THE IDEAL - GAS EQUATION OF STATE

One way of reporting property data for pure substances is to list values of properties at various
states. The property table provide very accurate information about the properties, but they are very bulky.
A more practical and desirable approach would be to have some simple relations among the properties
that are sufficiently general and accurate. Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature and specific
volume of a substance is called an equation of state. Property relations that involves other properties of a
substance at equilibrium states are also referred to as equations of state. There are several equations of
state and the simplest and best-known equation of state of substances in the gas phase is the ideal gas
equation of state. This equation predicts the P-V-T behaviour of a gas quite accurately within some
properly selected region. Gas and vapour are often used as synonymous words. The vapour phase of a
substance is customarily called a gas when it is above the critical temperature. Vapour usually implies a
gas that is not far from a state of condensation.
In 1662, Robert Boyle, an Englishman observed during his experiments with a vacuum chamber
that the pressure of gases is inversely proportional to their volume. In 1802, T. Charles and J. Gay-Lussac,
Frenchmen experimentally determined that at low pressures the volume of a gas is proportional to its
temperature, that is;

P=R( ) or Pv = RT

where the constant of proportionality R is called the gas constant. The equation Pv = RT is called the ideal
gas equation of state, or simply the ideal gas relation, and a gas that obeys this relation is called an ideal
gas. In this equation, P is the absolute pressure, T is the absolute Temperature, and v is the specific volume.
The gas constant R is different for each gas and is determined from;

R= (kJ/kg K or kPa m3/kg K)

Where Ru is the universal gas constant and M is the molar mass (also called molecular weight) of the gas.
The constant Ru is the same for all substances and its value is;
Ru = 8.314 kJ/kmol K
8.314 kPa m3/kmol K
0.08314 bar m3/kmol K
The molar mass M can simply be defined as the mass of one mole (also called a gram-mole,
abbreviated gmol) of a substance in grammes, or the mass of one kmol (also called a kilogramme-mole,
abbreviated kgmol) in kilogrammes. In the English units, it is the mass of 1 lbmol (1 pound-mole = 0.4536
kmol) in Ibm (1 pound-mole = 0.4536 kg).
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 Note that the molar mass of the substance has the same numerical value in both unit systems
because of the way it is defined. When it is indicated that the molar mass of nitrogen is 28, it simply means
that the mass of 1kmol of nitrogen is 28 kg, or the mass of 1 Ibmol of nitrogen is 28 Ibm. That is, M =
28kg/kmol = 28 Ibm/Ibmol. That is, M = 28 kg/kmol = 28 Ibm /Ibmol. The mass of a system is equal to
the product of its molar mass M and the mole number N.
m = MN (kg)
The values of molar mass for several substances are given in thermodynamic property tables, from
which the value of R can be determined from the relation R = R u/M. The ideal gas equation of state can
be written in several different forms.
V = mv  PV = mRT
mR = (MN)R = NRu  PV = NRuT
V = Nv  Pv = RuT
Where v is the molar specific volume, that is, the volume per unit mole (in m 3/kmol or ft3/Ibmol). The
properties of an ideal gas at two different states, for a fixed mass, are related to each other by;

=
Thus, a perfect gas, or an ideal gas, maybe defined as a state of a substance, whose evaporation
from its liquid state is complete, and strictly obeys all the gas laws under all conditions of temperature and
pressure. Many familiar gases, which are ordinarily difficult to liquefy such as oxygen, nitrogen,
hydrogen, helium, air etc. within certain temperature and pressure limits, can be regarded as perfect (ideal)
gasses.

Boyle’s Law:

Boyle’s law states that; “the absolute pressure of a given mass of a prefect gas varies inversely as
it’s volume, when the temperature remains constant”.

Thus, P α or PV = Constant

Under different sets of conditions; P1V1 = P2V2 = P3V3 = Constant

Charles’ Law:

i. “The volume of a given mass of a perfect gas varies directly as its absolute temperature, when the
absolute pressure remains constant”.

Thus; V α T or = Constant
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Under different sets of conditions;

= = …………… = Constant

ii. “All perfect gases change in volume by th of its original volume at 0o C for every 1o C change
in temperature, when the pressure remains constant”.
Let Vo = Volume of given mass of gas at 0o C, and
Vt = Volume of the same mass of gas at to C

Thus, Vt = Vo + V o t = Vo ( )

= Vo × or =

Where;
T = absolute temperature corresponding to to C
To = absolute temperature corresponding to 0o C

Thus, the volume of a gas goes on decreasing by of its original volume for every 1o C decrease in

temperature.

