2.0 INTRODUCTION Chemistry is the branch of science which deals with the study of composition, structure and properties of matter and the various changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and ‘occupies space and can be perceived by our senses, Matter exists in many forms. Some examples of matter are milk, stones, water, glass, etc Heat, sound and light are not examples of matter as they do not possess mass, do not occupy volume though they may be perceived by our senses, Heat, sound, light are forms of energy. We have seen one type of classifying matter into Pure substances and Mixed substances in the previous chapter. We will now study another method of classifying matter. 2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER ‘As there are so many kinds of matter, a scientific study of matter becomes easier if we classify matter based on some characteristics, Matter can be classified based on two factors: 1. Chemical characteristics 2. Physical. state. We have already seen how matter can be classified based on chemical characteristics into Pure substances and Mixtures. Both these types of classification are shown below in one flow chart for better understanding. 4 Mixtures 1, Metals 2. Non-metals 3. Metalloids 4, Inert Gas Elements Clas Based on Chemical characteristics ying Matter 4 + Pure substances Mixtures Solids Liquids Gaves 4 J Elements Compounds Homogeneous Heterogencous Mixtures 2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER BASED ON PHYSICAL STATE When we look around us we see that matter exists in solid state (for example sand, stone table, chair), liquid state (for example watei Petrol, Kerosene, oil) and in gaseous state (for example oxygen, nitrogen, water vapour). In fact based on these physical states, matter is classified into three parts as 1. Solid 2. Liquid 3. Solids have definite shape and volume. They are hard Fourth state of matter A lesser known state of matter is the Plasma state. The Plasma state of matter is a fused ionic state of matter that exists at very high temperatures dike the core of the sun) The plaema state in the Sun By Goyal’s IIT Foundation Course— Chemistry for Class 7 oOvLGINICU WILT Udall ILiquids have definite volume but do not have definite shape. They take the shape of the container in which they are kept. Gases do not have definite shape or volume. They occupy the entire space available to them and take the shape of the container in which they are stored, 2.3 KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER ¢ Kinetic Theory of Matter is a very important theory that helps us to understand and study the three states of matter. ‘The main proposals of this theory are widely accepted. They are given below 1, Matter consists of very small particles, These particles can be atoms, molecules or ions. 2. ‘The particles are in a state of constant and random motion. They have energy. 3. The particles are separated by small distances. 4. Attractive forces are present between the particles ‘Thus, all matter is made up of small particles that are separated by small distances and have attractive forces. Distance between Particles ‘The distance between the particles in solids is smaller when compared to liquids. The distance between the particles in liquids is smaller when compared to gases. Attractive forces between Particles ‘The attractive force between the particles in solids is greater when compared to liquids. The attractive force between the particles in liquids is greater when compared to gases. Illustrative diagram showing the small Particles in the different states of matter The particles present in a solid, liquid and gas differ as follows Physical Inter-particle _ Inter-particle State distances forces of attraction (a) Solids small great (b) Liquic larger smaller (c) Gases largest smallest 2.4 KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER AND SOLIDS In solids the following characteristics can be seen : (a) The particles are arranged very close together. (b) Due to this close arrangement, a solid has definite volume and definite shape. (©) The particles occupy very little space and hence solids have high density. (@)_ As the particles are close the forces of attraction between them are high. (©) They have maximum vibratory motion oscillating about a mean position. Solid, ‘shave high density + are hard to expandicompress «have rigid shape atcles in a sold Arrangement of Illustration to show that solids have definite shape Take a few pebbles and put them in a beaker. Do the pebbles change their shape? The pebbles retain their original shape. The pebbles will not change their shape or volume when kept in different shaped containers. This, clearly shows that solids have definite shape and volume. Solids have dalinte shape! 