Sampling Techniques and Sample

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

 Define sampling and other technical terms about sampling.
 Differentiate probability and non-probability sampling and its types.
 Explain the probability sampling in qualitative research.

In research, sampling is a word that refers to your method or process of selecting respondents or
people to answer questions meant to yield data for a research study. The chosen ones constitute the
sample through which you will derive facts and evidence to support the claims or conclusions propounded
by your research problem. The bigger group from where you choose the sample is called population, and
sampling frame is the term used to mean the list of the members of such population from where you will
get the sample. (Paris 2013)

History
The beginning of sampling could be traced back to the early political activities of the Americans in
1920 when Literary Digest did a pioneering survey about the American citizens’ favorite among the 1920
presidential candidates. This was the very first survey that served as the impetus for the discovery by
academic researchers of other sampling strategies that they categorized into two classes: probability
sampling or unbiased sampling and non-probability sampling. (Babbie 2013)

Probability Sampling or Unbiased Sampling

Probability sampling involves all members listed in the sampling frame representing a certain
population focused on by your study. An equal chance of participation in the sampling or selection
process is given to every member listed in the sampling frame. By means of this unbiased sampling, you
can obtain a sample that can represent the population under study or of showing strong similarities in
characteristics with the members of the population.

A sampling error crops up if the selection does not take place in the way it is planned. Such sampling
error is manifested by strong dissimilarity between the sample and the ones listed in the sampling frame.
(P) How numerous the sampling errors are depending on the size of the sample. The smaller the sample
is, the bigger the number of sampling errors. Thus, choose to have a bigger sample of respondents to
avoid sampling errors. However, deciding to increase the size of your sample is not so easy. There are
these things you must mull over in finalizing about this such as expenses for questionnaires and interview
trips, interview schedules, and time for reading respondents’ answers.

The right sample size also depends on whether the group is heterogeneous or homogeneous.
The first group requires a bigger size; the second, a smaller one. For a study in the field of social
sciences requiring an in- depth investigation of something such as one involving the national government,
the right sample size ranges from 1,000 to 1,500 or up to 2,500. On the other hand, hundreds, not
thousands, of respondent’s source for a study about any local government unit. (Suter 2012; Emmel
2013)

Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is the best type of probability sampling through which you can choose
sample from a population. Using a pure-chance selection, you assure every member the same
opportunity to be in the sample. Here, the only basis of including or excluding a member is by chance or
opportunity, not by any occurrence accounted for by cause-effect relationships. Simple random sampling
happens through any of these two methods: (Burns 2012)
a. Have a list of all members of the population; write each name on a card and choose cards through a
pure-chance selection.
b. Have a list of all members; give a number to member and then use randomized or unordered numbers in
selecting names from the list.

2. Systematic
Sampling For this kind of probability sampling, chance and system are the ones to determine who
should compose the sample. For instance, if you want to have a sample of 150, you may select a set of
numbers like 1 to 15, and out of a list of 1,500 students, take every 15th name on the list until you
complete the total number of respondents to constitute your sample.

3. Stratified Sampling
The group comprising the sample is chosen in a way that such group is liable to subdivision during
the data analysis stage. A study needing group- by- group analysis finds stratified sampling the right
probability sampling to use.
4. Cluster Sampling
This is a probability sampling that makes you isolate a set of persons instead of individual members
to serve as sample members. For example, if you want to have a sample of 120 out of 1,000 students,
you can randomly select three sections with 40 students each to constitute the sample.

Sampling in Qualitative Research

Most sampling in qualitative research entails purposive sampling of some kind. Probability
sampling which is applied in quantitative research is not appropriate to qualitative research.

According to Denzin and Lincoln (1994, 2002 in Silveman, 2001, p.250), "Many qualitative
researchers employ ... purposive, and not random sampling methods. They seek out groups, settings and
individuals were. the processes being studied are most likely to occur" Theoretical and purposive
sampling are often used interchangeably since the only difference is when the purpose behind purposive
sampling is not theoretically defined (Silverman, 2001). Theoretical sampling has three features: (1)
choosing cases in terms of your theory; (2) choosing 'deviant' cases; and (3) changing the size of your
sample during the research (Mason, 1996, p. 2 in Silverman, 2001. p. 252).

