MODULE 9

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the student is able to:
1.Describe the difference between “heat” and
“temperature”;
2. Determine final temperature of objects of
different initial temperatures when they are put
in contact;
3. Calculate the amount of heat energy that
must be absorbed or expelled by a substance to
change its temperature by a specific amount or
its “phase”;
Learning Outcomes
4. Determine the rate of heat flow through
objects;

5. Solve problems by applying the different laws

of thermodynamics.

6. Define and describe thermal expansion.

Calculate the linear expansion of an object
given its initial length, change in temperature,
and coefficient of linear expansion.
Learning Outcomes
7. Calculate the volume expansion of an object
given its initial volume, change in temperature,
and coefficient of volume expansion.

8. Calculate thermal stress on an object given its

original volume, temperature change, volume
change, and bulk modulus.
Heat and Temperature
 Heat and temperature are NOT the same
thing.

 Heat is the amount of thermal energy in an

object because of its moving molecules.

 It is the transfer of energy between two

objects that are at different temperatures.

 The tool used in measuring heat is the

thermometer.
Heat and Temperature
 Temperature is a measure of thermal energy
or how fast molecules are moving in an object.
The more you heat something, the faster the
molecules move.

It is a measure of the average kinetic energy of

each particle within an object.
Heat and Temperature
 Heat energy is always transferred from a body
with higher temperature to the body with lower
temperature.
Heat and Temperature
The 𝑪𝒆𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒖𝒔 scale (which replaced the slightly
different 𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆) has the freezing point of water at
0ºC and the boiling point at 100ºC. Its unit is the 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆
𝑪𝒆𝒍𝒄𝒊𝒖𝒔 (ºC).

 On the 𝑭𝒂𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒕 scale (still the most frequently used

in the United States), the freezing point of water is at 32ºF
and the boiling point is at 212ºF. The unit of temperature on
this scale is the 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒕 (ºF).
Heat and Temperature
 The 𝑲𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏 scale is the temperature scale that is
commonly used in science. It is 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
scale defined to have 0 K at the lowest possible temperature,
called 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐.

 The official temperature unit on this scale is the 𝒌𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏,

which is abbreviated K, and is not accompanied by a degree
sign. The freezing and boiling points of water are 273.15 K and
373.15 K, respectively.

 Thus, the magnitude of temperature differences is the same

in units of kelvins and degrees Celsius.
Heat and Temperature
Sample Problem
1. The surface temperature of the Sun is about 5750 K.
What is this temperature on the Fahrenheit scale?

2. (a) At what temperature do the Fahrenheit and

Celsius scales have the same numerical value? (b) At
what temperature do the Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales
have the same numerical value?

3. What is the Fahrenheit temperature of a person

with a 39.0ºC fever?
Thermal Expansion

Linear Expansion Area Expansion Volume Expansion

Thermal Expansion
The long, vertical joint is filled with a
soft material that allows the wall to
expand and contract as the
temperature of the bricks changes
Without these joints to separate
section of roadway on bridges,
the surface would buckle due to
thermal expansion on very hot
days or crack due to contraction
on very cold days.
Thermal Expansion
Sample Problem
 1. A steel is 40 cm long at 20oC. The coefficient
of linear expansion for steel is 12 x 10-6(Co)-1.
Find the increase in length and the final length
when it is at 70 oC.
 An iron rod heated from 30oC to 80oC. The
final length of iron is 115 cm and the coefficient
of linear expansion is 3×10-3 oC-1. What is the
original length and the change in length of the
iron ?
Sample Problem
 1. At 30oC the volume of an aluminum sphere is 30
cm3. The coefficient of linear expansion is 24 x 10-6 oC-1.
If the final volume is 30.5 cm3, what is the final
temperature of the aluminum sphere?

