CAPTURE SPECTROSCOPY  BASICS

Activation, or induced gamma ray spectroscopy, logs record
concentrations of individual chemical elements derived from the
characteristic energy levels of gamma rays emitted by a nucleus that
has been activated by neutron bombardment. Pulsed neutron
spectroscopy and elemental capture spectroscopy are other common
names for this kind of log. Chlorine, oxygen activation, aluminum
activation, and carbon oxygen logs also fall into this category, as well
as the reservoir saturation tool (RST) since it combines a carbon
oxygen log with a normal (non-spectrographic) pulsed neutron log into
one device.

These tools were designed to assist in assessing hydrocarbon content

of the reservoir and were run through casing, where invasion was not
usually an issue. Many of these tools are now obso;ete but may be
found in older well files. Understanding their uses and limitations may
provide useful clues to reservoir evaluation.
 

The geochemical log (GST) and its successor the elemental capture
spectroscopy log (ECS) were primarily intended for mineral
identification. The GST and ECS can be run in either cased or open
hole.

 CHLORINE LOG (CLT)

The first incarnation of an elemental capture spectroscopy log was the
chlorine log. The recorded curve was a measure of the concentration
of chlorine in the formation. High chlorine meant salt water in high to
moderate porosity. Low chlorine meant hydrocarbon or fresh water or
low porosity. By using the porosity log, we could sort out low porosity
but sorting hydrocarbon from fresh water required local knowledge.
This tool was rare, usually run through casing but open hole examples
exist.

 CARBON OXYGEN LOG (C/O)

The next incarnation of an elemental capture spectroscopy log was the
carbon/oxygen log. It presented a log curve of carbon/oxygen capture ratio, a
fraction (C/O) and silicon/calcium capture ratio (Si/Ca). High C/O indicate
hydrocarbons as opposed to water and high Si meant sandstone as opposed to
carbonate rocks. Shale and mudstone should have low C/O and low Si/Ca,
except silty shale could have Moderate Si/Ca ratios. Count rates were
measured in counts per minute instead of counts per second, so the tool had to
be run very slowly as a through casing tool. It worked best in high porosity.
  PULSED NEUTRON SPECTROSCOPY LOG
Pulsed neutron spectroscopy log is a wireline log of the yields of different
elements in the formation; measured using induced gamma ray spectroscopy
with a pulsed neutron generator. The elemental yields are derived from two
intermediate results: the inelastic and the capture spectrum. The inelastic
spectrum is the basis for the carbon-oxygen log, and can also give information
on other elements. The capture spectrum depends on many elements, mainly
hydrogen, silicon, calcium, iron, sulfur and chlorine.

Since the elemental yields give information only on the relative concentration of
elements, they are normally given as ratios, such as C/O, Cl/H, Si/(Si + Ca),
H/(Si + Ca) and Fe/(Si + Ca). These ratios are indicators of oil, salinity,
lithology, porosity and clay, respectively. The main purpose of the log is to
determine lithology, the principal outputs are the relative yields of silicon,
calcium, iron, sulfur, titanium and gadolinium. The yields give information only
on the relative concentration of these elements. To get absolute elemental
concentrations, it is necessary to calibrate to cores, or, more often, use a model
such as the oxide-closure model.

The depth of investigation of the log is several inches into the

formation. It can be run in open or cased hole. Pulsed neutron
spectroscopy logs were introduced in the mid 1970s after a decade or
more of investigation.

 GEOCHEMICAL LOG (GST)

The geochemical log is a more recent
incarnation and was run in cased hole
as the GST tool and in open hole as
the GLT tool (Schlumberger
terminology). It is a log of elemental
concentrations from which the
geochemistry of the formation may be
derived. Several different logs provide
information on elemental weight
concentrations: natural gamma ray
spectroscopy, elemental capture
spectroscopy or pulsed neutron
spectroscopy, and aluminum
activation. The combination of all of
their outputs is known as a
geochemical log, since it provides
information on most of the principal
elements found in sedimentary rocks.

Raw log curves for a GST log     

As for the pulsed neutron spectroscopy log, absolute concentrations
can be derived by calibration to core or by using a model such as the
oxide-closure model. The absolute elemental concentrations can then
be converted into mineral concentrations using a model that defines
what minerals are present. The first complete geochemical logs were
run in the mid 1980s.

The oxide-closure model for converting relative elemental yields from a

pulsed neutron spectroscopy log to absolute weight concentrations
uses the assumption that the sum of all oxides in the rock matrix is
1.00. The model is based on the observation that, with few exceptions,
sedimentary minerals are oxides, so that the sum of the dry weight
percent of all oxides must be 100%. The weight percent of an oxide
can be calculated from the dry weight percent of the cation by knowing
the chemical formula.

The absolute dry weight fraction, W, of element i is given by:

      1:  Wi = F * Yi / Si

Where:
  F = unknown normalization factor
  Yi = measured spectral gamma ray yield
  Si = tool sensitivity to that element, measured in the laboratory.

