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 geography
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 geography
review in
20 minutes a day

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 Copyright © 2012 LearningExpress, LLC.

All rights reserved under International and Pan American Copyright Conventions.
Published in the United States by LearningExpress, LLC, New York.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Geography review in 20 minutes a day.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-1-57685-768-7
1. Geography—Study and teaching. I. Title: Geography review in twenty minutes a day.
G73.G43 2012
910—dc23
2011034386

Printed in the United States of America

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

First Edition

ISBN 978-1-57685-768-7

For more information or to place an order, contact LearningExpress at:

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 Contents

introduCtion vii

pretest 1

Lesson 1 Atmosphere and Climate 11

Lesson 2 Population, Culture, and Natural Resources 21

Lesson 3 Overview of the World—Hydrosphere 31

Lesson 4 Overview of the World—Lithosphere 37

Lesson 5 Recording Geography 43

Lesson 6 Canada and the United States—Physical Geography 51

Lesson 7 Canada and the United States—Human Geography 57

Lesson 8 Latin America—Physical Geography 69

Lesson 9 Latin America—Human Geography (Part I) 77

Lesson 10 Latin America—Human Geography (Part II) 85

Lesson 11 Russia—Physical Geography 93

Lesson 12 Russia—Human Geography 99

Lesson 13 Europe—Physical Geography 107

Lesson 14 Europe—Human Geography 115

Lesson 15 Africa—Physical Geography 127

iii

GEOG_00_fcont_v-vi.indd 3 1/5/12 1:16 PM

 –Contents–

Lesson 16 Africa—Human Geography (Part I) 135

Lesson 17 Africa—Human Geography (Part II) 145

Lesson 18 East Asia—Physical Geography 153

Lesson 19 East Asia—Human Geography (Part I) 161

Lesson 20 East Asia—Human Geography (Part II) 171

Lesson 21 Southeast Asia—Physical Geography 179

Lesson 22 Southeast Asia—Human Geography 187

Lesson 23 Australia and New Zealand, Oceania, and Antarctica—Physical Geography 199

Lesson 24 Australia and New Zealand, Oceania, and Antarctica—Human Geography 207

Lesson 25 Subcontinents (Part I) 219

Lesson 26 Subcontinents (Part II) 229

Lesson 27 Subcontinents (Part III) 239

posttest 253

gLossary 263

iv

GEOG_00_fcont_v-vi.indd 4 1/5/12 1:16 PM

 IntroductIon

T his book is an overview of the world. Each lesson is designed to be digested in about 20 minutes a day.
Keep the following ideas in mind as you read each lesson.

How to use this Book

First, take the pretest to see how much you know. Then, read each lesson. Key glossary terms are indicated in
bold. Once you have read all the lessons and completed all the practice questions, complete the posttest. Then,
complete the online test to reinforce what you learned.

using Geography

Geography helps us understand the relationship among people, places, and environments over time. Geogra-
phers examine patterns of human and physical geography using direct observation, mapping, interviewing,
statistics, and technology to describe and organize information about Earth. Geography helps you understand
the past and prepare for the future.

the World in Spatial terms

Geographers see the location of a place on Earth and where it is in relation to other places. Geographers then
study how people, places, and environments are distributed across Earth.

vii

GEOG_00_flast_vii-x.indd 7 1/5/12 1:20 PM

 –I ntroductIon–
Places and regions
Places can be described by unique physical and
human characteristics. Places reflect the relationship
between humans and the physical environment. Cul-
ture influences people’s perceptions of places and
regions. Geographers organize Earth into regions
sharing common characteristics.
Physical Systems
Physical processes (e.g., hurricanes and earthquakes)
shape Earth’s surface. Plants and animals depend on
one another and their surroundings for survival.
Understanding the characteristics and distribution of
ecosystems help people address environmental issues.
Human Systems
Goods, ideas, and people connect and diverge by
moving across the environment. People settle in some
places but not in others for various physical and cul-
tural reasons. The characteristics and distribution of
human populations affect physical and human sys-
tems. The characteristics and distribution of cultures
and technologies also influence human and physical
viii
GEOG_00_flast_vii-x.indd 8
systems. Patterns of economic interdependence vary
among the world’s cultures, and certain processes,
patterns, and functions help determine where people
settle. Cooperation and conflict among people influ-
ence the division and control of Earth’s surface.
Environment and Society
Geographers study how people use their environ-
ment and how their actions affect the environment.
Human actions such as consumption and conserva-
tion modify the physical environment. The physical
environment affects how people act and their activi-
ties. Changes occur in the use, distribution, and
importance of natural resources.
Explore World Geography
With so many outstanding Internet search engines,
exciting multimedia websites, cable television, and
computer programs available to assist us, our goal in
geographic study and fieldwork remains exploring,
mapping, and sharing the mysteries and diversity of
our amazing world.
Enjoy the odyssey of geography!
1/5/12 1:20 PM
 GEoGraPHy
rEvIEW In
20 mInutES a day

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GEOG_00_flast_vii-x.indd 10 1/5/12 1:20 PM
 PRETEST

B efore you begin the first lesson, you may want to find out how much you already know and how much
you need to learn. If that’s the case, take the pretest in this chapter, which includes 50 multiple-choice
questions covering the topics in this book. While 50 questions can’t cover every geography concept
taught in this book, your performance on the pretest will give you a good indication of your strengths and
weaknesses.
Take as much time as you need to complete the pretest. When you are finished, check your answers in the
answer key at the end of the chapter.

GEOG_00_PRETEST_1-10.indd 1 1/5/12 1:21 PM

GEOG_00_PRETEST_1-10.indd 2 1/5/12 1:21 PM
 –lEa RningEx PRESS anSwER ShEET–

1. a b c d 18. a b c d 35. a b c d
2. a b c d 19. a b c d 36. a b c d
3. a b c d 20. a b c d 37. a b c d
4. a b c d 21. a b c d 38. a b c d
5. a b c d 22. a b c d 39. a b c d
6. a b c d 23. a b c d 40. a b c d
7. a b c d 24. a b c d 41. a b c d
8. a b c d 25. a b c d 42. a b c d
9. a b c d 26. a b c d 43. a b c d
10. a b c d 27. a b c d 44. a b c d
11. a b c d 28. a b c d 45. a b c d
12. a b c d 29. a b c d 46. a b c d
13. a b c d 30. a b c d 47. a b c d
14. a b c d 31. a b c d 48. a b c d
15. a b c d 32. a b c d 49. a b c d
16. a b c d 33. a b c d 50. a b c d
17. a b c d 34. a b c d

GEOG_00_PRETEST_1-10.indd 3 1/5/12 1:21 PM

GEOG_00_PRETEST_1-10.indd 4 1/5/12 1:21 PM
 –PRETEST–

Directions: Select the letter of the best answer and 6. Oceans, rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water
circle it. make up the water-based _________.
a. water cycle
1. The ___________ is a layer of gases above the b. evaporation
planet’s surface. c. hydrosphere
a. biosphere d. run-off
b. lithosphere
c. topography 7. International planners use the term
d. atmosphere ____________ to describe where freshwater
needs are greatest.
2. ________ is/are opposite in the Northern and a. precipitation
Southern Hemispheres. b. water stress
a. The tilt of Earth c. urban sewage
b. Earth’s orbit d. condensation
c. The seasons of the year
d. Earth’s axis 8. The ____________ is surface land including
the continents and ocean floors.
3. __________ include(s) the atmosphere, oceans, a. lithosphere
freshwater systems, geological formations, and b. atmosphere
soils of Earth. c. biosphere
a. Habitat d. hydrosphere
b. The biosphere
c. Biodiversity 9. Plate ____________ created Earth’s largest fea-
d. Mineral resources tures, like continents, oceans, and mountain
ranges.
4. _________ geography deals with Earth’s physi- a. pollution
cal features like climate, land, air, water, plants, b. irrigation
and animal life and their relationship to each c. flooding
other and humans. d. tectonics
a. Physical
b. Cultural 10. Water ______________ wear(s) away soil and
c. Human rock.
d. Political a. desalination
b. erosion
5. ___________ is the study of population. c. valleys
a. Hydrology d. cycles
b. Demography
c. Climatology
d. Technology

GEOG_00_PRETEST_1-10.indd 5 1/5/12 1:21 PM

 –PRETEST–

11. ___________ protect(s) soil from wind 17. In the 1980s, the U.S. Central Intelligence
erosion. Agency (CIA) financed Osama bin Laden’s fight
a. Urbanization against the Russians in the mountains of
b. Deserts _____________.
c. Glaciers a. Iraq
d. Plants b. Afghanistan
c. Iran
12. _______________, including aerial photogra- d. Pakistan
phy and satellite imaging, is used to know more
about mineral deposits, and freshwater sources, 18. _____________ is a means of managing natu-
as well as to survey human activities. ral resources in ways that do not deplete them
a. Cartography or cause more damage to ecosystems.
b. Remote sensing a. Sustainable development
c. Direct observation b. The Green Revolution
d. A key c. Outsourcing
d. Qaqortoq
13. The ___________ is 0° latitude.
a. equator 19. The ___________, or Continental Divide,
b. prime meridian determine(s) the flow of rivers in North
c. North Pole America.
d. absolute location a. Canadian Shield
b. Great Basin
14. Most ancient civilizations began in c. Appalachian Mountains
_________________. d. Rockies
a. mountains
b. river valleys 20. The plains of the pampas are used for
c. deserts ______________.
d. plateaus a. growing cereal grains
b. cattle ranching
15. The raising and grazing of livestock, or c. growing ornamental plants
____________, is a way of life for people living d. training cowboys
on the steppes.
a. agriculture 21. ___________ is the primary language of Latin
b. aquaculture America.
c. pastoralism a. Latin
d. terracing b. English
c. French
16. Arab expansion brought ____________ to d. Spanish
North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia.
a. Hinduism
b. Buddhism
c. Judaism
d. Islam
6

GEOG_00_PRETEST_1-10.indd 6 1/5/12 1:21 PM

 –PRETEST–

22. Giant agricultural estates from the colonial era 27. The Romance languages of Italian, Spanish, and
now disappearing in Latin America are called Portuguese are Indo-European languages
__________. derived from _________.
a. maquiladoras a. Basque
b. caudillos b. Bantu
c. latifundia c. Latin
d. campesinos d. German

23. Most people in Russia live ______________. 28. Overfarming, removing too much vegetation
a. west of the Ural Mountains and overgrazing livestock has led to
b. in Siberia ____________ in Europe.
c. in the Caucasus region a. soil erosion
d. in the Caspian Sea republics b. deforestation
c. increased vegetation, including trees,
24. Since 1991, the Commonwealth of Independent d. soil erosion and deforestation
States (CIS) has expanded its ___________
economy. 29. Fossil fuel automobile exhaust causes
a. command ______________.
b. market a. acid rain, property damage, and
c. collectivized agriculture environmental destruction
d. environmental degradation and b. biofuel
c. natural gas
25. Western European industry developed out of d. El Niño
the mineral and soil resources of the
______________________. 30. A ___________ is a triangular section of land
a. Emerald Isle formed by sand and silt carried downriver.
b. Polders a. delta
c. North European Plain b. cataract
d. Alps c. harmattan
d. tornado
26. Natural vegetation of ________ latitudes
includes deciduous and coniferous trees. 31. In Africa, ______________ climate zones can
a. very high be found near the equator.
b. middle a. tropical
c. very low b. highland
d. all c. steppe
d. altiplano

GEOG_00_PRETEST_1-10.indd 7 1/5/12 1:21 PM

 –PRETEST–

32. Darfur, site of a modern refugee crisis, is 37. A hurricane in the Atlantic Ocean is a(n)
located in _____________. ___________ in the Pacific Ocean.
a. Congo a. avalanche
b. Rwanda b. tsunami
c. Sudan c. typhoon
d. Cambodia d. shogun

33. In the colonial era, Europeans built 38. The Dalai Lama is _____________ Buddhist
___________________ in Africa, Asia, and spiritual leader.
Latin America to acquire wealth from natural a. Nepal’s
resources. b. Japan’s
a. commercial plantations c. China’s
b. railroads d. Tibet’s
c. port facilities
d. commercial plantations, railroads, and port 39. Due to _____________ control over natural
facilities resources in the Pacific, Japan attempted in the
first half of the twentieth century to take mili-
34. Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park, Kenya’s tary control of the region.
Masai Mara, and Ghana’s Kakum National Park a. Western
are all _____________. b. Chinese
a. game reserves c. Arab
b. poaching parks d. East Indian
c. a and b
d. none of the above 40. Chinese and Korean governments have been
most influenced by ___________.
35. An undersea _____________ generates a tsu- a. Taoism
nami, a giant wave that gets higher as it reaches b. Buddhism
the coast. c. Confucianism
a. tornado d. Shintoism
b. earthquake
c. typhoon 41. Which of the following is true about China?
d. archipelago a. It is heavily polluting the environment by
rapidly burning fossil fuels.
36. Most of the tens of thousands of rivers in b. It is disposing of large amounts of cancerous
____________ start in Tibet and empty into industrial waste.
the Pacific Ocean. c. It is a member of the World Trade
a. China Organization (WTO).
b. Nepal d. All of the above.
c. Japan
d. the Philippines

GEOG_00_PRETEST_1-10.indd 8 1/5/12 1:21 PM

 –PRETEST–

42. The Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia are all 47. On December 26, 2004, an earthquake in the
______________. Indian Ocean created a ___________ that left
a. landlocked in Southeast Asia 225,000 people dead and millions homeless.
b. part of mainland Southeast Asia a. typhoon
c. archipelagoes in Southeast Asia b. tsunami
d. controlled by China c. hurricane
d. tornado
43. The ___________ can only be found in South-
east Asia. 48. _____________ is the only nation in world that
a. rhinoceros is a country and continent.
b. minke whale a. Antarctica
c. silkworm b. New Zealand
d. Komodo dragon c. Iceland
d. Australia
44. The ________ first settled in Cambodia and
Vietnam. 49. In ______________, the lowest yearly tempera-
a. Mons ture is about –126°F.
b. Burmans a. the Arctic Circle
c. Khmers b. East Antarctica
d. Thais c. West Antarctica
d. Oceania
45. The ___________ is a Chinese form of archi-
tecture also found in Southeast Asia. 50. Which of the following is rich in mineral
a. wat resources and grasslands for livestock grazing?
b. pagoda a. Australia
c. kabuki b. New Zealand
d. kami c. Antarctica
d. Australia, Antarctica, and New Zealand
46. ____________ is the largest Muslim country in
the world and a site of terrorist attacks.
a. Iraq
b. Afghanistan
c. The Philippines
d. Indonesia

GEOG_00_PRETEST_1-10.indd 9 1/5/12 1:21 PM

 –PRETEST–

anSwERS 25. c.
26. b.
1. d. 27. c.
2. c. 28. d.
3. b. 29. a.
4. a. 30. a.
5. b. 31. a.
6. c. 32. c.
7. b. 33. d.
8. a. 34. a.
9. d. 35. b.
10. b. 36. a.
11. d. 37. c.
12. b. 38. d.
13. a. 39. a.
14. b. 40. c.
15. c. 41. d.
16. d. 42. c.
17. b. 43. d.
18. a. 44. c.
19. d. 45. b.
20. c. 46. d.
21. d. 47. b.
22. c. 48. d.
23. a. 49. d.
24. b. 50. a.

10

GEOG_00_PRETEST_1-10.indd 10 1/5/12 1:21 PM

 1
l e s s o n

AtmosPhere
And ClimAte

Lesson summary
In this first lesson, we focus on geographic physical sys-
tems. We examine Earth’s position in relation to the sun,
and how that relationship affects day and night tempera-
tures, the seasons, and people’s lives. We look at how the
factors of latitude, elevation, wind patterns, and ocean
currents affect climate. We then survey how geographers
classify Earth’s climate and vegetation into regions with
common characteristics. Finally, we examine human
affects on climate change.

It’s up to people like us, all of us, to address and talk about things like runaway global warming and how we can use things like
remote viewing to save our planet.
—Jim Sullivan

earth, the sun, and the Planets

Earth and the objects revolving around it are pulled in by the sun’s gravity and enormous mass. The sun is a star
made of burning gases, and planets are nearly round bodies that revolve around stars without colliding with or
scooping up other objects. Our solar system has eight major planets with their own unique orbits that revolve
around the sun. Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are the inner planets nearest the sun. Farthest from the sun
are the outer planets of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Tiny Pluto, once considered a planet, has been
downgraded by the astronomical community to dwarf planet because it’s more similar to the icy bodies at the
edge of the solar system than the planets.
11

GEOG_01_11-20.indd 11 1/5/12 1:21 PM

 –AtmosPhere And ClimAte–
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
Planet Earth is around 93 million miles away
from the sun. Because it has an elliptical orbit, it
varies between 94.5 million miles away at its
furthest position and 91 million miles when it is
closest.
The planets vary in size. Jupiter is largest, and
Mercury is smallest. Earth is fourth in size. All the
planets except Mercury and Venus have moons or
other natural satellites revolving around them. Saturn
has at least 61 moons, while Earth has one. (The
number of moons a planet has constantly changes as
astronomers make new discoveries.) The two types of
planets are terrestrial and gas giants. Mercury, Venus,
Earth, and Mars are terrestrial since they have solid,
rocky crusts. Mercury and Venus are scorching hot,
and Mars is a cold and barren desert.
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
In our solar system, only Earth has liquid surface
water and supports a variety of life forms.
The gas giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
and Neptune are larger, more gaseous, and less dense
than the terrestrial planets. They are similar to solar
systems in that they have many orbiting moons and
thin, encircling rings made of ice and rock. Saturn’s
rings can be viewed from Earth by telescope.
Asteroids, Comets,
and meteoroids
Small objects like asteroids, comets, and meteoroids
revolve around the sun. There is a large asteroid belt
12
GEOG_01_11-20.indd 12
between Mars and Jupiter. Asteroids are small, plan-
etlike objects, some of which can cross Earth’s path.
Comets, made of icy dust and frozen gases, look like
bright balls with long tails as their orbits take them by
the hot sun. They can come from any direction and
angle. Meteoroids are called meteors when they enter
Earth’s atmosphere. Meteorites, large meteors that
survive the intense heat of atmospheric friction, can
crash to earth.
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
In 1908, a meteorite exploded just above Earth’s
surface near the Tunguska River in Siberia. It
incinerated a forest and hundreds of reindeer,
and left an eerie orange glow in the sky for
months.
Atmosphere
The air we breathe is part of Earth’s atmosphere. The
atmosphere, a layer of gases above the planet’s sur-
face, is made up of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen,
and trace elements of nine more gases. The atmo-
sphere extends from the surface of Earth to about 372
miles above its surface.
Climate and weather
Weather is a short-term aspect of climate indicating
atmospheric conditions in one place in a limited time
frame. Climate describes an area’s typical weather
patterns over a period of time. The relationship
between Earth and the sun affects climate, which
influences life.
1/5/12 1:21 PM
 –AtmosPhere And ClimAte–
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
Seattle, Washington, has a rainy, wet climate
while Santa Fe, New Mexico, has a dry, desert
climate.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. ___________ is 93 million miles from the sun
and is the only water-based planet to sustain a
variety of life forms.
2. ___________ planets have solid, rocky crusts
and are closest to the sun.
3. ___________ giant planets are furthest from
the sun.
4. The ___________ starts at Earth’s surface and
extends 372 miles into the air.
5. ___________ is a short-term aspect of climate.
earth’s tilt and rotation
Because Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of 23.5°, not
all places receive the same amount of sunlight. This
tilt affects temperature. Direct sunlight means higher
temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) or degrees
Celsius (°C). In this book, we use the standard Amer-
ican measure of temperature, Fahrenheit.
Earth rotates on its axis, making a complete
cycle in approximately 24 hours. Rotating west to
east, Earth first turns the Western Hemisphere, then
the Eastern Hemisphere, to the sun. Thus, one of
these hemispheres experiences day while the other
experiences night.
GEOG_01_11-20.indd 13
earth’s revolution
While rotating on its axis, Earth also orbits around the
sun. Earth completes one elliptical revolution, or orbit,
around the sun in approximately 365 days. Revolution
and tilt change the angle and amount of sun reaching a
particular place. These changes follow a regular pro-
gression called seasons. As the seasons change, people
in different locations experience differences in the
length of days and in daily temperatures.
Seasons are opposite in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres. Spring in the Northern
Hemisphere means autumn in the Southern Hemi-
sphere.
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
An equinox, when the sun’s rays fall directly on
the equator and daytime and nighttime hours
are equal in length everywhere, happens twice a
year—once in March and once in September.
the Poles
For six months a year, one pole is tilted toward the
sun while the other is tilted away. The sun never sets
on the North Pole from March 20 to September 23.
Conversely, the South Pole experiences continuous
daylight from September 23 to March 20.
Greenhouse effect
Most of the sun’s radiation is reflected back into
space. The atmosphere traps some of the sun’s energy
and converts it into infrared radiation, or heat, which
helps plants grow. This is called the greenhouse
effect. Clouds and greenhouse gases, or atmospheric
components like water vapor and carbon dioxide
13
1/5/12 1:21 PM
 –AtmosPhere And ClimAte–
(CO2), absorb heat reflected by Earth and radiate part
of it back into the atmosphere.
In recent decades a rise in atmospheric CO2 has
coincided with a rise in global temperatures. Many
scientists believe this global warming is caused by
human activities like burning coal, oil, and natural
gas. These fossil fuels release carbon dioxide, a green-
house gas, into the atmosphere, trapping more heat.
Some scientists say global warming is a natural cycle,
not a human-induced phenomenon.
Global warming will probably make weather
patterns more extreme. Water will evaporate more
quickly from the oceans, increasing humidity and
rainfall. Rapid water evaporation from soil will dry
out farm lands much more quickly.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
6. ____ The tilt of Earth’s axis causes six months
of sun at one Pole at a time.
7. ____ Earth rotates west to east on its axis.
8. ____ Earth’s revolution around the sun creates
seasons, and seasons are opposite in the North-
ern and Southern Hemispheres.
9. ____ Day and night are always at the same time
in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.
10. ____ Global temperatures have recently
increased.
Factors Affecting Climate
During Earth’s annual orbit around the sun, the
sun’s rays fall into a pattern. Elevation and latitude
14
GEOG_01_11-20.indd 14
determine the effects of the angles of the sun’s rays
on Earth. Such patterns, zones, and latitudes define
climate regions. Lesson 5 goes into detail about the
role of latitude and longitude in geography.
Elevation
Earth’s atmosphere thins as altitude, or elevation,
increases. Thinner air is less dense and retains less
heat. Even places elevated near the equator lose
temperature. There is a loss of about 3.5°F for each
1,000 feet. Thinner atmospheres filter fewer rays of
the sun; it is therefore very bright but cold and
snowy in the mountains.
Low Latitudes
The low latitudes lie between 30° S and 30° N. They
include the Tropic of Capricorn, the equator, and the
Tropic of Cancer. Some of the low latitudes receive
the direct rays of the sun year round. Places in the low
latitudes have warm or hot climates.
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn
The Tropic of Cancer, at the latitude of 23.5 ° N, is the
northernmost point at which the sun can be seen
directly overhead at noon. The June 21 solstice marks
the beginning of summer in the Northern Hemi-
sphere. Around September 23, as Earth continues its
revolution around the sun, the sun’s direct rays strike
the equator to mark the seasonal equinox (autumn in
the Northern Hemisphere and spring in the Southern
Hemisphere). Around December 22, the sun’s rays
directly strike the Tropic of Capricorn, at the latitude
of 23.5° S. This solstice marks the beginning of winter
in the north and the start of summer in the south.
Midlatitudes
The weather varies most at the midlatitudes between
30° N and 60° N in the Northern Hemisphere and 30°
S and 60° S in the Southern Hemisphere. The midlat-
itudes have a temperate climate, not too hot or cold,
1/5/12 1:21 PM
 –AtmosPhere And ClimAte–
but with dramatic seasonal changes. Hot and cold air
masses affect the midlatitudes all year. Cold air can
bring summer relief and harsh winters. Warm, wet,
tropical air brings rain and snow in the winter.
High Latitudes
The North Pole, 60° N to 90° N, and South Pole, 60° S
to 90° S, make up the high latitudes. The North Pole,
north of the Arctic Circle (66.5° N), receives contin-
uous daylight or twilight from about March 21 to
September 23 when the Northern Hemisphere is
tilted toward the sun. The Antarctic Circle (66.5° S)
experiences daylight or twilight the other six months
of the year.
Winds and Ocean Currents
Wind and water combine with the effects of the sun
to influence Earth’s weather and climate. Air moving
across Earth’s surface is wind. As sunlight heats Earth
unevenly, rising warm air creates low pressure areas.
Sinking cool air creates high pressure areas. Cool air
flows in to replace warm rising air. These movements
of air cause wind, which distributes the sun’s energy
across Earth.
Wind Patterns
Winds blow due to temperature differences across
Earth. Polar air moves toward the equator, while
tropical air moves toward the Poles. There are con-
stant patterns of prevailing winds. Direction is
determined by latitude and Earth’s movement.
Because Earth rotates west to east, global winds are
displaced clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
This is the Coriolis effect, named for the French sci-
entist Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis.
The trade winds, named by early sailors, blow
along the low latitudes. They blow northeast toward
the equator from about latitude 30° S and southeast
toward the equator from about latitude 30° N. West-
erlies prevail in the midlatitudes, blowing west to east
GEOG_01_11-20.indd 15
between 30° N and 60° N and between 30° S and 60°
S. In the high altitudes, the polar easterlies blow diag-
onally east to west, pushing cold air toward the mid-
latitudes.
Ocean Currents
Cold and warm streams of water move through the
oceans. Currents are affected by Earth’s rotation,
changes in air pressure, and differences in water
temperature.
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it faithfully, and
The Coriolis effect occurs in ocean currents as
well.
Horse Latitudes
When the trade winds from the north and south
come together at the equator, the direct sunlight heats
the air, making it rise. The result is a narrow windless
band known as the doldrums, where there is almost
no surface wind and frequent rainstorms from the
moist, warm air. Two additional narrow bands of
calm air, the horse latitudes, encircle the globe just
north of the Tropic of Cancer and just south of the
Tropic of Capricorn.
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it faithfully, and
Without moving air to power ships, sailors were
afraid of being stranded in the hot, still weather
only to lose food and other perishable cargo
while their ships sat motionless. Livestock and
supplies for colonies were thrown overboard to
lighten the ship to escape the calm waters of the
horse latitudes.
15
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 –AtmosPhere And ClimAte–

weather and the water Cycle
Wind and water work together to affect weather.
Powered by temperature, condensation creates pre-
cipitation. Water vapor forms in the atmosphere
from evaporated surface water. Rising air cools when
evaporation increases. The water condenses into liq-
uid droplets, forming clouds. Additional cooling
brings rainfall, which lowers temperatures on a
steamy day.
El Niño
Climate is the result of recurring events that alter the
weather. One of these events is El Niño, a periodic
warming of the ocean’s surface in the eastern tropical
Pacific, which causes changes in ocean currents, water
temperatures, and weather in the mid-Pacific region.
This phenomenon has occurred more often in the
last 25 years.
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this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
El Niño, Spanish for “the Christ Child,” was so
named because it happens around Christmas in
late December. However, it does not happen
every year.
There may be a link between global warming
and El Niño.
landforms and Climate
Landforms and bodies of water influence Earth’s cli-
mate patterns. Large water bodies do not heat or cool
as fast as land, so water temperatures are more uni-
form and constant than land temperatures. Coastal
lands receive the moderating influence of water bod-
ies and therefore have less changeable weather than
inland locations.
Mountain ranges affect climate and precipita-
tion. Winds push up when they meet a mountain.
The rising air cools and releases moisture (precipita-
tion) on the side facing the wind, or the windward
side. The winds then warm and dry as they move
down the opposite, or leeward, side of the mountain.
This causes a rain shadow effect, the formation of
dry areas or deserts on the leeward side.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
11. ___________ latitudes are found at the equator
and in the tropics.