 A 2000-cm3 aluminum container is filled with water

at 0oC and then heated to 90oC. If the coefficient of
linear expansion for aluminum is 24 x 10-6 (oC)-1 and
the coefficient of volume expansion for water is
6.3 x 10-4 (oC)-1, determine the volume of spilled water.
Sample Problem
 1. A steel is 40 cm long at 20oC. The coefficient
of linear expansion for steel is 12 x 10-6(Co)-1. Find the
increase in length and the final length when it is at
70 oC. Ans: ΔL = 0.024 cm; L2 = 40.024 cm

 An iron rod heated from 30oC to 80oC. The final

length of iron is 115 cm and the coefficient of linear
expansion is 3×10-3 oC-1. What is the original length and
the change in length of the iron ? Ans: L1 = 100 cm; ΔL
= 15 cm
Work Problem
1. At 25oC, the length of the glass is 50 cm. After
heated, the final length of the glass is 50.9 cm. The
coefficient of linear expansion is α = 9 x 10-6 C-1
Determine the final temperature of the glass.

2. The original length of metal is 1 meter and the final

length is 1.02 m. The change in temperature is 50
Kelvin. Determine the coefficient of linear expansion.
Work Problem
1. One end of an iron poker is placed in a fire where the
temperature is 502 oC, and the other end is kept at a
temperature of 26 oC. The poker is 1.2 m long and has a
radius of 5.0 × 10-3 m. Ignoring the heat lost along the
length of the poker, find the amount of heat conducted
from one end of the poker to the other in 5.0 s.
Ans:
Specific Heat & Heat Capacity
 Heat capacity is the ratio of the amount of heat energy
transferred to an object to the resulting increase in its
temperature.

 It is the capability of a substance to absorb heat energy;

the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
one mole or gram of a substance by one degree Celsius
without any change of phase.

 Specific heat capacity is a measure of the amount of heat

necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of a pure
substance by one degree K.
Specific Heat & Heat Capacity
 Specific heat capacities provide a means of
mathematically relating the amount of thermal energy
gained (or lost) by a sample of any substance to the
sample's mass and its resulting temperature change. The
relationship between these four quantities is often
expressed by the following equation:
𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝑻
where: Q = the quantity of heat transferred to or from the
object
m = mass of the object
𝑐 = specific heat capacity of the material the
object is composed of
∆T = resulting temperature change of the object
Solved Problems
1. Determine the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 450 grams of water from 15°C to 85°C? The
specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/g/°C.
Given: m = 450 gm
T1 = 15°C
T2 = 85°C
c = 4.18 J/g/°C
𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝑻 = 450 gm(4.18 J/g/°C)(85°C - 15°C)
= 1.3 x105 J
Solved Problems
2. A 12.9 gram sample of an unknown metal at 26.5°C is
placed in a Styrofoam cup containing 50.0 grams of water
at 88.6°C. The water cools down and the metal warms up
until thermal equilibrium is achieved at 87.1°C. Assuming
all the heat lost by the water is gained by the metal and
that the cup is perfectly insulated, determine the specific
heat capacity of the unknown metal. The specific heat
capacity of water is 4.18 J/g/°C.
Ans.: Cmetal = 0.40 J/g/°C
Calorimeter and Calorimetry
 Calorimetry is the science associated with determining
the changes in energy of a system by measuring the heat
exchanged with the surroundings (Physics Classroom).

 Calorimetry is the science of measuring the changes in

the state variables of a body in order to calculate the heat
transfer associated with changes of its states such as
physical changes or phase transitions under specific
conditions (Byjus).

 A calorimeter is a device used to measure the quantity of

heat transferred to or from an object.
Calorimeter and Calorimetry
 A coffee cup calorimeter is essentially a
polystyrene (styrofoam) cup or two with a
lid. The coffee cup calorimeter is operated
at constant pressure (ambient pressure).

 The cup is partially filled with a known

volume of water and a sensitive
thermometer is inserted through the lid of
the cup so that its bulb is below the water
surface.

