearings of a line should differ exactly by 180. If the error between the fore and back bearings of a line exceeds the femissible error of reading (generally 15'), then they should be measured ‘sain ; and if on checking, the error is still found to exist, then either one or both the stations are affected by local attraction provided there is not other jure of error. The bearing should then be corrected as already explained. For better accuracy, the survey lines should be as few in number as possible and as long as possible, In addition to taking bearings towards the following and the preceding Stations from a station of observation, bearings are also taken to some more SPnspicuous stations, such as towards C while at A (Fig-.5.20). On arriving A.C. bearing CA will be observed and if this bearing differs from the fore bearing AC as taken at A by 180°, then the accuracy ofthe work is ascertained ‘nd we can proceed safely 5. Surveying an open Traverse. After performing preliminary steps and marking the station-points say A, B, C, Detc. (Fig. 5.22), the compass is {uP over the starting station A and bearing taken towards the next station 5, The tine AB is chained and offsets om both Sides recorded as already described. The ompass is then set up at B and bearings taken towards A and the line IBC is then chained and offsets recorded as before. ‘The work in ittinued is the same way till the end-station is reached from where only the ck bearing towards the back station is taken, In taversing with the compass, each of the successive stations and sare observed. Each bearing beingJRVEYING AND LEVELLING [A TEXT BOOK OF SUI > Fig. 5.21 silver ie 7 Te id-book for a compass survey Is bo rae the only addition being of the rveying, bas cm sf porate ts is written in the central nee startin as 4 that of the following lines, tothe right or! lef Fae as each of whem turns towards the right or lel eh areentered inthe central columti ft precedins The back bearings: i ime sanolg of each lit ia it Compass Traverse. , aya ae oe work, the observed bearings of the'lines'are fore si it is always advisable traction and other errors, and also it is y Se sibel proponionate sketch of the survey work ‘for beter oe The following are the various methods of plotting a traverse SUIVeY: i %, 1. By Parallel Meridians through Each Station. Having ul ably, the position of the starting point say A, draw a line Ea ae meridian. Then with a protractor plot the bearing of line AB (0) I oe and cut AB according (0 the scale. Then at B, draw a line par i previous line representing the meridian nd plot the bearing of BC (8) and ‘measure its length with the scale. Repeat the whole process until all the lines are drawn. Ifthe traverse isa closed one, last lime should end at the starting point. If it does not, discrepancy is said t0 be the closing error. Thismethodis defective because the error in plotting the direction of one line is camiedforwardin whole ofthe traverse 2. By included Angles. Draw the ‘meridian at the stating tation A and plot the bearing of line AB (@) (Fig. 5.23) COMPASS SURVEYING mr andmeasure length AB (othe scale. Then 1B, draw the angle ABC with the help of a protractor and cut off length BC to the scale, Repeat the process at each of the succeeding stations. The liability of a cumulative errorin protracting the angles is similar to that in the first method but stil this is preferred to the first because (i) the necessity and inconvenience of drawing parallel meridians and (ii) the liable error in the parallelism between all meridian lines are eliminated. 3. By Central Meridian or Paper Protractor. In this method, a point say, Oisselected justin the centre of the paper and a line representing the meridian is LelP c drawn throught. Then with the protractor eo stationed at O, bearing of all the lines are J plotted with reference to this meridian as shown in fig 5.24. The position of the 8 Starting station say A is suitably selected ER S24 on the sheet and the line AB is drawn parallel to the respective line and its length is cut off to scale. Proceed similarly until all the lines are drawn ‘The method is preferred to both the above methods because the direction Oallthe lines are plotted from a single setting of the protractor and the possible ror in placing the protractor at every station is avoided. But still the error ‘may accumulate from incorrect drawing of parallel lines. 