Gay-Lussac Law:

The Gay-Lussac law states that; “the absolute pressure of a given mass of a perfect gas varies
directly as its absolute temperature, when the volume remains constant”. That is;

P α T or = Constant

Thus, = = …………… = Constant

Joule’s Law:

Joule’s law states that; “the change of internal energy of a perfect gas is directly proportional to
the change of temperature”.
dE α dT or dE = mc dT = mc (T2 ‒ T1)
c is a constant of proportionality, known as specific heat.
An important consequence of this law is that if the temperature of a given mass m of a gas changes
from T1 to T2, then the internal energy will change from E1 to E2 and the change in internal energy (E2 –
E1) will be same irrespective of the manner how the pressure P and volume V of the gas have changed.

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The combination of Boyle’s and Charles’ law give the General Gas Equation;

= = = ………… = Constant c

The Ideal - Gas Equation of State, also called the Characteristic Equation of a Gas is a modified
form of the General Gas Equation. If the volume V in the general gas equation is taken as that of 1kg of
gas (known as its specific volume, and denoted by small v), then the constant c in the general gas equation
is represented by another constant R. Thus, the general gas equation becomes;
Pv = RT
For any mass m kg of a gas, the equation becomes;
mPv = mRT or;
PV = mRT

P= RT = ρRT, where ρ is the density of the gas.

Example 1

A gas occupies a volume of 0.1m3 at a temperature of 20o C and a pressure of 1.5 bar. Find the
final temperature of the gas, if it is compressed to a pressure of 7.5 bar and occupies a volume of 0.04 m 3.

Solution:
Given:
V1 = 0.1m3, T1 = 20o C = 20 + 273 = 293 K
P1 = 1.5 bar = 1.5 x 105 N/m2; P2 = 7.5 bar = 7.5 x 105 N/m2
V2 = 0.04 m3
Let T2 = final temperature of the gas.
From the general gas equation;

. .
T2 = =
. .

T2 = 586 K
= 586 – 273o C
T2 = 313o C

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Example 2

A vessel of capacity 3 m3 contains air at a pressure of 1.5 bar and a temperature of 25 o C. Additional
air is now pumped into the system until the pressure rises to 30 bar and temperature rises to 60 o C.
Determine the mass of air pumped in and express the quantity as a volume at a pressure of 1.02 bar and a
temperature of 20o C. If the vessel is allowed to cool until the temperature is again 25 o C, calculate the
pressure in the vessel if the cooling is at constant volume.

Solution:
Given:
V1 = 3 m3; P1 = 1.5 bar = 1.5 x 105 N/m2; T1 = 25o C = 298 K;
P2 = 30 bar = 30 x 105 N/m2; T2 = 60o C = 333 K;
P3 = 1.02 bar = 1.02 x 105 N/m2; T3 = 20o C = 293 K
V2 = V1 = 3 m3
i. Mass of air pumped in:
Let mass of air initially in vessel = M1
mass of air after pumping = M2
From the ideal gas equation of state:
P1V1 = M1RT1 (From tables R for air = 287 J/kg K)
.
M1 = =

M1 = 5.26 kg
Similarly, P2V2 = M2RT2

M2 = =

M2 = 94.17 kg
Therefore, mass of air pumped in M = M2 – M1
M = 94.17 – 5.26 kg
M = 88.91 kg
ii. Volume of air pumped in at a pressure of 1.02 bar and temperature of 20 o C;
Let V3 = Volume of air pumped in
P3V3 = mRT3
.
V3 = =
.

V3 = 73.3 m3
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iii. Pressure in the vessel after cooling;
Let P4 = pressure in vessel after cooling,
now, temperature after cooling T4 = T1 = 25o C (cooling is at constant volume).

P4 = = = 26.8 x 105 N/m2

P4 = 26.8 bar

SPECIFIC HEATS OF GAS

The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of its unit
mass through one degree. All the liquids and solids have only one specific heat. But a gas can have any
number of specific heats (lying between zero and infinity) depending upon the conditions under which it
is heated.

Specific Heat at Constant Volume

Specific heat at constant volume is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of gas through one degree when it is heated at constant volume. It is denoted by Cv. Thus; Total
heat supplied at constant volume;
Q1-2 = Mass x Specific heat at constant volume x Rise in temperature
= m Cv (T2 – T1)
It should be noted that whenever a gas is heated at constant volume, no work is done by the gas. The
whole heat energy is utilised in increasing the temperature and pressure of the gas and it remains within
the body of the gas. This heat energy represents the increase in internal energy of the gas.