In an El Niño year, the regularly low atmo-

12. The windless ___________ result from warm
spheric pressure over the western Pacific rises and the
air that rises near the equator.
normally high pressure over the eastern Pacific drops.
The reversal causes trade winds to diminish or reverse
13. ___________ winds help sailors along the low
direction. The change in wind pattern reverses equa-
latitudes.
torial ocean currents, pulling warm water from near
Indonesia east to Ecuador to spread along the Peru-
14. The ___________ latitudes include the Poles.
vian and Chilean coasts.
Changing air pressure from El Niño influences
15. Rain shadows form on the ___________ side of
climates around the world. Precipitation increases
mountains.
along the coasts of North and South America, warm-
ing waters and increasing flood risk. In Southeast
Asia and Australia, drought and massive forest fires
occur.

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 –AtmosPhere And ClimAte–

Climate regions
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Over the centuries, many have tried to classify Earth

into regions with similar climates. The most fre- The Sahara Desert covers almost a third of North
quently used classification system today is the Köp- Africa.
pen system, first devised by German climatolgist
Wladimir Köppen in 1884. He differentiated five
The natural vegetation of deserts includes scrub
main regions: tropical, dry, temperate (or midlati-
and cacti, and plants that can handle low humidity,
tude), severe midlatitude, and polar. A sixth, high-
wide temperature ranges, and low and unreliable pre-
land, was added later. Regions are subdivided into
cipitation. In some deserts, an underground spring
smaller ones based on soils and natural vegetation,
may support an oasis of lush vegetation. Some deserts
the plant life growing in an area where the natural
have rocks or sand dunes and others have fertile soil
environment is unchanged by human activity.
capable of yielding crops using irrigation.
Dry, mostly treeless grasslands called steppes
Tropical Climates
often border deserts. Yearly steppe rainfall is 10 to 20
Tropical climates are found in the low latitudes, or
inches. The world’s largest steppe stretches across
tropics. Tropical wet climates are hot and wet all year
Eastern Europe and Western and Central Asia.
with a temperature over 80°F. The warm, moisture-
Steppes also exist in North America, South America,
saturated air produces rain virtually every day. The
Africa, and Australia.
heavy rainfall, over 80 inches a year, draws out, or
leaches, nutrients from soil. Wildlife is abundant.
Midlatitude Climates
Tropical rain forest vegetation grows in thick
Midlatitudes include four temperate climate regions.
layers, with tall tree canopies towering over other
Their variable weather patterns and seasonal changes
trees and bushes. Shade plants thrive in the shadow
yield a variety of natural vegetation.
of trees. The world’s largest rain forest is the Ama-
Marine west coast climates exist along coast-
zon River basin. Other parts of South America, the
lines from 40° N to 60° N and 40° S to 60° S. Ocean
Caribbean, Asia, and Africa have similar climate and
winds bring cool summers and cool, damp winters
vegetation.
along America’s Pacific coast. Abundant rainfall sup-
Tropical dry climates have high year-round
ports abundant coniferous trees like evergreens and
temperatures, wet summers, and dry winters. In the
deciduous trees with broad leaves that change color
winter, the ground is covered with clumps of coarse
and drop off in winter. Mixed forests with both types
grass. There are few trees in these savannas, or plains,
of trees are common.
found in Africa, Central and South America, Asia,
Lands around the Mediterranean Sea have hot,
and Australia.
sunny summers and mild, rainy winters. Natural veg-
etation includes thickets of woody bushes and short
Dry Climates
trees called Mediterranean scrub. Areas with similar
The two types of dry climates, desert and steppe, are
vegetation of the midlatitudes like southwest Austra-
found in the low and midlatitudes. Deserts are dry
lia are defined as Mediterranean.
areas with little plant life. Annual desert rainfall
In the southeastern United States, the humid
rarely exceeds 10 inches and temperatures vary from
subtropical climate brings short mild winters and rain
cool at night to hot during the day. One-third of
virtually all year. Ocean wind patterns and high pres-
Earth is desert.
sure keep humidity high. Vegetation includes prairies

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 –AtmosPhere And ClimAte–
or inland grasslands and evergreen and deciduous
tree forests.
In some midlatitude regions of the Northern
Hemisphere, landforms influence climate more than
ocean temperatures, wind, or precipitation. A humid
continental climate does not have moderating ocean
winds because they lie inland. The farther north in
the humid continental climate, the longer and more
severe are the snowy winters and the shorter and
cooler are summers. Vegetation in humid continental
regions is similar to West Coast areas with evergreens
outnumbering deciduous trees in northern areas.
Because of the generally mild climate and rich soil,
humid continental regions are some of the world’s
most fertile and productive agricultural zones.
High Latitude Climates
In high latitudes, freezing temperatures prevail
throughout the year due to a lack of direct sunlight.
The amount and variety of vegetation are limited.
The subarctic climate region lies just south of
the Arctic Circle, where winters are freezing cold
and summers are short and cool. Only a thin layer
of the surface thaws each summer. Below is perma-
nently frozen subsoil known as permafrost. There
may be needled evergreens in a short summer grow-
ing season.
Closer to the poles is tundra. Bitter cold and
winter darkness last many months, as the sun’s indi-
rect rays over long summer days provide little
warmth. The layer of thawed soil is even thinner than
in the subarctic, so vegetation is limited to low bushes,
very short grasses, mosses, and lichens. Trees cannot
grow roots in the tundra.
Snow and ice more than two miles thick cover
the surface of the ice cap regions all year. Since tem-
peratures average below freezing, lichens are the only
form of vegetation to grow here.
18
GEOG_01_11-20.indd 18
Highland Climates
High mountain areas, even along the equator,
resemble high latitude climates because the atmo-
sphere is so thin at high altitudes. As elevation
increases, temperature cools. Natural vegetation
varies by elevation.
Climate Change
Climate changes occur over time. Although the causes
for climate change are unclear, evidence suggests
human activity has influenced some of the changes.
Scientists study temperatures, greenhouse gases, and
cloud cover to learn more. One hypothesis is that the
sun’s energy output may vary over time. Another
hypothesis is that volcanic dust reflects sunlight back
into space, cooling the atmosphere and lowering sur-
face temperatures.
Human activities, like burning fossil fuels,
release gases that mix with water in the air to form
acid rain and snow, which can destroy forests. Fewer
forests may mean climate change. Exhaust release
from factories and automobile engines is heated in
the atmosphere by the sun’s ultraviolet rays, forming
smog, a haze that endangers people’s health. Dams
and river diversions, which are intended to supply
water to dry areas, may cause new areas to flood or
dry out and may affect climate over the long term.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
16. ____ Steppes border ice caps.
17. ____ Oceans moderate temperature.
1/5/12 1:21 PM
 –AtmosPhere And ClimAte–

18. ____ Temperature decreases with increased Answers

elevation.
1. Earth
19. ____ Automobile exhaust endangers people’s 2. Terrestrial
health. 3. Gas
4. Atmosphere
20. ____ Natural vegetation is the plant life grow- 5. Weather
ing in an area where the natural environment is 6. T
altered by human activity. 7. T
8. T
9. F
10. T
11. Low
12. Doldrums
13. Trade
14. High
15. Leeward
16. F
17. T
18. T
19. T
20. F

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GEOG_01_11-20.indd 20 1/5/12 1:21 PM
 2
PoPulation,
l e s s o n

Culture, and
natural
resourCes

Lesson summary
In this lesson, we define physical and human systems and
survey human interaction with the environment, which is
known as human or cultural geography. We look at how
human populations change; classify the basic forms of
human government, economy, and culture; and explore
how humans interact with plants, animals, lands, and
waters that make up Earth’s biosphere.

I think the greatest challenge in environmentalism and the most rewarding challenge is trying to figure out how
humans can meet their needs while protecting the environment.
—Gale Norton

Biosphere

People, animals, and plants live on or close to Earth’s surface. This biosphere includes the atmosphere, oceans,
freshwater systems, geological formations, and soils of Earth. Biodiversity explains the amazing variety of plant
and animal life here on Earth.

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 –PoPulation, Culture, and n atural resourCes–
Ecosystems
An ecosystem is a community of plants and animals,
or flora and fauna, dependent on one another and
their surroundings to survive. Knowing the charac-
teristics and distribution of ecosystems helps people
understand environmental issues.
Earth’s land, water, and air are interconnected,
as are all animals and humans. Natural ecosystems
are threatened by the expansion of human communi-
ties, and scientists have demonstrated that an entire
species disappears completely from Earth every 20
minutes. This era of mass extinction is now being
compared to the end of the last ice age 12,000 years
ago and the disappearance of the dinosaurs 65 mil-
lion years ago.
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There are about 2 million species of plants, ani-
mals, and microorganisms. Scientists estimate
there are millions more living in remote, wild
areas of land and water that have not been dis-
covered or studied.
Physical Geography
Physical geography deals with Earth’s physical fea-
tures like land, air, water, plants, and animal life, in
terms of their relationships to each other and to
humans. Physical events such as tsunamis, hurri-
canes, and earthquakes shape Earth’s surface.
Humans modify the physical environment
through the use and distribution of resources. The
physical environment then affects people and their
activities. Geographers examine how people use their
environment, how and why people change the envi-
ronment, and what consequences arise from these
changes.
22
GEOG_02_21-30.indd 22
Human, or Cultural, Geography
Human, or cultural, geography studies human activi-
ties and their relationships to the physical environ-
ment. This includes everything from population
growth and urban development to economic produc-
tion and consumption.
A culture consists of the ways a particular group
of people have learned to live, including codes of
behavior, symbols, language, values, and beliefs. The
movements of people, goods, and ideas help geogra-
phers understand how people cooperate or compete
to change or control aspects of Earth to meet their
needs. Human geography can be subdivided into
subfields like historical or political geography.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. The ___________ includes the atmosphere,
oceans, freshwater systems, geological forma-
tions, and soils of Earth.
2. ___________ geography focuses on population
growth, urban development, and economic
production and consumption.
3. ___________ geography deals with Earth’s
physical features like climate, land, air, water,
plants, and animal life in terms of their rela-
tionships to each other and humans.
4. A(n) ___________ is a community of plants
and animals dependent on one another and
their surroundings to survive.
5. Humans modify the physical environment
through the use and distribution of
___________.
1/5/12 1:22 PM
 –PoPulation, Culture, and n atural resourCes–

cultural beliefs about marriage, family, and the value

didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and of children.
People in rural areas often believe having a large
From 1000 to 1800, the world population grew number of children will provide a source of labor to
slowly. The world population then more than help them farm the land. In these developing regions,
doubled from 1800 to 1950. The world popula- a high number of births and low death rates mean
tion is now growing so fast it may reach 9 billion increased population growth.
by 2050. Some countries have experienced negative pop-
ulation growth. This is when the annual death rate
exceeds the annual birth rate.

demographic transition
Challenges of
Population growth varies from country to country
Population Growth
and is influenced by cultural ideas, migration, and
level of development. Demography is the study of
Rapid population growth increases the difficulty of
population. Demographers use statistics to analyze
producing enough food for everyone. On every con-
population growth. The birth rate is the number of
tinent except Africa, food production has risen since
births per year per 1,000 people. The death rate is the
1950. Africa—especially in the sub-Saharan coun-
number of deaths per year per 1,000 people. Natural
tries—is starving due to a lack of investment in agri-
increase, the difference between the birth and death
culture, governmental mismanagement, severe
rates, is the growth rate of a population. Migration is
weather conditions, and warfare.
the movement of people from place to place.
Rapidly growing populations use their resources
The demographic transition model uses birth
more quickly, and there may be housing, water, and
rates and death rates to track a country’s population
food shortages. Countries with a large population of
trends. This model reveals that birth rates and death
infants and children do not have enough workers to
rates declined in industrialized Western European
produce food for everyone.
countries during the last century. Death rates fall
because of abundant and regular food supplies,
improved healthcare and access to medicines, and
Population distribution
better technology and living conditions. Birth rates
decline more slowly as cultural traditions change.
World population distribution is uneven, and is
Most of the world’s industrialized countries
influenced by migration and Earth’s physical geogra-
have transitioned from high birth rates and death
phy. Of the 30% of Earth’s surface that is land, two-
rates to low birth rates and death rates. Some coun-
thirds of it, including frozen tundra, barren deserts,
tries have zero population growth, which is when
and high mountain peaks, remains inhospitable.
birth rates and death rates are equal.
Humans live on the remaining third where there is
For the past 40 years, birth rates have fallen in
fertile soil, available water, and a livable climate.
Asia (with the exception of China), Africa, and Latin
Europe and Asia are the most densely populated areas
America. Birth rates are nevertheless still higher in
of the world—Asia contains nearly 60% of the world’s
the developing world than in the industrialized
population. Where population is concentrated,
world. Families remain large in these areas due to

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 –PoPulation, Culture, and n atural resourCes–
people tend to live in metropolitan areas, which
include cities and their surrounding areas.
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Today most people in Europe, North America,
South America, and Australia live in or near
urban areas.
Population density
Geographers determine population density, or how
crowded a place is, by how many people live in a
square mile or kilometer. Density is calculated by
dividing total population by total land area. Popula-
tion density varies widely by country. Singapore has
one of the highest population densities, about 16,540
people per square mile. Canada has about 9 people
per square mile, though its major cities are densely
populated.
Countries with similarly sized populations do
not have the same population densities. Both Bolivia
and the Dominican Republic have populations of
about 8.9 million people, but the Dominican Repub-
lic, part of a small island, has 471 people per square
mile while Bolivia has only 21 people per square mile.
Population density measures do not account for
uneven population distribution within a country. For
example, 90% of Egypt’s population lives along the
Nile River, because most of the country is desert.
Some geographers prefer to measure population den-
sity against hospitable land area.
Population Movement
Population generally moves from city to city, city to
suburbs, and rural areas to cities. The growth of city
populations by migration is called urbanization,
24
GEOG_02_21-30.indd 24
which occurs primarily as rural people move to more
prosperous cities in search of a better life. Although
many rural populations have grown, the amount of
farmland has not increased, and many rural immi-
grants seek to find urban jobs in manufacturing and
services.
About 50% of the world’s population lives
in cities.
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From 1950 to 2005, the population of Mexico
City rose from 3 million to 19 million. Cities in
Latin America and Asia all grew during the same
time frame. Many of these cities contain most of
their country’s population. About a third of
Argentina’s population, for example, lives in
Buenos Aires.
Population movement also occurs between
countries. Emigrants move from their countries of
birth to a new homeland, where they are called immi-
grants. Economic pull factors have lured millions of
people from Africa, Asia, and Latin America to the
wealthier countries of North America, Europe, and
Australia. These refugees are escaping disaster or per-
secution, and are pushed out of their homelands by
war, food shortages, or other problems.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
6. ____ Demography is the study of population.
7. ____ Geographers determine population den-
sity by how many people live in a square mile
or kilometer.
8. ____ Humans live on 80% of Earth’s land.
1/5/12 1:22 PM
 –PoPulation, Culture, and n atural resourCes–
9. ____ The growth of city populations by migra-
tion is called urbanization.
10. ____ Population growth occurs when the
annual death rate exceeds the annual birth rate.
elements of Culture
Culture is the way of life of a group of people who
share similar beliefs and customs. Culture can be
understood by looking at language, religion, daily life,
history, art, government, and economy. The interac-
tion of cultures can spread new ideas, establish trad-
ing relationships, cause wars, and build political
partnerships.
this tiP
book.
Geographers divide the Earth into culture
regions defined by common elements like lan-
guage and religion.
Language
Language relays information, experiences, traditions,
and values. People speak in dialects, or variations of a
language in which meanings and pronunciations
vary. Languages are divided into language families
with common roots like the Indo-European family,
which dates back to the Bronze Age.
Religion
A religion is a set of beliefs and practices about ulti-
mate reality. Each religion has its own symbols, sacred
texts and sites, celebrations, and styles of worship.
Religion often gives people identity, as it can dictate
how people speak, eat, dress, and act. Religious sym-
bols and stories have shaped cultural expressions in
painting, architecture, and music.
GEOG_02_21-30.indd 25
Geography of Religions
Religion as a part of culture is diffused through
migration, missionary work, trade, and war. Bud-
dhism, Christianity, and Islam spread mostly through
missionary work. Hinduism, Judaism, and Sikhism
are associated with a culture group and people are
usually born into these religions.
Indigenous Religions
Aboriginal or indigenous animists believe we are part
of the beauty of nature. Oral traditions and stories,
music and dance, rituals, face painting, and masks are
used by natives indigenous to Africa, America, and
Australia. Japanese Shintoists worship nature spirits
called kami. There are many Native American reli-
gions, many of which worship a Great Spirit, a spirit
world, hunting, and the harvest.
Culture regions
A culture region is a geographical area that contains
communities with traits in common. Regions may
have similar social groups, forms of government, or
economic systems. Their histories, religions, and art
forms may have similar traditions. Internal factors
like new ideas, lifestyles, and inventions change cul-
tures over time. Spatial interaction through trade,
migration, and wars are external causes of cultural
change. Cultural diffusion occurs when new knowl-
edge spreads from one culture to another.
The earliest humans spread their culture as they
wandered to hunt and herd. These nomads moved
from place to place seeking food, water, and grazing
lands. During the last ice age, about 10,000 years ago,
they settled in hills and then in river valleys and fer-
tile plains. There they set up permanent villages, and
farmers grew crops on the same land every year. This
shift from gathering food to producing food through
farming created an early revolution in agriculture.
However, what we know today as the agricultural rev-
olution occurred in the eighteenth and nineteenth
25
1/5/12 1:22 PM
 –PoPulation, Culture, and n atural resourCes–
centuries, when technological innovations created an
explosion of agricultural products.
Beginning in the 1700s and 1800s, countries
began to use power-driven machines and factories to
mass-produce goods quickly and cheaply. This indus-
trialization spurred social changes. Cities grew larger
as people left farms for factory and mill jobs.
Toward the end of the twentieth century, com-
puters made it possible to store huge amounts of
information and instantly send it all over the world.
This information revolution linked the cultures of
the world more closely than ever.
Cultural Hearths
A cultural hearth is a site of innovation from which
ideas, goods, and technology spread to many cultures.
Early cultural centers or hearths of civilization in
Egypt, Iraq, Pakistan, China, and Mexico spread ideas
and practices to surrounding areas. Each of these
hearths was located near a major river or water
source, and farming settlements were established in
areas with fertile land and mild climates. Inhabitants
dug canals and ditches to irrigate the land and sell
surplus crops.
Without the need to constantly produce crops,
some people began to specialize in metalworking and
shipbuilding. Such new technologies inspired long
distance trade. Wealth from trade created govern-
ments that organized harvests, built cities, and raised
armies for defense.
Cultural diffusion
Ideas and practices are received from trade and travel
through cultural diffusion. People migrate to escape
wars, persecution, and famine. Mass migrations can
also be forced, as during the centuries of African slave
trade. Economic opportunities and religious or
26
GEOG_02_21-30.indd 26
political freedom may also inspire migration.
Migrants take their cultural ideas and practices to
new lands, where they blend them with those already
there, as has happened with metalworking and indig-
enous cultures.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
11. Cultural ___________ occurs when new
knowledge spreads from one culture to another.
12. Indigenous ___________ believe we are all part
of the beauty of nature.
13. Early cultural hearths were located near a
___________ source.
14. A culture ___________ has countries with
traits in common.
15. The ___________ revolution spurred social
changes as cities grew.
resources in the
world economy
People are dependent on the world’s natural resources
for survival, and the growth of the global economy is
making the people of the world more interdependent,
or reliant, on each other in a process called globaliza-
tion. Natural resources are extracted and traded
around the world. Still, as important as they are to
modern life, certain economic activities can threaten
future human access to these resources.
Resource Management
Earth provides all the elements needed to sustain life.
Natural resources can be used for food, fuel, or other
1/5/12 1:22 PM
 –PoPulation, Culture, and n atural resourCes–
needs. Renewable resources cannot be used up. They
are replaced naturally, or are grown again right away.
Wind, sun, water, and forests are renewable resources.
Nonrenewable resources from Earth’s crust, includ-
ing minerals and fossil fuels, cannot be replaced and
therefore must be conserved.
Conservation is the process by which humans
manage vital resources so both present and long-
term needs are met. Many countries produce hydro-
electric power, which is generated from falling water.
Solar power is produced by the sun’s energy. Electric-
ity derived from nuclear energy, or a controlled
atomic reaction, is another renewable resource.
However, like fossil fuel, nuclear fuel poses danger-
ous waste problems.
Economies and World Trade
Natural resources are not evenly distributed across
Earth. Countries specialize in economic activity best
suited to their resources. Countries with varying lev-
els of economic development have thus become
increasingly interdependent through world trade.
The global reach of developed countries has
ignited resentment in some developing countries.
Militant groups have struck back through terrorism,
the use of violence to create fear in a population or
region. These groups are small and limited in
resources. They seek to heighten their influence and
promote and control changes in society through fear.
Economic Development of Resources
Geographers believe there are four types of economic
activities:
1. Primary—the taking or use of natural resources
directly from Earth. This includes farming,
grazing, fishing, forestry, and mining.
2. Secondary—the use of raw materials to produce
something new and valuable. Manufacturing
automobiles and assembling electronics are
examples.
GEOG_02_21-30.indd 27
3. Tertiary—these activities provide services, like
teachers and lawyers do, to people and
businesses.
4. Quaternary—processing, managing, and dis-
tributing information in the new information
economy. This includes white-collar profession-
als in business, education, government, and
information processing and research.
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industrialization, or the spread of industry,
helps a country develop. Industrialized countries
with technology and manufacturing, such as the
United States, are called developed countries.
Farming and industry
Farmers in developed countries work in commercial
farming, raising crops and livestock to sell in the mar-
ket. With the development of modern techniques,
only a small percentage of farmers in developed
countries grow food to support the population. Most
farmers use subsistence farming techniques, harvest-
ing just enough for their own family’s needs.
New industrial countries move from primarily
agricultural to manufacturing and industrial activi-
ties. Developing countries like Mexico and Malaysia
work toward more manufacturing and technology. In
the many developing countries of Africa, Asia, and
Latin America, agriculture predominates.
water and land Pollution
Earth’s natural waters are normally renewable, but
the water cycle can be interrupted by oil spills from
offshore tankers and drilling rigs. Industrial chemical
27
1/5/12 1:22 PM
 –PoPulation, Culture, and n atural resourCes–

waste enters and pollutes the water supply. Farm fer-
tilizers and pesticides can seep into groundwater just
like animal waste and untreated sewage can.
Land pollution includes chemical waste that
poisons fertile topsoil. Solid waste dumped in landfills
is another form of land pollution. Radioactive waste
from nuclear power plants and toxic runoff from
chemical processing plants can seep into soil, too.
air Pollution
The burning of fossil fuels by industries and vehicles
is a main source of air pollution. This process gives
off poison gases that are damaging to people’s health.
Acidic chemicals in air pollution combine with pre-
cipitation to form acid rain. Acid rain eats away at
building surfaces, kills fish, and destroys forests that
provide habitats for animals, prevent soil erosion, and
carry on photosynthesis, the process through which
plants take in carbon dioxide and produce carbohy-
drates and oxygen with the presence of sunlight.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
16. ____ Fossil fuels such as oil and coal and other
nonrenewable resources must be conserved.
17. ____ Most of the farmers in developing coun-
tries are engaged in subsistence farming, har-
vesting just enough for their own family needs.
18. ____ Pollution occurs when unclean or toxic
elements destroy the air, water, and land.
19. ____ Forests provide habitats for animals, pre-
vent soil erosion, and carry on photosynthesis.
20. ____ Acidic chemicals in air pollution combine
with precipitation to form acid rain.

this tiP
book.

Increases in temperature cause glaciers and ice

caps to melt, raising the level of the world’s
oceans, which could in time flood coastal cities.

28

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 –PoPulation, Culture, and n atural resourCes–

answers 10. F
11. Diffusion
1. Biosphere 12. Animists
2. Human or Cultural 13. Water
3. Physical 14. Region
4. Ecosystem 15. Industrial
5. Resources 16. T
6. T 17. T
7. T 18. T
8. F 19. T
9. T 20. T

29

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GEOG_02_21-30.indd 30 1/5/12 1:22 PM
 3 overview of
l e s s o n

tHe world—
HydrospHere

Lesson summary
We look in this lesson at the importance of the water
cycle. We explore saltwater bodies such as the oceans, as
well as freshwater lakes, rivers, and streams. We examine
how saltwater can be converted into freshwater, what
groundwater is, and why it is important. We explore the
scarcity of water and the destructive capabilities of floods.