Choosing cases in terms of your theory-selecting a sample of particular processes, types,

categories or examples which are relevant to or appear within the wider universe’

Choosing deviant cases-instead of selecting a case which is likely to support your argument,
seek out negative instances as defined by the theory with which you are working,

Changing the size of your sample during the research-manipulating your sample whenever
necessary

According to Mason (1996, p. 100 in Silverman, 2001, p.253), "Theoretical or purposive sampling
is a set of procedures where the researcher manipulates their analysis, theory, and sampling activities
interactively during the research process, to a much greater extent than in statistical sampling!

Such flexibility, according to Silverman (2001, p. 253), becomes useful in the following cases:

1. As new factors emerge you may want to increase your sample to say more about them.
2. You may want to focus on a small part of your sample in early stages, using the wider sample for later
tests of emerging generalizations.
3. Unexpected generalizations during data analysis led you to seek out new deviant cases.

Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling disregards random selection of subjects. The subjects are chosen
based on their availability or the purpose of the study, and in some cases, on the sole discretion of the
researcher. This is not a scientific way of selecting respondents. Neither does it offer a valid or an
objective way of detecting sampling errors. (Edmond 2013)

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

1. Quota Sampling
You resort to quota sampling when you think you know the characteristics of the target population very
well. In this case, you tend to choose sample members possessing or indicating the characteristics of the
target population. Using a quota or a specific set of persons whom you believe to have the characteristics
of the target population involved in the study is your way of showing that the sample you have chosen
closely represents the target population as regards such characteristics.

2. Voluntary Sampling
Since the subjects you expect to participate in the sample selection are the ones volunteering to
constitute the sample, there is no need for you to do any selection process.

3. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

You choose people whom you are sure could correspond to the objectives of your study, like selecting
those with rich experience or interest in your study.

4. Availability Sampling
The willingness of a person as your subject to interact with you counts a lot in this non-probability
sampling method. If during the data-collection time, you encounter people walking on a school campus,
along corridors, and along the park or employees lining up at an office, and these people show
willingness to respond to your questions, then you automatically consider them as your respondents.
5. Snowball Sampling
Like snow expanding widely or rolling rapidly, this sampling method does not give a specific set of
samples. This is true for a study involving unspecified group of people. Dealing with varied groups of
people such as street children, mendicants, drug dependents, call center workers, informal settlers, street
vendors, and the like is possible in this kind of non-probability sampling. Free to obtain data from any
group just like snow freely expanding and accumulating at a certain place, you tend to increase the
number of people you want to form the sample of your study. (Harding 2013)

References

Baraceros, E.L. (2016). Practical Research 1. Ist ed. Rex Book Store. Manila

Melegrito, M.L.F. (2016) Practical Research 1. Phoenix Publishing, Quezon City

ACTIVITY #2
Directions: On the line before each number, write the letter of the expression in the box that corresponds
to the expression outside the box.

a. Sampling Frame f. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

b. Snowball Sampling g. Voluntary Sampling
c. Simple Random Sampling h. Cluster Sampling
d. Availability Sampling i. Quota Sampling
e. Stratified Sampling j. Systematic

1. Sampling for this kind of probability sampling, chance and system are the ones to
determine who should compose the sample.
2. Using a specific set of persons whom you believe to have the characteristics of the target
population involved in the study.
__3. This is a probability sampling that makes you isolate a set of persons instead of individual
members to serve as sample members.

__4. Since the subjects you expect to participate in the sample selection are the ones volunteering
to constitute the sample, there is no need for you to do any selection process.

__5. You choose people whom you are sure could correspond to the objectives of your study, like
selecting those with rich experience or interest in your study.

__6. The group comprising the sample is chosen in a way that such group is liable to subdivision
during the data analysis stage.

__7. The willingness of a person as your subject to interact with you counts a lot in this non-
probability sampling method.

__8. It is the best type of probability sampling through which you can choose sample from a
population using a pure-chance selection.

__9. This sampling method does not give a specific set of samples. This is true for a study
involving unspecified group of people.

__10. It is the term used to mean the list of the members of such population from where you will
get the sample.

ACTIVITY #3

Directions: Write P if the sentence talks about probability sampling; otherwise, write NP.
1. Checking every 10th student in the list
2. Interviewing some persons, you meet on the campus.
3. Dividing 100 persons into groups
4. Choosing subjects behaving like the majority members of NPC Town
5. Choosing a group of subjects among several groups
_________6. Choosing subjects capable of helping you meet the aim of your study
7. Choosing samples by chance but through an organizational pattern
_________8. Letting all members in the population join the selection process
9. Having people willing to be chosen as respondents
10. Matching people’s traits with the population members’ traits
 Data Collection and Analysis Procedures
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
 Plans data collection, data gathering instrument and analysis procedures
 Differentiate various data collection and analysis procedures such as survey, interview and
observation.

