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    INTRODUCTION Surveying—Main Division of Surveying—Measurements and their Units—Instu- ments used for taking measurements—General Classification of Suryeys—Basic Princi. ples of Surveying—Work of a Surveyor—Precision in Surveying—Exercise No. 1. 1.1. Surveying—Definition and Object : Surveying is the art of determining relative Positions of objects on the surface of the earth by taking measurements in the horizontal and vertical plane. The measurements are drawn to convenient reduced size on papers known as maps or plans. The part of surveying which deals with the measurements in the vertical plane is known as levelling and the Papers on which these measurements are drawn are called sections and elevations. Surveying and levellmg are considered to be two different operations but in the wider sense, the term surveying includes levelling. : The main object of surveying is to obtain a map or a plan of the area surveyed. The art of surveying and map making has been practised from the very ancient times. The earliest surveys known! were performed only for the purpose of establishing the boundaries of land, but their application has become increasingly important as the time has progressed. Now-a- days for the purpose of designing any engineering project such as a road, railway, canal, water supply or sanitary scheme etc., an engineer would Tequire to study, as the very first item, the features of the earth’s sufface in which the project is to be located, and prepare a map of that . The Success of any engineering project is based upon the accurate and complete Survey work. An engineer therefore, must be thoroughly familiar with the Principles and practice of surveying. 1.2. Main Division of Surveying : Surveying may be divided into the following two main classes :- 1. Plane Surveying. 2. Geodetic Surveying. pate Surveying. The cath is somewhat elipical i nature bt fEenerally assumed t0 be a spheroid!. Therefore ine joining an) 10 Mer esti of te earth san roa reat ci nd os line, Buta survey plan is a projection upon a horizontal plan, and 0S _/ Sensation al iear and angular measurements dan at De bent 22 — Mew srrenoion. sungace OF EARTH INGTUAL SURFACE OF EARTH Fett ‘When the surveys extend over limited areas, the difference? in length between the arc and the subtended chord for any two points on the earth is ‘very small and can be neglecied. The surveys, where the effect of curvature ofthe earth is neglected assuming the earth's surface tobe plane, are called Plane surveys. The degree of accuracy obiained inthis ype of surveying is ‘Comparatively low. Generally areas les than 260 sq, km (100. miles) are Uweated as plane. However the controlling factor should be the degree of Accuracy required rater than the area of the survey. The scope and use of plane surveying is very wide as itis employed in majority of surveys conducted forthe purpose of Engineering works, 2. Geodetic Surveying. When the surveys extend over large areas or the degree of accuracy required is great, te curvature of the earth cannot be ignored. Those surveys, where the curvature ofthe earth is taken into account, are called Geodetic Surveys. They are also known a$ Trigono. metrical surveys as they involve the knowledge of Trigonometry during differen operations Geodetic Surveying is generally adopied to locate the widely distant control points for different surveys tobe conducted in between these poins, 1 requires the use of very refined instruments as well as methods of observation and adjusunent. It is conducted only through Government ‘The calculation work is much simplified ifthe carth iv assumed to be * spheroid instead ofits stil elliptical shape 2. The difference in length between the are and the subtended chord on the surface of the earth i only about 0.1m in 18.2 km 03m in $45 kn, ond 0 in 91 km, INTRODUCTION 3 jencies such as in India, it is conducted by the Great Trigonometrical sem TS. aepatmet of nda 1.3, Measurements and thelr Units: In surveying, a surveyor has to generally deal with linear and angular ameaturemcns bo in the horizontal and vertical planes. Linear measure. ‘ments taken in the horizontal plane ae known as horizonial distances whereas thse taken in the vertical plane are called vertical distances Similarly the angular measurements are borizontal angles and vertical angles when taken in the horizontal and vertical planes respectively, Linear Measurements. There are two main systems of measue- ments: 1. MKS. (Mete, kilogram, second) or Metric System, 2. FP.S. (Foot, Pound, second) or British System. ‘The unit of length isa metre in M.KS. system and afoot iu FPS, system, Previously Inia followed FPS. system of messue- rents bat from 1956, according to the Weights