More than one-half of the world’s major rivers are being seriously depleted and polluted, degrading and poisoning
the surrounding ecosystems, thus threatening the health and livelihood of people who depend upon them for irriga-
tion, drinking and industrial water.
—Ismail Serageldin, Chairman, World Commission
on Water for the 21st Century

Hydrosphere

About 70% of Earth’s surface is water. Oceans, rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water make up the water-based
hydrosphere. All living organisms need water to survive. The hydrosphere includes all liquid and frozen surface
water, groundwater, and water vapor. About 97% of the hydrosphere is saltwater in the oceans, seas, and a few
large saltwater lakes. The balance is freshwater in lakes, rivers, and groundwater.

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 –overview of tHe world—HydrospHere–
water Cycle
The water cycle is the regular movement of water
from the oceans to the air to the land and back to the
oceans. The sun’s energy evaporates water from
Earth’s surfaces, changing liquid water into vapor or
gas. Frozen water can be trapped in ice caps for thou-
sands of years, or it can rest on snowy mountain peaks
for months until warm seasonal weather melts it away.
Water vapor rising up from the ocean, other bodies of
water, and plants gather in the air. The amount of
vapor the air holds depends on its temperature—thin,
warm air holds more water vapor than cool, dense air.
As warm air cools it cannot hold all its water
vapor. Through condensation, excess water vapor
morphs into liquid water. These tiny water droplets
form clouds. When clouds have more water than they
can hold, the moisture falls to Earth as precipitation,
which can be rain, sleet, or snow depending on air
temperature and wind conditions.
Precipitation gathers in streams and lakes or
seeps below Earth’s surface as groundwater. Eventu-
ally, groundwater flows back to the surface, where it
again evaporates along with other bodies of water,
and the cycle is renewed.
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The amount of evaporated water from lakes,
streams, and oceans is about the same amount
that falls back to Earth. The amount varies very
little each year. The total volume of water in the
water cycle is constant.
oceans
Ninety-seven percent of Earth’s water is a huge con-
tinuous body of water circling the planet. Geogra-
phers break this water expanse into five oceans: the
Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Southern (or
32
GEOG_03_31-36.indd 32
Antarctic). The Southern Ocean extends from the
coast of Antarctica to 60° S latitude. The Pacific is the
largest ocean. It covers more area than all the Earth’s
surface land combined, and at one point is so deep it
could cover Mount Everest with a mile to spare.
Seas, gulfs, and bays are small saltwater bodies.
They are smaller than oceans and are usually partly
enclosed by land. For example, the Mediterranean,
one of the world’s largest seas, is almost entirely
enclosed by southern Europe, North Africa, and
southwestern Asia.
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The Gulf of Mexico is nearly encircled by the
coasts of the United States and Mexico. Around
the world, there are 66 separate seas, gulfs, and
bays and many smaller divisions.
saltwater to freshwater
Saltwater from the oceans is too salty for drinking,
farming, and manufacturing. Today, there is a con-
certed effort to try to turn ocean water into freshwa-
ter. Through desalination, the salt is removed to
make freshwater. Only a small amount of freshwater
is made through desalination because the process is
expensive and consumes a lot of energy. Desalination
is used, though, by countries in the Middle East and
North Africa because freshwater sources are so scarce
there and they have the energy supplies that enable
them to run desalination plants inexpensively.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. Nearly all of the hydrosphere is ___________
water.
1/5/12 1:22 PM
 –overview of tHe world—HydrospHere–
2. The hydrosphere includes all liquid and
___________ surface water.
3. The water ___________ is the regular move-
ment of water.
4. The ___________ evaporates water from the
surfaces of the world’s oceans, lakes, and
streams.
5. ___________ can be rain, sleet, or snow
depending on air temperature and wind
conditions.
6. Precipitation sinks into the ground and gathers
in streams and as ___________.
7. ___________ percent of Earth’s surface is
water.
8. The ___________ is the largest and deepest
ocean.
9. Today, there is a concerted effort to turn ocean
water into freshwater through ___________.
10. Geographers have identified five oceans: the
Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and
___________.
freshwater Bodies
About 3% of Earth’s water is freshwater, and most of
that is not fit for human consumption. Sixty-nine
percent of freshwater is contained in frozen ice caps
and glaciers. Lakes, streams, and rivers contain less
than 1% of Earth’s freshwater. About 30% of freshwa-
ter may be found beneath Earth’s surface.
GEOG_03_31-36.indd 33
Lakes, Streams, and Rivers
A lake is a body of water completely surrounded by
land. Most lakes contain freshwater, but some, like
Southwest Asia’s Dead Sea and Utah’s Great Salt
Lake, are saltwater remains of ancient seas. Most
lakes remain where glacial movement cut deep val-
leys and built up dams of rock and soil that held back
melting ice water. North America has thousands of
glacial lakes.
Streams and rivers form from flowing water. A
spring, overflowing lake, or meltwater may be the
source or beginning of a stream. Streams may com-
bine to form a river. A river is a large stream of higher
volume following a channel along a particular course.
When rivers join together, the resulting major river
systems can flow for thousands of miles. Rain, runoff,
and water from tributaries (small branches of rivers)
enlarge rivers as they flow on to a gulf, sea, or ocean.
The mouth of the river is where the river empties into
another body of water.
Groundwater
Fresh water within the earth’s surface is called
groundwater. Groundwater comes from rain and
melted snow filtered through soil and from lake and
river water that seeps into the ground. Wells and
springs tap into the groundwater and are important
freshwater sources for many rural people and some
city dwellers. An aquifer is an underground porous
rock layer usually saturated by very slow water flows.
Aquifers and groundwater are important sources of
fresh water.
Scarcity of Freshwater
International planners use the term water stress to
describe where freshwater needs are greatest. Water
resources are weighed against population size and
growth to determine water stress. China, India,
Southwest Asia, Mexico, and parts of Russia will face
water shortages due to pollution of their freshwater.
Untreated sewage dumped into streams and rivers
causes water pollution.
33
1/5/12 1:22 PM
 –overview of tHe world—HydrospHere–
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In developing countries, only about 25% of the
water supplies are treated for contaminants.
Climate change has greatly lessened the amount
of water runoff for irrigation, drinking, and industry
in the United States and the world. Droughts have
increased in frequency. Glaciers are receding faster.
Water supplies are dwindling. Freshwater levels are
going down as temperatures are increasing. Water
conservation is going to become an increasingly
important issue in the future.
dangerous floodwaters
Floods kill about 35% of the people who die from
natural disasters. Population density problems cause
people to migrate and settle in hazardous parts of
river flood plains and deltas where they are more
prone to die in floods. Flooding has increased because
deforestation and urbanization do not absorb or halt
runoff.
In 2004 and 2011, tsunamis with giant waves of
over 100 feet caused by earthquakes measuring
between 9.0 and 9.3 on the Richter scale (10 is the
highest level) hit Southeast Asia and Japan, respec-
tively. Because there was no early warning system in
Indonesia and in other places along the path of the
2004 tsunami, 187,000 people were killed and 43,000
more went missing as entire villages in 13 countries
were swept away. Japan lost 25,000 lives in 2011 and
was able to evacuate many survivors.
In 2005, there were 28 tropical storms and 15
hurricanes. All along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico,
levees (dams to stop water that run along the banks
of a river or canal) were breached and countless
homes were destroyed by the floodwaters created by
Hurricane Katrina. Eighty percent of New Orleans
34
GEOG_03_31-36.indd 34
was flooded. In the aftermath, many Americans criti-
cized the federal, state, and local governments for a
lack of preparedness and failure to respond in a
timely, effective, and organized fashion.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
11. ____ Southwest Asia’s Dead Sea and Utah’s
Great Salt Lake are freshwater bodies.
12. ____ A river is a large stream of higher volume
following a channel along a particular course.
13. ____ The mouth of the river is where the river
abruptly ends.
14. ____ Aquifers and groundwater are important
sources of fresh water.
15. ____ By 2025, 25% of Africa will experience
water shortages or stress.
16. ____ Untreated sewage causes water pollution.
17. ____ Climate change has increased the amount
of water runoff for irrigation, drinking, and
industry in the United States and the world.
18. ____ Floods kill about 35% of the people who
die in natural disasters.
19. ____ Tsunamis are earthquake-driven giant
waves that should be detected by early warning
systems.
20. ____ Many Americans criticized the federal,
state, and local governments for a lack of pre-
paredness and failure to respond to Hurricane
Katrina in a timely, effective, and organized
fashion.
1/5/12 1:22 PM
 –overview of tHe world—HydrospHere–

Answers

1. Salt
2. Frozen
3. Cycle
4. Sun
5. Precipitation
6. Groundwater
7. 70
8. Pacific
9. Desalination
10. Southern
11. F
12. T
13. F
14. T
15. F
16. T
17. F
18. T
19. T
20. T

35

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GEOG_03_31-36.indd 36 1/5/12 1:22 PM
 4 overview of
l e s s o n

the world—
lithosphere

Lesson summary
This lesson explains the different types of landforms. It
also details how internal and external processes shape
Earth’s surface.

Our earth is very old, an old warrior that has lived through many battles. Nevertheless, the face of it is still chang-
ing, and science sees no certain limit of time for its stately evolution. And the secret of it all—the secret of the earth-
quake, the secret of the “temple of fire,” the secret of the ocean basin, the secret of the highland—is in the heart of
the earth, forever invisible to human eyes.
—Reginald Aldworth Daly, Our Mobile Earth (1926)

lithosphere

The lithosphere is the outermost layer of Earth. It includes the crust and the upper layer of the mantle just
beneath the crust. This is true of the surfaces of continents and islands as well as land beneath oceans. Conti-
nents and islands make up about 30% of the lithosphere, which averages about 60 miles deep, though older
parts of the lithosphere are thicker.

landforms

Landforms are the natural features of Earth’s surface. Landforms have a specific shape or elevation and often
contain rivers, lakes, and streams. Bodies of water are considered landforms, too, as are the formations under
the water’s surface. Underwater landforms are diverse, just like those on dry land—the ocean floor is a flat plain
in some places and in other places includes mountain ranges, cliffs, valleys, and deep trenches.
37

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 –overview of the world—l ithosphere–
From space, the most visible landforms are the
seven continents: Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia,
Europe, North America, and South America. Austra-
lia and Antarctica stand alone. Europe and Asia make
up the landmass called Eurasia, which is linked with
Africa by the Sinai Peninsula in northeastern Egypt.
The narrow strip called the Isthmus of Panama con-
nects North and South America.
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At the Sinai Peninsula, the man-made Suez
Canal separates Asia and Africa.
The continental shelf is an underwater exten-
sion of the coastal plain. On average, continental
shelves slope out from land for 50 miles, though they
can stretch out much further. For example, the Sibe-
rian shelf in the Arctic Ocean extends for 930 miles.
The shelves descend gradually to a fairly uniform
depth of 460 feet. At that point, a sharp drop called a
shelf break marks the beginning of the continental
slope. The continental slope then drops down to the
ocean floor.
earth’s depths and heights
The heights and depths of Earth’s surface contrast
sharply. The highest point on Earth is Mount Ever-
est in South Asia at 29,028 feet above sea level. The
lowest point on dry land is the Dead Sea in South-
west Asia at 1,349 feet below sea level. The deepest
depression on Earth is the Mariana Trench south-
west of Guam in the Pacific Ocean at around 36,000
feet deep.
38
GEOG_04_37-42.indd 38
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. The ___________ is surface land including the
continental and ocean basins or land beneath
the oceans.
2. The continental ____________ is an extension
plain.
3. ___________ of the seven continents are inde-
pendent land masses.
4. The ___________Trench is the deepest depres-
sion on Earth.
5. Mount ___________ is the highest point on
Earth.
forces of Change in earth
The intense heat and pressure at the center of Earth,
as well as the shifting of massive tectonic plates,
drives volcanoes and earthquakes to enrich and renew
its surface. These natural processes can also disrupt
and destroy human life, so scientists try to predict
their occurrences. Sensors in the ground, trees, and
rocks in the landscape tell of past tsunamis and
earthquakes.
earth’s layers
Earth has three layers: the core, mantle, and crust.
The very center of Earth is an iron and nickel inner
core as hot as the sun and under great pressure. The
liquid outer core surrounding the inner core is a band
of melted iron and nickel.
1/5/12 1:23 PM
 –overview of the world—l ithosphere–
The mantle is the thick layer of hot, dense rock
covering the outer core. The mantle is made of sili-
con, aluminum, iron, magnesium, oxygen, and other
elements. This mixture is always rising, cooling, sink-
ing, and rising again.
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The mantle releases 80% of the heat generated
by Earth’s interior.
The crust is the outer layer and rocky shell of
Earth’s surface. The thin crust is about two miles
thick under the ocean and up to 75 miles thick under
mountains. The crust is broken down into more than
a dozen great slabs of rock called plates. Plates float
on a partially melted layer in the upper portion of the
mantle. These plates carry Earth’s oceans and conti-
nents.
plate tectonics
Plate tectonics are the physical processes that created
many of Earth’s physical features. Plates move very
slowly—pulling, grinding, and sliding about an inch
a year—and are carried by magma (molten rock)
currents, created by heat from the core. They con-
stantly change the face of the planet by creating vol-
canoes, causing earthquakes, and pushing up
mountains. When plates spread apart, magma pushes
up from the mantle to form ridges. When plates
bump or one plate slides under another plate, a
trench is formed.
GEOG_04_37-42.indd 39
plate Movement and
Continental drift
Earth did not look the same 500 or 100 million years
ago. There was first a giant supercontinent called
Pangaea. Over millions of years, the continents broke
away and drifted apart in a process called continental
drift. The broken pieces then recombined in different
ways, forming the continents as we know today.
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The face of the Earth has been changing for
2.5–4 billion years. It is still changing.
Colliding and Spreading Plates
Giant colliding plates form mountains. The Himala-
yan mountain range was formed by the Indian land-
mass drifting against Eurasia. A mountain can form
from a sea plate colliding with a continental plate.
In subduction, the heavier sea plate dives
beneath the lighter continental plate. Crashing into
Earth’s interior, the sea plate becomes molten mate-
rial. As magma, it bursts through the crust as a volca-
nic mountain.
In accretion, massive layers of debris pile up as
the sea plate slides under the continental plate. This
process levels seamounts, underwater mountains
with steep sides and sharp peaks, and piles up the
resulting debris in trenches. Continents grow out-
ward this way. North America began to expand into
the Pacific Ocean over 200 million years ago through
accretion.
New land can form from the convergence of
two sea plates. One plate moves under the other and
forms an island chain at the boundary.
Spreading of sea plates can create a rift or deep
crack. This process allows magma within the earth to
well up between plates. The magma hardens, creating
undersea volcanic mountains or ridges and some
39
1/5/12 1:23 PM
 –overview of the world—l ithosphere–
islands. Spreading occurs in the middle of the floor of
the Atlantic Ocean, pushing Europe and America fur-
ther apart.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
6. ____ The movement of plates created Earth’s
largest features like continents, oceans, and
mountain ranges.
7. ____ The Himalayan mountain range was
formed by the Indian landmass drifting against
Eurasia.
8. ____ North America began to expand into the
Pacific Ocean over 200 million years ago
through subduction.
9. ____ The divergence of plates forms island
chains.
10. ____ Earth has always remained the same
physically.
Folds and Faults
Moving plates squeeze the Earth’s surface until it
buckles to create folds, or bends in layers of rock.
Plates may also grind or slide past each other creating
cracks in Earth’s crust called faults. The San Andreas
Fault in California is a famous example. Faulting
occurs when the folded land cannot be bent further.
Earth’s crust cracks and breaks into huge blocks. The
blocks then move along the faults in different direc-
tions, grinding against each other. The resulting ten-
sion may release small jumps or minor tremors on
Earth’s surface.
40
GEOG_04_37-42.indd 40
Earthquakes
Earthquakes are sudden violent movements along a
fault line, or tremors caused by volcanic activity. The
shaking changes the land surface and the ocean floor.
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An earthquake in Alaska in 1964 sent a piece of
land 38 feet in the air.
Earthquakes often occur where plates meet.
When plates stick, tension builds. The strain gets so
intense that rocks snap and shift. The energy sent
along the fault causes the ground to shake and trem-
ble. The shock waves send the rock apart from the
area where it snapped.
Earthquakes are common in California and
Japan, because these places are situated on the Ring
of Fire, one of the most earthquake-prone areas on
the planet. The Ring of Fire is a volcanic and earth-
quake zone of activity around the perimeter of the
Pacific Ocean where plates cradling the Pacific meet
the plates holding the continents surrounding the
Pacific.
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this book. know
it faithfully, and
North America, South America, Asia, and Aus-
tralia are affected by their locations on the Ring
of Fire.
volcanic eruptions
Volcanic mountains form when lava or magma
breaks through Earth’s crust. They often form along
plate boundaries where one plate plunges beneath
another, for example, along the Ring of Fire. The
1/5/12 1:23 PM
 –overview of the world—l ithosphere–
rocky plate melts as it dives downward into the hot
mantle. If the molten rock is too thick, flow is blocked
and pressure builds. Ash and gas clouds may spew,
creating a funnel. Through the funnel, red-hot
magma shoots to the surface. The lava flow may cre-
ate a large cone topped by a crater, a bowl-shaped
depression, at its mouth.
Volcanoes may rise far from plate boundaries.
Hot spots in Earth may blast up to the surface as vol-
canoes. As moving plates move over hot spots, mol-
ten rock flowing from inside Earth may create
volcanic island chains like the Hawaiian Islands.
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Molten rock may heat underground water, creat-
ing hot springs or geysers like Yellowstone
National Park’s Old Faithful.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
11. The bowl-shaped depression at the top of the
volcano is its ____________.
12. The tension and tremors from colliding plates
causes ___________.
13. Moving plates squeeze Earth’s surface until it
buckles to create ___________, or bends in
layers of rock.
14. The earthquake-prone Ring of ___________
can be found throughout the perimeter of the
Pacific Ocean.
15. Plates may also grind or slide past each other,
creating cracks in the earth’s crust called
___________.
GEOG_04_37-42.indd 41
external forces of Change
External forces of change like weathering and ero-
sion shape the surface of Earth.
Weathering
Weathering breaks down rocks. There are two kinds
of weathering. Physical weathering is when large rock
masses are physically broken down into small pieces
due to atmospheric conditions. An example is when
freezing water expands and causes a rock to break
apart. Chemical weathering changes the chemical
makeup of rocks. An example is when rainwater con-
taining carbon dioxide from the air dissolves certain
rocks like limestone.
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Caves are often formed by chemical weathering.
Wind Erosion
Erosion wears away Earth’s surface through wind,
glaciers, and moving water. Wind erosion occurs
when dust, sand, and soil move from one place to
another. Plants protect land from wind erosion. In
dry places or where trees and plants have been cut
down, winds pick up a lot of soil and blow it away.
On the positive side, winds can deposit large amounts
of mineral-rich soil in other places.
Glacial Erosion
Large bodies of ice called glaciers move across Earth’s
surface. Glaciers form as snow layers compress into
ice. Their weight causes glaciers to move slowly
downhill or spread. They pick up rocks and soil in
their paths, altering the landscape. They can carve out
valleys, alter rivers, destroy forests, and wear down
mountains. As glaciers melt and recede they leave
large piles of rock and debris known as moraine.
41
1/5/12 1:23 PM
 –overview of the world—l ithosphere–

Moraines can form long land ridges or form dams Answers

that hold water and create glacial lakes.
There are two types of glaciers: sheet glaciers 1. Lithosphere
and mountain glaciers. Sheet glaciers, like those cov- 2. Shelf
ering Greenland and Antarctica, are broad flat sheets 3. Two
of ice. They advance a few feet in winter and recede in 4. Mariana
summer. Large blocks of ice break off coastal edges 5. Everest
and float in the ocean as icebergs. Mountain glaciers 6. T
originate in cold, high mountaintop valleys and carve 7. T
out U-shaped valleys as they move downhill. Glaciers 8. F
that cover an entire mountain are called ice caps. 9. F
10. F
Water Erosion 11. Crater
Water erosion is the result of springwater and rainwa- 12. Earthquakes
ter flowing downhill and wearing away soil and rock. 13. Folds
The water forms a gully and then a V-shaped valley. 14. Fire
Valleys may erode to form canyons like the Grand 15. Faults
Canyon. Pounding ocean waves erode coastal cliffs, 16. T
make rock into sandy beaches, and carry sand away to 17. F
other coastal areas. 18. T
19. F
Practice 20. T
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.

16. _____ Physical weathering occurs when large

rock bodies break off into small pieces due to
atmospheric conditions.

17. _____ Greenland and Antarctica are mountain

glaciers.

18. _____ Caves are often the result of chemical

weathering.

19. _____ Moraines are icebergs.

20. _____ The Grand Canyon and ocean coastlines

formed from water erosion.

42

GEOG_04_37-42.indd 42 1/5/12 1:23 PM

 5
l e s s o n

RecoRDing
geogRaphy

Lesson summary
Geographers use a variety of specialized research tools to
conduct their work. In this lesson, we examine the geog-
rapher’s craft. We examine the tools and research meth-
ods geographers use, survey the careers available in
geography, and examine geography’s connection to other
disciplines. We specifically focus on how to read a map
using lines of latitude and longitude and other represen-
tative symbols.

A good plan is like a road map; it shows the final destination and usually the best way to get there.
—H. Stanley Judd

Direct observation

Geographers visit a place to amass specific information about it and its geographic features. They use remote
sensing techniques such as aerial photography and satellite imaging to learn more about mineral deposits or
freshwater sources, or to survey human activities on Earth.