In the succeeding pages, we will address the questions relating to data collection and sampling of
informants for a qualitative research study. The next section extends the discussion on data collection by
identifying ways of making sense of the data collected (Finding Answers through Data Collection) before
the discussion focuses on the ways of analyzing data (Analyzing the Meaning of the Data and Drawing
Conclusions)

Types of Qualitative Data Collection

The following table summarizes the key features of four types of qualitative data collection and the
advantages and disadvantages of each. The table lists data collection approaches in qualitative research
 But ethics of research obliges qualitative researchers to ensure certain safeguards to protect the
informant's rights. These ethical safeguards may include, but not limited to,

1. clear and written articulation of the research objectives and description of how data will be used;
2. written permission from the informant to proceed with the study as articulated;
3. informing the informant of all data collection devices and activities
4. verbatim transcriptions and written interpretations and reports will be made available to the informant;
5. prioritizing the informant's rights, interests, and wishes when choice are made regarding reporting the
data; and
6. giving the informant the discretion to decide about his or her anonym (Creswell, 1994, p. 166).

ACTIVITY #5
 Drawing Patterns and Themes from Data
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
 Describe sampling procedures for qualitative research
 Explain patterns and themes from data
 Relate findings with pertinent literature

Data analysis and interpretation are interrelated stages in research. In qualitative research,
however, researchers remain open to new ideas in their data, visiting and revisiting their analysis and
interpretation as their studies proceed (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011, p. 301). Though it may be the case,
data analysis is different from data interpretation as can be gleaned from the passage below:

In ethnography... you learn something (collect some data"), then you try to make sense out of it
(analysis), then you go back and see the interpretation makes sense in light of new experience collect
more data), then you refine your interpretation ("more analysis"), and so on The process is dialectic, not
linear (Agar, 1990, p. 5 in Hesse-Biber Leavy, 2011, p. 301).

Steps Involved in Qualitative Data Analysis and Interpretation

There are three steps involved in qualitative data analysis and interpretation. These are: (1) data
preparation phase, (2) and (3) data exploration phase and data reduction phase, and (4) Interpretation
(Hesse: Biber & Leavy, 2011, 302-305).

Step 1: Data preparation phase.

You should know what data you are going to analyze and whether these data are going to
provide with an understanding of your research question. For example, if you are conducting interviews or
focus groups, you might find the need to transcribe your data, input and store the data into a database,
print out copies from the database and carefully begin reading your entries and correcting them, if
needed.

If you plan to transcribe your data, then the following questions will be useful for you:

1. Will you videotape or audiotape your interview session or use some other recording device?
2. Will you transcribe the entire data session? Will you only summarize key passages or quotes? Will you
select only those passages you perceive to be related to key research issues?
3. Will you transcribe all types of data you collect (i.e., all verbal data including laughter, pauses, emotions
such as sadness or anger and nonverbal data such as hand gestures)? 5. What transcription format will
you use? How will you represent a respondent's voice, nonverbal information, and so on? (Hesse-Biber
4. Who will transcribe your data? & Leavy, 2011, p. 302-303).
Some advantages of transcribing research data include: (1) providing the researcher with an
opportunity to actively engage with his or her research material
from the beginning of data collection: (2) ensuring that researchers are aware of their own impact on the
data early in the gathering process; and (3) getting the opportunity to connect with the data in a grounded
manner that helps in enhancing the validity of the data-gathering techniques (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011,
p. 302-303).

For some researchers who rely on transcribed data, they increasingly resort to using computer-
assisted transcription software programs that can transcribe both audio and video data. Examples of
these transcription software are HyperTransribe (www.researchware.com) and Transana
www.transana.org). Several advantages can be gained from using computer-assisted transcription
software. If you are using digitized video data, it enables you to listen intently to your respondents' words
and note and record their nonverbal behaviors. Through the time-stamp features of the software
programs, you can retrieve specific segments of your transcript without having to rewind and start the
original transcription of audio or video data (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011, p. 304-305).

Steps 2 and 3: Data exploration phase and data reduction phase.