 This type of calorimeter is typically used

for solution based chemistry with little to https://www.ddscalorimeters.com/the-
difference-between-a-coffee-cup-calorimeter-

no volume change. and-a-bomb-calorimeter/

Law of Calorimetry
 The law of calorimetry states or principle of calorimetry
states that “if there is no heat lost in the surrounding,
then the heat lost by the body is the heat gained by the
body”.

 When two bodies of different temperatures (preferably a

solid and a liquid) are placed in physical contact with each
other, the heat is transferred from the body with higher
temperature to the body with lower temperature until
thermal equilibrium is attained between them.

Heat Lost = Heat Gained

Qlost = Qgained
Solved Problems
1. How much will the temperature of a cup (180 g) of
coffee at 95 °C be reduced when a 45 g silver spoon
(specific heat 0.24 J/g °C) at 25 °C is placed in the coffee
and the two are allowed to reach the same temperature?
Assume that the coffee has the same density and specific
heat as water (4.184 J/g °C).
Ans.: The temperature of the coffee will drop 1 degree.
Solved Problems
1. 2 liters of water in a container is heated with a coil
of 1 kW at 27 °C. The lid of the container is open and
energy dissipates at rate of 160 J/s. In how much time
temperature will rise from 27 °C to 77 °C? (Specific
heat of water is 4.2 kJ/kg.)
Ans.: 500sec = 8 min & 20sec.

2. The specific heat capacity of an unknown liquid

is 0.32J/kg⋅K. The density of the liquid is 0.0321 g/mL. If a
chemist applies 243 J of heat to 300 mL of this liquid
starting at 27.1∘C, what is the final temperature?
Ans.: 78882∘C
Work Problems
1. The temperature of the cooling water as it leaves the
hot engine of an automobile is 240 °F. After it passes
through the radiator it has a temperature of 175 °F.
Calculate the amount of heat transferred from the engine
to the surroundings by one gallon of water with a specific
heat of 4.184 J/g °C.

2. How much energy is needed to change the temperature

of 50.0 g of water by 15.0 °C?

3. What is the final temperature after 840 Joules is

absorbed by 10.0g of water at 25.0 °C?
Phase Change and Latent Heat
 The latent heat is the energy associated with a phase
change of a substance.

 Latent heat of fusion - the energy required to transition

one unit of a substance from solid to liquid; equivalently,
the energy liberated when one unit of a substance
transitions from liquid to solid.

 Latent heat of vaporization: the energy required to

transition one unit of a substance from liquid to vapor;
equivalently, the energy liberated when one unit of a
substance transitions from vapor to liquid.
Phase Change and Latent Heat
 Sublimation: the transition of a substance from the solid
phase directly to the vapor state such that it does not pass
through the intermediate, liquid phase.

 Sublimation has its own latent heat 𝐿𝑠 and can be used in

the same way as 𝐿𝑓 and 𝐿𝑣 .

 Deposition - opposite of sublimation, where vapor

transitions directly into a solid.
Phase Change and Latent Heat
1. Ice cubes are used to chill a soda at 20 °C and with a mass
of msoda = 0.25 kg. The ice is at 0 °C and the total mass of the
ice cubes is 0.018 kg. Assume that the soda is kept in a foam
container so that heat loss can be ignored, and that the
soda has the same specific heat as water. Find the final
temperature when all of the ice has melted.
𝑄𝑖𝑐𝑒 = −𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑎
𝐽
For the ice: 𝑐𝑤 = 4186
𝑘𝑔
𝑄𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑓 + 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑤 (𝑇𝑓 − 0) 𝐿𝑓 = 334,000 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
For the soda:
𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑎 = 𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑎 𝑐𝑤 (𝑇𝑓 − 0)

𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑓 + 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑤 𝑇𝑓 − 0 = −𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑎 𝑐𝑤 (𝑇𝑓 − 0)

𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑎 𝑐𝑤 20 − 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑓
𝑇𝑓 = = 𝟏𝟑°C
(𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 + 𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑎 )𝑐𝑤
Phase Change and Latent Heat

https://www.concepts-of-physics.com/thermodynamics/calorimetry.php
Phase Change
1. How much heat is required to change 1.0 kg
of ice, originally at –20.0°C, into steam at
110.0°C? Assume 1.0 atm of pressure.