Specific Heat at Constant Pressure

Specific heat at constant pressure is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of gas through one degree, when it is heated at constant pressure. It is generally denoted by C p.
Total heat supplied to the gas at constant pressure;
Q1-2 = Mass x Specific heat at constant pressure x Rise in temperature
= m Cp (T2 – T1)
Whenever a gas is heated at constant pressure, the heat supplied to the gas is utilised for the following
purposes:

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i. To raise the temperature of the gas, this heat remains within the body of the gas and represents the
increase in internal energy. Increase in internal energy;
dU = m Cv (T2 – T1)
ii. To do some external work during expansion work done by the gas;
W1-2 = P (V2 – V1) = m R (T2 – T1)
It should be noted that the specific heat at constant pressure C p is always greater than Cv because at
constant pressure, the system is allowed to expand and the energy for this expansion work must also be
supplied to the system.
From the above, Q1-2 can be re-written thus;
Q1-2 = dU + W1-2
Q1-2 – W1-2 = dU (first law of thermodynamics).

Enthalpy of a Gas

In thermodynamics, one of the basic quantities most frequently recurring is the sum of the internal
energy (U) and the product of pressure and volume (PV). This sum is termed as enthalpy H.
Enthalpy H = U + PV
Since (U + PV) is made up entirely of properties, therefore enthalpy H is also a property.
For unit mass, specific enthalpy;
h = u + pvs
Where; u = specific internal energy, vs = specific volume
Remember; Q1-2 = dU + W1-2
= dU + pdv
When a gas is heated at constant pressure from an initial condition 1 to a final condition 2, then
change in internal energy;
dU = U2 – U1
and work done by the gas;
W1-2 = pdv = p (V2 ‒ V1)
Q1-2 = (U2 – U1) + p (V2 – V1)
= (U2 + pv2) – (U1 + pv1)
= H2 – H1
For a unit mass; q1-2 = h2 – h1
i.e. Q1-2 = dH

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Thus, for a constant pressure process, the heat supplied to the gas is equal to the change of enthalpy.

Molar Specific Heats of a Gas

The molar or volumetric specific heat of a gas may be defined as the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of unit mole of gas through one degree.
Molar specific heat;
Cm = Mc
Where;
M = Molecular mass of the gas
Molar specific heat at constant volume
Cvm = MCv
Molar specific heat at constant pressure
Cpm = MCp

Relation Between Specific Heats

Consider a gas in an enclosed container and being heated at constant pressure from the initial
state 1 to the final state 2.
Let;
m = Mass of the gas
T1 = Initial temperature of the gas
T2 = Final temperature of the gas
V1 = Initial volume of the gas
V2 = Final volume of the gas
Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure
Cv = Specific heat at constant volume
P = Constant pressure
Heat supplied to the gas at constant pressure Q1-2 = m Cp (T2 – T1)
Remember, a part of this heat is utilised in doing external work, and the rest remains within the gas and
is used in increasing the internal energy of the gas.
Therefore:
Heat Utilised for External Work W1-2 = P (V2 – V1) ……………… (i)
And;
Increase Internal Energy; dU = m Cv (T2 – T1) ……………………. (ii)

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Remember that; Q1-2 = W1-2 + dU …………………………………… (iii)

Therefore; m Cp (T2 – T1) = P (V2 – V1) + m Cv (T2 – T1) ………………(iv)

Using the ideal gas equation of state (characteristic equation of gas) i.e. PV = mRT, we have
PV1 = mRT1 and
PV2 = mRT2
Therefore; P (V2 – V1) = mR (T2 – T1)
Substituting the value of P (V2 – V1) in equation (iv)
m Cp (T2 – T1) = mR (T2 – T1) + m Cv (T2 – T1)
Therefore; Cp = R + Cv or Cp – Cv = R ……………………………(v)
Equation (v) can be rewritten as;

Cv (γ – 1) = R where γ =

Cv = …………………………… (vi)

The value of R is taken as 287 J/kg K or 0.287 kJ/kg K. In terms of molar specific heats, equation
(v) becomes; Cpm – Cvm = Ru
Where Ru is the universal gas constant and its value is taken as 8.314 J/kg K or 8.314 kJ/kg K.

Regnault’s Law
The Regnault’s law states that; “the two specific heats (i.e. specific heat at constant pressure C p,
and the specific heat at constant volume Cv) do not change with the change in pressure and temperature
of gas.