and Measures Act the Metric system has become the only recognised system in India Therefore 4 metre i the basic unit of length now-a-days andthe units of area nd volume are derived from it.The units of length area and volume i Mevic system and their conversion to British system are given in the following tables ‘Table 1.1. Units of Length TOMillimetres (am) 10Centimetres (em) Decimetre 1ODecimetres (an) or 100m Tmewe (=) 10 Metres oy = 1 Decametre (dam) "ODecametres —(am)or 100m = 1 Hectometre (tm) 1OHectometres (hm) or 1000m = 1 Kilometre (om) Conversion : 1 inch = 2.54 em 1 foot = 0.3048 m I mile. = 1.6093 Km ‘Table 12 Units of Ares (Sq mm) 100 Sq, Millimetres = 1'Sq.Centimetre 100 Sq Centimeters (Sq. em) = 184, Decimetre (Sq. dm) 100 Sq, Decimetres (Sq. dm) or 1! Sq. em =1Sq.mete ($4. m) 100 Sq. Metres (Sqm) = 1 Are @ 400 Ares (ayor10'Sg.m = 1 Hectare (tay 100 Hectares (ha) or 108Sg.m_= 1 Sq. Kilometre km) ‘ VF ‘TEXT BOOK OF sunvevina AND LEVELUNG Comersion 184 ach = 6.4516 Sa cam 184.8. = 0.0929 sq m 189, mile» 2.9 59 Kn acre = 04047 hear Table 13 Units of Volume 1000 ci. illinewss Gr may Ti cota.) 1000 ca, centinetes (eu. en) Tex devine (nd) 4000 cu decinenes (cu dor 0Pcxem at cu mere (ok) Conversion: Ve. ach 16387 cu cn eu. = 0.0283 cum ‘Angular Measurements. A radian iste uit of plane angle and is ual to the angle subtended at the cate ofa circle by an are equal in length to its adie, radians = 2right angles 1 ght angle’ = 100 grades o 90 degrees. ‘A degre isthe basic unit of angle wed in India. 1 degree ©) = 60 minwes() 1 minute © = 60 seconds () 1.4, Instruments used for taking Measurements: The instruments commonly sed for taking surveying measurements may be divided nto the following mai classes 1. Instruments used for ranging and laying out survey lines such as ranging rods line ranger, cross, optical guar te 2 Instruments wd fr direct measuemens of lengths such as chan, tape, steel band et 3. Instruments wsed for measurement of length indirectly such as tacheometer, sublets br, Elcroni Distance Measuring Insincncne ga 4. Instruments usd fo determining direction of lines suchas prisma {ic compas, box-sextn, coda ete 5. nsrumens wie fo measuring slopes and beighs wich as clinometey, level ee 6. Instruments use fo surveying and pling simultaneously such a plane able. 7. nsruments used "suey by photographic means suchas poe to-teodolite. intRooucTION 1.5, General Classification of Surveys : ‘surveys may be clasified in different ways 1. According to the Instrument used, suchas @ Chain Survey Compass Survey ii) Plane table Survey (Gv) Theodolite Survey, etc. 2. According othe purpose of Survey, suchas; @ Mine Survey to explore the mineral wealth such as gold, copper, coal et, within the earth's erat (#)Geologial Survey to determine different strata in the earth's crust. (Gi) Archaeological Survey to trace customs or relics of the past. Gv) Miltary Survey to determine points of strategic importance. 3. According tothe method employed, such as; @ Triangulation Survey. G)_ Traverse Survey 4. According tothe place of work, such as Land Survey tor objects on earth's surface. (Gi) Hydrographical or Marine Survey for objects under water. (Gi) Aerial Survey by Aeroplane in ar. Land Survey canbe furtber sub-divided into the following classes: (@) Topographical Survey. This is used fr determining the natural features ofthe country such as lakes, rivers, hill, woods and alls etc, and alo the aif objets such cana aways roads, towns and villages ete (©) Cadastrat Survey. This is usually ploted wo a lager scale than \opographical survey. Additional deuails'soch as boundafes of fields, ‘houses and other property ae determined. (6) City Survey. ‘This is performed in connection with town planning fetiemes such as drainage, water supply etc. and for Saying. out plots Toads, streets ete (2) Engincering Survey. This is caved out for determining the fea- {billy of any engineering project and collection of field-data as required forthe design et. Basic Principles of Surveying : The following two basic principles of surveying should be Kept in Tew, while determining the relative pesitions of points on the surface of the earth = 1. Determining sultable method for Locating a Plnt. Is always ‘rticable to Select two points in the field and to measure the distance . ATE 200¢0r Se wo even Peorten tem. These canbe represented on paper by two points placed in Poin cine Poston. From these inl pot ao known as reference Eran ae Jocated by two suitable measurement nthe eld and tun mei relative postions on he ate Poin so cbuned sre ‘um to fx the positions of tier Te CoRMN methods of locating a point such as C with respect to {wo reference points such as A and B av iustated i ig. 12, 8 8 8 5 V r VY ; Aw Aw Aw Ao Pet. (),Disances AC and BC are measured, and C is pote asthe inurecon point of two aes wil cents A sn Bans distances. This ‘method is much used in chain surveying. ri (0) Perpendicular CD and distance AD or BD measured and C is lod by te use of st square This method i ora 4s used for locating details. a opting ana So (panes AC ode ape BAC a messes, nd lot by Prenigh,* PUI OF wigonometicaly. This method se ans i . thod is used in a (o) Acie BAC and distance BC are measured, and protractor OF gsnometcally This method lope in exceptional cases. 