4. By Rectangular Co-ordinates. This method is generally used for Ploting precise work, mainly a theodolite traverse, both closed and open, and will be explained fully in the chapter of theodolite surveying. In this method, the position of different points are plotted on a plan with Telerence to two lines yyy (y-axis) and **| Graxis) which are respectively parallel 4nd perpendicular to the meridian (Fig. 525), ‘These reference lines are called the axes of the, ‘Co-ordinates, and the point {thei intersection O, called the origin. Theorigin may eitherbeany traverse Station of Cnlirely outside the traverse. ee distance of a point from each of the Kes are Called its c¢ ordinates, Fig.s.23 FIG5.25,170 te A TEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLING If the length and bearing of a line are known, its projection on the y-axis, and x-axis may be calculated and then plotted : ‘This method is the most accurate of all the methods of plotting because the use of protractor is entirely done away and each point 1s plotted independent of the others. The error of plotting donot, therefore, accumulate, 5S. By Chords. In this method, the angle between the various lines are plotted by geometrical construction with the aid of table of natural sines. The chord of an angle is twice the sine of half the angle. Various mathematical tables give the lengths of chords of angles corresponding to unit radius, For plotting a traverse, a line representing meridian is drawn through the starting station say A. ‘With A as centre and 10 units as radius, draw an arc B:B2 cutting the meridian in B, (fig 5.26). The chord length B1B2 for the angle BiABz (the bearing of AB) is obtained from the table of chords corcalculated by the relation, chord x B,B2=2x 10.sin 8102. From i, FIG. 5.26 measure the chord distance BBs, thus marking the point B2 on the arc. Join A and B 2, which represents the direction of AB. Then scale off AB. Again with B as centres draw an arc of cadius 10 units meeting AB produced in C1. The chord distance CiGa= Sx 10 x sine of half the deflection angle at B, is then scaled off from Cy, thus fixing the point C2. The point C2 connected with B determines the direction orBC. Then cut off BC according to the scale. Other lines are also plotied in the similar way. in this method, the use of protractor is totally avoided and werefore itis preferred to the first three methods. This is commonly used for plotting open traverses, EXAMPLE ON PLOTTING A COMPASS TRAVERSE Example 5.29. Plot toa scale of | m= 18.cm, the following chain compass survey by the method of parallel meridian through each station and measure the length and fore bearing of the line DA : Line Length Fore bearing, AB 6m 320° BC 90 m 230° cD Hm 130" DA Solution : Refer o fig. 5.27. Select suitably the position of the saith point A and draw alinerepresenting the magnetic meridian Measure an ane! COMPASS-SURVEYING 171 of 320° ie. bearing of AB in the clockwise direction from the draw the line AB. Cutoff AB= $2 = 3.33 cm. Thenat B, dra ee ri totheprevious line representing ices loin ea er and scale off BC $y =5 cm. Again draw the parallel meridian Deny and plot the bearing of CD (130°) and cut off CD = % = 5cm. Join DA 0 = Sem. Scale: 1 ¢m=18m Fig. 5.27 rion is parallel meridian through D. Measure the angle (8) between the n through D and the line DA, which is the bearing of DA ; and then measure DA, t i f Raure DA to scale, whichis ie feng (ofthe tine DA On measuring Bearing of DA (0) = 29° Length of DA () = 4.427x 18 Ans. : = 79.68 m | 1. cone Error in Compass Surveying : Sate compassringis ‘graduated tohalfa degree but the readings canbe well ‘ated {0 18 minutes, which means that the error of reading should not exceed 74 - i + minutes, But due to magnetic changes and variation of declination c ite readings can seldom be relied upon toless than 10 minutes, therefore, missile error per bearing should never exceed this amount, Thus the72 A TEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLING y i umber angular error of closure should not exceed 10/N, where N isthe number of s sides of the traverse. alana ston rf gent devon i 344. im (1.100 1) ce roughly 1 in 340. \ |x" woxtso7x 344 u ical Adjustment. Error and its Graphi RAS = motes closed traverse, the starting and the ending points seldom sie Thisulscrepancy by which the ending point fails to meet with i ring one iscalled the closing error or error of closure. eae =i veong measurementof lengihsand bearings of linesin the fieldand due jue tow 0 Satan error exceeds the permissible limit, the fieldwork, ssimy by repeated. But when the error is found to be within the ae value, the traverse may be adjusted graphically by one of the wing two methods : ‘ 7 an nant Method : This method is the graphical application of Bowditeh's rule. lengths as well as to the In this method the correction is applied 10 the f bearings ofthe lines in proponton to their lengths. Therefore, this method is also known as proportionate method. Here each station is shifted propor- tionately according to the length and direction of the closing error. This method isused when the angular and linear measurements are equally precise. Iv is explained as follows For example, AB'CDE' ' (fig. 5.28 (a)] is a traverse as plotted from the bearings and lengths of the lines, where AA’ is the amount of closing error which is to be adjusted Fig. §.28 COMPASS SURVEYING. 