Data exploration and data reduction are mutually causative processes, Hesse-Biber & Leavy
(2011) describe these processes below:

In the exploration phase, you read your textual visual or audio data and think about it. In the
process of thinking about it, you might begin to mark up your text by highlighting what you feel is
important. Perhaps you may write down these ideas in the form of a memo... Try summarizing the data
you have collected thus far; write down (memo) any ideas that come to you as you are reading your
notes, interviews, and so on. What things fit together? What is problematic? Using visual aids-such as
diagrams might help you think about ideas. What are the most telling quotes in your data? Researchers
who want to get a closer picture of their data to build theory and to potentially draw out some findings
engage in all of these "first run through the data" techniques.
 After gaining more familiarity with your data by simply reading it over several times and perhaps
writing up a brief memo of your impression about the respondent and any ideas you may want to jot down
about what you think is going on in this interview, you might begin to code your data. The coding process
can start as soon as you begin to collect some data; you do not need to nor should you wait for all your
data to be collected. A little bit of data collection and data analysis can reveal some important patterns.
Data collection and data analysis are iterative processes-the two work interactively (Hesse-Biber & Leavy,
2011, p. 305).

The following diagram/figure provides a graphic representation of the qualitative coding process
which consists of coding and memoing

A major concern in data interpretation in qualitative research relates to issues of power and
control over the interpretation process. As much of qualitative research requires observation and
interviewing methods, the researcher constantly interacts with the researched or the informants. There
could be power dynamics within the interviewer/interviewee relationship that can affect the interpretation
of research results. Social attributes of both the researcher and the researched can also affect to some
extent positions and relations or power and authority in the research process (Hesse-Biber & Leavy,
2011, p. 316).

Extending the discussion to the interpretation of findings, a major concern is the extent to which
power differences between the researcher and researched impact or affect the research findings and the
researcher's assessment of what they mean (the interpretation process). Hence, the question is: "What
power does the researcher have in determining whose voice will be heard in the interpretation of research
findings? (Hesse- Biber & Leavy, 2011, p. 316).

The following figure, Steps in Data Analysis and Interpretation: A Visual Model provides a
graphical representation of the various steps in qualitative data analysis and interpretation. Note the
iterative dynamics between data collection and analysis.

ACTIVITY #6
Instruction: Examine any qualitative research study which you are interested in. Then try to answer the
 following questions:

1. What is the title of the research study?

2. What is the focus of the research?

3. What is/are the study's research question/s?

4. Are the methods of research used appropriate to the nature of the research question/s being
addressed? Why or why not?

5. What are the weaknesses of the study, and what will you suggest addressing these weaknesses and
consequently, improve the study?

Formulating Conclusions and Recommendations

At the end of this module, you are expected to:
 Explain the guidelines for making conclusions and recommendations
 Infer conclusions from patterns and themes in the data
 Identify the different process and parts of report writing.

Research writing and reporting is not an easy task for neophytes. This section aims to provide
answers concerning writing a research report. The different parts of a research report will be briefly
discussed following the outline below:

1. Introductory Phase
2. Review of Literature
3. Research Methodology
4. Body of the Report
5. Conclusion and Recommendation

Process and Parts of Report Writing

Introductory Phase

As suggested by Silverman (2006), research report starts from four elements including: title, abstract, list
of contents, and introduction. The following is a brief description of each element

Research Title

A research title must get the attention of the readers. In other words, it must be "catchy. Being catchy
does not mean sacrificing the main message or idea of your report. Hence, according to Silverman (2006,
p. 339) choose 'a title that catches the reader's attention while properly informing them about the focus of
your research." Silverman (2006, p. 206) is suggesting a "two-part title" containing a stimulating title
applying a present participle signifying action and a subtitle which is more descriptive.

Example:

Stimulating title: Have you experienced being bullied?

Descriptive title: A study on the perception of the victims of bullying in the primary schools

Research Abstract
A research abstract is a vital component of a report as it provides the readers with snap view of
what you will expect from it. The abstract gives a synopsis of the objectives and results of the report to be
described in detailed form in the body of the report. Silverman (2006) identified what an abstract should
contain:
1. research problem
2. significance and value of the problem
3. data and methods utilized
4. main findings
5. implication in the light of other research

A research abstract has a word limit. The most common word limit is 100. This is a challenging part of
 writing a report because it is difficult to write the many things that you want to impart in just a few words

List of Contents
A list of contents is a useful component of a report as it guides the readers to find their way
through the different parts of the report. Hence, the consistency of the page numbers with the parts of the
report is vital Inconsistent page numbering would result to the reader's confusion

Introduction
The introduction acquaints the readers with the what, why, and how of the report. According to
Murcott (1997, p. 1) as cited in Silverman (2006). answering the questions below would lead you to the
development of the introduction:

1. What is the research all about?

2. Why have you chosen this topic rather than the other topics?
3. Why are you interested in this topic?
4. How will you undertake the research?
5. What kind of research approach will you utilize? 6. What are your research questions of problems?