25 KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER AND Liquips In liquids the following characteristics can be seen : (a) The inter-particle distances are larger than ~2O00" in a solid, Sof sate Liquid state Gaseous state (b) The particles can flow within a certain States of Matter a oOvLGINICU WILT Udall Iboundary. They have definite volume. (©) A liquid does not have definite shape as the particles can be piled up or spread out within the surface of the liquid depending on the shape of the container. (@) As the particles are not so close as in solids the forces of attraction between them are lower than in solids. () The particles in a liquid move in all directions changing direction when they collide with other particles without loss of energy. So) usw shave high deny 898) aches eerdeomaess BS] «take he shape of container Arrangement of particles ina liquid 2.6 KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER AND GASES In gases the following characteristics can be seen: (a) The particles are very far apart (b) Due to this, a gas does not have definite volume and definite shape. (©) The particles occupy all the space available to them and hence gases have low density, (@) As the particles are far apart the forces of attraction between them are the least. (e) The particles in a gas move in all possible directions colliding with other gas particles and with the walls of the container. There is no loss of energy on collision — only a change of direction of motion (© The collision with the walls of the container of the gas is responsible for the pressure exerted by the gas. Experiment to show that liquids do not have definite shape 1, Take a beaker, a conical flask and a flat bottom flask. 2. Now pour 100 ml of water in each of them with the help of a measuring cylinder. Observation It is observed that water in the containers takes the shape of the beaker, conical flask ‘and flat bottomed flask respectively. Thus the same volume of water takes different shapes. When 100 mi of water is poured into dierent shaped containers the water takes the shape of the container in which it is poured: Conclusion Liquids do not have definite shape Fluids Liquids and gases are called fluids as in both these physical states matter can ‘flow.’ Gases ‘shave low density, ‘# are easy to expandicompress Ogre 8h & ‘fil the container Arrangement of patteles in a gas Experiment to show that gases do not have fixed volume Procedure 1, Take a gas jar full of nitrogen dioxide gas (a reddish brown gas). The mouth of the ‘gas jar is kept covered with a cardboard 2. Invert another gas jar over the gas jar containing nitrogen dioxide gas. 3. Now remove the cardboard between the two gas jars. Telels A ~ Jar filed with brown ritrogen dioxide gas. 8B ~ Empty Jar © ~ Jars boing inverted over each other ~The brown nitrogen dioxide fils both jars uniformly ater some time. 2 Goyal's UT Fe ndation Course — Chemistry for Class 7 oOvLGINICU WILT Udall IObservation It observed that the reddish brown gas moves. into the upper jar and occupies both the jars. Conclusion Gases can expand freely and occupy the whole volume that is available to them, Comparison of Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases Property id Gas 1. Shape Solids have Liquids take the Gases take the shape of definite shape. shape of the container | the container by occupying bbut do not necessarily | whole of the space available ‘occupy all the volume. | to them. Volume Solids have Liquids have definite | Gases take the volume definite volume. volume of the container. 3. Rigidity or Rigid Flexible Flexible flexibility 4. Compressibility | Almost nil, Almost nil. Very large. Solids have large density 5. Density Liquids also have large density Gases have very small density. 6. Free surfaces | Solids can have any number of free surfaces. Liquids can have only one free surface. Gases have no free surfac 7. Diffusion Solids do not diffuse. Liquids diffuse slowly. Gases diffuse rapidly. 2.7 INTER-CONVERSION OF MATTER Effect of changing temperature on Matter We know that water can exist as a solid (ice), as a liquid (water) and as a gas (steam or water vapour). All matter can exist in three states — solid, liquid and gaseous state, We can change solid ice to liquid water by heating and to gaseous steam by further heating to its boiling point. Similarly, on cooling gaseous steam changes to liquid water and on further cooling to solid ice. The following changes take place when a substance is heated, (i) When a solid is heated the particles start moving about more and the attractive forces are weakened. (ii) As these forces weaken, the particles start moving apart and start to ‘flow’ like in liquids. As the heating is continued the particles start moving about more randomly overcoming the forces of attraction like in gases ‘Thus, when a solid is heated to its melting point, it changes to the liquid state. When a liquid is heated further, it starts changing to the gaseous state at its boiling point. Conversely, if vapours of a substance are cooled they change to liquid and on further cooling change to solid, Thus, interconversion of states of matter can be brought about by changing the temperature. Slates of Matter 3B oOvLGINICU WILT Udall Ile (solid water) ray eat Liquid water Steam (gaseous water) Effect of changing Pressure on Matter Now let us consider a gas kept in a cylinder with a movable piston ~ If pressure is increased by plunging the piston down, the particles of gas are compressed and come closer together. If the pressure is increased sufficiently, the attractive forces become so strong that the particles are held, though not very rigidly, within a boundary like in liquids If pressure is increased still more, a stage is reached where the particles cannot move about much as the attractive forces are very strong and there is a change of state from liquid to solid state. ‘The foXowin are compressed, wees take place when gases (i) When a gas is compressed the particles come close together. (ii) As they come closer together the attractive forces become strong enough for a change of state to the liquid state, Gili) As the pressure is further increased the liquid can become a solid. Thus, interconversion of states of matter can be brought about by changing the pressure. 