173 Toadjustit, draw a ling AA‘ (Fig. 5.28 b) equal in length tothe perimeter le and set off along it the di y BC; CD.DE’ and E’A' equal to the lengths ofthe sidex as “i the plan but is usually kept m: AVA, drawa line A'a parallel and equal. the closing Bex ar al from B,C, D' and E' draw lines B'b, Cc, D'd and E'e paralel tA’ Amecting the line Aa at b, c,d and ¢ respectively. The intercepts B'b, Cc, D'd and Ee sivedistances through which the stations B’, C’, D'andE' are to be shifted. In tis case it will be noticed, tha the stations will have tobe shifted downwards Todo this, draw lines parallel to the closing emror at each ofthe stations B- C.D. E'and set off along them the respective intercepts onthe proper side, Joining the points having shifted positions, is obtained an adjusted traverse ABCDEA. When only the magnitude of correc required draw A‘aperpendicularto AA’and equalin lengthto the closing error Ut. 5.28 (c)]. Then the intercepts B'b, Ce, Did and Ee represent the comections at B', C’, D' and Ein magnitude only but not in direction Second Method._ In this method, the correction is applied only to the lrgins of the sides of the traverse without changing their bearings, This the angular measurements are more precise than the 'inear measurements. It is explained as follows - LeABCDE'A' Fig. 5, altraverse as plotted from the bearings and Tenths ofthe lines, where: A’A" isthe amount of closing tion to be applied at each station is Fig. 5.29 do this, produce AA" to meet any side of the Produced meets the produced line D'E' at O DNL O, draw lines to all the angular points as shown. Biscct the Ne closing error at A. Prom A, the mid-point of A'A", draw AB ATO Which is to be adjusted. To Hue. In this figure, A, A’ Tom this pa Nength of th Parallel wo meet cn AB to nieet OB’ at ; B. Also from A, draw AE parallel to A"E' to at Similarly, from B and C draw lines BC and CD parallel to BC a .. —-: 174 3 A TEXT BOOK OF SUF AND LEVELLING ‘Then ABCDEA i and C'D' to meet OC" and OD' at and D respectively. Then A aaa adjusted traverse. 5.16. Precautions in using the Compass: cass. ‘The following precautions should be observed win ee 1. The glass cover of the compass box gets Shee ih ed aaa i dusted off with a hankerchief or by the influence of Ie CE TAN atmosphere. Consequently, the needle oe esl - y avoided by applying a moist finger or cloth tothe 2. To avoid local attraction, nothing made of iron oF ine: ‘bunch of keys, iron-buttons etc. should be carried by the surWOAne: sun should not, as far as possible, be set up near telegraph poles. rails, other: structures and currents carrying Wifes eC 3. Set up and level the compass properly. : 4 4. Stop the vibrations of the needle by gently pressing the brake-pin so {to rest soon. s ( aan ro gokafong needle and no arssit dus avoiding paral, In Surveyor’s compass always read the north end of the needle. 6. For important lines, take duplicate readings at cach station. After having taken the first reading, displace the needle and take the second reading and then take the mean of the (wo. n 7. To detect local attraction, take fore and back bearings of the lines. 8. The pivot sharp edge should be protected by keeping the needle off the pivot when compass is not in use or when it is shifted from one station to another. 5.17. Sources of Error in Compass Work : The errors may be due to faulty instruments or bad observations or natural and other causes and accordingly they are classified as follows + 1. Instrumental Errors. (i) The needle not being perfectly straight. 5 (ii) The needle being sluggish either by having lost its magnetism or due to dip, or friction on the pivot-point. : (iii) The pivot not being in the centre of the graduated ring: (iv) The graduated ring not being horizontal (v) The sight vanes not being truly vertical (vi) Thelineof sight notpassing through the centre of the graduated circle (vii) The horse hair being too thick or loose. 2. Observational or Personal Errors. int. (i) — Inaccurate centering of the compass over the station-po (ii) Inaccurate levelling of the compass. COMPASS SURVEYING 175 (iii) Imperfect bisection of the object sighted (iv) Carelessness in reading and book 3, Errors due (o External Intuences ene ane (i) Localattraction due to presence of magnetic substances nearby the compass. (ii) Magnetic changes in the atmosphere. (iii) Regular and irregular magnetic variations. 5.18, Testing and Adjusting the Compas : ‘The compass should be tested and adjusted as explained below before putting it to use :- |. When the compass is levelled the needle or compass ring should be horizontal, if not, slide the rider on the higher end of the needle to make it horizontal. 2. The needle in the compass should be straight and the pivot should be atthe centre of the graudated circle. To test this, read two or three sets of the end readings of the needle. The difference for each set shall be eactly 180° for the needle being straight and pivot in the centres, otherwise, there may be any of the following two cases : (i) The difference being constant for all sets. (ii) The difference not being constant for all sets. In the first case, the pivot is in the centre, only bend the needle straight. Buti the second case, the correction is made by bending the pivot as well as by straightening the needle. 