Example 1

A Closed vessel contains 2 kg of carbon dioxide at temperature 20o C and pressure 0.7 bar. Heat
is supplied to the vessel till the gas acquires a pressure of 1.4 bar. Calculate (i) final temperature; (ii) work
done on or by the gas; (iii) heat added; and (iv) change in internal energy. Take specific heat of the gas at
constant volume as 0.657 kJ/kg K

Solution:
Given;
m = 2 kg; T1 = 20o C = 20 +273 K = 293 K
P1 = 0.7 bar; P2 = 1.4 bar

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(i) Final Temperature T2?
Gas heated in closed vessel; therefore, volume of gas will remain constant, thus;

. ×
T2 = =
.
T2 = 586 K = 313o C
(ii) Work done on or by the gas;
Since there is no change in volume, work done on or by the gas W 1-2 is zero.
(iii) Heat added at constant volume;
Q1-2 = m Cv (T2 – T1)
= 2 x 0.657 (586 – 293) = 385 kJ
(iv) Q1-2 = W1-2 + dU
where dU = change in internal energy
Therefore, dU = Q1-2 = 385 kJ.
Example 2
A mass of 0.25 kg of air in a closed system expands from 2 bar, 60 o C to 1 bar and 40o C while
receiving 1.005 kJ of heat from a reservoir at 100 o C. The surrounding atmosphere is at 0.95 bar and 27 o
C. Determine the maximum work. How much of this work would be done on the atmosphere? Take C v =
0.712 kJ/kg K and R = 287 kJ/kg K.

Solution:
Given:
m = 0.25 kg; P1 = 2 bar = 2 x 105 N/m2; T1 = 60o C = 333 K
P2 = 1bar = 1 x 105 N/m2; T2 = 40o C = 313 K
Q = 1.005 kJ; TR 100o C = 373 K
Patm = 0.95 bar = 0.95 x 105 N/m2; Tatm = 27o C = 300 K
From P1V1 = mRT1
.
V1 = m3 = 0.119 m3

Similarly,
. × ×
V2 = = = 0.224 m2

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Work done on the atmosphere;
W1 (Watm) = Patm (V2 – V1)
= 0.95 X 105 (0.224 – 0.119)
= 9975 J = 9.975 kJ
Change in internal energy dU = m Cv (T2 – T1)
= 0.25 x 0.712 (313 – 333) kJ
dU = ‒ 3.56 kJ
The negative sign indicates a decrease of internal energy.
Net work done W2 = Q – dU
= 1.005 – (‒3.56)
= 4.565 kJ
Therefore, maximum work done W
= W1 + W2
= 9.975 + 4.565
Wmax = 14.54 J
Work done on the atmosphere has been calculated as Watm = 9.975 kJ

Example 3

3 kg of an ideal gas is expanded from a pressure 7 bar and volume 1.5 m3 to a pressure 1.4 bar and
volume 4.5 m3. The change in internal energy is 525 kJ. The specific heat at constant volume for the gas
is 1.047 kJ/kg K. Calculate (i) Gas constant; (ii) Change in enthalpy; (iii) Initial and final temperature.

Solution:

Given;
m = 3 kg; P1 = 7 bar = 7 x 105 N/m2; V1 = 1.5 m3
P2 = 1.4 bar = 1.4 x 105 N/m2; V2 = 4.5 m3; dU = 525 kJ; Cv = 1.047 kJ/kg K

(i) Gas Constant R;

From P1V1 = mRT1
.
RT1 = =

= 3.5 x 105 ………………………………. (i)

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 . .
Similarly, RT2 = =

= 2.1 x 105 ………………………………. (ii)

Subtract (ii) from (i) (R is always positive)
R (T1 – T2) = (3.5 – 2.1) x 105
= 1.4 x 105 ……………….……………… (iii)
Change in internal energy; dU = m Cv (T2 – T1)
Note:
The expansion process is associated with decrease in internal energy. Thus, change in internal
energy is negative;
‒525 = 3 x 1.047 (T2 – T1)
= ‒3.141(T1 – T2)
T1 –T2 = = 167.14 ……………………………(iv)
.

From equation (iii) and (iv);

.
R=
.
R = 838 J/kg K = 0.838 kJ/kg K

(ii) Change in enthalpy dH (Note; for a constant process, the heat supplied to the gas equal to the
change in enthalpy dH)
Thus; Cp – Cv = R
Cp = R + Cv = 0.838 + 1.047
= 1.885 kJ/kg K
Therefore, dH = m Cp (T2 – T1) = 3 × 1.885 (‒167.14)
= ‒945 kJ
The negative sign indicates a decrease in enthalpy.

Example 4

A gas mixture obeying perfect gas law has a molecular mass of 26.7. Assuming a mean specific heat at
constant volume of 21.1 kJ/kg K, determine the values of characteristic gas constant, molar specific heat
at constant pressure, and the ratio of specific heats.

Solution:
Given; M = 26.7; Cvm = 21.1 kJ/kg K
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(i) Characteristic gas constant R;

( ) .
R= =
( ) .

= 0.3114 kJ/kg K
(ii) Molar specific heat at constant pressure Cpm;
Cpm – Cvm = Ru
Cpm = Ru + Cvm
= 8.314 + 21.1 = 29.414 kJ/kg K

(iii) Ratio of specific heats γ;

.
γ= =
.
γ = 1.394

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