Review of Literature

The Review of Related Literature (RRL) provides study background and environment. The
intention of the RRL is to locate the study in its area of discipline and reveal its relevance and significance
in the environment. The RRL would indicate if your topic is building on previous researchers or if it is a
new area of inquiry. The RRL should make one realize that a study is worth pursuing or not.

 Focus only on studies that are vital and relevant in defining your
research problem.

 Organize what you say in the form of an argument rather than a

simple description of other studies

Research Methodology

In research, the research process is as important as the research content. Thus, a research
report must also contain a description of the research strategy. The readers will be interested in finding
how you arrived at a particular study result. Silverman (2008) pointed out that the readers would be
interested to know the following:

According to Silverman (2006). RRL is not a "litany" of all studies done related to the topic. It is
also not an inventory of the accomplishments of other authors on the same topic nor is it a map of
projects like the area of study. Rather, it is an environmental or disciplinal context that leads one to locate
one's study. Hence, Silverman (2008) recommends the following points:

1. Research topic
2. Case(s) you have studied
3. Research methods you have chosen to use
4. How you have analyzed the data

This part of the research report is sensitive hence must be dealt with caution. For you to answer
questions such as: Is your methodology appropriate for the research problem? How did you reach that
conclusion? Silverman suggested that to be able to answer methodological questions, you must be
familiar with and Knowledgeable about the following:

 Data you have studied

 How you obtained those data
 What claims you are making about the data
 Methods you have used to gather the data
 Why you have chosen these methods
 How you have analyzed your data

Writing Your Data

The most essential part of the report is writing about the data collected through your research.
There are two important areas of consideration in the writing up of data, namely, data analysis and data
presentation.
In the data analysis, there is no right or wrong way. Creswell (1994, p. 153) only requires the
researcher to:
1. "be comfortable with developing categories and making comparisons and contrasts."
2. “be open to possibilities and see contrary or alternative explanations for the findings.”
3. To assist the researcher in the data analysis, attention must be given to
 (a) sorting information into categories, (b) formatting the information into a story or picture, (c) actual
data analysis and write up.

Guidelines in Making Conclusions and Recommendations

Neophyte researchers find it hard to write conclusions and recommendations. Let us define the
two terms and learn from tips provided by the experts on the field.

Generally, a research conclusion may be briefly described as the last or ending part of the paper.
It wraps up the different parts or components of the paper. A good conclusion must be connected well
with the data analysis. It must be written well to ensure coherence with the information written in the
report. More importantly, it must answer the questions in the research problem and must contain the
findings and result of the study.

How to Write an Effective Conclusion

To help you make conclusions, below are some tips from practitioners. Lye (n.d.), a student tutor
from Laurier Writing Center, developed some guidelines on writing conclusions. Descriptions of each
guideline are presented below:

Implicitly restate your thesis/position.

Emphasize the importance of your subject by placing it in a larger context
Offer suggestions for the future based on what you have argued.
Do not bring in new material.
Do not weaken your position by apologizing for what you have already argued
Do not end on a "cliff hanger," leaving the reader feeling unsatisfied.
End with a relevant and powerful quote or anecdote that serves to "sum up your paper.

For the Recommendation

The research recommendation is the part of the paper where you make suggestions about some
resolutions as a response to the research problem. It must be consistent with the conclusion. It must also
propose specific solutions connected with the findings of the study and it must be supported by relevant
and specific data from the findings. Below are some tips from Teijlingen (2011) on how to write
recommendations:

References
Melegrito, M.L.F. (2016) Practical Research 1. Phoenix Publishing, Quezon City

Techniques in Listing References

At the end of this module, you are expected to:
 Describe the techniques in listing references
 Identify ways of sharing or disseminating research findings.

Referencing your research means directing your readers to the exact sources of data or
information stated in your report, particularly those stated in the review of related literature. This is easy
for you if the moment you collect data, you begin practicing a systematic, accurate, and complete
recording of the identities of the sources of data. Unmindful of proper referencing of your research causes
the readers to question the genuineness of the contents of your research paper. There are several styles
 of referencing your research, namely, Harvardian, Vancouver, Turibian, APA, and MLA. (Silverman 2013;
Litchman 2013; Tracy 2013) Many prefer using the last two styles. The following are the important things
you must know about these commonly used referencing styles.