7 Bet ef One oF fer: thn ove ofthe above methods may same “cording Wo the instruments available linear wens A survey may therefore ways by difl@hen combinations of metncas patie Memtey. the degree of accuracy required, INTRODUCTION 7 2. Working from whole to the part. In surveying an area, it is sential to establish fist ofall a system of contol potas wilh great precision. “Minor control points can then be established by less precise ‘methods and the details can be located afterwards by the metbod of tans gulation or traversing between the control points. This way the tisey errors are automaticaly ¢ ‘and localised and do not accumulate, (On the other hand, if we work from part tothe whole, the small eon ng ‘magnified and become uncontrollable at the end. 1.7. Workof a Surveyor: ‘The work ofa surveyor can be divided ino the following tree parts |. Fleld-work. 2, Office-work, 3. Care and adjusument of instruments, 1, Fleld-work. It consists in aking measurements for deails, record ing feld-notes and setting out of works, 2. Office-work. It consists in preparing maps, plans and sections from the data collected in the field and also calculating the areas and volumes and designing the various structures 3. Care and adjustment of Instruments. The surveyor must be thoroughly familiar with the instruments which be will be called upon to use. He must also know the methods of testing and adjusting the mein ments, Delicate and very cost instruments such as a theodolite, a level etc. {Rust be handled with great care and accuracy. Even a mitor injury is liable to make them out of order and the same can only be set to the ‘riginal position by costly and time consuming repairs. Before taking the instrument out from the box, the correct positon ofits various parts should be noted and if necessary a rough sketch be made so that no difficulty is ‘experienced while replacing the instrument. The instrument should be set (nits well spread and stable tripod stand and should never be left unguard ed. The instrument should be protected from the sun, dust and rain ete, ‘The lenses should always be kept clean and the movable parts should ‘be cleaned and lubricated with refined watch oil at frequent intervals. (A thorough knowledge of the theory of surveying and skill in its racic, good judgement and organisation are the principal requisites of a food surveyor which can only be acquired by taking keen interest in the Id- work, 1.8. Precision in Surveying : The degre of accuracy equi in survey work maily depends upon the purpose of survey andthe cleo pote Sie ae er de ° [ATEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLNG INTRODUCTION and towns is much more valuable than that in rural areas, SO greater ‘Theory Problems. Dog hegnaes a ho ene Eis Sitac amma eye ao mae Laiasmas tienen ata Toarname Pes temrae fer scaaes SSiere anima ureiie secur Sy ca cees eels ont the following 7 ee Sern oe © cometind omy teen 2 tran emaomrn pea — omar co wescamn co omroter ‘Keeping in view the above factors, the surve SoS Se eee ee panags mebaly cng he Savy wrk, ec aan toon apes race a Baris No. 1) ‘Assess what you have learnt : so Surveying ew feearst | 8 * of determining —of objects 0 the surface of 1 2, What surveying ? What for iit done ? 3.) What do you mean by the following : (@) Linear Meaturements, (©) Angular Measurements. (Gi) Name te insuuments ued for aking above messuremens. (ii) Explain briefly abou tbe units of measurements 4, How will you clasify surveying ? [Name the ditis ofa surveyor. Explain them tify 7 6 Explain the fundameatal principles to be observed while surveying an =m (@>. U. 1987, 91 894) 7. How can you obtain the required precision in surveying ? LINEAR MEASUREMENTS ‘General: Thee are wo man metas of measuring length) Get and G)nivect or compute. Te Gite mead lees de Sot Stain pe or ober isumets and is very noma ae are mcd, lenge obsined by caculatons at tatgonna et anpulnen When peat seuney ote Indie ee Peak trac quer han Gece oa te 2.1 Measuring Distance by direct Mathod Many meds 3 explained below ae avaab of ie dc. bs he etd lobe mcd dae of acura ee 2 Pacing, Te method consi in walking ovr aie and over line an count Hmumbes of pss The average pace leng may be tke ae gon et he vever should sande his pace ep Sea Se ies mye ced by apy tg Ca average length of the pace. An expenienced person can attain a le for measuring length largely upon the degree imate ese 0. The method i generally usetal cate reconnai ssance survey, locating approximate res are requzed such a fe . U. 1988) AMLLE. 