2.8 SPECIAL TERMS USED FOR CONVERSION OF STATE 1. Changing a solid to a liquid is called melting. On heating a solid, the particles acquire kinetic energy and overcome the attractive forces to start moving Tike in a liquid. Thus a solid is to melt and become a liquid on heating. Water can boil at 25°C The change of state of matter can be brought about by changing the pressure at constant temperature. If the pressure over a liquid is reduced sufficiently, it starts boiling al room temperature and readily changes to vapour state. For example, water boils at 25°C if tho external pressure is reduced to below 0.03126 atmospheres. Change of state is faster if both pressure and temperature change together. Decreasing pressure on a solid will not have a significant efect of changing the physical state of the solid, simultaneous heating will bring about a change more quickly. Similarly, decreasing pressure over the surface of a liquid helps in vapourizing a liquid, but the change can be brought about more quickly by simultaneous heating. 2. Changing a liquid to solid is called solidification. On cooling a liquid, the kinetic energy of the particles decreases and the attractive forces become stronger. The particles come closer like in a solid, Thus a liquid is said to solidify and become a solid on cooling. 3. Changing a liquid to gas is called vaporisation. (On heating a liquid, the kinetic energy of the particles increases and the attractive forces become still weaker. The particles break free from the surface of the liquid. Thus a liquid is said to vaporise and become a gas. 4, Changing a gas to condensation. On cooling a gas, the kinetic energy of the particles decreases and the attractive forces uid is called a Goyal's UT Fe ndation Course — Chemistry for Class 7 oOvLGINICU WILT Udall Ibecome dominant. The particles come close together like in a liquid. Thus a gas is said to condense and become a liquid. 5. Changing a solid to gas directly is called sublimation. On heating certain solids, the energy of the particles increases so much that they move about more. The attractive forces become very, very weak. The particles break free from each other in the solid and start moving like the particles in a gas. Thus a solid is said to sublime to become a gas without first becoming a liquid. Example: Naphthalene and solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) change into gas under ordinary pressure at room temperature. Melting —_ Freezing Interconversion of the three states of matter 2.9 IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER Matter All living and non-living things are made up of matter. Matter is anything that can be perceived by the senses and occupies space and has mass. Matter made up of one kind of particles is called a substance One kind of matter can be distinguished from another by its physical properties or from its chemical properties which include reactions of different materials with different chemicals Matter occupies space and has mass, which has been proved by simple experiments, Classification of Matter Matter is distinguished into living and non- living things. Non-living things are classified into pure and impure substances. Pure substances are further classified into elements and compounds. Impure substances are called mixtures. States of Matter Matter exists in three states — solids, liquids and gases. © Solids have definite volume, definite shape, are not compressible and are highly rigid, © Liquids have definite volume but no definite shape and are slightly compressible and comparatively less rigid. © Gases have no definite volume or shape, are highly compressible and least rigid. Comparison of solids, liquids and gases Solids have very closely packed atoms with minimum spaces between them and a very strong force of attraction between the atoms. Thus solids have definite shape and volume and are highly rigid. © Liquids have less closely packed atoms with more space between them compared to solids. The force of attraction between the atoms is less strong than in liquids ‘Thus liquids have definite volume but do not have definite shape and are slightly rigid. © Gases have atoms which are far apart with maximum space between them and very weak force of attraction. Hence gases do not have definite volume or shape and are highly compressible and least rigid. Conversion of State of Matter © Matter can change from one state to another by change in temperature ie., by heating or cooling or by change in pressure. © Ice on melting changes to water which on vaporization (boiling) changes to vapour. © The vapours on condensation give back water which on freezing gives back ice. © Melting: The process of conversion of a solid substance into its liquid state is known as melting. Freezing: The process of conversion of a substance from liquid to solid state is known as freezing. The process of freezing is the reverse of melting and both the Slates of Matter 33 oOvLGINICU WILT Udall I