MLA Style
MLA stands for Modern Language Association and it has this other name, Humanities Style. This
referencing style is often used in literature, history, and arts. It provides bibliographic citation in notes that
correspond to reference number in the body of the paper. These notes are called footnotes when they are
printed at the foot of the page; notes or endnotes (sometimes, back notes) when they are printed at the
back of the book, at the end of a chapter, or at the end of an article in a journal. Some authors prefer
using endnotes rather than footnotes to economize space, time, and effort of the artist and to make the
paper appear more physically presentable

Examples of MLA Referencing Style

1. Citation or In-text Citation

(Lizardo 257)
(Decena, Obeza, Jurado 120–130) (Fortun et al. 234–250) (Gregorio: 1: 56–80)

2. Documentary Notes
The same as the entries in a bibliography or references, except that, here, the first name precedes the
family name of the author.
Josie Cruz, G. Mt. Pinatubo Quezon City: GB Press. 2016. Manolo De Guzman. Naming of typhoons.

3.Bibliography/References One author

Cruz, Josie A. Mt. Pinatubo Lahar. (Quezon City: GB Press. 2016).

Paras, Beth M. The Philippine Eagle. (Adarna Publishing House. Manila: 2016).

Two Authors
Oteza, Nina C. and David, Jose L. Climate Change. (Baguio City: KLM Co. 2018).

Reyes, Mario R. and Cortez, Josie M. Collegiate Athletic Competitions. (Manila: National Bookstore,
2016).

Three Authors (List the names in the order they appear on the title page.) Ramos, Celso A., Bautista,
Cora C. and Vinluan, Gloria F. Energy-giving Foods. (Pasay City: ABC Press. 2016).

Manuel, Joven D., Gregorio, Ben C., and Ferrer, Susan V. The Fury of Super Typhoon Yolanda.
(Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House. Manila, 2016).
Anonymous Author (If the authorship of a work is known but not revealed on the title page, the name is
given in brackets.)

[Evelyn Vargas]. The Bubble Gang. (Nowhere: Nonesuch Press, 2016).

[Lina Calderon]. Bulletin-board Postings. (Nowhere: Nonesuch Publication, 2016).

(If the identity of the author is guessed, a question mark follows the name before the closing bracket.)
[Evelyn Vargas?] The Bubble Gang. (Nowhere: Nonesuch Press, 2016).

Editor, Translator, Compiler

Parayno, Gabriel. F. ed. Philippine Politics. (Manila: PH Press. 2016).

Generoso, Luis F. comp. Banking Systems. (Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House, 2016).

Formoso, John S. The Makati Business Club. trans. (Makati City: Rex Press, 2016).

Editor, Translator, Compiler with an Author Parayno, Gabriel. F. Philippine Politics. Edited by Kay
Abante and Cora Cortez. (Manila: PH Press. 2016).

Generoso, Luis F. Banking Systems. Compiled by Gina David. (Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House,
2016).

Formoso, John S. The Makati Business Club. Translated by Carlos Fojas. (Makati City: Rex Press,
2016).
 Organization, Association, or Corporation as Author
International Monetary Fund, Survey of Asian Economies. Vol. 6, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and
Philippines (New York International Monetary Fund, 2008).

No Ascertainable Publication Facts

Carmona, Lory. The Marcos Regime. (n.p., n.d.) Solis, Dianne. Philippine Law Schools. (n.p, n.d.)

Popular Magazines
Suratos, Mila. “The Ilocano Dishes,” Panorama, March 2016, pp. 23–26. Roldan, Arnold. “Banana

Leaves.” World Mission, May 8, 2016, p. 8.

Newspapers
News items from daily papers are rarely listed in a bibliography. Rather, the name of the paper may
be given either in the general alphabetical list or in a separate section devoted to the newspapers.

Interviews
Interviews are best cited in texts or notes. It is not necessary to include them in a bibliography, but if
they are listed, the entries should appear in this manner:

Theses, Dissertations, and Other Unpublished Works

Villar, Rosalina. D. “Modern Language Theories “(Ph. D diss., U.P. Diliman, 2016).

Tiempo, Dolores G. “Critical Evaluation of UST High School Language Books”

(M. A. UST, 2016).

Reference Books: Encyclopedia, Dictionary, Almanac, Indexes, etc.

1. Encyclopedia Britannica, 10th ed., S.V. “Ozone Layer.”
2. Columbia Encyclopedia, 5th ed., S.V. “Industrial Revolution.”
3. Webster’s New International Dictionary, 3rd ed., S.V. “cantankerous.”