1966 ‘SR A tine was meayyred as 22628 m with a 30 m tape which was 2 feunly 3 7h Pode pe lengh oi ie. ns. 24.168) 138, A 20m chin wus ood woe cect athe ine of commencement. (P< 2 ance was mean slong ne and ound 0 be 1650, fo) were a cual Has Kbown tbe 1665. What wa he eng Se chan ste ead? ‘dns 20162) 30, ‘The ign of ¢chan tne wien memered with « 20m cain. wat found te Tt) Buc when 430 m Gan, which was on ink eve, Joo short was ud forthe pre the ie a found Be 1350 8 Rep what ws eminem ain Ue a a's pn pedo 2 en of 1 mers 0.1m se eres 2 54a om The ln ws found hae sre ‘Ditto 10cm long Dow mexsres 9. cm oly A ‘Saren be psn ade at Cam wed was 1D en to 0s Fin ete aca el in bec (Ane. 1005 Hectares) ; TASELE 1981) 42. The grea ofan od plan pou w a sale af 10m 01 mi 9652 ge end. The plan Ovo have Shrnk so tat oiialy 10 cog ‘Sow meses 980 monly. Ferber 20m chained foe rey 22 fmt be Seno hart Pind he bue meso Bld. A Toone tecre) TAAL 1990 Sem) 43, -A'dom cin es fom ote 010m too tog ater caning 1500 ttc woke 01s olen arcing 240m. he «han wns Sone te coomenconca fe werk, id he ‘Sac {7b U.196) (ALLE May, 1966 Type, Semmer 1976 Type) (ns 240525 m) A. The dince measured by 4 Suveyr between two stains om a andro sae of at Tom, was G44 mB ne 08 De toned ata fing ete nce be wed a wong sae of Smet cm, Pod best dstce “ae stim) \AS., Te ain survey fa eld was one an the wea was fmm ote Tondag bismctes techn wed nas 03% too shor. compat das 10109 on) a suvey aod was fond 10 be ie (ha). 1965) (AME. 1965) Wy in aed ees ReaD ong At teen ofthe survey, i was tested again and |h-T8 (Land Surveying Gi) Marine Surveying and i) Aerial Serveying Lani surveying canbe dove ether by waversng by tangulation. Ia averg, 8 series of connected ines whose lengths are measured wih hi tape and directions ae determined with the angular instwumeats are run so the area to be surveyed ; whereas in tiangulation, te are is divided it) ‘etwork of triangles, te lengths of whose sides ave measured diet or Indie. anlca ey cy be plod i he eg os ie 3.41. Chain Surveying luis the metho of surveying in which the area i vided ito network of wiangles and the sides ofthe various wrangles are measured det in the field with chain o pe and no angular measurements ae take. tis the simplest Kind of surveying and is mai sable when he area 1 Be surveyed is smal in extet and isfy Tevel and open with simple details [eis unsuitable for age areas and fr aeas crowed with many deals a ‘ver dificult county's in such cases the formation of tangles becomes dial Principle. The principle of cai surveying io divide the ara tobe surveyed imo a network of connecied angles as a angle is Be coly simple igre that canbe ploted from the lengths fit sides measured 12 the field Since angulation fomns the principle of chain surveying, ‘hain survey i also sometimes called as cain iangulaion, the area tobe surveyed is wiangular in shape ad ifthe lengths and sequence of ts thre sides are recorded, the plan of Ue area cat cay coun suvero « & boundaries, for example Bot if eae as re an tee sit sing 31a) Wis oo loger ait meas eng fe sie a es ween any, Tel nee mat eae Se teal gen ab ae 2 ae doen bx cat two eve ress sbown i. 3 hand ©). 412 Tema conmeniy se in chan Sure: mt Trp nse ngage we 0 eck ea Lesa essen orsave sch ABCD torent pop mes ia Se rag cate mo scaly pel an 3 and ies a ut ol pou kant etna hat ‘Seahtonea vag, The wanes bing ‘e Stone a bad eedoned oI coined wings a a iH powever Ox cso be AOA, Care Poneto ding eich ad ong se eney Sutra. Te ede of chun lin dente te Suey Sunn Tce a than vey Sos, a 3) aba o tons. be ies wich command de I Mai une Sos a ew ea te cma eon othe syn suey Ln sch as ABC, pis A Ac and AD ni 32 ‘A TEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLING Subsidiary or Tie-Stations are the fixed poet selected oa ‘main survey lines when itis nocesary to draw te lnes tose ‘ea for locating the imerior deals such a8 T), To, Ts Te Ts and VY fie 32 “ (Chain Surveying showing base ln, min ines, te nes, check nes and ‘main Survey stations and le ations Fig. 22. Selection of Servey Stations. The following points should be kept view while selecting the stations or the ame work 1) stadoe-poit should be located on plain ground so at its clearly visbte fom al stato pens to which tis coameted ad gives ‘tear Sualght les for measirnent. (i) The main wrangles shouldbe so lage as is consistent with the features of te ound. These hou be sub-divided by Ue ines wecessry to being the objets within easy reach of chai ies 50 thatthe works hone according tothe principle “work from whole othe par.” ii) The sds ofthe larger tranles sould passa close as possible and as parallax possible to the important bldg, rads ec, 50381 vod Lag ofl and wo redce te umber of Ue ics. Ge) The tinge soul as fa as posible be best conditioned an i comaivon angles sboald be sey Svea (0). Bach angle should be provide witha leas one check ine. (Sato pits shoud not be on thoroughfare ‘3. Base lie. lie which sgeerally longest ofall the survey lines ‘ad apn which ie eae fame work ta up i own as are Une ‘Sach a8 AD in fig, 32. 