43

GEOG_05_43-50.indd 43 1/5/12 1:23 PM

 –RecoRDing geogR aphy–
Mapping (globes and Maps)
Cartography involves designing and making maps.
Maps demonstrate information more graphically
than writing. Cartographers convert complex infor-
mation into more understandable, visual forms
showing locations, features, patterns, and relation-
ships of people, places, and things. Every type of map
projection has some type of distortion because it
must condense information into a small visual repre-
sentation of something much larger.
DiDUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
Maps allow for visual comparisons like popula-
tion density between places and regions.
When reading a map, look at its title, the scale
of measurement, and the compass rose indicating
the cardinal directions of north, south, east, and west.
Some maps show the intermediate directions of
northeast, northwest, southeast, and southwest.
Look at the map’s key, or legend, which indi-
cates what the symbols, lines, and colors mean. Cities,
capitals, and boundary lines may also be noted.
Small-scale maps show large areas like a country
or the world. Large-scale maps show details of small
geographical areas like cities.
Thematic maps show detail concerning a par-
ticular aspect of an area, like oil resources. Qualitative
maps often show non-numerical information, such
as locations of businesses, using colors, symbols, or
lines. Quantitative maps illustrate numerical data
such as numbers of crimes committed in a certain
area. Flow-line maps show the movement of people,
animals, goods, and ideas as well as physical processes
like hurricanes or tsunamis. Arrows generally repre-
sent the flow and direction of movement.
44
GEOG_05_43-50.indd 44
Measuring Latitude
Lines of latitude are parallel lines of measurement
that circle Earth horizontally. Parallels south of the
equator are the South latitudes, and parallels north of
the equator are the North latitudes. The North Pole is
90° N (North) latitude. The South Pole is 90° S
(South) latitude.
The Equator
The equator is 0° latitude. Locations north of the
equator lie in the Northern Hemisphere. Locations
south of the equator lie in the Southern Hemisphere.
Measuring Longitude
Lines of longitude, or meridians, circle the earth ver-
tically from pole to pole. They measure distance east
or west of the Prime Meridian, which lies at 0° longi-
tude, where the Royal Observatory stands in Green-
wich, England. Meridians east of the Prime Meridian
are called east longitudes, and meridians west of the
prime meridian are the west longitudes.
this tip
book.
The 180° longitudinal meridian on the opposite
side of Earth from the Prime Meridian is the
International Date Line.
Everything east of the Prime Meridian for 180° is
in the Eastern Hemisphere. Everything west of the
prime meridian for 180° is in the Western Hemisphere.
Absolute and Relative Location
Earth’s maps are based on a grid system. Using the
equator, Prime Meridian, and other lines of latitude
and longitude on maps and globes helps us find the
absolute location of places, or where the lines of lati-
tude and longitude cross. Relative locations use well-
known places as reference points. A relative location
1/5/12 1:23 PM
 –RecoRDing geogR aphy–
pinpoints the new place in relation to places already
known, like landmarks, cities, rivers, lakes, states, or
countries.
Time Zones
The creation of times zones across the world signified
the beginning of the modern global era. Their estab-
lishment was tied to industrial development and the
expansion of international trade.
Timekeeping was a local phenomenon before
the late nineteenth century. Towns set their clocks
according to the positions of the sun. Noon was
defined as the time when the sun reached its maxi-
mum altitude above the horizon. Cities and towns
would assign a clockmaker to calibrate a town clock
to these solar positions. This town clock would then
represent official time and the citizens would set their
watches and clocks.
The second half of the nineteenth century was a
time of increased human and technological move-
ment. In the United States and Canada, large num-
bers of people moved west, and settlements in western
areas expanded rapidly. To support these new settle-
ments, railroads moved people and resources between
the various cities and towns. However, because of the
various ways in which local time was kept, the rail-
roads experienced major problems in constructing
timetables for the various stops. Timetables could
only become efficient if the towns and cities adopted
some type of standard method of keeping time.
In the 1870s, Sir Sandford Fleming of Canada
suggested a system of worldwide time zones to sim-
plify the keeping of time across the planet. Fleming
proposed the globe be divided into 24 time zones,
each 15 degrees of longitude in width—because the
world rotates on its axis once every 24 hours, and
there are 360 degrees of longitude, each hour of Earth
rotation represents 15 degrees of longitude.
Railroad companies in Canada and the United
States began using Fleming’s time zones in 1883. In
1884, an international Prime Meridian conference
was held in Washington, D.C., to adopt the standard-
GEOG_05_43-50.indd 45
ized method of timekeeping and determine the loca-
tion of the Prime Meridian. Conference members
agreed the longitude of Greenwich, England, would
become zero degrees longitude, or the Prime Merid-
ian. The International Date Line (180 degrees longi-
tude) marks the line where the date changes. It was
also proposed that the measurement of time on Earth
would be made relative to astronomical measure-
ments at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. This
time standard was named Greenwich Mean Time.
Many nations today operate on variations of the
time zones suggested by Fleming. In this system, time
in the various zones is measured relative to the coor-
dinated universal time (UTC) standard at the Prime
Meridian. UTC is determined from primary atomic
clocks coordinated by the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures located in France.
National boundaries and political matters also
influence the shape of time zone boundaries. For
example, China uses a single time zone (eight hours
ahead of coordinated universal time) instead of five
different time zones.
DiDUseyou
this book. know
it faithfully, and
Coordinated universal time became the stan-
dard legal reference for time all over the world
in 1972.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. Geographers use ______________ such as aer-
ial photography and satellite imaging to know
more about mineral deposits or freshwater
sources or to survey human activities on Earth.
2. Some maps show the __________ directions of
northeast, northwest, southeast, and southwest.
45
1/5/12 1:23 PM
 –RecoRDing geogR aphy–
3. A ___________ indicates what the symbols,
lines, and colors on a map mean.
4. ___________ maps show detail concerning a
particular aspect of an area, like oil resources.
5. Lines of ___________, or parallels, circle
Earth in degrees horizontally along the
equator.
6. The ___________ is 90° N (north) latitude.
7. The ___________ is 0° latitude.
8. The 180° meridian is the ___________.
9. ___________ location pinpoints the new place
in relation to places already known.
10. Modern time zones were created relative to the
___________.
interviewing
To find out what people think about a place, geog-
raphers may interview them. This will tell the geog-
rapher what people’s beliefs and attitudes are about
a place and why they believe what they do. Geog-
raphers select a carefully chosen representative
sample from the area to determine what effects
people’s beliefs have on the physical environment,
and vice versa.
analyzing statistics
Collecting and analyzing numerical information, like
temperature and rainfall, over a long period of time
helps identify a climate. Computers can help organize
46
GEOG_05_43-50.indd 46
and present this information. Geographers look for
patterns and trends in the numbers.
using technology
Modern technology allows cartographers to make
maps with software programs. High-tech remote sen-
sor cameras on orbiting satellites and radar can
gather data and images on Earth’s environment,
weather, human settlement patterns, and vegetation.
New communications technologies like the
Internet, cell phones, and overnight deliveries allow
geographic information and goods to move faster
than ever.
Geographic Information Systems
Geographic information systems (GIS) accept data
from maps, satellite images, printed text, and statis-
tics. The GIS converts the information into a digital
code and places it in a database. Cartographers then
program the GIS to process the data and produce
maps.
DiDUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
GIS can be used to track wildlife, plan roads, and
create evacuation routes for natural disasters.
Through GIS, each type of information is saved
as a separate electronic layer, allowing cartographers
to make and change maps quite easily. The first layer
might be a city. The second layer shows information
on a specific problem like population density. A third
layer might only deal with members of a certain
interest group. A fourth layer might show a different
or more specific group.
1/5/12 1:23 PM
 –RecoRDing geogR aphy–
careers in geography
Geographic skills are useful in government, business,
and education. Ecologists, for example, must know
the geography of the area where they are studying
wildlife. A travel agent has to know geography to plan
trips for people.
Geography is useful for employment opportu-
nities in teaching and education. You can teach geog-
raphy in elementary, middle, and high schools and in
colleges and universities. University research in geog-
raphy has prepared many geographers for work in
numerous industries.
There are many specialized fields of geographic
work. Physical geographers can work as soil, weather,
or climate experts. Geographers trained in environ-
mental science are in demand as environmental man-
agers and technicians. This work deals with assessing
the environmental impact of proposed development
projects on surrounding air and water quality and on
wildlife. Physical geographers survey the land near
the construction site and frequently prepare the envi-
ronmental impact report often required before build-
ing can commence.
Jobs in healthcare, transportation, population
studies, economic development, and international
economics are available to trained geographers.
Human geographers trained in urban planning often
work for local and state government agencies. They
handle housing and community development, parks
and recreation planning, and urban and regional
planning.
DiDUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
Planners analyze land use and transportation
systems and monitor urban land development.
Economic geographers examine human eco-
nomic activities and their relationship to the environ-
GEOG_05_43-50.indd 47
ment. These geographers can work at market analysis
and site selection for stores, factories, restaurants, or
other businesses.
Regional geographers study the features of a
particular region and could assist government and
business to make decisions concerning land use.
Geographers also find work as writers and editors for
publishers of textbooks, maps, atlases, and news and
travel magazines.
geography and
other Disciplines
The tools and methods geographers use can help us
understand historical, political, social, cultural, and
economic aspects of problems dealing with the
environment.
Historical Environments and Politics
Geographers may examine how human activities
changed the natural vegetation of a place or how
water, roads, or railways have changed the environ-
ment. Such inquiries may help us understand why
things are as they are today and may help us plan for
the future.
Geographers look at political boundaries and
how and why they have changed. They look at how
places are governed, and how the natural environ-
ment has influenced political decisions.
Society and Culture
Human or cultural geographers use sociology and
anthropology to understand cultures. They examine
the relationship between the physical environment
and social structures and people’s ways of life. They
want to know how different group activities affect
physical systems and how physical systems affect
human systems differently.
47
1/5/12 1:23 PM
 –RecoRDing geogR aphy–

Economies 17. ____ Cartographers today use software map-

Economies tell geographers how resource locations
affect the way people make, use, and transport goods
and how and where services are provided. Geogra-
phers want to know how locations are chosen for eco-
nomic activities like mining, farming, manufacturing,
and trade. Productive locations have plentiful
resources and beneficial transportation routes.
practice
ping programs.
18. ____ High-tech remote sensor cameras on
orbiting satellites and radar can gather data and
images on Earth’s environment, weather,
human settlement patterns, and vegetation.
19. ____ Geographers work as writers and editors
for publishers of textbooks, maps, atlases, and
news and travel magazines.

Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true 20. ____ Cultural geographers avoid using sociol-
or false, based on what you’ve read. ogy and anthropology to understand cultures.

11. ____ Representative sampling is important to

geographers conducting interviews.

12. ____ Geographers can serve as environmental

planners or managers.

13. ____ Cultural geographers deal with location

and social structures.

14. ____ Geographers cannot specialize in urban

planning.

15. ____ Geographers do not research how histori-

cal or political policies affect the environment.

16. ____ Geographical information systems can be

used to track wildlife, plan roads, and create
evacuation routes for natural disasters.

48

GEOG_05_43-50.indd 48 1/5/12 1:23 PM

 –RecoRDing geogR aphy–

answers 10. Prime Meridian

11. T
1. Remote sensing 12. T
2. Intermediate 13. T
3. Key or legend 14. F
4. Thematic 15. F
5. Latitude 16. T
6. North Pole 17. T
7. Equator 18. T
8. International Date Line 19. T
9. Relative 20. F

49

GEOG_05_43-50.indd 49 1/5/12 1:23 PM

GEOG_05_43-50.indd 50 1/5/12 1:23 PM
 6
Canada and
l e s s o n

the United
states—PhysiCal
GeoGraPhy

Lesson summary
This lesson examines the physical geography—landforms,
water systems, natural resources, climate, and vegetation—
of the United States and Canada.

America forms the longest and straightest bone in the earth’s skeleton.
—Huntington Ellsworth in Red Man’s Continent: A Chronicle of Aboriginal America (1919)

Western Mountains, Plains, and Plateaus

The Rocky Mountains form the longest mountain range in North America, stretching for 3,000 miles from
British Columbia, Canada, to New Mexico in the United States. The Rockies are young mountains created by
tectonic activity. Some of its peaks reach over 14,000 feet.
The Pacific mountains include the Sierra Nevada and the Cascades, and the Coast, Olympic, and Alaska
ranges. The highest point in North America is Mount McKinley in Alaska at 20,320 feet.
There are dry basins and plateaus between the Pacific mountain ranges and the Rockies. The Columbia
Plateau covers parts of Washington, Idaho, and Oregon. The 6,000-foot deep Grand Canyon is part of the flat-
topped mesas of the Colorado Plateau. The Great Basin, covering almost all of Nevada and parts of California,
Oregon, Idaho, and Utah, includes Death Valley, the lowest place in the United States.
The Rockies slope down into the Great Plains. The Plains become the Central Lowlands along the Missis-
sippi River.
51

GEOG_06_51-56.indd 51 1/5/12 1:24 PM

 –Canada and the United s tates—PhysiCal GeoG raPhy–
eastern Mountains
and lowlands
The Appalachian Mountains extend for 1,500 miles
from the island of Newfoundland in Canada to cen-
tral Alabama. They are North America’s oldest
mountains, eroded over time by running water, ice,
and wind.
The Atlantic coastal plain runs east and south of
the Appalachians, from New York to Florida. Between
the mountains and the Atlantic coastal plain are the
rolling hills of the Piedmont, stretching from New
Jersey to Alabama. Rivers cut east through the Pied-
mont, making their way to the Atlantic Ocean. The
Gulf Coastal Plain extends west to Texas and covers
Mississippi, western Tennessee, Kentucky, and some of
Alabama, Louisiana, and the Florida panhandle.
East of the Canadian plains, the mammoth
Canadian Shield is a rocky core centered on the Hud-
son Bay and James Bay. It covers more than half of
Canada and anchors the continent.
islands
Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, and Cape
Breton Island in the east and Vancouver in the west
are important to the Canadian economy. Only 13.4
miles long and 2.3 miles wide, New York City’s Man-
hattan Island at the mouth of the Hudson River is a
major U.S. and world economic center. The Carib-
bean islands, including the Bahamas, Cuba, and the
Dominican Republic and Haiti, are part of North
America, as well.
didUse
this book. yoU knoW?
it faithfully, and
The Hawaiian Islands are volcanic mountaintops.
52
GEOG_06_51-56.indd 52
Water systems
Freshwater lakes and rivers helped make the United
States and Canada prosperous. Abundant water
transports resources and serves the needs of cities,
rural areas, homes, and industries.
Rivers
The Continental Divide determines the flow of rivers.
East of the divide, rivers flow east to the Atlantic
Ocean, Arctic Ocean, and Hudson Bay. West of the
Rockies, rivers flow to the Pacific Ocean. The Rockies
are the source (or headwaters) of the Colorado and
Rio Grande Rivers. These rivers connect many smaller
rivers, or tributaries, and streams.
The Mackenzie River flows from the Great Slave
Lake in Canada’s Northwest Territories to the Arctic
Ocean. It drains most of Canada’s northern interior.
The Mississippi River flows 2,357 miles. Its
headwaters are a tiny stream in Minnesota and its
mighty mouth is 1.5 miles wide in Louisiana. It drains
all or part of 31 states and two Canadian provinces
into the Gulf of Mexico. Its enormous reach makes
the Mississippi River one of the world’s busiest com-
mercial waterways.
Along the fall line where the higher land of the
Piedmont drops to the lower Atlantic Coastal Plain,
eastern rivers break into waterfalls and rapids, mak-
ing ships unable to travel further inland. Towns along
the fall line harness water power from waterfalls for
mills and factories. In the northeast, cities along the
fall line are ports for oceangoing trade.
Part of the border between the United States
and Canada is formed by the St. Lawrence River. This
river flows from Lake Ontario to the Gulf of St. Law-
rence in the Atlantic Ocean. The Canadian cities of
Quebec, Montreal, and Ottawa developed along the
St. Lawrence River and its tributaries and depend on
them for trade.
1/5/12 1:24 PM
 –Canada and the United states—PhysiCal GeoG raPhy–
didUse
this book. yoU knoW?
it faithfully, and
Niagara Falls, on the Niagara River, also forms
the border between Canada and the United
States. The falls are a source of hydroelectric
power for both countries.
Lakes and Other Waterways
Just like the Canadian Shield, the five Great Lakes
were created by the gouging movement of glaciers.
The Great Lakes basin links to the Atlantic Ocean via
the St. Lawrence Seaway. A series of canals and chan-
nels, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway System has
been instrumental in America’s economic develop-
ment. Deposits of coal and iron in the area fueled
industrial development. The seaway, which opened in
1959, made cities along the Great Lakes powerful
trade and industrial centers. However, it also made
the Erie Canal obsolete and led to the decline of many
towns and cities in New York State.
natural resources
Abundant natural resources made the United States
and Canada wealthy, but these resources and the areas
where they are found need protection.
Fossil Fuels and Minerals
Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are fossil fuels. Fos-
sil fuels are buried plant and animal remains that are
hundreds of millions of years old. Because they are
nonrenewable energy sources, fossil fuels must be
conserved. Methods of extraction can damage the
environment, so drilling for oil and mining for coal
have become controversial issues.
There are petroleum and natural gas deposits in
Texas, Alaska, and Alberta, Canada. The Trans-Alaska
Pipeline, which was completed in 1977, has trans-
ported through 2010 some 16 billion barrels of crude
GEOG_06_51-56.indd 53
oil across rough Alaskan terrain to the port of Valdez
in southern Alaska. Coal is mined in the Appalachian
Mountains, Wyoming, and British Columbia.
Mineral wealth is plentiful in North America.
The Rockies have gold, silver, and copper. The Cana-
dian Shield has iron and nickel and Michigan and
Minnesota have iron. Canada also has a large portion
of the world’s gold, silver, and copper.
didUse
this book. yoU knoW?
it faithfully, and
Canada has 28% of the world’s potash, or potas-
sium carbonate, which is used to make fertilizer.
Minerals are nonrenewable and must be con-
served. Because mining uses heavy equipment and
large amounts of water, and moves rock and mineral,
it can damage land, air, water systems, and ecosystems.
Timber and Fishing
Timber is plentiful in North America. Forest and
woodlands cover the continent. However it is impor-
tant to replant trees to replace those used for lumber,
protect the thousands of species of native forest ani-
mals, and preserve old-growth forests.
The coastal waters of the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans and the Gulf of Mexico are home to fisheries,
and fishing remains important to regional econo-
mies. The Grand Banks off the coast of southeast
Canada is one of the world’s largest (109,000 square
miles) and richest fishing grounds. Some coastal areas
have been overfished, and Canada has banned cod
fishing.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. New York City’s ___________ Island sits at the
mouth of the Hudson River.
53
1/5/12 1:24 PM
 –Canada and the United s tates—PhysiCal GeoG raPhy–
2. The Grand Canyon is part of the flat-topped
mesas of the ___________ Plateau.
3. ___________ is a source of hydroelectric power
for the United States and Canada.
4. The Rockies slope down into the ___________.
5. There are dry ___________ and plateaus
between the Pacific Ranges and Rockies.
6. The Rockies are the source, or ___________, of
the Colorado and Rio Grande Rivers.
7. The ___________ are America’s oldest
mountains.
8. The Great Lakes basin links the Atlantic Ocean
via the ___________ Seaway.
9. ___________, petroleum, and natural gas are
nonrenewable fossil fuels.
10. Because ___________ uses heavy equipment
and large amounts of water, and moves rock
and mineral, it can damage land, air, water sys-
tems, and ecosystems.
Climate and Vegetation
The climate of the United States is quite varied. The
South has wet and dry seasons, high latitude areas
can be bitter cold, the interior experiences extreme
weather changes, and the Pacific coast tends to be
cool and wet.
Southern Climates
Location near the coast and prevailing winds result in
both warm, wet climates and warm, dry climates in
the southern United States.
54
GEOG_06_51-56.indd 54
The humid subtropics of the Southeast have
rainy, long, humid summers and mild winters, and
water from the Atlantic Ocean prevents a dry season.
In late summer and early autumn, the southeastern
coast is pounded by hurricanes. The swamps and
wetlands of the Florida Everglades teem with great
varieties of vegetation and wildlife.
Hawaii in the Pacific and Puerto Rico in the
Caribbean have tropical wet climates that support
lush rain forests.
Hurricanes
Hurricane season lasts from June 1 to November 30.
Hurricanes frequently form from high humidity,
water temperatures over 80°F, and light winds, and
are categorized from level 1 to level 5. Category 1
hurricanes have winds over 74 mph, and Category 5
hurricanes have winds over 155 mph. The eye of a
hurricane is calm and it is surrounded by the stron-
gest winds.
One of the largest hurricanes ever to hit the
United States was Katrina in 2005. Katrina hit the
Gulf coast states with 215 mph winds and 34-foot
storm surges. It left thousands dead, missing, or
homeless, and caused 80% of New Orleans to flood.
Coastal towns were annihilated.
Warm and Dry Climates
When dry air moves down the leeward side of a
mountain, the rain shadow effect creates a desert. The
plateaus and basins between the Pacific Ranges and
the Rocky Mountains stay hot and dry. Most of this
area has a steppe or desert climate with blistering heat.
didUse
this book. yoU knoW?
it faithfully, and
Death Valley, at 134°F, had the highest tempera-
ture ever recorded in the United States.
1/5/12 1:24 PM
 –Canada and the United states—PhysiCal GeoG raPhy–
Central and southern California have a Medi-
terranean climate with mild, wet winters and hot, dry
summers. The vegetation there is drought-resistant
woodland with twisted, hard-leafed trees. Mediterra-
nean scrub, known as chaparral, is burned regularly
to encourage growth, but widespread brush fires are a
hazard around Oakland and Los Angeles when the
hot, dry Santa Ana winds blow down mountain
slopes from inland plateaus.
Northern Climates
Variations in climate and vegetation in the North
result from the combined effects of latitude, eleva-
tion, ocean currents, and rainfall.
Interior Climates
The Great Plains in the center of North America has
a humid continental climate with hot summers and
bitterly cold winters. Western mountains block
Pacific winds, but warm, moist winds blow north
along the Rockies from the Gulf of Mexico. Cold,
moist winds blow down from the Arctic. This cli-
mate reaches from the northeastern United States
into southern Canada.
Naturally treeless grasslands called prairies
spread across the Plains. Six-to-eight-foot-tall switch
grass and blue stem grow an inch a day as they soak
up 10 to 30 inches of rainfall a year. The Great Plains
and northeast United States often receive violent
spring and summer thunderstorms called supercells.
didUse
this book. yoU knoW?
it faithfully, and
These supercells sometimes spawn tornadoes,
twisting funnels of air with winds up to 300 mph.
GEOG_06_51-56.indd 55
Coastal Climates
Ocean currents and westerly winds from the Pacific
Ranges provide the Pacific coast from northern Cali-
fornia to Southern Alaska with a Marine West Coast
climate. The mountain barrier forces wet, warm air
up and it cools to release moisture. Parts of the region
thus receive more than 100 inches of rain per year.
Winters are rainy and overcast. Summers are cool and
cloudless. Ferns and mosses grow here.
High Latitude Climates
The Canadian Shield has a subarctic climate, and is
home to coniferous forests. Parts of the United States
and Canada located in the high latitudes experience a
harsh, subarctic climate with high atmospheric pres-
sure that causes frigidly cold winter winds. Parts of
the United States experience winter blizzards with
winds of more than 35 mph, heavy or blowing snow,
and visibility of less than 1,320 feet.
From the subarctic Yukon Territory to New-
foundland, there are mixed forests. Lands along the
Arctic coast are part of the tundra climate zone. Bit-
ter winters and cool summers in this vast wilderness
make the land inhospitable to most plants. Few peo-
ple live here.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
11. ____ A steppe climate is the same as a tropical
wet climate.
12. ____ The northeastern United States receives
Arctic winds.
13. ____ The eye of a hurricane is calm.
14. ____ The South has a wet and dry climate.
55
1/5/12 1:24 PM
 –Canada and the United s tates—PhysiCal GeoG raPhy–

15. ____ The Pacific Coast has a cool and wet answers
climate.
1. Manhattan
16. ____ Hurricanes can have winds from 74 mph 2. Colorado
to more than 155 mph. 3. Ottawa
4. Great Plains
17. ____ Wet air moving down the leeward side of 5. Basins
mountains creates deserts. 6. Headwaters
7. Appalachians
18. ____ The Great Plains has warm winters. 8. St. Lawrence
9. Coal
19. ____ Tornadoes can have winds of up to 300 10. Mining
mph. 11. F
12. T
20. ____ The Yukon has a tundra climate. 13. T
14. F
15. T
16. T
17. F
18. F
19. T
20. T

56

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 7
Canada and
l e s s o n

the United
states—hUman
GeoGraPhy

Lesson summary
This lesson deals with the human geography—
population, culture, language, religion, economy, educa-
tion, healthcare, arts, and family life—of the United States
and Canada. The United States and Canada share the lon-
gest undefended border in the world. They share a demo-
cratic tradition, a similar way of life, and free trade.

Humankind has not woven the web of life. We are but one thread within it. Whatever we do to the web, we do to
ourselves. All things are bound together. All things connect.
—Chief Seattle (1854)

U.s. Population Patterns

The United States is a country shaped by immigration. It has a continually shifting population and densely
populated urban areas.

People
The American population is diverse—most of the 310 million people living in the United States are immigrants
or the descendants of immigrants. Native Americans number about 2.5 million.
Many immigrants from Europe, Africa, Asia, and Latin America came to the United States seeking politi-
cal and religious freedom and economic opportunity. Others were fleeing wars or natural disasters. Rich natural
resources and rapid industrial development made America an attractive destination. With hard work, enthusi-
asm, and talent, immigrants overcame discrimination to spread their diverse cultures.
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 –Canada and the United s tates—hUman GeoG raPhy–

Density and Distribution early nation Building

Outside of large urban settings, the American popu-
lation is widely distributed. The great industrial and
commercial centers of the Northeast and the Great
Lakes are densely populated. People looking for a
mild climate and economic opportunity also settle in
clusters along the Pacific coast.
didUse
this book. yoU know?
it faithfully, and
The least populated areas of North America are
subarctic Alaska, the parched Great Basin, and
the arid Great Plains.
Since the 1970s, the mild climates of the Ameri-
can South and Southwest have grown the fastest. The
Sunbelt states of California, Arizona, and New Mex-
ico have developed their tourism, service, and manu-
facturing sectors.
Urban Areas
Cities, or urban areas, developed along waterways as
mechanized farming displaced rural labor. Most
Americans live in metropolitan areas—cities and their
outlying suburbs—with populations that typically
run into the millions. In the early to mid-twentieth
century, as metropolitan areas became more crowded,
urban sprawl fueled suburban development. This
trend continues today.
The population of America’s coastal port cities
grew as they engaged in world trade. The Boston–
Washington, D.C. megalopolis, or chain of large cit-
ies, supports huge populations. Over the years, Pacific
coastal cities have been expanding their trade with
Asian economies. Inland cities have grown up along
rivers and lakes.
Although the early settlement of North America has
been attributed solely to migration across an Asian
land bridge some 20,000 years ago, recent evidence
proves nomads may have arrived from South and
Central America much earlier.
The Native Americans were shaped by their
location and climate. Farmers of the desert south-
west, for example, used irrigation to farm the dry
land there.
As Europeans pushed west into the North
American frontier from 1500 to 1900, Native Ameri-
can settlements were destroyed. The Spanish in the
South established military posts, religious missions,
cattle ranches, mines, and plantations using the
natives as slaves. Frequent conflicts broke out in the
backcountry between the Native Americans and the
British settlers pushing into the interior.
The British controlled the Atlantic seaboard by
the 1700s. Although New England had rocky soil and
a short growing season, ample harbors and supplies
of fish and timber made it a shipbuilding and fishing
center. The fertile soils, mild winters, and warm sum-
mers of the Middle Colonies yielded cash crops for
export. The mild climate and rich soil of the South
yielded plantation agriculture.
The British government imposed taxes and
restricted the freedom of colonists in North America.
This led to the American Revolution (1775–1783)
and the founding of an independent United States of
America.
Growth, division, and Unity
In the 1800s, the United States expanded far west-
ward. Settlers overran Native American lands and tra-
ditional ways of life. Industry transformed the
agrarian-based lifestyle. Factories harnessed water
power in the Northeast to run machines in textile