Slides and Film’s Videocassettes

Fulgencio, Krina C. “Urban Planning.” (Quezon City: Palmall Press, 2016) slides. Arnaiz, Earl A. “Room

for Rent” (Manila: SSG Press, 2016) filmstrip.

Online Materials
1. Signed article in a magazine
Davis, Robert. “Email Craze.” Interactions. July 2016. http://www.inter. com/Jol/labor.htm/.

2. Unsigned article in a magazine

“Power Interview.” Business Trends Magazine. August 2016. http://www. BusTRendscom/Bus
Trends/Trends/ctshoot.html.

3. Article in Journal
“Systemic Functional Grammar.” English Forum. 38.7 (2016). 18 May 2016. http://www.jhu.edu/English
Studies Journal/vol.83/83.1 strethson. html.

4. Article in Newspaper
Leonardo, Jerome. “Japan and the 2009 Tsunami.” New Daily Life Star. 21 December 2017.
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/26 world/28 MIDE. html.

5. An Editorial
“Vatican City: Pope’s Residence.” Editorial. Philippine Daily Inquirer. July
7, 2016. http://www.a-pinq.com/ed/2016/24/po4.html.

6. Online books
Litchten, Feona D. American Pragmatics Organization. (2014). 2nd AMPRA Conference/Photos
http://androgers.smugmug.com/Linguists/ AMPRA-2.

Dizon, Jomar G. “Political Campaign Strategies” 15–20, May 2016 dialog ERIC AED23376.

7. CD-ROM/Diskette
Amante, Peter B. “Stem-Cell Treatment.” Manila Post News Bank. April 2017: TI Manila Post News
Bank.CD-ROM. News Bank. April 2017.

“Maharishi.” The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. CD-ROM. Oxford UP, 2017.

APA Style
 The APA (American Psychological Association) is also called Author-Date Style. This is often
used by researchers in the field of natural science and social sciences. The APA style uses space and
time; MLA, not much. However, nowadays, for economic reasons, more and more researchers,
regardless of their area of specialization, prefer to use the APA style.

There are two parts of the APA referencing style that are essential: in-text citation or citation and
reference list. The first part, which is enclosed in parentheses, is found in the body of the text; the second
part, at the end of the book. In contrast to the MLA style that gives complete biographical information in
the footnotes or endnotes, the APA style gives only brief information in the text citation but gives the full
biographical details in the reference list.

Under the APA system, the items in the References are arranged alphabetically. You do not need
to number them. For each entry under the title, References, write the book information in this order: full
author’s surname and first name and middle name initials (optional, middle name initial), date of
publication, title of the book or periodical, place of publication, and the publisher. If there are several
entries written by the same author, to avoid repetition of names, use a 3 em dash in place of the first
name.

Citations or in-text citations under the APA system make you write inside the parentheses only
the family name of the author; followed by the year of publication, and if some words were copied
verbatim; next is the number of the page where the copied words of the author are found. Another APA
style of citation is writing the family name of the author separately from the copyright date. In this case,
only the date is enclosed in parentheses. (Russel 2013; Burns 2012)

Examples of APA Referencing Style

1. Citation or In-text Citation

(Lizardo, 2016) (Millares, 2017)

(Decena, Obeza, Jurado, 2016, pp. 120–130) (Fortun et al., 2016)

According to Gregorio (2017)

Olivares (2016) maintains that...

A study on the Yolanda Tent House is a “doable research work “(Aquino, 2016, p.78)

2. Bibliography/References One author

Fajardo, J. A. 2016. The Ebola Virus. Quezon City: GB Press.

Perez, B. M. 2017. The Philippine Constitution: The highest law of the land. Manila: Adarna Publishing
House.

Two Authors
Oropesa, N. C. and David, J. L. 2017. Palawan penal colony. Baguio City: KLM Company.

Reynoso, M. R. and Saballa, J. M. 2017. Academic freedom. Manila: National Bookstore.

Three Authors (List the names in the order they appear on the title page.) Revilla, C. A., Bautista, C.
C., and Vinuya, G. F. 2017. Boy scout jamborees. Pasay City: ABC Press.

Manaloto, J. D., Gracia, B. C., and Ferrer, S. V. 2017. The victims of super- typhoon Yolanda.
Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House.

Three or More Authors (Use the name of the first author listed on the title page.)

Sonora, E. N. et al. 2016. Regional trial courts. Quezon City: Rex Bookstore. Sevilla, V. et al. 2016.

Labour strikes. Pasig City: Hope Press.