1 generally rns in the eat ofthe area to be ‘surveyed and shoo be aid of on te level prod. It every snportnt Hine and since he eae accuracy of the suvey work depends upon Is ‘accuracy and sraightes, theo, it sbould be measured accurately {ce or tee by Independent metods ands Sages hou also be sored. In large Serves or whee convenient wo base nes sbould be fun inthe for ofa cross) row he cee of the area. “4. Check line. A line wich sued to check or prove the accuricy ofthe fame work at well ta of the pltiag werk nwa sa check Tee or a proof ne such as BT}, CT, nd DS ig. 32. eis alin which ‘ne fom apex of angle wo any oe xed pins ca any two Ses of we pling, the length ofthis linen the plan apres to the measured nthe Gi thn be works come and hus he accuracy he angles checked o proved. Te Line. Aline joining {vo Ue stations i known a ae lite such ‘Ty Ty, Ty Ta Ts fig. 32 eis on w ake te ineror deals ‘whch are faraway fom he ain es and aso avoid long ost. It ‘i lao serve the purpose of check line ‘8. Operations in Chain Surveying : “Te lowing ar the paant operations which have tobe performed ile Chain Sureying — 1. Ragin. chaining fteting 3 ‘ATEXT OOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLNG Be cpraons of ranging 24 tinng have ben explain in ‘Preceding chapter while offsetting is discussed in the following article. me 3.4. Offsotting : ‘The operation of measuring ata stances fom te cane te sbjets wich are wo be plot Known a etn. sds ng the objects wih ferece othe ca line, The ne dsm on ier sie a te canine eto te ej known meas inds of the ofsets. The fet are clasifed acti ty direction and (b) length co (a) According rection hey may be) pepe Gi) oblique offsets, " eed © Perpendicular Ofte Te ances meas a gh eo she cto eae ar now pet fees or ight fst sch as CD tg. 93) Uma eft perpen offs, Inthe st ese, set mean &perpcniala afce auton toa i) Oblique Oftes. AM otsts which are not at rght angles toe ‘main survey lines are known 25 oblique or te line offsets sch as CD a CCE (Fg. 34) When te object to be plowed is at along distice apart ‘fom the chain ine or itis an important one soc as a come ofa Wiig. oblique offsets are taken, These are also taken to check the accuracy of right angled offsets and to ocate the poston of stations in various Sure. ‘Sometimes thy belp in educing the numberof main survey lines. ©) According tothe length they may be () short fe and (i) fone oftes, Generally te officis ae calle shot when they ae les than 15m ‘ength and fong whe ter length exceeds 15, “The Offies should as fara posible be short ones as Wey ae less lable o be eroneous due to incomet lengh of tape or incorrect dieto® than if they are long. Also shor ets ean be measured more quickly and sccuraly than long ones, Te lines shuld be dawn to avoid long tse ‘Taking oes. The operation of aking and eecoring te distance slong the hain nd the offerte known king les. The offs fee generaly measured wih a mei ae. Buti the scale sarge and teat sccucy i required a see! ape sbould preferably be wsed. For {aking shot measurements, one along the chain line called chainage and (he ote lenge ofthe of. Wen the offiets are shor, the perpendicular, direction is set out ing the 20 en ofthe tape athe Objet and swinging tbe tae on the fain and nxing the pinto mika reading on Whea reat accuracy lg requced or when hoffe are silently ong, the ight angles should ‘be ai ou wih cof preferably with an optical square o Box Limiting length of an Gite: The length of the fst should nat 1S pits drt set simply by ee by ape. However, the mainly depends upon () the sale of the plan (i) the accuracy desired (i) the maximum pemisible eer in eye judgement a laying out he direction of be ost and Gv) the groin chaining ng. 35 1et AB ete cin ine , and Phe pont upto which he oft is tobe measured. Dish cme postion ofthe fot of the pespeatclar fom P fd PD ie te conect length of the ‘offset. ‘But while laying, CP ie fuatidered to be the diesen of the fet which isin ero by a C being the foot ofthe perpedicula CP is he ‘measured length fot (sy . Wale ‘loting the measured length of te ‘fit (Ds set outa ight angles to AB at C, so thatthe point Fis ‘isplaced wo Pan