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 –Canada and the United states—hUman GeoG raPhy–
mills. Large supplies of coal from the Midwest fueled
steam engines inexpensively. The United States
became a leading industrial center.
The growing textile industry and the invention
of the cotton gin made cotton the major Southern
crop. Plantation owners cleared more land and the
number of African slaves used for labor multiplied.
Meanwhile, an informal network of secret safe houses
called the Underground Railroad led some slaves to
freedom in the North.
Tensions between the industrialized North and
the agricultural South grew. After four years of bloody
civil war (1861–1865), the industrial North emerged
victorious. In 1865, slavery was outlawed by Amend-
ment XIII.
technological Change
The United States and Canada used vast energy and
natural resources to industrialize.
The U.S. government encouraged settlement of
the Great Plains to release pressure in crowded cities
and to cultivate more food for the growing popula-
tion. Farmers in the Plains caught and held rainwater
through a technique called dry farming, which also
involved planting drought-resistant crops like winter
wheat. Steel plows and steam tractors made planting
and harvesting large areas easier.
Immigrants from Ireland, Mexico, and China
helped build railroad lines across the continent. Man-
ufactured goods and food products could be shipped
from east to west and north to south.
Two world wars made the United States a global
power. Assembly lines cut costs and the time needed
to make products. Standards of living increased and
the population became more mobile and urban.
GEOG_07_57-68.indd 59
U.s. Culture
Immigration has brought cultural diversity to the
United States.
Language and Religion
English is the main language of the United States.
Some people are bilingual and speak a second lan-
guage. Growing Latin immigration makes Spanish
the second most widely used language in America.
Many religions are practiced in America. Chris-
tianity, Judaism, and Islam are the most prevalent
religions.
Education and Healthcare
Young people must attend school in America until
they are 16. The literacy rate, or number of people
who can read and write, is 99%. Although America
has an extensive public school system, many class-
rooms across the country are overcrowded. Many
parents can no longer afford to send their children to
college without incurring large debt.
Because of a highly developed economy, the
United States can devote substantial resources to
healthcare. Still, many people cannot afford any
health insurance or healthcare.
didUse
this book. yoU know?
it faithfully, and
In 2010, a law was passed requiring all Ameri-
cans to buy health insurance. The law further
stated that people can no longer be denied
health insurance due to preexisting conditions.
Arts
The Native Americans integrated art, music, and sto-
rytelling into daily life. With European settlement,
arts were dominated by European traditions. By the
mid-1800s, Americans began to create art forms to
59
1/5/12 1:24 PM
 –Canada and the United s tates—hUman GeoG raPhy–
reflect their own lives and cultures. Writers started to
write about life and culture in the different regions of
the country. At the beginning of the twentieth cen-
tury, jazz, which grew out of the work songs and spir-
ituals sung by slaves, emerged.
American culture has permeated the world.
Hollywood, a Los Angeles district, is home to the
American movie business which has influenced cul-
ture around the world. Rock music has given the
world musicians and forms as diverse as Elvis Presley
(rock ’n’ roll) and Bob Dylan (folk rock). Broadway
in New York City is world renowned for first-class
theater and musicals.
U.s. Family life
Because America is one of the wealthiest countries in
the world, its citizens have one of the highest stan-
dards of living in the world. Such a high socioeco-
nomic status allows for a wide range of personal
choices and opportunities. Food is relatively inexpen-
sive because of an agricultural surplus.
Married couple families make up about half the
households in the United States. Just under half of
these families have children under 18 years old.
Households today are smaller than in the past, with
60% having only one or two people. The average
American is aged 36; in 1970, the average age was 28.
The American population is living longer, which puts
more strain on the social services sector.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. About half the immigrants in the United States
today come from _____________.
2. The __________ rate tells you what percentage
of people can read and write.
60
GEOG_07_57-68.indd 60
3. The ________ Americans integrated art, music,
and storytelling into daily life.
4. ________ grew out of work songs and
spirituals.
5. Because of a highly __________ economy, the
United States can devote substantial resources
to healthcare.
6. Some people are ______ and speak a second
language.
7. Food is inexpensive in America due to an agri-
cultural _____________.
8. Reflecting the richness of immigrant cultures,
the American population is _________.
9. American households today are ___________
than in the past.
10. A wealthy country has a _________ standard of
living.
Canada’s Population Patterns
Canada is a highly developed nation with bustling
cities and large, pristine wilderness areas. Canada has
a diverse mixture of ethnic groups, densely popu-
lated urban areas, and vast expanses of rugged ter-
rain. Some Canadians are descendants of Native
Americans.
People
Immigrants came to Canada seeking political and
religious freedom, economic and educational oppor-
tunity, and to escape war. Loyalists, colonists loyal to
the British government, fled to Canada after the
American Revolution. They settled the Maritime
1/5/12 1:24 PM
 –Canada and the United states—hUman GeoG raPhy–
provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince
Edward Island.
tiP Use
this book.
A province is similar to a state.
Some immigrants settled in places where they
could keep their way of life. French-speaking people,
for example, settled in Quebec.
More than a third of Canadians identify them-
selves as having mixed ethnic origin; 1.3 million
Canadians identify themselves as Native American,
Inuit (Arctic natives of North America), or of mixed
European and Native American ancestry.
Density and Distribution
Rugged terrain and a bitter cold climate make most
of Canada inhospitable to human settlement. Most of
the population lives along the U.S.-Canada border.
The average population density is about 9 people per
square mile, with more densely populated areas clus-
tered around waterways and places that support
agriculture.
Over the past 100 years, most migration in Can-
ada has been west to the Prairie provinces of Mani-
toba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. Oil and natural gas
were discovered there in the 1960s.
Urban Areas
Most of Canada’s population lives in urban areas. The
industrial city of Toronto is Canada’s largest city and
its financial center. Montreal is an industrial and
shipping center. Ships reach these inland cities using
the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers and the Great
Lakes. Vancouver handles most of the trade between
Canada and Asia. Edmonton grew with the petro-
leum industry.
GEOG_07_57-68.indd 61
history and Government
Canada’s history has been influenced by Native roots,
French and English culture, a drive for independence,
and immigration.
Early Inhabitants and Settlers
The Vikings arrived on Newfoundland Island from
Scandinavia about a.d. 1000. Englishman John Cabot
arrived in Canada in 1497 in search of a shorter route
to Asia. In 1534–1536, Frenchman Jacques Cartier
explored the St. Lawrence as far south as Montreal,
claiming it for France. Samuel de Champlain founded
the first permanent European settlement in Canada
at what is now Port Royal, Nova Scotia, in 1605. He
also founded Quebec City in 1608.
tiP Use
this book.
The French organized their settlements in Can-
ada and called them New France.
When Europeans first arrived in Canada in the
1400s, between 500,000 and 2,000,000 Natives were
living there. As Europeans claimed land, diseases from
Europe spread and the numerous native settlements
quickly declined in North, South, and Central
America.
In 1670, the British chartered Hudson’s Bay
Company to find the Northwest Passage to Asia, and
operate a fur trade monopoly and settlements in
Canada. Some Native tribes took sides as the British
and French fought for control of trade in the area.
The British drove the French from the Hudson
Bay area by capturing Quebec in 1759 and winning
control of New France in 1763. The Quebec Act of
1774 gave French settlers the right to keep their lan-
guage, religion, and legal system. The act also
extended British-controlled Canadian territory south
to the Ohio River. These land claims brought the
61
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 –Canada and the United s tates—hUman GeoG raPhy–

British into conflict with British-American land spec- immigrants from Germany, Scandinavia, the Ukraine,
ulators. Japan, and China. Canada also sheltered escaped
African slaves from the United States.
United Canada
In the early 1800s, the British and French argued over didUse
this book. yoU know?
it faithfully, and
colonial policy. They united against the fear of an
American takeover. In 1867, the colonies of Quebec,
Although slavery existed in Canada, it never
Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick united as
reached the levels it did in the United States
provinces of the Dominion of Canada, a new country
because the Canadian climate was unsuitable for
and part of the British Empire. Over the next hun-
plantation-style farming. Slavery was outlawed
dred years, Manitoba, British Columbia, Alberta, Sas-
by British law in 1834.
katchewan, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland
joined the dominion as provinces.
Canada achieved full independence in 1931.
Westward expansion in Canada pushed Natives
The British government, however, retained the right
off their lands. In 1998, the Canadian government
to approve changes to the Canadian constitution. In
formally apologized to Native peoples for mistreat-
1982, Canada ended its legislative link to England.
ment and established a healing fund for reparations.
Canada is a constitutional monarchy today.
In 1999, the native Inuit won the right to their own
The executive branch of the Canadian govern-
territory, Nunavut, which means “Our Land.”
ment consists of the governor general, prime minis-
Canada became a highly urban industrialized
ter, and cabinet. The British monarch is still the head
country in the 1900s. Minerals were extracted. Trans-
of state and appoints the governor general to serve in
portation systems and hydroelectric projects were
his or her place. The national legislature, Parliament,
developed. World War II stimulated the Canadian
includes the Senate and House of Commons. Cana-
economy and made it a military and industrial power.
da’s prime minister is the head of government elected
by the majority party in Parliament. Nine judges sit
on Canada’s highest court, the Supreme Court of didUse
this book. yoU know?
it faithfully, and
Canada.
Following the war, Canada expanded federal
Expansion and Diversity financial assistance to citizens through unem-
Throughout the 1800s, Canada annexed land from ployment insurance, pensions, and medical care.
the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and from the
Arctic Circle to the U.S. border. The British govern-
ment encouraged emigration to Canada. From 1815
to 1845, one million people migrated from England modern Challenges
to Canada, making the French population a minority
for the first time. This sparked nationalism among Trade is strong between Canada and the United
the French-speaking Quebecois, a sentiment which States, but some Canadians do not like their cultural
would grow and resurface throughout Canadian identity being threatened by American culture.
history. French-speaking Canadians in Quebec and other
In the late 1800s, the fertile soils of the Prairie provinces are pushing for increased protection of
Provinces and the Klondike Gold Rush attracted their language and culture. Many people in Quebec

62

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 –Canada and the United states—hUman GeoG raPhy–
strongly support provincial independence or creation
of a separate country apart from Canada.
Culture
European, Asian, and Native American cultures have
influenced Canada’s cultural diversity.
Language and Religion
French and English are the two official languages of
Canada, reflecting the cultural struggle between set-
tlers. British settlers brought the English language to
most of Canada; in the province of Quebec, the
French language prevails. German, Italian, Chinese,
and the native Cree and Inuktitut or Inuit languages
are also spoken.
Christianity is the most prevalent religion in
Canada. The practices of Judaism, Islam, Buddhism,
Hinduism, and Sikhism reflect the cultural diversity
of Canada’s immigrant population.
Education and Healthcare
Canada’s network of public and private schools
has produced a 99% literacy rate. Children must
attend school from the ages of 6 to 16. Each province
organizes and administers its own educational system.
Canada’s public healthcare system is based on
the principle that everyone deserves access to high-
quality medical care. The federal government sets
healthcare standards and each province finances and
manages its own system. Because the Canadian life
expectancy has increased, so have healthcare costs, so
sometimes taxes have to be raised or benefits limited.
Arts
Native, British, French, and American cultures have
influenced Canadian art. The various immigrant
groups have added unique features to literature,
GEOG_07_57-68.indd 63
visual arts, theater, and music. Since the 1950s, the
Canadian government has encouraged locally pro-
duced cultural products for the national mass media.
Since 1900, scholars and museums have begun
to appreciate the art of Native peoples. Influenced by
European styles, Canadian painters have excelled in
the painting of Canadian landscapes. The earliest
Canadian literature was written by French explorers,
missionaries, and settlers and had strong religious
themes. Important twentieth-century Canadian writ-
ers include: Hugh MacLennan, a critic of contempo-
rary Canadian life, and Margaret Laurence, who
wrote about the prairies of central Canada. Margaret
Atwood and Robertson Davies also have strong inter-
national followings.
Toronto is highly respected in music and the-
ater. It is the third-largest film and television produc-
tion center in the English-speaking world after New
York City and London. The world-renowned Toronto
Symphony Orchestra and top-ranked National Ballet
of Canada are based in Toronto.
Family Life
Canada, with its high standard of living, is one of the
wealthiest countries in the world. Almost everyone
owns telephones or color televisions. About 56% of
people own a car.
Canadian family and age structure are similar to
the United States. Married couple families make up
69% of households in Canada and 60% of those have
children in the home. Families are smaller than
ever—43% have one child, while 39% have two chil-
dren. Canadians are living longer. In 2001, one in six
Canadians was over 65. In 1970, one in ten Canadians
was over 65. Life expectancy in Canada is almost 81
years, which is among the highest in the world.
63
1/5/12 1:24 PM
 –Canada and the United s tates—hUman GeoG raPhy–
north america today
Economy
The United States and Canada have market econo-
mies, where people own, operate, and profit from
their own businesses. Market economies allow busi-
nesses to hire employees and pay them for their work.
There are also laws to protect private property rights,
employment opportunities, and the health and safety
of workers.
Since 2007, the United States housing market
and related industries crashed, triggering a huge
recession that many observers call the worst eco-
nomic catastrophe since the global depression of the
1930s. Toward the end of 2010 almost 10% of Ameri-
cans were unemployed, and more than a quarter of
Americans were underemployed. Food stamps recipi-
ent numbers skyrocketed in the states in 2010.
Postindustrial Economies
Most of the economic growth in the United States
and Canada is occurring in service industries. About
75% of workers in the United States and Canada are
employed in service industries such as healthcare,
education, government, and banking. Much of the
postindustrial economy is also heavily based on
high-tech industries. While agriculture and manufac-
turing depend on access to natural resources and
transportation, high-tech industries depend much
less on transportation.
Manufacturing
Manufacturing makes up about 13% of the Canadian
and 12% of the American economies. Robotics and
computerized automation have transformed manu-
facturing in the region. Factories now produce more
goods with fewer workers.
The late 1990s trend away from heavy industry
left cities east of the Great Lakes without their eco-
nomic base. Companies moved south to the Sunbelt.
Many industrial areas, factories, and mills were aban-
64
GEOG_07_57-68.indd 64
doned and the area became known as the Rust Belt.
However, many cities in the area have retooled old
factories for use in new industries.
Most of the manufacturing and exports from
the region consist of machinery and transportation
equipment. California and Washington produce air-
craft and aerospace equipment. The Midwest assem-
bles automobiles. California and the Northeast
process food. Canada, particularly Quebec, manufac-
tures and exports large quantities of wood-based
products, using their timber resources.
Agriculture
Most farming in the United States and Canada is
commercial, with agricultural commodities produced
for sale. Most farms are owned by families with coop-
erative operations.
The United States uses about 900 million acres
of land for agriculture. Canada has much less arable
land suitable for farming, but uses about 167 million
acres for farming.
Although the number of farmers in the United
States and Canada has decreased, the size of farms
has increased since the 1950s. The decline is the result
of the high cost of farming, the time and hard work
required to run a farm, and natural disasters.
Key Agricultural Products
n Cattle ranches span the western, southern, and
midwestern United States and the Prairie prov-
inces of Canada. The north central United States,
Ontario, and Quebec raise livestock.
n Wheat is grown on the Great Plains, or Wheat
Belt, of the United States and in the Prairie prov-
inces of Canada.
n The Corn Belt stretches from Ohio to Nebraska.
Corn is also grown in Ontario, Manitoba, and
Quebec.
Agricultural Technology
Geographic factors have limited where certain types
of agriculture can be based. Cattle ranching needs
1/5/12 1:24 PM
 –Canada and the United states—hUman GeoG raPhy–
wide open spaces and the natural grasses of the west-
ern plains and prairies.
Most American dairy farms are situated from
upstate New York to Minnesota. Known as America’s
Dairyland, it has cooler summers and native grasses
ideal for dairy cattle.
When breeds of cattle were developed that
needed less land to graze, the southern United States
opened up to cattle ranching.
NAFTA
In 1989, the United States and Canada signed the
United States–Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA)
which removed trade restrictions between them. The
1994 North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) includes the United States, Canada, and
Mexico. NAFTA created one of the world’s largest
trading blocs. It eliminated trade barriers, increased
economic activity among the three countries, and
strengthened their positions in the global economy.
Developed countries like the United States have
recently changed the geography of production and
manufacturing. They have sought lower production
and labor costs by outsourcing, or setting up opera-
tions with plants, service industries, and other busi-
nesses abroad to assemble products for domestic use
or sale.
didUse
this book. yoU know?
it faithfully, and
NAFTA does not allow the free flow of labor
from one country to another; it does allow U.S.
companies to set up assembly plants in Mexico
where labor costs are lower.
Managing Resources
People in the United States and Canada are evaluat-
ing the negative effects of human activity on the
GEOG_07_57-68.indd 65
environment. They are also realizing the importance
of wisely managing natural resources.
Taking out whole forests, known as clear-cutting,
has destroyed many of the old-growth forests, left the
land susceptible to erosion and flooding, and endan-
gered wildlife.
Many wetland areas like swamps, marshes, and
ponds have been disappearing due to conversion to
urban or agricultural land use and pollution. Wet-
lands protect important water supplies and fisheries
and often buffer coastal areas from storms and
flooding.
didUse
this book. yoU know?
it faithfully, and
Levees, or raised embankments, built around
New Orleans have destroyed nearby wetlands
that once protected the area from flooding.
Ignoring the balance between species in ecosys-
tems is another form of resource mismanagement.
Many fisheries have been depleted. Overfishing
causes the amount caught to exceed the amount
resupplied by natural reproduction. The hunting and
driving away of certain wildlife, like wolves, in west-
ern Canada has led to an overpopulation of other
types of wildlife, like elk.
The deliberate or accidental introduction of
nonnative plant or animal species due to global trade
and travel causes many environmental problems like
blocked waterways, displacement of crucial native
species, and crop destruction.
didUse
this book. yoU know?
it faithfully, and
Efforts have begun to reverse the environmental
damage, but there is a long way to go to main-
tain a sustainable level of natural resources.
65
1/5/12 1:24 PM
 –Canada and the United s tates—hUman GeoG raPhy–
Smog
When the sun’s rays interact with automobile
exhaust gases and industrial emissions, a visible
haze called smog can form. The same chemicals and
water vapor that create acid rain form smog. Smog
damages or kills plants and harms people’s eyes,
throats, and lungs.
Some major cities have substantially reduced air
pollution using clean air practices. Car manufactur-
ers are producing fuel-efficient hybrid vehicles that
have an electric and a gas-powered motor that work
in concert.
didUse
this book. yoU know?
it faithfully, and
Research is being done on fuel cell vehicles that
produce electricity using hydrogen fuel and oxy-
gen, on biofuel vehicles that use fuel from
organic sources like plant oils, and on solar-
powered cars.
Water Pollution
Sewage and industrial and agricultural wastes have
polluted North America’s water systems. Industrial
wastes are illegally dumped into rivers and streams
or leak into the groundwater. The release of indus-
trial wastewater into cooler lakes and rivers results
in thermal pollution. Runoff from chemical-based
agricultural fertilizers and pesticides also pollutes
waters.
Water pollution speeds up eutrophication,
the dissolution of trace nutrients, encouraging
excess algae growth. Algal blooms deplete oxygen in
water needed by other organisms once the algae die
and decay.
66
GEOG_07_57-68.indd 66
didUse
this book. yoU know?
it faithfully, and
Algae can turn a lake into a marsh and later dry
land.
Reversing the Effects of Pollution
In 1969, the U.S. Congress passed the National Envi-
ronmental Policy Act (NEPA), which mandates that
the government monitor the effects of its policies on
the environment. The U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency (EPA) was founded in 1970 as a research
and watchdog agency to safeguard America’s air,
land, and waters.
didUse
this book. yoU know?
it faithfully, and
The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmo-
sphere is the highest it has been in thousands of
years.
Global Warming
The Arctic regions of Canada and Alaska demon-
strate the effects of global warming. The caribou,
polar bears, and seals have had to move north because
of thinning ice. The Inuit who depend on the hunting
of these animals have had to move north, too, to pre-
serve their traditional way of life and simply survive.
The permafrost is starting to thaw, bend the land, and
weaken house foundations. Whole villages have sunk.
To combat global warming and greenhouse
gases, the United States and Canada are attempting to
lessen their dependence on fossil fuels. Both govern-
ments are offering subsidies to utility companies for
the use of renewable energy sources. Solar panels and
biofuels made from corn and other organic sources
are potential energy sources. However, some people
wonder whether the dependability, efficiency, and
cost of other energy sources make them worthwhile.
1/5/12 1:24 PM
 –Canada and the United states—hUman GeoG raPhy–

Practice answers

Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true 1. Latin American

or false, based on what you’ve read. 2. Literacy
3. Native American
11. ____ There are not any viable alternative 4. Jazz
energy sources besides fossil fuels. 5. Developed
6. Bilingual
12. ____ There is not any solid physical evidence 7. Surplus
to prove that global warming exists. 8. Diverse
9. Smaller
13. ____ Canada and the United States are consid- 10. High
ered developed countries. 11. F
12. F
14. ____ Fertilizers and pesticides are no threat to 13. T
the water supply. 14. F
15. T
15. ____ Smog not only harms people’s eyes, 16. T
throats, and lungs, but also kills plants. 17. F
18. T
16. ____ Ignoring the balance of species in an eco-
system is an example of resource
mismanagement.

17. ____ Clear-cutting whole forests is a good idea.

18. ____ The United States and Canada have

extensive prairie lands and farmlands.

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GEOG_07_57-68.indd 68 1/5/12 1:24 PM
 8 latin ameriCa—
l e s s o n

PhysiCal
GeoGraPhy

Lesson summary
This lesson deals with the landforms, water systems, natu-
ral resources, climate, and vegetation of Latin America.
Latin America includes South America, Central America,
the Caribbean islands, and Mexico.

If man doesn’t learn to treat the oceans and the rain forest with respect, man will become extinct.
—Peter Benchley

Countries

Antigua and Barbuda Costa Rica Haiti St. Kitts and Nevis
Argentina Cuba Honduras St. Lucia
Aruba Dominica Jamaica St. Vincent and the
Bahamas Dominican Republic Martinique Grenadines
Barbados Ecuador Mexico Suriname
Belize El Salvador Nicaragua Trinidad and Tobago
Bolivia French Guiana Panama Turks and Caicos
Brazil Grenada Paraguay Uruguay
Cayman Islands Guadalupe Peru Venezuela
Chile Guatemala Puerto Rico (U.S.) Virgin Islands (U.S.)
Colombia Guyana St. Barthélemy