Useful constants:

cwater = 4186 J/(kg Co)

cice = 2.00 × 103 J/(kg Co)
csteam = 2.00 × 103 J/(kg Co)
Lf = 33.5 × 104 J/kg
Lv = 22.6 × 105 J/kg
Study Problems
1. How much energy is needed to melt 2.00 kg of ice at 0
°C ?

2. If 2500kJ of energy is just enough to melt 3.0kg of a

substance, what is the substance’s latent heat of fusion?
Heat Transfer
 The quantity of heat transferred by some process can
either be directly measured, or determined indirectly
through calculations based on other quantities. Direct
measurement is by calorimetry and is the primary empirical
basis of the idea of quantity of heat transferred in a
process.

 The transferred heat is measured by changes in a body of

known properties, for example, temperature rise, change in
volume or length, or phase change, such as melting of ice.
Indirect estimations of quantity of heat transferred rely on
the law of conservation of energy, and, in particular cases,
on the first law of thermodynamics.
Heat Transfer
Modes of Heat Transfer

Convection

Radiation
Heat Transfer by Conduction
 Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy through a
medium without any flow of the medium.

 Particles at the heated end vibrate vigorously

colliding with neighboring particles and transfer their
energy. Eventually, the particles at the cooler end are also
set into are also set into vigorous vibration.
Heat Transfer by Conduction
 Thermal conductivity
It refers to the ability of a given material to conduct/transfer
heat. It is generally denoted by the symbol ‘k’ but can also
be denoted by ‘λ’ and ‘κ’.

The reciprocal of this quantity is known as thermal

resistivity.

Materials with high thermal conductivity are used in heat

sinks whereas materials with low values of λ are used as
thermal insulators.
Heat Transfer by Conduction
Formula:
𝑸 𝒌𝑨∆𝑻
=
𝒕 𝒅
where: 𝑸 = the amount of heat transferred in a time 𝒕
𝒌 = thermal conductivity constant for the material
𝑨 = cross sectional area of the material transferring
heat
∆𝑻 = difference in temperature between one side of
the material and the other
𝒅 = thickness of the material
Heat Transfer by Conduction

Material having thermal

conductivity 𝒌

heat flow

Hotter body Colder body

𝑸 𝒌𝑨∆𝑻
𝑷= =
𝒕 𝒅
Sample Problem
1. A single-paned window in your house is 0.65m wide,
1.25 m tall, and has a thickness of 2 cm. The glass has a
thermal conduction constant of 0.84 J/s∙m∙ °C. Assume the
outside temperature of the glass is a constant 5 °C and the
inside temperature of the glass is a constant 20 °C. How
many joules of heat are transferred out of the window in
one hour?
Ans.: Q = 1.84×106 J
Sample Problem
2. On a hot day, the temperature of an 80,000-L swimming
pool increases by 1.5 °C. What is the net heat transfer
during this heating? Ignore any complications, such as loss
of water by evaporation.

3. Calculate the rate of heat transfer on a cold day through

a rectangular window that is 1.2 m wide and 1.8 m high,
has a thickness of 6.2 mm, a thermal conductivity value of
0.27 W/m/°C. The temperature inside the home is 21°C and
the temperature outside the home is -4°C.
Ans.: 2352 W
Heat Transfer by Convection
 Convection combines conduction heat transfer and
circulation to force molecules in the air to move from
warmer areas to cooler ones.

 As the molecules closest to

the heat source become
warm, they rise and are
replaced by cooler
molecules.
Mechanical Convection
Mechanical convection occurs when outside forces
circulate heat, which shortens cooking times and cooks
food more evenly.

 Examples of this include stirring liquid in a pot or when

a convection oven uses a fan and exhaust system to blow
hot air over and around the food before venting it back out.