he amoon' of displacement Ps approximately equal tofan co te gonna 0 te pape, ee mi cm te seal of the paper, The length ofthe oft shoul be inte ws sch mount tht his dispscemeat sould tbe apreiale onthe paper. I sumed that the smallest distance onthe paper which canbe dstnguished hl pling i 0025 em, sina 2 he maximum pemisible displacement 06 he pet = 0025cm [ATEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLING or = (0.617 +(20siney ‘Squaring both sides, (0.6)? + (20 sin a)? = (1.257 (20 sin a)? = 1.5625 - 0.36 ‘= 1.2025 =¥ia005 fr20s 0 x 0.025 = 1.25 or 20sina _ 20865 3p = 0.054825 a =3-8'-30" (Ans) 5. Instruments used for setting out Right Angles : ‘The following instrument are wed fo) sein ou the tes, ad for fda fot of perpendicular he ee the lines, 1. Cross sft 2. Optical Square 3. Prism Square 4, Offset Rod. 5. Measuring Tape, 1. Cros-Staf I's generally found into pattems () Open cos satis Po ces ale con eg asso } Fa. 37. : Wooden Cross-Statt Sf Fig. 8.8 : Metal Arm Crose-Stal! Eai™__- = =€~—“‘ one eeene inasiorase meses Tmareoraowe an setae: the saw cut or (the pair of ; 7 chesiret Sit : wo sty Water gt men ni ot sed for setting out accurately the long offsets. Its small compost hah trot ne be dezwn. thea the pout where the rosa is held ithe cares oie ‘Seb through the sw ca (he pai of sights) at ight angles 10 the iz Direct one ofthe sw cats oF (the pair of sights) say ab along 22 Now move the crossiaff sights) “od is along XY. If q Sights) ‘ba will pot towards + raced Fg 310 lip and strong is more commonly used ‘instrament based upon th principle of reflection, There are two forms (i) Wedge shapes commonly known a Indian opicl sqUe ofthe fox of the perpenticnlar fom the given object. If nox the con line besects the given Object. chain fine XY and fix a ranging rod at R inthe direction ofthe ote i= hertz hough 0" 0 hat the insrument is conect the 4 the ranging rod R. otherwise : ‘The cross-taff isa non adjustable instrament and is not capable 2. Optical Square. tis more accurate than the cross-staf * the optical square Fg. .1 : Rone Opel Square ‘Its around brass box about Sem in ameter and 125 om deep fg. 4H G's proceed by a meal cover Big 3.1, (0) which cane ‘und thc box 2 10 as wo cover the openings an hes proven the er fiom dost, moisture, whee the maramcat act we Fig 312 shows the sectional plan f te important pars ofthe inaremeat Posi (GF and are wo minors placed at a angle of 45°10 eachother. The Nitto, known as the horizon miror, is half silvered and half unsivered ‘od is rigidly atached wo he base pate ofthe box. ‘The mere called let mirror. is wholyslvered and is attcbed othe bor ia ach a ‘ay tat cant adjusted to any position. In some fs ofthe israel, “the index mirrors also pemancaly fixed othe baseplate o |ATEXT 800K OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLING “The openings are made in the fim of the box: 8 & mA he fy the eye ; Bis a small rectangular slot for the horizon sight pic, tiametrcally opposite to the eyeoe and cia large rectanghlar ot index sight placed at right angles othe line joining aan b “Tee similar openings are also made inthe rims ofthe cover su that each of them is wrought over he comesponding opening in the rine the box when the instruments #8 in use. A small circular hole i als, ‘provided onthe top of the cover for inserting the Key by Means of whi the index mirror i adjusted. “The lines ab and fare called the horizon and the index sighs respectively both being a ight angles © each other. The horizon mim makes an angle of 120 tothe borzon sight while the index mirror makes fan angle of 105" to the index sight, the angle between both the miar eine 45 'A ray of light from the object or ranging 10d O strikes the index ‘mio (P and is reflected along Il Thus reflected ray again stries he Silveed portion ofthe horizon mior(H) and is then reflected aloe HE “Thus the observer, looking Uough the eye-bole, can see the ranging od a the far end B ofthe chai line directly though the univered potion of the horizon minor and atthe same time he can see the Image of tie ranging rod at i the slverod porion of the horizon miror, If be ranging rod a is at right angles othe horizon sight (chain ine) ea, then the ranging rod at B andthe image of O are exactly coincident si fig, 3.12 (0) otherwise they do nt enincide asin fg 3.12.6) ‘Correct Positonlncorect Position eon smo ® Fg. 212 © Principle of Optical Square. If there are two plane mirrors Wis reflecting surfaces make a given angle with each ber andi ary of MN {is reflected successively from both of them, then the angle betwech first incident ray and Ue last refecied ray sawiee te angle BECWESY Since we want wo stout right angles wih the optical square fH ‘oan suRVENG o that he two mors int must make an angle