Anonymous Author (If the authorship of a work is known but not revealed on the title page, the name is
given in brackets.)

[Valerio, E.]. The millennium condominium craze. 2016. Nowhere: Nonesuch Press.

[Valderon, L.]. Non-verbal language. 2016. Nowhere: Nonesuch Publication.

(If the identity of the author is guessed, a question mark follows the name before the closing bracket.)
 [Valerio, E.?] The millennium condominium craze. Nowhere: Nonesuch Press.

Editor, Translator, Compiler

Pareja, G. F. 2016. ed. Pacquio’s lucky charm. Manila: PH Press.

Orosa, L. F. 2016. comp. Merging of banks. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House. Floro, J. S. 2016.

Students’ activities. trans. (Makati City: Rex Press.

Editor, Translator, Compiler with an Author

Lauriano, G. F. 2016. Language textbook writing. Edited by Gina Alamares and Ching Cortez. Manila: PH
Press.

Bravo, Luisa F. 2016. Faculty Evaluation System. Compiled by Baby Lapid. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing
House.

Clemente, J. S. 2016. Pope Francis’ papal visits. Translated by Carina Davalos.

Makati City: Rex Press.

Organization, Association, or Corporation as Author

International Monetary Fund, 2008. Survey of Asian Economies. Vol. 6, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and
Philippines New York International Monetary Fund.

No Ascertainable Publication Facts

Ramona, L. The rise and fall of the Marcos regime. (n.p., n.d.) Soriano, D. Western law schools.

(n.p.,n.d.)

Popular Magazines
Salvador, M. March 2016. “The Chinese Dishes,” Panorama, pp. 23–26. Olarte, A.
May 8, 2016. “Catholicism in Asia.” World Mission, p. 8.

Newspapers
Abad, C. S. “Gated subdivisions in Caloocan City,” 2016. Philippine Daily
Inquirer. 7 May.

Manila Bulletin. 2017. Editorial, 2 December.

Malaya. 2016. Editorial, 18 July.

Interviews
Ballesteros, F. April 2016. “K-12 curriculum: Interview with Felicitas

Ballesteros.” April 2016. Interview by Anabelle De La Cruz. The Manila Bulletin.

Templo, E. May 2017. “High-school dropouts: Interview with Dr. Juan.

Barrameda.” Interview by Lucy Amarillo. The Daily Tribune.

Theses, Dissertations, and Other Unpublished Works

Villarica, R. D. 2016. “Contemporary Language Theories.” Ph. D. diss., U.P. Diliman.

Corpuz, D. G. 2017. “The UST faculty evaluation system: Critical Analysis.” M.A.,
UST.
Slides and Film’s Videocassettes
Gaudencio, K. C. 2016. “Family Planning.” Quezon City: Palmall Press. Slides.

Arenas, E. A. 2017. “Philippine Rental Laws.” Manila: SSG Press. Filmstrip.

Online Materials
1. Signed article in a magazine
Duterte, R. July 2016. “Social-media networks.” Personality growth. http://
www.inter.com/Jol/labor.htm/.

2. Unsigned article in a magazine

“Unstructured interview. August 2016.” Business Trends Magazine. http://
www.BusTRendscom/Bus Trends/Trends/ctshoot.htmlz.

3. Article in Journal
“Linguistic competence. 18 May 2016.” English Forum. http://www.jhu. edu/English Studies
Journal/vol.83/83.1 strethson.html.
4. Article in Newspaper
Lepanto, J. “globalization vs. climate change.” 21 December 2016. New Daily Life Star.
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/26 world/28 MIDE. html.

5. An Editorial
“Political Dynasty in the Philippines. 7 July 2016.” Editorial. Philippine Daily Inquirer. http://www.a-
pinq.com/ed/2016/24/po4.html.

6. Online books
Litchten, F. D. 2016. American pragmatics. http: AMPRA2
etext2014/14w0310txtz

De Gracias, J. G. 15-20, May 2017. “Collaborative language activities” dialog

ERIC AED23376.

CD-RM/Diskette

Dizon, P. B. April 2016. “Herbal treatment.” Manila Post News Bank. TI Manila Post News Bank.CD-ROM.
News Bank.

“Domestic helper.” 2016. The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. CD-ROM. Oxford UP.

ACTIVITY #7
Directions: Read and answer the questions.

1. What are the different parts of research report? Identify and describe the different components in
each part.

2. Introduction acquaints the reader with the what, why and how of a report. What are the five related
questions that need to be answered to build the introduction part of the report? Explain each question.