 Can also be called “forced convection”.

Heat Transfer by Radiation
 Radiation is a method of heat
transfer that does not rely upon
any contact between the heat
source and the heated object as is
the case with conduction and
convection. Heat can be
transmitted through empty space
by thermal radiation often
called infrared radiation
(electromagnetic waves).
Examples of radiation is the heat from the sun, or heat
released from the filament of a light bulb.
Heat Transfer by Radiation
 The rate at which the surface of an object radiates energy
is proportional to the
fourth power of the absolute temperature of the surface.

P = σ A e T4
where: P = The power is the rate of energy transfer, in Watts
σ = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4 (Stefan-Boltzmann constant)
A = the surface area of the object
e = the emissivity constant of the body (varies from 0 to 1)
T = temperature in Kelvins
Energy Absorption and
Emission by Radiation
The rate at which the object at temperature T with
surroundings at To radiates is:
Pnet = σ A e (T4 - To4)

When an object is in equilibrium with its surroundings, it

radiates and absorbs at the same rate.
Ideal Absorbers and Reflectors
 An ideal absorber is defined as an object that absorbs all
of the energy incident on it (e = 1).

 This type of object is called a black body.

An ideal absorber is also an ideal radiator of energy.

An ideal reflector absorbs none of the energy incident on it

(e = 0).
Solved Problems
1.Calculate the rate of heat transfer on a cold day through a
rectangular window that is 1.2 m wide and 1.8 m high, has
a thickness of 6.2 mm, a thermal conductivity value of 0.27
W/m-°C. The temperature inside the home is 21°C and the
temperature outside the home is -4°C.
Ans: 2352 W

2. What is the rate of heat transfer by radiation, with an

unclothed person standing in a dark room whose ambient
temperature is 22oC. . The person has a normal skin
temperature of 33oC and a surface area of 1.5 m2. The
emissivity of skin is 0.97 in the infrared, where the radiation
takes place. Ans: - 99J/s (-99 watts)
Work Problems
1. The filament temperature of a light bulb is
2000 K when the bulb delivers 40 W of power.
If its emissivity remains constant, what power is delivered
when the filament temperature is 2500 K?

2. At high noon, the sun delivers 1 000 W to each square

meter of a blacktop road. What is the equilibrium
temperature of the hot asphalt, assuming its emissivity e =
1?
3. At what net rate does heat radiate from a 275-m2 black
roof on a night when the roof’s temperature is 30.0ºC and
the surrounding temperature is 15.0ºC? The emissivity of
the roof is 0.900.
References
1. https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/thermalP/
Lesson-2/Measuring-the-Quantity-of-Heat

2. https://byjus.com/questions/according-to-law-of-
calorimetry-which-of-the-given-relation-is-true/

3. https://www.concepts-of-physics.com/ thermodynamics/
calorimetry.php

4. https://www.varsitytutors.com/ap_chemistry-help/
calorimetry-specific-heat-and-calculations
References
5. https://openstax.org/books/physics/pages/11-3-phase-
change-and-latent-heat

6. https://www.airport-alicante.net/r/eaeade1/introduction
-%7C-boundless-physics---lumen-learning-%E2%80%93-
simple-book-...

7. https://byjus.com/chemistry/thermal-conductivity/

8. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/
thermodynamics/specific-heat-and-heat-transfer/a/what-is-
thermal-conductivity
Sample Problems
1. A 0.500 kg aluminum pan on a stove is used to heat
0.250 L of water from 20.0 °C to 80.0 °C . (a) How much
heat is required? What percentage of the heat is used to
raise the temperature of (b) the pan and (c) the water?

https://openstax.org/books/physics/pages/11-
2-heat-specific-heat-and-heat-transfer

https://www.airport-
alicante.net/r/eaeade1/introduction-%7C-
boundless-physics---lumen-learning-
%E2%80%93-simple-book-...