with each ber equal 0 bal (be iphdogle Le 9072 = 4 “The picipleunderiying the construction ofthe opti square éan be explained as flows Fg. 313); Bliss chin tne and in object on the ine OF which sat right ages EB. | A.ray of ight Grom sites tbe index ior (and is reflected slog (i) The elected ray apsin sks the beizon mor (Hand is {hen reflected towards Eye (ofthe observe. ‘Let @ » ZILH =the ange betwee the miors ‘Since he angle of incidence sequal the angle of reflection therefore Simitaty, ZO ‘Now inthe AHPI Liv «97, LPH = 180-28, 08 Ze = 197-28, Bot ZHPL+ eH + ZPIK= 18 ‘Le, 90 + (108-209 + 180" ~200)= 180" oF she Bs © Sima, ia ALI. (4H CIB + ZILA = 180 0168;+8 = 180 Bu +8) = 3" Hence 8 = 10s =a |hTe<1 800K F SURVEYING ANO LEVELLING Le to ange berweca the two iors (ZILH=AS=12 of 97, wig inthe ange between be nde sph andthe horizon sgh (si Kine) ‘ne To fod oot the foot of he perpediculat from any objet upg ‘te cytes ace the eye opposite (othe eye-boe so that he smal ‘Ghatar) and lnge lot (ecto) ae towards the fx end 0 esirine and he object respectively. Then waking forward and backvar oS oechata ine te prim where he election f the Objet seer ont mG portion f be brian mior appears o be Cinccent Witte ein st be tater extremity ofthe cain lin a See Croup ‘Plane portion ofthe same miso (ig. 3.12) isthe required post. note: the object ies nthe left hand side of the chin tne, te snsrument it bel ate right had and vice-versa “To stout a perpendicular from any point onthe chan tne, stand os the chai ine boing the insumens exactly above the point Now pe {be mall St (aera) towards farer end ofthe chain line snd thee ‘loc objct-bole) towards the direction in which perpendicular is o be ‘ot “Sig te end ranging vod through the apertre. Then nso te ‘ZBisant wo move to and ffo until image of bs ranging rod seen toush the silvered portion ofthe horizon mir appears tobe coincident with he ‘anging rod a the farther en ofthe chain line as seen trough the plane poton ofthe same mir, The assistant is ten directed to fix the rae od in tha positon The line jmning this position ofthe ranging rod ad {be point teow the opical square is argh angles othe chai ne, nian Optieal Square. Fig. 3.14). luis a brass wedge shaped hollow box of about Sem sides and abut 3 ‘em dep witha handle about # cm long fixed underneath my Fig. 814: Indian Ope! Square ‘and mare two wires fixed 0 the inclined sides of the BO angle of 4": ab and cd are two rectangular openings above these > » ORS i he open face which wo be tnd twats the abject 10 which ‘be oft sto be ken. Use, (Ft. 319) In wing a0 stk fom an objet say, Othe ftserver boing be isrimcat i band sands othe chai ine AB fu sth open fae awa est He en sis te ranging Pia te forward salon by foking through he openings i tbe fivecton cb o a. according te hee wo br Ln ght and al ie fora A ‘ject appa exactly inline with the campiog rod B. The point React unser te sree foo of be prpendil trom the bjt ‘Diand OCs perpen e ani AB. Th using srmen ol que erect and always apy tee the lower conc othe opening wach i eae he open face FORS and ‘Pov apollo he forward ranging rd. Ths if he object 0 eet ‘Sens an tine apply thee at and okt he ction ot an 0 fierighcaply at asad tock be deeton oa Tor sey cut a ht angle fom any pint "C~ 0 the chai ine stand te cha in lng tbe arument exact above the pon 0 PRADO Gia Ince of be optical square towards te drecon fn which Tee ane to beset cut Sight te en ranging rod "B” rough the ‘pening Thea nut he assis 1 move 1 —_ “al taweorenioro FAIS ONeCTrONNON ara fon age ois aig rod 0" scm trogh te mina appa cn oda tie farter end of he a ie a "The te Joning Tip angles owe ca ie ation Square. (Fig, 317) His bated wpm be same nile oak et square 8 mor reliable rd gt ane ope ” [ATEXT 800K OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLING 1G, 3.17: PRISM SQUARE square. It requires no adjustment since the angle of-45° between te reflecting surfaces ofthe prism is fixed. 1 using the instrument, hold it in your hind and see directly over ‘the prism a ranging rod at B. Then walk along the chain line until te image of the object °O" seen in the prism appears to coincide with the ranging rod at B. 4. Offset Rod. When itis used for taking te Offset, the perpendicular irection is first ascertained by judgement and then the offset rod is tumed over end for end as many times consecutively as may be required to reach the object. ‘This method of offsetting is not preferable as errors accumulate rapidly. This is used only for taking small offsets 5. Measuring Tape. When measuring tape is to be used for taking the offset hold its zero end at the point to which an offset is to be ket ‘and swing the other fnd on the chain line and note the point of minimum eating ost vata heme length of the offset 3.6. Conventional Signs or Symbols. Objects are represented on a map or in the field-book by signs or symbols which are conventional. Some of them in common use are givet (on pages 721073 74 74A-74.8 =] camer | covewnions ow | eoLoun No. nas axe lowaiine eis RMON ~ = SON LAKE 2, | TRIANGULATION ~_ STATON ~ SON UKE | raavence A)-—-—.