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 –latin ameriCa—PhysiCal GeoG raPhy–
landforms
South of the United States in the Western Hemi-
sphere, Latin America takes up about 14% of Earth’s
land surface and covers approximately 8 million
square miles. Latin America has four subregions:
Mexico, Central America (from Belize and Guatemala
to Panama), the Caribbean, and South America.
Mountains and Plateaus
The Andes mountains are part of the American cor-
dillera, a belt of continuous mountain ranges that
stretches along the western spine of North and South
America. Running 4,300 miles from Venezuela and
Colombia to southern Chile, it is the world’s longest
mountain chain, and it contains some of the highest
peaks outside of Asia, including Mt. Aconcagua in
Argentina, which exceeds 22,800 feet. The American
cordillera also includes the Sierra Madres in Mexico
and the Central Highlands in Central America.
Latin America is located on the Pacific Ring of
Fire, a 25,000-mile horseshoe-shaped zone where for
millions of years plates in Earth’s crust have been col-
liding. These collisions formed mountains and volca-
noes and still cause earthquakes.
Humans have settled in the mountains and pla-
teaus for thousands of years. The cool mountain cli-
mates and rich natural resources like water, volcanic
soil, minerals, and timber attracted settlers.
The rugged terrain isolated communities but
new media such as television, cell phones, and the
Internet are breaking down physical barriers.
Mountains of Central America and
the Caribbean
The densely populated Mexican plateau is sur-
rounded by the Sierra Madre mountains. Mild cli-
mate, volcanic soil, and adequate rainfall attracted
settlers there for thousands of years.
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GEOG_08_69-76.indd 70
Farther south, the volcanic peaks of the Central
Highlands cross Central America and extend into the
Caribbean Sea all the way to the islands.
The Caribbean islands are volcanic mountains
that are part of the Central Highlands. Some volcanic
peaks on Caribbean islands are still active. The Carib-
bean islands also often face powerful hurricanes that
form in the Atlantic Ocean.
The Andes of South America
Tectonic activities created the Andes. Plate move-
ments still cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
The rugged terrain of the high Andes makes
movement difficult. Cordilleras keep settlements iso-
lated from each other. Many of these villages main-
tain centuries-old Native traditions.
In Peru and Bolivia, high plains, or altiplano,
are encircled by the Andes, spanning huge areas
between the two major mountainous areas. In south-
ern Argentina, hills and flatlands form the plateau of
Patagonia. The Andes to the west keep Patagonia dry,
barren, and windy. Such wide plateaus were carved
out by intense volcanic activity.
Highlands of Brazil
Eastern South America has broad plateaus and val-
leys. The Matto Grosso Plateau in Brazil, Bolivia, and
Peru is a sparsely populated forest and grassland area.
Farther east, the Brazilian Highlands spans several
climate and vegetation zones. With wide open spaces
and warm climate, the Brazilian Highlands is used to
raise livestock. The eastern highlands escarpment
steeply slopes down, plunging into the Atlantic
Ocean.
lowlands and Plains
Narrow coastal lowlands lie along the Gulf of Mexico,
the Caribbean, and the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
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 –latin ameriCa—PhysiCal GeoG raPhy–
Brazil has a long coastal plain. It starts in the coun-
try’s northeast region and extends south to Uruguay.
Inland development is difficult, with the escarpment
rising from the coast into the highlands. Most of Bra-
zil’s population, therefore, lives along the coast.
The inland grasslands, or llanos, of Columbia
and Venezuela and the pampas of Argentina, Uru-
guay, and southern Brazil are cattle grazing grounds.
Ranchers employ cowboys known as gauchos to drive
herds across the rolling plains. The fertile soil of the
pampas produces wheat and corn and is one of the
world’s breadbaskets.
Water systems
Latin America has an expansive river system. The
Amazon is the longest river in the Western Hemi-
sphere and second longest in the world, next to the
Nile. It flows 4,000 miles from its headwaters in the
Peruvian Andes through the heart of South America.
The Amazon is an important transportation route
from the Atlantic into Brazil’s interior. Ships travel
2,300 miles upstream from the Atlantic Ocean in the
navigable parts of the river.
didUse
this book. you knoW?
it faithfully, and
The Amazon is more than ten times more pow-
erful than the Mississippi River in terms of water
volume per second.
Hundreds of smaller rivers join the Amazon to
form the Amazon basin, which drains an area of 2
million square miles. In Brazil, the Amazon basin
drains into the Atlantic Ocean.
GEOG_08_69-76.indd 71
The Paraná, Paraguay, and Uruguay rivers form
the second-largest river system in Latin America.
This system provides important commercial trans-
portation routes and is a major source of hydroelec-
tric power.
After coursing through inland areas, the three
rivers flow into a broad estuary where the ocean tide
meets a river current. This estuary, the Rio de la
Plata (“River of Silver”) flows into the Atlantic
Ocean, where it drains the rainy eastern half of
South America.
In contrast to the giant rivers of South America,
Central America’s rivers are usually small. The Rio
Grande, known in Mexico as the Rio Bravo del Norte,
forms part of the border between Mexico and the
United States.
The man-made Panama Canal is an important
waterway. Built across the Isthmus of Panama, the
canal provides a much shorter route between the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans than the much longer
route around South America’s Cape Horn.
Latin America does not have many large lakes.
Lake Titicaca in the Andes of Bolivia and Peru is the
world’s highest navigable lake, at 12,500 feet above
sea level. Although actually an inlet of the Caribbean
Sea, Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela is South America’s
largest lake. The lake itself and the area around it con-
tain Venezuela’s oil fields.
natural resources
Latin America has abundant natural resources but
faces obstacles to development.
There are large oil and gas deposits along the Gulf
of Mexico and in the southern Caribbean Sea. Few
countries besides Mexico and Venezuela benefit eco-
nomically from these energy resources. Venezuela has
67% of the region’s oil reserves and Mexico has 13%.
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 –latin ameriCa—PhysiCal GeoG raPhy–
The region is also rich in mineral resources.
Venezuela has large amounts of gold, and Peru and
Mexico have silver. Mines in Colombia have pro-
duced the finest emeralds for a thousand years. Chile
is one of the world’s largest copper exporters and
Jamaica is a leading producer of bauxite, the main
source of aluminum.
Because of diverse landforms, the region’s
resources are unevenly distributed. Inaccessibility,
lack of development capital, and deep social and
political divisions keep many resources from full
development. The regional challenge is how to over-
come such obstacles and best use the natural
resources.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. Latin America has four subregions: Mexico,
___________ America from Belize and Guate-
mala to Panama, the Caribbean, and South
America.
2. The ___________, located on the west side of
South America, is the world’s longest mountain
chain.
3. ___________ and Venezuela have most of Latin
America’s oil reserves.
4. The Rio ___________, or Rio Bravo del Norte,
in Mexico forms part of the border between
Mexico and the United States.
5. Lake ___________ in the Andes of Bolivia and
Peru is the world’s highest navigable lake, at
12,500 feet above sea level.
72
GEOG_08_69-76.indd 72
6. An estuary, the Rio ___________, the “River of
Silver,” flows into the Atlantic Ocean where it
drains the rainy eastern half of South America.
7. The man-made ___________ Canal cuts the
distance for trade between the Atlantic and
Pacific oceans.
8. The inland grasslands, or ___________, of
Columbia and Venezuela are used for cattle
grazing.
9. Most of Brazil lives along the ___________.
10. Lake ___________ contains Venezuela’s oil
fields.
Climate and Vegetation
Latin America has diverse climates, from steamy rain
forests with millions of biodiverse species of plants
and animals living together, to grassy plains, arid des-
erts, and sandy beaches.
didUse
this book. you knoW?
it faithfully, and
Location and landforms create vertical climate
zones and tropical areas in Latin America.
Tropical Wet
Most of Latin America has a tropical wet climate
with lush tropical rain forest vegetation. The region
is located near the equator, so temperatures are
high. Warm moist air is carried by the prevailing
winds of the Atlantic Ocean, so there is abundant
rainfall all year.
1/5/12 1:25 PM
 –latin ameriCa—PhysiCal GeoG raPhy–
The Amazon rain forest covers one-third of
South America. It is the world’s largest tropical rain
forest. Trees grow close together and form a dense
canopy as high as 150 feet, blocking sunlight from
reaching the forest floor. The Amazon absorbs heavy
rains throughout the year.
didUse
this book. you knoW?
it faithfully, and
The Amazon shelters more species of animals
and plants per square mile than any place on
Earth.
The Amazon basin is the world’s wettest tropi-
cal plain. Heavy rains drench most of the densely for-
ested lowlands all year. During the rainy season, the
sediment-rich Amazon River frequently floods.
Human activities have modified forest cover
and land use patterns. The Amazon rain forest is fac-
ing heavy deforestation and conversion into large
commercial plantations and cattle ranches.
Tropical Dry
Most Caribbean islands, north-central South Amer-
ica, and the coast of southwestern Mexico have a
tropical dry climate. These areas have high tempera-
tures, abundant rainfall, and an extended dry season.
Grasslands flourish in many tropical dry areas. Some
of these grasslands, like the llanos of Colombia and
Venezuela, have scattered trees. They are often transi-
tion zones between grasslands and forests. Tropical
dry soils are not very fertile or useful for large-scale
agriculture.
didUse
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it faithfully, and
Water supply and flood control projects have
made the llanos into fertile farmland.
GEOG_08_69-76.indd 73
Humid Subtropical
Most of southeastern South America has a humid
subtropical climate. Winters are short and tempera-
tures are cool to mild. Summers are hot, humid, and
long. Rainfall is light year round but can be heavier in
summer.
The natural vegetation of the humid subtropi-
cal climate is short grasses. The large forest groves
were cleared for cattle ranching by Spanish settlers
and overgrazing left only short clumps of grass to
anchor the soil. To hold the topsoil, farmers plant
alfalfa, corn, and cotton crops.
Beef cattle still graze on the plains and grass-
lands of the pampas. The rich soil of the pampas
yields wheat and corn for global export.
Dry Climates
The southeastern coast of Argentina, coastal Peru
and Chile, and parts of northern Mexico have desert
climates and vegetation. Shifting winds and the cold
Peru Current (also known as the Humboldt Cur-
rent), a northwestern-flowing current along the
western coast of South America, create dry coastal
deserts.
didUse
this book. you knoW?
it faithfully, and
The coastal Atacama Desert is so arid that in
some places rainfall has never been recorded.
Areas of vegetation called lomas thrive in the
desert because of fog near the coast. In other Latin
American deserts, soil is poor and vegetation sparse.
Drought-resistant shrubs and prickly cacti have
adapted to the specific conditions of this harsh
environment.
Northern Mexico, northern Brazil, and south-
central South America receive little rainfall. They do
not have desert climates and vegetation. They have
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 –latin ameriCa—PhysiCal GeoG raPhy–
steppe climates, with hot summers, cool winters, and
light rainfall. The natural vegetation is grassy or
lightly forested.
elevation and Climate
Although located in the tropics, some areas of Latin
America are more affected by elevation than by dis-
tance from the equator. As altitude increases, soil,
crops, livestock, and climate change.
Spanish terms describe five vertical climate
zones found in the highlands of Central America and
western South America. Differences in elevation
define each climate zone.
The tierra helada, or “frozen land,” lies above
the snow line at around 15,000 feet. In the tierra
helada, the temperature is less than 20°F. Snow and ice
remain permanently frozen on the peaks of the Andes.
The puna climate zone, above the tree line at
12,000 feet, is very cold. The temperature ranges
from 20° to 55°F. The puna has some grasses suitable
for grazing sheep, llamas, and alpaca. There are no
trees here.
From 6,000 to 12,000 feet is the tierra fria, or
“cold land.” Here temperatures range from 55° to
65°F. Winter frosts, widely spaced evergreen trees,
and dense scrub are common in the tierra fria. Pota-
toes and barley grow well here. These cooler climates
and natural resources attract human settlement.
Some of Latin America’s largest cities like Bogotá,
Colombia, and Mexico City, Mexico, are located in
this zone.
Between 2,500 and 6,000 feet lies the tierra
templada or “temperate land.” Here temperatures
range from 65° to 75°F. At low altitudes, there are
broad-leafed evergreens. At higher elevations, there
are needle-leafed cone-bearing evergreens. This is the
most densely populated climate zone. Coffee and
corn are the main crops.
74
GEOG_08_69-76.indd 74
The tierra caliente, or “hot land,” extends from
sea level to 2,500 feet in elevation. Bananas, sugar,
rice, and cacao are the main crops of the tierra cali-
ente rain forests.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
11. ____ The tierra caliente has some grasses suit-
able for grazing sheep, llamas, and alpaca.
12. ____ Bananas, sugar, rice, and cacao are the
main crop of the tierra caliente rain forests.
13. ____ The tierra helada, or “frozen land,” lies at
6,000 to 12,000 feet and has rain forests.
14. ____ The Amazon basin is the world’s wettest
tropical plain.
15. ____ The vegetation in the pampas consists of
short grasses.
16. ____ Most of Latin America has a tropical wet
climate with tropical rain forest vegetation.
17. ____ The Atacama Desert receives seasonal
rains.
18. ____ The Amazon shelters more species of ani-
mals and plants per square mile than any place
on Earth.
19. ____ The tierra templada is the most densely
populated climate zone in Latin America.
20. ____ The southeastern coast of Argentina,
coastal Peru and Chile, and parts of northern
Mexico have desert climates and vegetation.
1/5/12 1:25 PM
 –latin ameriCa—PhysiCal GeoG raPhy–

answers 10. Maracaibo

11. F
1. Central 12. T
2. Andes 13. F
3. Mexico 14. T
4. Grande 15. T
5. Titicaca 16. T
6. de la Plata 17. F
7. Panama 18. T
8. Llanos 19. T
9. Coast 20. T

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GEOG_08_69-76.indd 76 1/5/12 1:25 PM
 9
latin aMerica—
l e s s o n

HuMan
GeoGrapHy
(part i)

Lesson summary
This lesson examines the human geography, or popula-
tion, culture, language, religion, economy, education,
healthcare, arts, and family life, of Mexico, Central Amer-
ica, and the Caribbean.

The Gateway of the Sun in Tiahuanaco [Bolivia] may date back to the eleventh millennium b.c., the same time the
Sphinx was originally carved. This means Tiahuanaco may have been influenced by a lost civilization, Atlantis
more or less. We must make sense of the astonishing cultural similarities between Mexico, South America, and
Egypt.
—Oswaldo Rivera, Director, Bolivian National Institute
of Archaeology, in Graham Hancock’s Quest
for the Lost Civilization (1998)

Mexico

Mexico has been shaped by the Maya and Aztec civilizations, as well as by Spain.

Population Patterns
Ethnic groups, migration, and urban growth have shaped population in Mexico. Most of the people who settled
here in ancient times, such as the Aztecs, settled in the Mexican plateau in northern and central Mexico.

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 –latin aMerica—HuMan GeoG rapHy (part i) –
People
Starting in the Age of Exploration in the early six-
teenth century, most Natives in Mexico died from
European diseases, not war. The Natives who
remained mixed with the Europeans and had biracial,
or mestizo, children.
Density and Distribution
Although Mexico is the most populous Spanish-
speaking country, with approximately 111 million
people, its population density is 147 people per
square mile—not very crowded. However, Mexico
City, with roughly 21 million people in 573 square
miles, is extremely crowded, averaging 36,650 people
per square mile.
Many Mexicans have left rural areas for the city
because of limited land and their desire for social ser-
vices and economic opportunities. Many Mexicans
move near the U.S. border seeking work. Seventy-five
percent of Mexicans now live in cities.
Urban Areas
Growing cities often absorb surrounding cities and
suburbs to create megacities with populations of
more than 10 million people. Mexico City is a pri-
mate city, a country’s leading city that dominates its
economy, culture, and political affairs, and usually
has a population at least twice the size of the next
largest city.
History and Government
Ancient Mexico
The indigenous people of Latin America say their
ancestors came across the seas following a great flood.
Their oral history contradicts the long-standing the-
ory that early migrations to Latin America originated
with Asians 14,000 to 20,000 years ago, crossing a
land bridge from Asia. Recently discovered artifacts
demonstrate another hypothesis, that ancient people
may have migrated across the Pacific Oceans 20,000
to 30,000 years ago.
78
GEOG_09_77-84.indd 78
Giant heads in African or Polynesian styles left
by the Olmec or their ancestors in La Venta, Mexico
date back to at least 3500 b.c. These objects have led
many scholars over the past two decades to question
the Asia-only theory of the settlement of Mexico.
The Maya, who settled the Yucataán Peninsula
of Mexico, created an agricultural and trading empire
from a.d. 250 to 900. The Catholic Spaniards believed
the Maya were devil worshippers because they prac-
ticed human sacrifice on temple grounds.
The Maya made glyphs, or symbols often writ-
ten on stone, to honor their gods and record history
on temple walls. As brilliant at mathematics as the
Babylonians (who had a strikingly similar numerical
system), the Maya invented one of the most elaborate
universal clocks ever created. No one knows what
happened to the Maya; they appear to have just aban-
doned their cities.
At least 40 Mayan cities have been discovered,
but most of their writing has not been translated.
Descendants of the Maya remain in villages in south-
ern Mexico and Central America, where they practice
subsistence farming.
Another indigenous people, the Aztecs, reached
the height of their power in the late 1400s. Their
name came from Aztlán, the mythical place they
believed their ancestors came from. They built their
capital on the island of Tenochtitlan, which today is
buried under overpopulated Mexico City.
The ancient peoples of Mexico, Central Amer-
ica, and South America seem to have had an in-depth
understanding of the orbits of the sun, moon, plan-
ets, and stars. They constructed their temples to
reflect this highly advanced scientific knowledge of
the universe.
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
The Aztec grew crops on chinampas, floating
islands made from large rafts covered with mud
from the lake bottom.
1/5/12 1:25 PM
 –latin aMerica—HuMan GeoG rapHy (part i) –
When the Spanish conquistador (conqueror)
Hernán Cortés arrived in the Aztec capital in 1519, he
noted it was an imperial city of over half a million
people with bustling canals used for trading with cli-
ent states. The Aztec capital also had opulent pyramid
temples where human sacrifices, including the
removal of beating hearts, were practiced. Cortés
commented that the Aztec capital was grander than
any city in Spain at the time.
The Aztecs had a highly structured class system
headed by an emperor and military officials. High-
ranking priests performed blood rituals to win the
favor of the gods. Most Aztec people were farmers,
laborers, and soldiers.
Independent Nation
Cortés slaughtered the last of the Aztecs in 1521 and
claimed Mexico for Spain. Mexico remained part of
the viceroyalty of New Spain for 300 years.
In the 1700s, resentment against European rule
escalated. The American and French revolutions
were particularly influential. The first Spanish-ruled
country in Latin America to declare and win inde-
pendence was Mexico. Father Miguel Hidalgo led
Mexico’s struggle for independence, which lasted
from 1810 to 1821.
A small, elite group of wealthy landowners,
army officials, and clergy seized economic and politi-
cal power in Mexico. In this time of power struggles,
public disappointments, and chaotic, outlaw-styled
revolts, the caudillo, or absolute dictator, came to
power with the backing of the wealthy landowners
and military.
A new constitution established in 1917 brought
reforms to the people and made Mexico a federal
republic.
Starting in 1929, the Partido Revolucionario
Institucional (PRI) dominated the presidency and
Mexican politics for nearly 70 years. The PRI’s con-
trol ended in 2000, when Vicente Fox of the opposi-
tion party Partido Acción Nacional (PAN) won the
GEOG_09_77-84.indd 79
presidency. Felipe Calderón won the presidency for
the PAN again in 2006.
Today, struggles for reform and political power
in Mexico continue. Native Americans, workers, and
farmers continue to pressure the government for
greater inclusion in the political system.
Language and Religion
The official language of Mexico is Spanish. Ninety-
five percent of the population speaks Spanish, though
another 62 indigenous languages are still spoken
there. Nearly 83% of the population is Roman Catho-
lic, though many indigenous people retain aspects of
their traditional beliefs. Mixing religious beliefs into
one faith is called syncretism.
Education and Healthcare
Education varies significantly across Mexico. Most
public schools are in rural areas, but they lack the
funding and qualified teachers of urban or private
schools. Some government promotion of adult liter-
acy and school funding has helped.
If employment and education improve, health
problems linked to poverty, lack of sanitation, and
malnutrition will decrease. Because the federal gov-
ernment subsidizes healthcare, it is available to all
citizens. However, the poor quality of public medi-
cine in rural areas leads many Mexicans to seek medi-
cal care in cities or in other countries.
Trade
The 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) reduced trade restrictions and increased
the flow of goods, services, and people. Trade among
the United States, Mexico, and Canada has increased
by 10 to 15%, but effects on employment and gross
domestic product (GDP) have been small. American
labor has opposed NAFTA because Mexican workers
will accept lower pay. Few American companies have
moved to Mexico, due to high production and elec-
tricity costs. Mexico has increased its exports and
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 –latin aMerica—HuMan GeoG rapHy (part i) –
received more international investment and jobs, but
NAFTA has not helped the poor people of Mexico
much.
Arts
Mexico’s art shows indigenous and Spanish colonial
influences. Early Native American architecture
includes Maya pyramids and Aztec temples. Some of
these early Native masterpieces of architectural and
cosmic genius were decorated with murals or wall
paintings and mosaics. Churches and other buildings
reflect European architectural styles.
The twentieth century brought a revival of
interest in precolonial history and culture. For exam-
ple, Diego Rivera’s murals and frescoes illustrate
Mexico’s history and culture in vivid detail. Other
outstanding Mexican painters include Frida Kahlo
and Clemente Orozco. Mexico’s past has inspired the
writers Octavio Paz and Carlos Fuentes. Ballet
Folklórico performs Native American and Spanish
dances.
Family Life
Family life is important to Mexicans. Parents and
children often share their home with members of an
extended family. Like most Latin American societies,
Mexican society still displays elements of machismo,
a Spanish and Portuguese tradition of male suprem-
acy. However, women have made rapid advances in
recent decades.
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Compadres, or godparents, are chosen by par-
ents to sponsor their new baby and watch over
his or her upbringing.
Sports and Leisure
Spectators crowd arenas to watch bullfighting, Mexi-
co’s national sport. People are also passionate about
fútbol (soccer). Baseball and jai alai, which is like a
80
GEOG_09_77-84.indd 80
cross between handball and Native-born lacrosse, are
also very popular. People in Mexico love to celebrate.
From friendly gatherings to special family dinners,
religious holidays, and patriotic events, almost any
social occasion is a party, or fiesta.
central america
and the caribbean
Population Patterns
Diverse ethnic groups, migrations, small land areas,
and rapid growth have shaped the population of
Central America and the Caribbean.
Indigenous cultures are often mixed with those
of Spanish settlers in Central America and the Carib-
bean. Mixed in, too, are English, French, African,
Dutch, East Indian, Chinese, and other cultures.
People
The first inhabitants of Central America and the
Caribbean were indigenous peoples. People of Maya
descent make up about half the population of Guate-
mala. Most of the people in Costa Rica are descen-
dants of Europeans. At least two-thirds of the people
in Central America are mestizo.
Europeans brought Africans here as slaves by
force. Slavery ended in the region in the 1800s, but
many Africans who lived in Latin America for gener-
ations stayed. In the Bahamas, most of the people are
of African descent. Other parts of the Caribbean, like
the Dominican Republic and Cuba, blend African
and European ethnicities.
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it faithfully, and
People of mixed African and European ancestry
are called mulattos.
1/5/12 1:25 PM
 –latin aMerica—HuMan GeoG rapHy (part i) –
Density and Distribution
Most people in Central America live in the highlands
that run mostly along the Pacific Coast. Population
densities vary, however. Guatemala’s population den-
sity of 342 people per square mile is about ten times
that of Belize, which has 36 people per square mile.
Population density is heavy in the Caribbean,
which has small land areas with large populations
that grow at rapid rates. There are fewer people per
square mile in Central America.
Since the 1970s, large numbers of people have
been leaving Central America and the Caribbean for
better external economic opportunities and to escape
civil war or unstable political situations.
Internally, the people of Central America and
the Caribbean have been moving to cities.
Urban Challenges
City resources are strained by rapid population
growth. Jobs and housing may be scarce. City infra-
structure can collapse, depriving people of electricity
and drinking water. Still, most people do not have the
money to return to their villages. They remain in
poverty-stricken urban neighborhoods with substan-
dard housing and poor sanitation.
History and Government
History and government in Central America and the
Caribbean have been influenced by indigenous cul-
tures, colonialism, slavery, and struggles for freedom.
European Conquests
The arrival of Christopher Columbus in the West
Indies triggered the conquest and colonization of
Central America and the Caribbean islands. He
explored and colonized the Caribbean islands from
1492 to 1504. The first permanent European settle-
ment was established on the island of Hispaniola in
1493. Large numbers of Spanish settlers seeking gold
followed.
The Spanish brutally conquered the Native
Americans and forced them to work as slaves in gold
GEOG_09_77-84.indd 81
mines and on plantations. By 1600, hard labor, star-
vation, and European diseases nearly destroyed all the
natives. To meet the labor shortage, European colo-
nists imported Africans as slaves.
Columbian Exchange
Columbus’s arrival began one of the most significant
events in world history, the Columbian exchange. As
Europeans arrived to claim lands for Spain, Portugal,
France, and Britain, they introduced food plants like
wheat, oats, rice, sugarcane, coffee, and grapes as well
as domesticated animals like cattle, horses, sheep,
goats, pigs, and fowl. Europeans also brought the
natives new diseases like smallpox, influenza, measles,
yellow fever, and malaria, for which the natives had
not developed immunity.
Native plants, animals, and diseases were taken
back to Europe. Potatoes, beans, maize, tobacco,
tomatoes, and cacao became parts of the European
diet. Europeans also took llamas, turkeys, alpaca, and
syphilis back across the Atlantic Ocean. Diseases were
unintentionally transmitted.
Panama Canal
Vasco Nuñez de Balboa explored the isthmus now
known as Panama, and discovered the Pacific Ocean.
Almost four centuries later, business interests and
politicians realized it would be profitable to build a
shortcut between the oceans. In 1904, construction
began on the Panama Canal. Nearly 75,000 laborers
from around the world built one of the engineering
wonders of the world. Today, the canal is still an
important route for trade.
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
When the Colombian legislature would not
approve of foreign ownership of the canal, U.S.
President Teddy Roosevelt triggered a revolu-
tion in what would become Panama to seize the
land on which the canal would be located.
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 –latin aMerica—HuMan GeoG rapHy (part i) –
Gaining Independence
Native Americans and African slaves yearned for free-
dom by the late 1700s. In the 1790s, Francois Tous-
saint L’Ouverture, a soldier born to enslaved parents,
led enslaved Africans to fight against Spanish and
French colonial powers in Haiti. He died in 1802, but
his efforts helped pave the way for the declaration of
Haiti’s independence on January 1, 1804.
Besides Haiti, most Caribbean countries were
the last territories in the region to achieve indepen-
dence. Cuba won its independence from Spain in
1898, but remained under U.S. protection until 1902.
British-ruled islands like Jamaica and Barbados did
not win independence until well into the 1900s. Some
Caribbean islands still remain under foreign control.
Puerto Rico and some of the Virgin Islands have
political links to the United States. Spain ruled Cen-
tral America until the nineteenth century.
Struggles for independence started a period of
economic and political instability. During the 1800s,
leaders sought to construct political institutions and
prosperous economies. In 1823, independent prov-
inces formed a federation called the United Provinces
of Central America. Powerful elites opposed the
union, so the United Provinces separated into the
countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nica-
ragua, and Costa Rica.
Movements for Change
Many Central American and Caribbean countries
experienced dramatic political, social, and economic
changes throughout the 1900s. Railroad building and
the formation of industries brought new wealth to
the upper classes. Most people, especially those in
rural areas, saw little progress. The demands of the
poor for reform were ignored.
In Cuba, Fidel Castro led a successful guerilla
revolution and set up a communist state. Commu-
nism remains entrenched in Cuba, but there have
been some reforms in the 2000s.
Military dictatorships gave way to democrati-
cally elected governments in several other Latin
82
GEOG_09_77-84.indd 82
American countries in the 1990s. Today, many coun-
tries in Central America and the Caribbean struggle
to end corrupt politics and violence and bring eco-
nomic benefits to all citizens. In the last few years,
many people in Latin America voted and expressed
their desire for change.
Language and Religion
Spanish is the main language in Central America. In
the Caribbean, the European languages of English,
Spanish, French, and Dutch are spoken. Each country
has its own dialects, or forms of the language, unique
to a particular place or group.
Millions of people speak Native American lan-
guages. Many are bilingual. Haitian Creole has a
mainly French vocabulary with some African and
Spanish words.
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
Others speak numerous forms of patois, dialects
that combine indigenous, European, African,
and Asian languages.
The majority of people in Central America are
Roman Catholic. In the Caribbean, most living on
Spanish- or French-speaking islands are Roman
Catholic, but various Protestant denominations are
found in the English-speaking areas. Islam and
Hinduism are also found in the region, as are
numerous traditional Native American and African
religions, which are often mixed with Christianity
and other faiths.
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
Santeria in Cuba and voodoo in Haiti and the
Dominican Republic are examples of mixed reli-
gions based on African rituals.
1/5/12 1:25 PM
 –latin aMerica—HuMan GeoG rapHy (part i) –
Education and Healthcare
The quality of education varies by country as well as
in rural and urban areas. Children are required to fin-
ish elementary school, but few do because of long
distances to school and lack of money for supplies
and clothing.
Healthcare is linked to standards of living.
Countries with a developed welfare system have
higher life expectancies and standards of living.
Countries with less developed economies have little
money to spend on healthcare, so disease and malnu-
trition are common and life expectancy low.
Arts
Native Americans produced the earliest forms of
artwork, including wood carvings, pottery, metal-
works, and weaving. The work of pre–Columbian
artisans was often as sophisticated as anything made
by hand today. Hand-woven textiles made in villages
today reflect ancient Mayan symbols and weaving
techniques.
The music of Central America and the Carib-
bean, like salsa or reggae, combines Native American,
European, and African styles and dances. Many styles
evolved out of the traditional music of indigenous
wind and percussion instruments, European string
and brass instruments, and African drums, rhythms,
and dances.
Family Life
Throughout Central America, the extended family is
the basic unit of society. The importance of family in
a community is a factor determining one’s social
class. In the Caribbean, family structure is often
matriarchal, ruled by a woman such as a mother,
grandmother, or aunt. This family structure type is
representative of West Africa, where many Caribbean
people have roots.
Sports and Leisure
Baseball, basketball, cricket, and volleyball have large
followings in the Caribbean. American sailors in
GEOG_09_77-84.indd 83
Cuba taught baseball to the Cubans over a hundred
years ago. Cubans took the game with them wherever
they migrated. In the Dominican Republic, baseball
has become the national pastime. Soccer is popular in
Central America.
Cash Crops
The fertile highlands of Mexico and Guatemala have
enabled them to become two of the world’s leading
coffee producers. The tropical climate of Cuba puts it
among the world’s leading producers of sugarcane.
Countries assume great risk by only growing
one or two export products. Droughts, floods, or vol-
canic eruptions can destroy a country’s cash crops
and ruin the economy. In 1998, Hurricane Mitch
destroyed 90% of Honduras’s banana crop. In 2004,
Hurricane Ivan caused severe damage to the Carib-
bean, destroying Grenada’s cash crop nutmeg.
CAFTA
In 2005, the United States joined six Central Ameri-
can countries in the Central American Free Trade
Agreement (CAFTA). It lowered trade barriers between
the United States, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala,
Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic.
Critics are concerned about American job losses and
the exploitation of lower paid workers, especially in
the sugar and textile industries.
Practice
1. People who are part Native and part European
are called ___________.
2. In Central America, most people live in the
___________ that run along the Pacific coast.
3. ___________ were the first slaves in the
Caribbean.
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 –latin aMerica—HuMan GeoG rapHy (part i) –

4. The exchange of food, plants, and diseases by answers

Natives and Europeans in the 1500s was called
the ___________. 1. Mestizo
2. Highlands
5. Most people in Central America speak 3. Native, or indigenous, peoples
___________. 4. Columbian exchange
5. Spanish
6. ___________ is the national pastime in the 6. Baseball
Dominican Republic. 7. Panama Canal
8. Haiti
7. The ___________ cut the distance in shipping 9. Mixed
between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. 10. Extended
11. Hurricanes
8. ___________ was the first Caribbean country 12. CAFTA
to free itself from slavery.

9. Santeria in Cuba and voodoo in Haiti and the

Dominican Republic are examples of
___________ religions, or syncretism.

10. The ___________ family is important in Cen-

tral America and the Caribbean.