The dry weight fraction of the oxide is then:

      2: Qi = F * Xi * Yi / Si

Where:
  Qi = the oxide association factor, given by the chemical formula.

Since the sum of all Wi equals 1.00, it is possible to calculate F and

determine each Wi .

 ELEMENTAL CAPTURE SPECTROSCOPY LOG (ECS)

The elemental capture spectroscopy (ECS) log is the current version of
activation logging. Unlike earlier versions it does not use a pulsed neutron
source but uses instead a standard americium beryllium (AmBe) neutron source
and a large bismuth germanate (BGO) detector to measure relative elemental
yields based on neutron-induced capture gamma ray spectroscopy. The primary
elements measured in both open and cased holes are for the formation
elements silicon (Si), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), titanium (Ti), gadolinium
(Gd), chlorine (Cl), barium (Ba), and hydrogen (H).

Wellsite processing uses the 254-channel gamma ray energy spectrum

to produce dry-weight elements, lithology, and matrix properties. The
first step involves spectral deconvolution of the composite gamma ray
energy spectrum by using a set of elemental standards to produce
relative elemental yields. The relative yields are then converted to dry-
weight elemental concentration logs for the elements Si, Fe, Ca, S, Ti,
and Gd using the oxides closure method. Matrix properties and
quantitative dry-weight lithologies are then calculated from the dry-
weight elemental fractions using  empirical relationships derived from
an extensive core chemistry and mineralogy database.

The outputs are dry-weight lithology fractions (from elements)

  – total clay
  – total carbonate
  – anhydrite + gypsum from S and Ca
  – QFM (quartz + feldspar + mica)
  – pyrite
  – siderite
  – coal
  – salt

Matrix properties (from elements)

  – matrix grain density
  – matrix thermal and epithermal neutron
  – matrix sigma.

Applications
  ■ Integrated petrophysical analysis
  ■ Clay fraction independent of gamma ray, spontaneous potential,
and density neutron
  ■ Carbonate, gypsum or anhydrite, pyrite, siderite, coal, and salt
fractions for complex reservoir
analysis
  ■ Matrix density and matrix neutron values for more accurate porosity
calculation
  ■ Sigma matrix for cased and open hole sigma saturation analysis
  ■ Mineralogy-based permeability estimates
  ■ Quantitative lithology for rock properties modeling and pore
pressure prediction from seismic data
  ■ Geochemical stratigraphy (chemostratigraphy) for well-to-well
correlation
  ■ Enhanced completion and drilling fluid recommendations based on
clay versus carbonate cementation
  ■ Coalbed methane bed delineation, producibility, and in situ reserves
estimation
Update Nov 2021 from Bob Everett
The latest version of this tool from Schlumberger is called the Pulsar log. It is a
1.73 inch theough tubing measurement of:

 - ECS log for mineral identification

  - C/O log for fluid identification

  - capture cross section (SIGMA) curve

  - Neutron log for porosity

  - Fast neutron cross section,(FNXS) curve, a proxy for a density log .

Log analysis is done at the wellsite by the operating program so it may

be difficult to do an independent analysis from the raw log curves.. 

The Pulsar log is essentially a combination of an ECS and RST with a

few extra features - great for monitoring older wells for workover or
locating bypassed pay.

 RESERVOIR SATURATION LOG (RST)

The reservoir saturation tool (RST) is a combination of a modern carbon oxygen
log and a standard pulsed neutron log. The dual-detector spectrometry system
of the through-tubing reservoir saturation tool enables the recording of carbon
and oxygen and dual burst thermal decay time measurements during the same
trip in the well.

The carbon/oxygen (C/O) ratio is used to determine the formation oil

saturation independent of the formation water salinity. This calculation
is particularly helpful if the water salinity is low or unknown. If the
salinity of the formation water is high, the dual burst thermal decay
time measurement is used. A combination of both measurements can
be used to detect and quantify the presence of injection water of a
different salinity from that of the connate water.

Applications
  ■ Formation evaluation behind casing
  ■ Sigma, porosity, and carbon/oxygen measurement in one trip in the
wellbore
  ■ Water saturation evaluation in old wells where modern open hole
logs have not been run
  ■ Measurement of water velocity inside casing, irrespective of
wellbore angle (production logging)
  ■ Measurement of near-wellbore water velocity outside the casing
(remedial applications)
  ■ Formation oil volume from C/O ratio, independent of formation
water salinity
  ■ Flowing wells (in combination with an external borehole holdup
sensor)
  ■ Capture yields (H, Cl, Ca, Si, Fe, S, Gd, and Mg)
  ■ Inelastic yields (C, O, Si, Ca, and Fe)
  ■ Three-phase borehole holdup
  ■ PVL* Phase Velocity Log
  ■ Borehole salinity
  ■ SpectroLith lithology indicators Nuclear