3. The needle should be sensitive so that it may not come to rest in a direction other than the magnetic meridian. To ascertain if the needle is sluggish, take reading in any position of the needle being in rest. Then displace the needle by bringing near it a piece of steel or bunch of keys etc. and let it come to rest and then again take the reading. The reading will be the same if there is no friction on the pivot and the needle is not sluggish. If ‘eading is not the same, then the pivot-point should be sharpened by afine oil- Stone and the needle should be remagnetised by a bar magnet, 4. To find if the sights are vertical when the compass is levelled, suspend 4plumb-line in front of the compass and sight it. If the sights are yertical, the eye-vane, the object-vane, and the string will be parallel and in the same Vertical line, If not, then either file one side of the bottom of the vane where iCtests on the plate or insert a papefipiackitig. Repeat the test and adjustment Until the error is eliminated 5. To see if the sights are fixed diametrically opposite to each other, Stretch a fine horse-hair between the sights. It will pass over the N and Smarks (eros if the sights are fixed exactly opposite to each other) 6. To detect if there be any error due to carcless working or external influence, take the fore and back bearings of a line. These will differ exactly bY 180° iF the work is correct and there is no extemal influenceable surveying aniages of puane agro Dante ng te ae ile ‘able Surveying + Methods of Pla General instructions tie Pane wole Surveyit Ta poe ae er i etn, SE. he uveing- Teg Strength Three-point problem-Sirength of Hk 1M and Adjusting the lane table and Alitale General-Ad ‘equipment in plane 6.1. General : 2 Plane table Surveying also called P ch field-work and office wor , : se ate et el mie and a map of the area is obntained. ter Pocus be cinta ‘Te is most suitable for the sealer détails between stations which have aad oe be thendolite or any other accurate mebiod of SUTE}NE + oo employed for small and medium scale mapping of a Pe Sreas where gfeat accuracy is nol the main consideration topographical surveys The equipment essenti drawing board which carries stand and an alidade which edge. 6.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Plane table Surveying : ‘Advantages, (i) itis one of the most rapid method of survyiNB (ii) Field -notes are not required, and thus the possibility of mistakes in booking is eliminated (iii) measuring of lines and angles is mostly dispensed wit are obtained graphically (iv) Since the map is plotted in the field, there is necessary micasurement's ne tabling, is a method of ik are done simultaneoulsy on ing i ble oF tally needed for plane tabling is a plane table of. : ied on a tripod a drawing sheet and is mounte provides line of sight and a straight graduated th since they no chance of omitting 186 PLANE TABLE SURVEYING 187 (v) The surveyor is fully confident about the tue representation of the area since he can always compare his work with the actual features on tne ground and cannot, therefore, over-look any essential detail. (vi) The surveyor can check the accuracy of his work more frequently and from any position he may desire, thus eliminating all error at the spot. (vii) It is particularly suuitable for filling in details in hilly areas and in magnetic areas where chain and compass surveys are not suitable. (viii) Comours and other irregular objects may be accurately represented ‘on the map since the tract is in view. (ix) Itis less costly than theodolite survey. (x) No great skill is required in making a satisfactory map and the work can be entrusted even to a subordinate, cl Disadvantages. (i) It is unsuitable for work in a wet climate, and is difficult in high wind. (iv) The instrument is heavy and cumbersome and the various accessories, being loose, are likely to be lost (v) The absense of field-notes is sometimes inconvenient if the survey has to be replotted to a different scale. (vi) Only day time can be availed of for the field and plotting work whereas in other methods of surveying, day time can be used for field- work and night or even hot and rainy days can be utilised for plotting 6.3. Equipment in Plane Table Surveying : (Fig. 6.1) the equipment needed in plane table surveying is dealt with under different heads as follows : 1. Drawing board and tripod. 2. Alidade. 3. Accessories aga drawing Board and Tripod. The drawing board on which the Tee gataurements are ploted is fixed on the plane table or drawing board {rE.01 (DI). The board is made of well seasoned good quality wood such 1H) a ie and i available in sizes (i) small: SO cm 40 em x 1.5 em._ The medium SO cm x SO cm, and (ii) large : 70 cm 60 cm x 1.5 em vipa et Surface ofthe board must be perfectly plane. Its mounted on a ou Such a way that it can be levelled, rotated about a vertical axis mped in any position. The tripod is generally of the open frame