11. Latin America is susceptible to natural disasters

such as ___________ and volcanic eruptions.

12. The United States joined six Central American

countries in lowering trade barriers through
___________.

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 10
latin america—
l e s s o n

Human
GeoGraPHy
(Part ii)

Lesson summary
This lesson examines the human geography, or popula-
tion, culture, language, religion, economy, education,
healthcare, arts, and family life of South America and the
environmental challenges facing it. South America has
been influenced by Native American and European cul-
tures, migration, physical geography, and urbanization.

Latin America is very fond of the word “hope.” We like to be called the “continent of hope.” Candidates for deputy,
senator, president, call themselves “candidates of hope.” This hope is really something like a promise of heaven, an
IOU whose payment is always being put off. It is put off until the next legislative campaign, until next year, until
the next century.
—Pablo Neruda

Population Patterns

South America’s population has been shaped by ethnic diversity, physical geography, migration, and urban
growth.

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 –latin america—Human GeoG raPHy (Part ii)–

People
South America has an ethnically diverse population. didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
Indigenous cultures inhabit parts of the region, par-
ticularly in rural and remote areas. Hundreds of Brazil has a population of 203 million spread out
indigenous groups live in the Andes region of Ecua- over 3.3 million square miles, or 61 people per
dor, Bolivia, and Peru. square mile.
The Spanish and Portuguese were the first
Europeans to settle in South America. Africans were
brought as slave labor. After the South American
Many people have left South America to escape
countries gained their independence, other Euro-
civil war violence in search of better wages and living
pean groups like the French, Dutch, Italians, and
conditions. However, migration from South America to
Germans arrived, as well as immigrants from Asia.
the United States is low compared to the high levels of
Half of the population of Guyana is of South Asian
immigration from Mexico to the United States. Some
or Southeast Asian ancestry. Many ethnically Chi-
countries like Colombia, Ecuador, and Guyana have
nese people call Peru their home. Many people of
experienced what some call a brain drain, or loss of
Japanese descent call Brazil, Argentina, and Peru
highly educated and skilled workers to other countries.
home.
The population of South America has become
predominately urban because of migration. About 80%
Density and Distribution
of the subregion’s population is urban. In Argentina
In South America, the challenges of physical geog-
and Uruguay, urbanization has been the result of for-
raphy are increased by a high rate of population
eign immigration. In most South American countries,
growth. Human settlement is difficult because the
urbanization has been the result of internal migration.
interior of South America is made up of rain for-
ests, deserts, and mountains. Most people tend to
Urban Challenges
live on the populated rim of South America. The
Brazil’s São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro and Argentina’s
coasts provide favorable climates, fertile land, and
Buenos Aires rank among the world’s largest urban
easy access to transportation systems. To draw peo-
areas in terms of population. These megacities have
ple in from the overpopulated coast, the Brazilian
extreme divides between rich and poor. Some demog-
government in 1960 moved the capital from coastal
raphers estimate that in São Paulo, 20% of the city is
Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia, a planned city in the
living in favelas, or slums on the outskirts. The chal-
country’s interior.
lenges for São Paulo and other megacities are hous-
South American countries have large land areas,
ing, employment, maintaining infrastructure, crime,
so their population densities are low. Ecuador is the
and traffic.
most densely populated country in South America,
with 135 people per square mile.

History and Government

Indigenous civilizations, colonization, independence,

and authoritarian rule have influenced South Ameri-
ca’s history and government.

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 –latin america—Human GeoG raPHy (Part ii)–
Early Cultures
The Moche, Mapuche, and Aymara developed agri-
cultural societies in South America well before the
Inca. The Inca developed a highly developed civiliza-
tion in the Andes. The Inca Empire stretched at its
height in the late 1400s and early 1500s from Ecuador
to central Chile. The empire was called Tawantsinyu,
meaning “land of the four quarters,” which met in the
city of Cuzco, now in Peru.
The Nazca people, who lived in Peru’s southern
valleys from around 300 b.c. to a.d. 800, produced
remarkable Nazca Lines in the earth. Located in the
Nazca Desert, these shallow glyphs in the shapes of
animals span up to 660 feet wide. Some speculate that
they were used to predict seasons for farming or were
used for extraterrestrial communication, a claim
often applied to the mountaintop development of
Macchu Picchu as well.
The Inca maintained a central government
headed by an emperor. In this society, the emperor,
head priest, and army commander held complete
authority over all other classes. The farmers, artisans,
and laborers made up the lower classes.
The Inca were skilled engineers. Inca pyramids
are infinitely more complicated and precisely cut
than Egyptian pyramids. No one knows how they
could have done the complicated and mathematically
precise cuts to make the unusually shaped stones that
they then fit together. The Inca laid 25,000 miles of
footpaths or roads, a network about half as large as
today’s interstate highway system in the United States.
Their roads crossed mountain passes and penetrated
forests.
Inca farmers cut terraces into the slopes of the
Andes to make irrigation systems for their crops of
cacao they used for headaches and fatigue. They kept
no written language, so most of what we know about
them comes from oral history and storytelling. The
Inca used quipu, a series of knotted cords of various
colors and lengths, to keep financial and historical
records.
GEOG_10_85-92.indd 87
The Inca were quite wealthy since they had vast
mineral resources of gold and silver. This great wealth
brought the Spanish conquistadors to Peru. The Inca
road network made it easier for the Spanish to sub-
due the empire.
European Conquests
The Inca were defeated by diseases, civil war, and the
Spanish. The Spanish conquistadors expanded from
Peru into Colombia, Argentina, and Chile. The Por-
tuguese settled on the coast of Brazil. The British,
French, and Dutch settled across the northern part of
South America.
The Spanish and Portuguese conquerors set up
highly structured political systems, such as the vice-
royalties of New Granada, Peru, La Plata, and Brazil.
The Europeans did this wherever they established
settlements or colonies. The Roman Catholic Church
was the unifying institution and intermediary in
South America.
European colonies in South America became
sources of great wealth for their empires. Some Span-
ish settlers mined for silver and gold, and such a
great quantity of the precious metals was brought
back that the Spanish economy faced inflation for
100 years. The Portuguese discovered not only gold
and silver but also Brazil wood, used to make red
dye. On Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch plantations,
sugar, coffee, and cotton were harvested and pro-
cessed for export to Europe using first Native then
African slave labor.
The Native American populations were annihi-
lated in South America by European diseases and the
hardships of colonial plantation slavery. The decima-
tion of the Native populations resulted in the Euro-
pean importation of more African slaves to meet
their labor shortages. In many colonies, like the
Dutch colony of Suriname, the number of slaves held
a majority until the mid-nineteenth century.
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 –latin america—Human GeoG raPHy (Part ii)–
Independence
The American, French, Mexican, and Caribbean rev-
olutions inspired South Americans to fight for their
independence from European colonial rule. By the
mid-1800s, most of South America achieved this goal
under the leadership of Simón Bolívar in Venezuela
and José de San Martin in Argentina. Brazil achieved
independence without violence. Suriname did not
obtain independence until 1975. French Guiana
remains part of France, although most of the popula-
tion wants independence.
The post-colonial period was unstable politi-
cally and economically for the new independent
countries of South America. They lacked a tradition
of self-government. Even though these countries
drafted and approved constitutions, power remained
in the hands of the wealthy elite. Caudillos, or author-
itarian political leaders, frequently seized power ille-
gally by force with the help of the military.
Movements for Change
In some South American countries, dictatorships
were followed by democratically elected govern-
ments. These countries now struggle to end political
corruption and violence, shrink the gap between
rich and poor, create jobs, and strengthen indige-
nous rights.
The struggle for democracy in South America
continues. In Colombia, the government has been
fighting paramilitary and insurgent groups for 40
years. They are not strong enough to topple the gov-
ernment, but they do control some of the rural areas.
Ecuador has had civilian control of the govern-
ment since 1979, but has had seven presidents since
1996. Peru was ruled by the military for 12 years
until 1980. Until president Fujimori instituted eco-
nomic reforms in the 1990s, the government faced
civil insurrections. Although he left office in 2000,
his government is still criticized for corruption. In
Bolivia, the government was overthrown 200 times
from 1825 to 1982. Since 1982, Bolivia has remained
democratic.
88
GEOG_10_85-92.indd 88
Demands for change have been made through
the ballot box. In 2006, Chile elected its first female
president, Michelle Bachelet. Bolivians elected Evo
Morales, an Aymara Indian, as their first Native
American president.
culture
The culture of South America has been influenced by
the beliefs, traditions, and arts of indigenous peoples,
Europeans, and Africans. Diverse cultural influences
are found in cities and villages.
Language and Religion
In different parts of South America, people speak
Spanish, Portuguese, French, or Dutch. Many people
are bilingual. During colonization, some European
languages mixed with Native American languages to
form completely new languages. Many Native Ameri-
can languages are still spoken in South America.
Most South Americans are Roman Catholic.
Tens of millions of people practice mixed religions
like Macumba, a word with negative connotations to
some, and Candomblé, which combine West African
religions with Roman Catholicism. Protestant Chris-
tianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Shintoism, Judaism,
Eastern Orthodox Christianity, and Islam are also
practiced in South America.
Education and Healthcare
Education varies throughout South America. Many
countries have devoted more funds to public schools.
Literacy rates have thus risen steadily. Some public
universities provide higher education at little or no
cost to students. In other countries, education is a
luxury, and many poor children drop out of school to
support their families.
In countries with stable economies and higher
standards of living, people have access to healthcare
and live longer, healthier lives. In the remote or rural
areas of South America, health concerns arising from
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 –latin america—Human GeoG raPHy (Part ii)–
poverty, lack of sanitation, infectious diseases, and
malnutrition remain. This concern is also strong in
the favelas, or shantytowns, that exist in the slums on
the outskirts of large cities where millions of people
live in dirty, overcrowded conditions.
Arts
Native American arts survive in many forms. The
massive buildings of the ancient Inca at Cuzco and
high up in Macchu Picchu, “the hitching post of the
gods,” baffle our contemporary understanding of
masonry. Traditional crafts like weaving, ceramics,
and metalworking have been passed down through
the generations and are still practiced today.
Ancient music still influences the modern in
South America. The panpipe, a common pre–
Colombian musical instrument, was used widely in
the Andes. Native American, African, and European
influences have combined to create unique styles like
the Brazilian samba and Argentine tango. African
slaves developed a Brazilian martial arts form dis-
guised as dance called capoeira.
In colonial times, Spanish art forms influenced
South American painting and architecture. Spanish-
and Portuguese-style Catholic churches still remain.
Native American and African artists often added
color to South American architecture. Brazilian archi-
tect Oscar Niemeyer is known for his design of mod-
ern buildings in Brasilia.
Many South American writers have won inter-
national renown. Colombian novelist Gabríel García
Márquez mixes everyday reality with fantasy. Chilean
poets Gabriela Mistral and Pablo Neruda have won
Nobel Prizes for Literature.
Family Life and Leisure
The family is more likely to be nuclear in a middle- or
upper-class South American family, but loyalty and
responsibility toward the extended family remain
strong. The compadre relationship (the bond between
the parents and godparents of a child) is still valued,
but changes brought by urban society have lessened
its importance in some places.
GEOG_10_85-92.indd 89
People love soccer in South America. Polo, auto
racing, tennis, boxing, and basketball are also popular
sports. Family visits, patriotic events, religious holi-
days, and festivals engage people in social life and lei-
sure time. Carnival is celebrated the week before Lent,
a 40-day period of fasting and prayer for Roman
Catholics before Easter. Rio de Janeiro has one of the
largest annual Carnival celebrations in the world.
economy
South American countries face the challenge of devel-
oping and diversifying their economies. Still, there
are large disparities between the rich and poor in
major cities.
Agriculture
Although about 80% of South America’s people live
in cities, agricultural exports like bananas, coffee, and
sugarcane bring in a major portion of their national
incomes.
Land has been unevenly distributed in South
America for 400 years. Wealthy family or corporate
agricultural estates called latifundia are worked by
rural farmers called campesinos. Today, latifundias
are highly commercial and mechanized. They yield
high returns with very little investment in labor.
Smaller farms are called minifundia. These small
plots of land are farmed intensively by the campesi-
nos to feed their families. The campesinos usually do
not own minifundia land—wealthy landowners,
partnerships, or the government do.
The latifundia and minifundia systems are dis-
solving. As the latifundia mechanize, farmers are
leaving to look for city jobs. Governments are passing
laws to distribute the land more fairly. Many campesi-
nos have formed agricultural cooperatives by com-
bining minifundia into large, jointly owned farms.
The legacy of the campesinos is hard to break and so
most remain poor.
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 –latin america—Human GeoG raPHy (Part ii)–
Cash Crops and Livestock
The fertile highlands of Brazil and Colombia have
allowed them to become two of the world’s leading
coffee producers. The tropical climates and fertile
soils of Brazil put it among the world’s leading pro-
ducers of sugarcane. One of the largest cash crops in
Brazil, soybeans, is used to feed cattle. Cash crops
benefit commercial farmers most. Some South Amer-
ican countries raise cattle on large ranches for export.
Industry
Industrial growth has been limited in South America
by physical features like the high Andes and lush
tropical rain forest of the Amazon, which make it dif-
ficult to access natural resources. Foreigners brought
new technology to South America, but they drained
the local resources and profits. Investors are also wary
of investing due to political instability.
Some countries are overcoming these limita-
tions by combining necessary resources with stable
governments and active business communities. Bra-
zil, as an example, emerged from financial crises in
the 1990s to expand global trade and their overall
economies.
Trade and Interdependence
Many South American countries developed their
economies by promoting trade and decreasing for-
eign debts. They trade to obtain the natural resources,
manufactured goods, and foods they do not have or
cannot produce. Trade within the region and the
world has begun to increase.
managing resources
South America is working to protect the environment
while facing rapid urbanization and growing human
needs. Deforestation, or the clearing and destruction
of forests, is occurring in South America and other
places in the world. One strategic solution is sustain-
able development—technological and economic
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GEOG_10_85-92.indd 90
growth without depleting the human and natural
resources of an area.
Farms versus Forests
Logging, farming, and ranching threaten the survival
of the Amazon rain forest ecosystem. Thirty percent
of people in South America work in agriculture.
Expanding livestock pastures, so important to the
economy of South America, increases deforestation.
Farmers clear large rain forest areas to grow cash
crops. Deforestation is particularly severe in the Bra-
zilian rain forests where multinational agricultural
companies sponsor large-scale conversion of rain for-
ests into large plantations.
In the Amazon basin, slash and burn farming is
practiced. Plants are cut down and trees are stripped
of bark. It is all dried and set on fire. The ash provides
nutrients for the soil. Rains leach the benefits away
and the soil is left infertile. Crop yields decline and
farmers clear new parts of the forest. Latifundia and
large corporations continue to expand their soybean
fields to meet world demand.
didUse
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In the commercial logging business, two-thirds
of the timber cut down in the Amazon is not ever
used.
Biodiversity at Risk
Rain forests provide sanctuary to 50% of all animal
and plant species on Earth. Deforestation threatens
these ecosystems. Over 20% of the Amazon rain for-
est has already been destroyed. The Brazilian Atlantic
forest is also threatened and scientists are creating
corridors of vegetation to connect what remains of it.
Deforestation threatens the resources in the
Amazon. Medicines are made from rain forest plants
and organisms; some may even cure cancer. Loss of
the rain forest also increases the amount of carbon
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 –latin america—Human GeoG raPHy (Part ii)–
dioxide in the air, resulting in increased global warm-
ing, climate change, and increased ocean levels.
transportation
Roads and railroads in South America cross rugged
mountains, dense rain forests, and arid deserts. The
Pan-American Highway runs from Southern Chile
to northern Mexico, and extends through the
United States into Alaska. It links more than a
dozen Latin American capital cities. A trans-
Andean highway links cities in Chile and Argentina.
The Trans-Amazonian Highway built by Brazil cuts
across the Amazon rain forest. Peru and Brazil are
building a transoceanic highway to link the Ama-
zon River in Brazil with Peru’s ports on the Pacific
Ocean. This highway will take products from Brazil
and Peru to global markets and increase trade
between the two countries.
Brazil and Argentina have well-developed rail
systems despite the physical barriers that restrict peo-
ple from using them. Railroads have fallen into disre-
pair. The inland waterways of the Amazon River and
Paraná-Paraguay Rivers are important. If air travel
becomes less costly, it will help overcome geographic
barriers. All South American capitals receive domes-
tic and international flights. Remote locations are
served by private and military landing strips.
Disputed Borders
South American countries have fought over the past
150 years for strategic location or the ownership of
natural resources. Border wars divert resources away
from development. In 1998, Peru and Ecuador
stopped their 60-year border dispute.
GEOG_10_85-92.indd 91
Human impact
Rapid urbanization and industrial growth have
placed tremendous stress on available natural
resources in South America.
Rapid Urban Growth
When population growth far exceeds available
resources, it is called rapid urbanization. Rural work-
ers who migrate to cities in search of work often end
up in slums or shantytowns without work. These
shantytowns often lack running water and under-
ground sewage. They are unsanitary and
disease-ridden.
Air pollution is a problem in cities without ade-
quate clean-air regulations. Exhaust gases from
clogged streets pollute the air; industrial smokestacks
also belch toxins into the air.
Governments, international agencies, and grass-
roots organizations are doing what they can. Groups
that advocate for the homeless in Santiago, Chile,
turned abandoned buildings into affordable housing.
Industrial Pollution
Industrial growth has increased due to free trade
agreements and the expansion of multinational cor-
porations. Environmental laws have not reduced the
risks of increased pollution.
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
Runoff from chemical fertilizers and pesticides
used by commercial farms can cross borders and
damage people’s health.
Disaster Preparedness
South America’s physical geography makes it suscep-
tible to natural disasters. In 2005, there were many
devastating hurricanes. Latin American governments
are now investing in emergency preparedness. Satellite
91
1/5/12 1:25 PM
 –latin america—Human GeoG raPHy (Part ii)–

imaging and computer modeling technologies are answers

now being purchased to forecast the direction and
severity of hurricanes. 1. T
Scientists are also gathering information about 2. F
volcanic eruptions that started on the Caribbean 3. F
island of Montserrat in 1995 and left two-thirds of 4. T
the island uninhabitable. Because this volcano is sim- 5. T
ilar to others on different continents, the information 6. T
will be used to prepare for future volcanic eruptions. 7. T
8. F
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.

1. ____ In South America, caudillos frequently

seized power illegally by force with the help of
the military.

2. ____ 80% of South America’s people live in

rural areas.

3. ____ Slash and burn practices are excellent for

environmental conservation.

4. ____ São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro have rapidly

urbanized.

5. ____ Replanting rain forest trees is a form of

sustainable development.

6. ____ Deforestation of the Amazon is harmful

to the planet.

7. ____ Colombia’s cash crop is coffee.

8. ____ Population density is highest in the inte-

rior of South America.

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 11
l e s s o n

Russia—Physical
GeoGRaPhy

Lesson summary
Spanning Europe and Asia, Russia is made up of towering
mountains, active volcanoes, lowlands, plains, and vast
tundra. Although the Soviet Union broke apart into fifteen
republics in 1991, Russia still has the largest land area of
all the republics. Russia’s location in the far northern lati-
tudes, its interconnected mountain ranges, and its large
river systems still influence human settlement and activi-
ties. Russia’s location deep within the Eurasian landmass
also affects the region’s climate and vegetation.

I came to know the world’s largest boreal forest from the taiga to beyond the Arctic Circle. . . . I am partial to the
light of the north woods—slanting rays that in the warmer months cast long evening shadows and suffuse the land-
scape with a crystalline glow.
—Fen Montaigne, “The Great Northern Forest,” National Geographic (June 2002)

landforms

Russia is the largest country in the world. Russia is more than a third larger than the United States, but has little
variety in landforms. Russia is generally flat. Lowland plains cover the west, plateaus cover the rest. Russia is
divided and bordered by mountain ranges, tundra, subarctic forests, and wide rivers and seas.

Mountains and Plateaus

Russia is commonly referred to in terms of five land regions: the European Plain, the Ural Mountains, the West
Siberian Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, and the East Siberian Uplands. Each region differs in soil, vegeta-
tion, and human activity.

93

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 –Russia—Physical G eoGRaPhy–
European Plain
About 75% of the Russian population lives on the
Northern European Plain, or Russian Plain, that
sweeps across western and central Europe. Russia’s
most populous cities, Moscow and St. Petersburg,
were built on the Northern European Plain.
The northern part of the plain is poorly drained,
so there are swamps and marshes. The southern part
is rich in the chernozem soil that supports most of
Russia’s agricultural production of wheat, barley, and
other crops.
Caucasus Mountains
The Caucasus Mountains of southwest Russia stand
between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea on the
European Plain. Mount Elbrus, an extinct volcano, is
Russia’s highest peak at 18,510 feet. This subregion
has a moderate climate.
Ural Mountains
The Ural Mountains form a natural boundary
between European Russia and Asian Russia. The
Urals extend roughly 1,500 miles, with the tallest
peaks reaching over 5,000 feet. They are rich in iron
ore and mineral fuels like oil and natural gas. The
Urals are home to industrial development.
West Siberian Plain
The Ural Mountains divide the European Plain from
the West Siberian Plain. The poorly drained West
Siberian lowlands have many swamps and marshes.
The 1 million square miles of plains and pla-
teaus called Siberia stretch all the way from the east
side of the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, and
from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Central
Asian grasslands in the south.
Central Siberian Plateau
The Central Siberian Plateau forms a natural bound-
ary between Russia and China. The plateau’s 1,600 to
2,300 foot peaks formed swiftly moving rivers and
canyons that can still be found there.
94
GEOG_11_93-98.indd 94
East Siberian Uplands
In the east, various mountain ranges and basins
extend from Siberia to the Pacific Ocean. The Kam-
chatka Peninsula has more than 100 volcanoes, of
which more than 20 are active.
Water systems
Coasts, Seas, and Lakes
Russia’s 23,400 miles of continuous coastline is the
longest in the world. Russia’s coastlines reach the Arc-
tic and Pacific Oceans and the Baltic Sea, Black Sea,
and Caspian Sea.
The Black Sea gives Russia’s warm water access
to the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas through the
Turkish-controlled Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara,
and the Dardanelles. The world’s largest inland body
of water, the Caspian Sea, is actually a saltwater lake.
Rivers flow into the Caspian Sea, but it does not have
any outlet to the ocean.
The world’s oldest and deepest freshwater lake is
Lake Baikal. Located in southern Siberia, Lake Baikal
is 400 miles long, 40 miles wide, and a mile deep. It
has more water by volume than any lake in the world.
Lake Baikal contains 20% of Earth’s supply of fresh-
water.
didUse
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it faithfully, and
More than 25 million years old, Lake Baikal is fed
by over 300 rivers and streams and is home to
about 50 fish species.
Rivers
Some of the world’s longest rivers run through Rus-
sia. Russia’s large river systems are essential for irriga-
tion, transportation, electrical power, and industries
like fishing.
1/5/12 1:26 PM
 –Russia—Physical GeoGRaPhy–
tiP Use
this book.
Only 25% of Russia’s people live in Siberia,
which provides 84% of the country’s water.
Volga River
Western Russia’s Volga River is vital to Russia.
Matushka, or “Mother,” Volga drains most of the east-
ern part of Russia’s Northern European Plain. The
Volga flows through areas of temperate grasslands
and mixed forests.
The Volga provides important transportation
links between Moscow and the Caspian Sea and
through the Volga-Don Canal to the Sea of Azvov and
the Black Sea.
Melting snow gives the Volga River 33% of Rus-
sia’s usable water. Its waters are used for drinking,
irrigation, and hydroelectric power. Most of this
water is returned with waste to the Volga River.
Siberian Rivers
The Siberian Rivers include the Ob, Irtysh, Yenesey,
and Lena. These rivers make up one of the world’s
largest river systems. They flow north to the Arctic
Ocean. In the north, where rivers are blocked by ice,
swamps and marshes form. The 1,000 mile long
Amur River makes up the border between Russia and
China. The Amur River drains in the east.
didUse
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Warm monsoon winds from the southeast make
the Amur River Valley one of Siberia’s major
food-producing areas.
natural Resources
Russia’s abundant natural resources are often located
in remote, inhospitable, and inaccessible parts of the
country.
GEOG_11_93-98.indd 95
Minerals and Energy
Russia is one of the world’s leading producers of fos-
sil fuels. Most of Russia’s petroleum and coal deposits
can be found in Siberia and the Ural Mountains. Rus-
sia has ample natural gas deposits in northern Sibe-
ria. Russia’s rivers make Russia a leader in
hydroelectric power
didUse
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it faithfully, and
Russia leads the world in nickel production and
is among the top three in aluminum, platinum,
and gemstone production.
Soil and Forests
Approximately 20% of the world’s remaining forest
lands are in Russia. Most of Russia’s forests lie in east-
ern Siberia. Russia’s boreal forests provide much of
the world’s timber, particularly pine, spruce, cedar,
and fir.
Commercial logging and wildfires have reduced
Russian forests by 40 million acres a year, which is
more than the Amazon River basin. These forests reg-
ulate climate and filter out billions of tons of carbon
dioxide and other gases during photosynthesis. The
carbon is stored in trees, roots, and soil.
didUse
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Only the Amazonian tropical rain forest returns
more oxygen to the atmosphere than Russia’s
northern boreal forests.
Fishing Industry
The fishing industry is important to the Russian
economy and diet. Salmon are caught in the Pacific
Ocean. Cod, herring, and halibut, are hauled in from
the Arctic Ocean. The supply of world-famous caviar,
processed and salted fish eggs, has declined, though,
95
1/5/12 1:26 PM
 –Russia—Physical G eoGRaPhy–
because dams on the Volga River have interrupted the
sturgeon migrations needed for the finest caviar.
Global demand for caviar is usually met now through
illegal fishing.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. The ___________ Mountains in Russia sepa-
rate Europe from Asia.
2. The Russian ___________ forests are losing 40
million acres a year, more than the Amazon
loses.
3. ___________ provides 84% of Russia’s water.
4. About 75% of the Russian population lives on
the ___________ Plain.
5. The peaks of the Central ___________ Plateau
form a natural boundary between Russia and
China.
6. The world’s oldest and deepest freshwater lake
is Russia’s Lake ___________.
7. ___________ lands dominate Central Asia.
8. ___________ is a major industry in the Arctic
and Pacific oceans.
9. Russia has the longest continuous
___________ in the world.
10. The world’s largest inland body of water, the
___________ Sea, is actually a saltwater lake.
climate and Vegetation
Climate shapes settlement patterns. Russia’s location
in the northern latitudes means long, cold winters.
96
GEOG_11_93-98.indd 96
People must adapt their jobs, transportation, food,
water, heating, clothing, and plumbing to the Russian
cold. Winters are especially harsh in Siberia, so people
tend to live in the west.
High Latitude Regions
Russia’s location in the high latitudes of the Eurasian
landmass results in a harsh climate with long, cold
winters and short, cool summers. Seasonal tempera-
tures can vary greatly.
In eastern Russia’s Yakutsk, January tempera-
tures often fall below –33°F while July temperatures
average 64°F. Eastern Siberia has the coldest winter
temperatures. January temperatures at Verkhoyansk,
the “cold pole” of the world at 68° N latitude, have
fallen to –90°F.
In western Russia, warmer air from the Atlantic
Ocean moderates temperatures. Because most of the
Eurasian landmass does not receive ocean winds,
there is little precipitation. The interior also faces
extreme temperature variations. This is known as
continentality.
Tundra
The tundra is the vast treeless northern plain almost
entirely north of the Arctic Circle at 66.5° N. The
average annual temperature of the tundra is below
freezing. The tundra covers about 10% of Russia. The
thin acidic soil above the permafrost can only grow
mosses, lichens, algae, and dwarf shrubs.
didUse
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For many weeks before and after December 22,
the sky stays dark in the tundra. In the summer,
there is continuous sunlight in the tundra for
several weeks.
1/5/12 1:26 PM
 –Russia—Physical GeoGRaPhy–

Subarctic
South of the tundra is Russia’s largest climate region, didUse
this book. you knoW?
it faithfully, and
the subarctic. Some of the world’s coldest tempera-
tures have been recorded in the subarctic. Snow cov- When Napoleon arrived back in Poland from
ers the ground 120 to 250 days a year. The taiga, a Russia, only 40,000 of his 600,000 men were still
boreal forest belt about the size of the United States, alive after facing the harsh Russian winter.
covers 40% of western Russia. The taiga is the world’s
largest coniferous forest, containing about 50% of the
In World War II, when Hitler and his armies
world’s softwood timber.
arrived near Moscow in December of 1941, frigid
–40°F temperatures paralyzed his tanks, mechanized
Midlatitude Regions
vehicles, artillery, and aircrafts. It was one of the cold-
Russia’s midlatitude regions have more moderate
est winters of the century. Russia’s harsh winter was
climates. The midlatitudes have milder winters and
an important factor leading to the Germans’ retreat.
warmer summers. The midlatitudes support most
of the country’s population and agricultural
Steppe
production.
The Russian steppe lies north of the Caucasus Moun-
tains between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.
Humid Continental
There is also a band of steppe along the Russian bor-
Most of the North European Plain has a humid conti-
der with Kazakhstan.
nental climate. Moscow lies in a humid continental
The steppe has dry summers and long, cold, dry
region. Moscow’s temperatures range from 9 to 14°F
winters with swirling winds and whirling snow.
in January, and 66 to 99°F in July.
Plants flourish in the steppe’s organic rich chernozem
In humid continental areas, there are mixed
soil. The steppe’s sea of grass stretches to the horizon.
coniferous-deciduous forests. Soils in these areas use
Sunflowers, mints, and beans grow in the steppe, but
farming methods and fertilizers productively. In the
overgrazing animals and foreign plants have dam-
southern portion of the humid continental climate,
aged the steppe ecosystem. As nonnative species
mixed forests turn into temperate grasslands.
crowd out native grasses, soil fertility declines.