|ommenns Tomon Em 10000 a foenonnn — |[ ajo f | ormson vane s,|suome puccn | MERE) | crmsoneane none own | — CRRSRR) | eurer Unoen 7 frees, cHuncH omer er fosaue ewan comre [ST All distances slong the chain ine (chainages) ae entered in the iv) The objects offseued are iven in article 3.6 towards right ork they are on the right oF lft ofthe c sketched with conventional signs a8 eft of he cent column =P in line on the ground. The sketches (CHAIN SURVEYING 7 ‘need not be to the scale but must be drawn proportionately and the names fof the objects are written along them. Figutes denoting the dimensions of the details ofthe objects are included between the arow-heads. (9) Offset measurements are written close to the points offsetted and exactly opposite to and in line with the chainages from which they are taken. (0) Sufficient space is allowed between rows of booking along o cross the page 1 avoid conjeston, About 1 om space i eft between the two cates in the central column, (vil) When any features such as a road, fence, hedge or a wall etc. roses the cain Tine, chanage of he pot of erection 5 eneed in {ie crural column and dvecon ofthe feature sketched. The line tos Setg the features ot cared acos the central coma, Batis ‘Giremectng the column, To conime ion the oer side of the clam, SIR paral t'is deton i evn from & post cecly opposite oa the our nde of he cotunn a sown in Fig, 318 (a) a chamages 740 md. (bid A symbol A is used to denote a mai station inthe felt book Ci me i Comencament andthe closing chsinag® 2 he FRE St ine are ween snide e symbol The mame of te stain Sriten cos othe symbol "ico ebay sans a inated by cls or ovals ound tec stainages (Te ef ey sing rn amas ge sans are leary shown wih ei mames or mbes. 1G) Atte commencement ofthe te or check line inte Geld Aook se ie te san deste eg te station 19) 00 AC a 30 ‘Bim A" Sins dvebed at the finish the ine. seethe ollowing pints should be kept iniew while booking the feld-notes: oes one of the most imponaot suvey records, It sbold be carefully and neatly writen up with a good quality pene. © (ip Bac chain line should be started on afresh page. {iy The surveyor should always face the “ection of chaining while booking. (o) The noes should be complete Nothing souk be et 19 mane, Jhould be clear, neat and accurate. Over-writin sp shou be 2 ‘When a correction is to be made, the figures ‘and fresh entry made above it and the the entire page is tobe discarded, Prin eed “cancelled” and a reference othe ater page-on which - sepvesezennsinenanseeaneseaisensnaniees ee |ATEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLING Y (CHAN SURVEYING -=° ” * the carect notes ae written should be made on this Page. Double Line Booking of crag NE AO STARTS Sta Une AC of Chan Survey of an area 2 LINE AC STARTS. 32. shown in ‘Single'Line Booking of the Chain Line AC of ' ‘Survey of an area as Fig. 3:18 (a) shown in fig. 3.2 Fi. 3180) > — a eer eee oe % [A TEXT 800K OF SURVEYING AND LEVELLING (on) Explanatory notes and ference sketches of Important objets ‘should be drawn on separate page: (oi Each savy must indicat the following ant ot Survey. (0) ite of Survey (c) Dates of commencemen: and Gmpetion (2) The length of chain used and whether tested or no. @ The rough sketch of the area 10 be surveyed showing north direction, Aeoposed station poms, main and ve lines ete. () Line diagram showing the skeleton of survey and the page index. (g) ‘Magnetic bearing of at iret ce tne tpeter with te amount of declination at the time of survey. 13.9, Plotting a chain Survey : Plting means to represent on pope, toa suitable scale, the previously surveyed sbjas im wcordace wth their shape and size, Plotting 3 commenced aftr the fild-wok is ovr. ‘Equipment reqered for Plotting : (i) Adawing-board (i) Awesquare (i Set ques (A Prooacr. (0) A deaving instrument box. (0 Alin paral ruler or raving parle es (si) Asef reach cures for drawing irregular and curved figure (viti) A set of metric scales. (G2) A set offset scales which are 5 cm loo 2 and are divided in craclly the same way as the long scales. They are much useful for ©) Drawing paper of good-quality of required size, (a) Pencils of grate 2H, 31 or 4H : (ai) nk nd colours ofthe required shades, Ci)” Sundres such as rubber, ‘sandpaper, knife etc. brushes, drawing-pins, weights, is shown to the beat a ig Wantages. The base is ly 88 possible | Tin

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