Practice
didUse
this book. you knoW?
it faithfully, and Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
The rich chernozem soil, with its high concentra-
tion of humus and phosphoric acids, is fit for 11. ____ Sunflowers, mints, and beans flourish in
production of crops like wheat, sugar beets, and the tundra’s organic rich chernozem soil.
sunflowers.
12. ____ Western Russia enjoys more moderate
temperatures because of warm winds from the
Atlantic Ocean.

13. ____ Moscow experiences a humid subarctic

climate in the midlatitudes.

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 –Russia—Physical G eoGRaPhy–

14. ____ The Russian tundra faces weeks of con- answers

tinuous sunlight and weeks of constant dark-
ness every year. 1. Ural
2. Boreal
15. ____ Russia’s location in the northern latitudes 3. Siberia
means long, cold winters. 4. North European or Russian
5. Siberian
16. ____ In the steppe, there are mixed coniferous- 6. Baikal
deciduous forests. 7. Grass
8. Fishing
17. ____ The midlatitudes support most of the 9. Coastline
country’s population and agricultural 10. Caspian
production. 11. F
12. T
18. ____ Seasonal temperatures vary little in Rus- 13. F
sia’s high latitudes. 14. T
15. T
19. ____ Most people live on the eastern side of 16. F
Siberia where abundant mineral resources are 17. T
quite accessible. 18. F
19. F
20. ____ The taiga is the world’s largest coniferous 20. T
forest, containing about 50% of the world’s
softwood timber.

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 12
l e s s o n

Russia—Human
GeoGRaPHy

Lesson summary
Russia’s population includes more than 150 ethnic groups,
including Slavic, Turkic, and Caucasian peoples, speaking
a total of more than 100 languages. In this chapter, we fol-
low Russian history from the Slavic settlements along the
waterways of the North European Plain, through the Czars
and Communist rule, to the environmental challenges fac-
ing Russia today.

Anyone who doesn’t regret the passing of the Soviet Union has no heart. Anyone who wants it restored has no
brains.
—Vladimir Putin, President of Russia

Population and Culture

Almost two-thirds of the people in Russia are ethnic Russians with a common language, history, and tradition
of strong central government.
For most of the twentieth century, Russia had a government-controlled economy led by Communist
Party dictators. When the Soviet Union dissolved in the early 1990s, Russia adopted democracy and a market
economy.

99

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 –Russia—Human GeoGRaPHy–
Population Patterns
Ethnic groups, migrations, and invasions have shaped
population patterns in Russia. Each distinct ethnic
group has a common ancestry, language, religion, and
customs.
Today, low birth rates mean Russia’s population
is aging and straining national resources, just like in
the United States.
People
Russia’s historical roots go back thousands of years
and include numerous ethnic groups. As Russia grew
over the centuries from a territory to an empire
stretching from Europe to the Pacific Ocean, many
non-Russian ethnic groups came under its control.
During the Soviet era of 1922-1991, Russia was part
of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
Regional political boundaries reflected ethnic group
nationalities.
Many of the larger republics declared indepen-
dence after 1991. Russia remains diverse. There are 32
ethnic groups within Russia with their own republics
or administrative territories.
didUse
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About 80% of Russia’s people are Ethnic Rus-
sians. Ethnic Russians are the largest ethnic
group in Russia, and one of the largest in the
world.
Slavs
In the 600s, Slav farmers, hunters, and fishers settled
along the waterways of the North European Plain. In
the 1200s, Slavs fled invading Mongol hordes and set-
tled by the Moskva River. The Slav settlements formed
the territory of Muscovy. Muscovy’s city center of
Moscow was surrounded by plentiful farm and hunt-
ing grounds, and it was linked by rivers to major
trade routes.
100
GEOG_12_99-106.indd 100
In the 1400s, Ivan III, “the Great,” brought many
Slav territories under his control. In Moscow, he built
the Kremlin fortress and built churches and palaces.
didUse
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One of the most iconic features of Russian archi-
tecture is the onion dome. Some say that onion
domes represent the vault of heaven, while oth-
ers believe the shape is a practical way to pre-
vent the accumulation of snow.
Ethnic groups referred to as Slavs are consider-
ably diverse both culturally and in appearance. Rus-
sians are included, as well as Poles, Serbs, Ukrainians,
and other Eastern Europeans.
Caucasians
Caucasian peoples such as the Chechens, Dagestanis,
and Ingushetians live in the Caucasus region of
southwest Russia.
Turks
Turkic peoples like the Tatars, Chuvash, Bashkirs, and
Sakha live in Central Asia, Eastern Europe, the Medi-
terranean, and the Middle East. In Russia, they live
mostly in the Caucasus and Middle Volga areas. The
western republic of Tatarstan has been ruled by Rus-
sia since the 1550s but enjoys limited sovereignty, or
self-rule.
The Sakha are a mixture of local groups and
formerly seminomadic Turks. The Sakha settled
along the Lena River and in southern Siberia and
expanded into northeast Russia.
Density and Distribution
Due to the rich soil, waterways, and milder climate of
western Russia, about 85% of the population live
there. The major industrial city and capital, Moscow,
is located in western Russia. Since 1990, population
1/5/12 1:26 PM
 –Russia—Human GeoGRaPHy–
growth in Russia’s industrial cities has leveled off or
decreased.
East of the Urals, Siberia covers two-thirds of
the country, but only 15% of the people live there.
The frozen tundra, forests, and mountains make most
of Siberia unsuitable for farming.
In the early Soviet era, many Russians moved to
non-Russian republics. Since 1991, more ethnic Rus-
sians have returned to their homeland than have left.
Language
While more than 100 languages are spoken in Russia,
Russian is the official language. In western Russia,
Turks speak Altaic languages and Russian. In eastern
Russia, the Sakha people speak Turkic languages and
Russian.
didUse
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Maslenitsa was a traditional Russian folk celebra-
tion of spring absorbed by Eastern Orthodox
Christianity. When the Soviet Union fell, the
flood of Western Christian missionaries
prompted Russian lawmakers in 1997 to only
allow Russian Eastern Orthodoxy, Islam, Juda-
ism, and Buddhism complete liberty as tradi-
tional religions of Russia.
Healthcare
Healthcare is declining in Russia. Life expectancy in
Russia is 66. It is 78 in the United States. Russian
infant mortality is 12 per 1,000 births, twice the rate
of the United States.
Whereas the Russian death rate has exceeded
the birth rate since 1992, Russia has negative popula-
tion growth.
GEOG_12_99-106.indd 101
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The number of people with HIV or AIDS contin-
ues to grow at alarming rates throughout Russia.
The majority of cases are contracted through
intravenous drug use, another serious health
issue in Russia.
Nationalism in Chechnya
Chechnya in southwest Asia was occupied by the
Turks, then the Russians. Most Chechens are Sunni
Muslims with their own language and culture.
Russia wants to keep Chechnya a part of the
Russian Federation because gas pipelines vital to the
Russian economy run through Chechnya. Also,
Chechen independence would embolden other eth-
nic groups and republics in the Russian Federation
to secede.
Russian occupation forces can be seen on the
streets of the bombed-out capital of Grozny and
throughout Chechnya. Chechen rebels are still fight-
ing violently against Russia. Chechen rebels use the
methods of terrorism in seeking independence from
foreign occupation and domination.
History
Ivan IV, “the Terrible,” became Russia’s first supreme
ruler, or czar, in 1547. He crushed all opposition to
his rule and expanded into non-Slav territories. The
Romanov dynasty came to power in 1613. By 1650,
an enslaved workforce of peasant farmers, or serfs,
bound to the land fell under the control of the pow-
erful Russian land-owning nobles.
Romanov Czars and Empire
Peter I, “the Great,” modernized Russia. He created a
strong military, enlarged Russian territory, and traded
with Western Europe. He acquired warm water
101
1/5/12 1:26 PM
 –Russia—Human GeoGRaPHy–
seaports along the Baltic Sea from Sweden. He built a
capital, St. Petersburg, as his “window on the West”
with access to the Baltic Sea.
Catherine the Great acquired a warm water port
on the Black Sea. As the Russian nobility adopted
genteel European ways, the serfs followed folk tradi-
tions and suffered from poverty and hunger.
Czar Alexander III connected Moscow to Vladi-
vostok on the Pacific Ocean by constructing the
6,000-mile Trans-Siberian Railroad in 1891. The
world’s longest railroad, the Trans-Siberian opened
Russia’s interior to settlement.
Russian Revolution
Czar Alexander II’s 1861 abolition of serfdom with-
out education reform prompted many serfs to move
to cities. In cities, serfs faced poor wages and factory
conditions. The government forced people to speak
Russian and follow Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
Those who refused, like Jews, were blamed for Rus-
sia’s problems.
Socialist workers and thinkers called for eco-
nomic equality. Karl Marx, a German Jew writing
about the labor struggle in British cities, advocated a
working class revolution against the wealthy followed
by public ownership of land, equal sharing of wealth,
and a classless society.
Rising discontent in the early 1900s and the
hardships of World War I forced Russian workers and
soldiers into the streets in 1905 and 1917, demanding
“bread and freedom.” Czar Nicolas II abdicated the
throne and his family was murdered by the Russian
workers’ revolution.
Soviet Era
Lenin and the Russian Bolsheviks overthrew a weak
representative government to create a society led by
workers and its elite Communist Party. Promising
“Peace, Land, and Bread!” the Bolsheviks surrendered
territory to the Germans and withdrew from World
War I. The Bolsheviks took over industry and food
distribution and established an eight-hour workday.
102
GEOG_12_99-106.indd 102
A civil war erupted between the Bolshevik Red
Army and the anti-Bolshevik, or Menshevik, White
Army. The Bolsheviks won the civil war by capturing
the heart of Russia and established the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or the Soviet
Union, in 1922. Ukraine, Belarus, and 13 other con-
stituent unions of Caucasus and Central Asia became
a part of the USSR.
When Lenin died in 1924, the rude but cunning
administrator Stalin seized leadership of the Com-
munist Party despite Lenin’s warnings. Stalin took
over farms and factories and made Russia an indus-
trial giant. Millions starved when Stalin collectivized
agriculture. Stalin also murdered or imprisoned mil-
lions of opponents in brutal labor camps.
Superpower
The Soviet Union achieved superpower status after
losing 20 million men and women in World War II, a
war the Russians called The Great Patriotic War. The
USSR moved to occupy Eastern Europe and North
Korea as buffer zones at the end of the war. Most of
these countries became Soviet-controlled satellites.
For the next forty years, the United States and
Soviet Union used the ideologies of capitalism and
communism to compete for world dominance. The
Cold War, fueled by propaganda, conventional and
nuclear threats of war, and aid to developing proxy
countries, involved the two major world superpowers.
Fall of the Soviet Union
A weak economy and the income gap between those
with Communist Party privileges and those existing on
worker wages led to the breakup of the Soviet Union.
In 1985, Gorbachev instituted perestroika, or
economic restructuring, and glasnost, or political
openness, in Russia. Many of the Soviet satellites threw
off communist rule by 1989. All the Soviet republics
declared independence over the next two years.
Twelve of the fifteen Russian republics joined
the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).
The Baltic States did not join the Commonwealth.
1/5/12 1:26 PM
 –Russia—Human GeoGRaPHy–
didUse
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In 1991, a hard-line communist coup to over-
throw Gorbachev failed and Boris Yeltsin became
the first democratically elected president of the
Russian republic.
New Russia
After 1991, outdated factories were closed. Agricul-
ture was restructured. Russia moved from a com-
mand economy to a market economy and inflation
went from 1,500% in 1992 to below 20% in 1997.
Tatarstan, Dagestan, and other ethnic territories
demanded more self-rule.
Yeltsin’s successor, Putin, has stabilized the
economy since 1999 by instituting banking, labor,
and private property reforms. Putin involved Russia
in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
Since 2004, Putin has expanded his executive power
and curtailed democratic freedom in Russia.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. In the 600s, the ___________ settled the North
European Plain.
2. ___________ is the largest ethnic group in
Russia.
3. Peasant farmers known as ___________ were
bound to the land of Russian nobles.
4. Rich soil, waterways, and the milder climate of
___________ draw about 85% of the popula-
tion to live there.
5. Russia has the longest ___________ in the
world.
GEOG_12_99-106.indd 103
6. An eight-hour workday was established by the
___________ after World War I.
7. Politically, Russia is part of the ___________ of
Independent States today.
8. Since 1985, political openness or, ___________,
has expanded in Russia.
9. Economic restructuring is called ___________
in Russia.
10. The religion of most people in southwest Asia’s
oil rich Chechnya is ___________.
Russia and the united states
Russian culture has influenced American arts, sports,
religion, and space exploration. There are about 3
million Russian Americans.
Cold War
From the close of World War II in 1945 until the col-
lapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, there was great ten-
sion between Russia and the United States. Allies
during the war, the two superpowers disagreed about
how borders should be restructured after the war.
The two powers have never directly gone to war, but
they have struggled for geopolitical, technological,
and military superiority.
didUse
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it faithfully, and
The Korean War was the first military conflict of
the Cold War. Committed to stopping the
spread of communism, the United States sup-
ported South Korea, while Russia gave its sup-
port to the North.
103
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 –Russia—Human GeoGRaPHy–
The two nations became involved in a space
race. The Soviets launched the first satellite into orbit
around Earth in 1957, and the United States
responded by realizing President John F. Kennedy’s
promise of beating the Russians by landing on the
moon first in 1969. They also competed to develop
the first nuclear weapons. The Cuban Missile Crisis
of 1962 was the most direct threat of nuclear war,
with Soviet atomic warheads stationed about 1,000
miles off American soil.
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this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
The term cold war was first coined by English
author George Orwell in the book You and the
Atomic Bomb, published in 1945.
agriculture
Soviet-era state-controlled farms, or kolkhozes, paid
farmers as salaried employees and were owned by
collectives. Other farms, called sovkhozes, were state-
owned and also paid workers wages. Production and
prices were still controlled by the government in agri-
culture and industry. The system did not motivate
workers.
Although Yeltsin opened farms to market
reform starting in 1991, most farmers could not
afford to buy land. Fearing that wealthy Russians or
foreign investors would buy the land and use it for
nonagricultural purposes, farmers have been reluc-
tant to stray from the familiar and stable kolkhoze or
sovkhoze systems.
industry
Industry and services are expanding in Russia. Russia
is one of the world’s largest producers of crude oil.
104
GEOG_12_99-106.indd 104
Russia’s oil supply provides vital energy at a reason-
able cost. Energy and minerals provide Russia with
income from exports.
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it faithfully, and
Russian forests provide 20% of the world’s soft
wood.
Supertrawlers, or floating fish factories, process
catches from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
Transportation
Because of its immense size and climate extremes,
Russia needs railroads and waterways for transporta-
tion. Major cities are located where the railroad
crosses large rivers. Thousands of miles of navigable
inland waterways connect seaports with cities.
Pipelines transporting petroleum to Russian
cities and Western Europe crisscross Russia. The
republics of southwest Russia, Chechnya, and Dages-
tan are fighting for independence and control of their
oil reserves and pipelines.
People and environment
Russia faces massive environmental challenges,
including the repair of serious Soviet-era damages
and making the best use of abundant natural
resources for economic growth. Water, air, and soil
have been harmed.
Russia must balance demand for oil and timber
without causing further damage to the environment.
Nuclear Wastes
Russia stockpiled and then set off over 600 nuclear
warheads between 1949 and 1987. Radioactive by-
1/5/12 1:26 PM
 –Russia—Human GeoGRaPHy–
products of nuclear power will continue to be dan-
gerous to people and the environment for thousands
of years. Most of this nuclear waste was stored, but
some of it was dumped into the Baltic, Barents, and
Bering seas.
Chernobyl
In 1986, a fire at the Chernobyl nuclear reactor sent
400 times more radioactive material into space than
was produced by the atomic bomb dropped on
Hiroshima.
Radiation spread across tens of thousands of
square miles. Thousands died and millions suffer
from severe radioactive poisoning because the Soviet
government was slow to evacuate people. Ultimately
35,000 people were displaced from their homes.
Russia still operates 29 nuclear reactors, despite
international pressure for improved nuclear safety
standards. Experts think the Russian nuclear reactors
are still unsafe, yet Russia plans to expand the use of
nuclear energy for electrical power. In 2000, the reac-
tor at Chernobyl was shut down. In 2006, work began
on a new protective structure for it.
Water Quality
Fertilizer runoff, sewage, and radioactive material
have polluted the waters of Russia’s lakes and rivers.
The Moskva and Volga Rivers pose serious dangers to
health. The Caspian Sea is threatened by industrial
pollution. Since 1957, Lake Baikal’s 1,500 species of
native plants and animals have been harmed by the
dumping of industrial waste from factories.
Soil and Air Quality
Russia’s soil has been poisoned by decades of airborne
pollution and the dumping of toxic waste. Storage
containers crack and waste leaks into the soil. Petro-
leum pipelines break, ruining the land and water. Fer-
tilizers and pesticides pollute farmland and water.
Russia has widespread urban air pollution.
Vehicle, coal, and industrial emissions pollute the air.
Burning coal releases soot, sulfur, and carbon dioxide
GEOG_12_99-106.indd 105
into the air, forming acid rain. Acid rain and chemical
pollution have severely reduced Russian forests.
managing Resources
Russia is striving to repair damage to the environ-
ment and manage natural resources without causing
additional harm.
The World Bank’s Sustainable Forestry Pilot
Project is showing Russia how to use land wisely, plant
new trees, and invest in the environment and econ-
omy. Local economies depend on forest conservation.
Environmental groups have demanded that
mining companies meet strict environmental stan-
dards. People have protested mining operations in
Kamchatka, eastern Russia. The local fishing industry
opposed the mines due to possible effects on the
area’s salmon spawning grounds, and local residents
opposed the mine due to its proximity to a protected
wildlife area. Frequent protests have reduced pollu-
tion in Lake Baikal, which holds 20% of Earth’s fresh-
water. Pollution levels in the lake are now lower than
in many lakes in Europe.
Future Challenges
Russia faces many challenges as the country’s econ-
omy grows and demand for natural resources impacts
the environment. Russian supertrawlers have depleted
world fish stocks. They scoop up 400 tons of fish a
day and discard the fish and marine mammals they
do not want. Big ships threaten traditional or indige-
nous fishing cultures and fish stocks.
Oil and natural gas company pipelines threaten
wildlife environments and indigenous ways of life in
Russia like reindeer hunting.
Billions of dollars have been spent on an oil
pipeline from eastern Siberia to the Pacific Ocean.
Fearing oil spills, President Putin ordered the pipeline
away from a wilderness area near Lake Baikal.
Global warming affects Russia. The world’s larg-
est peat bog is thawing and releasing billions of met-
105
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 –Russia—Human GeoGRaPHy–

ric tons of methane, a greenhouse gas, into the answers

atmosphere. Where the sub-Arctic was once perma-
frost, it is now shallow lakes. 1. Slavs
2. Ethnic Russian
Practice 3. Serfs
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true 4. Western Russia
or false, based on what you’ve read. 5. Railroad
6. Bolsheviks or Communists
11. ____ Russian supertrawlers limit the amount 7. Commonwealth
of fish they scoop up each day to under one 8. Glasnost
ton. 9. Perestroika
10. Sunni Muslim
12. ____ Russia is a major world supplier of soft 11. F
wood. 12. T
13. T
13. ____ Russia still uses nuclear energy for 14. T
electricity. 15. T
16. F
14. ____ The shallow lakes that are beginning to 17. T
replace some of the permafrost in the sub- 18. T
Arctic are a result of global warming.

15. ____ The Moskva River is polluted with fertil-

izer runoff, sewage, and radioactive material.

16. ____ Vehicle, coal, and industrial emissions are

not major contributors to Russia’s air pollution
problem.

17. ____ Environmental groups are concerned

about mines, pipelines, and toxic waste dumps
in Russia.

18. ____ There was more radioactive material pro-

duced by the 1986 fire at Chernobyl than by the
atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima.

106

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 13 euroPe—
l e s s o n

Physical
GeoGraPhy

Lesson summary
Physical forces shaped the landforms, water systems, and
natural resources of Europe. Latitude, mountain barriers,
ocean currents, and proximity to large water bodies affect
Europe’s climate and vegetation. Such physical features
still shape the lives of Europeans. In general, Europeans
have prospered using the continent’s natural resources.

The development of civilization and industry in general has always shown itself so active in the destruction of forests
that everything that has been done for their conservation and production is completely insignificant in comparison.
—Karl Marx

Physical Geography of europe

Europe is conventionally considered one of the seven continents, but is sometimes considered a subcontinent
or large peninsula of northwestern Eurasia.
Europe is relatively contained, separated from the rest of Eurasia—with Asia to the east—by the Ural
Mountains, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains, and the Black Sea.

landforms

Europe’s landscape was created over time by the physical processes of wind, water, and ice. These processes have
shaped the lives and settlement patterns of European people.
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 –euroPe—Physical GeoG raPhy–
Mountains and Plains
The European landscape consists of plains with
mountains on its northern and southern edges.
Mountains of northwest Europe were rounded
by millions of years of erosion and glaciation. Glacia-
tion is the result of spreading glaciers wearing down
the earth.
The central uplands extend from the Iberian
Peninsula, which encompasses Spain, Portugal, and
Andorra, to Eastern Europe. The central uplands have
low, rounded mountains and high plateaus with scat-
tered forests.
The mountains of southern Europe are geologi-
cally young, high, jagged mountains. Formed by gla-
ciation and folding, the Alps run from France to the
Balkan Peninsula. The Alps are the source of some of
Europe’s major rivers, such as the Rhine and the Po.
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Mount Blanc is the highest point in the Alps at
15,771 feet.
The Alps form a barrier separating the warm,
dry climate of the Mediterranean from the cooler
northern climates. The Pyrenees mountain range on
the Iberian Peninsula rises 11,000 feet high. The tow-
ering Carpathians run through Eastern Europe from
Slovakia to Romania.
In Europe, broad plains curve around the
highlands. Scoured by Ice Age glaciers, the North
European Plain stretches from southeastern Eng-
land and western France east to Poland, Ukraine,
and Russia. The North European Plain is a highly
productive agricultural area with mild climate, fer-
tile soil, and access to rivers. The southern edge has
particularly fertile soil enriched by organic glacial
runoff called loess.
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GEOG_13_107-114.indd 108
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Coal, iron ore, and other mineral deposits near
the North European Plain provided the basis of
Western Europe’s industrial development in the
1800s.
Many of Europe’s largest cities, like Berlin and
Paris, were built on the North European Plain.
The Great Hungarian Plain extends through
Croatia, Serbia, and Romania. On the lowlands along
the Danube River, farmers cultivate grains, fruits, and
vegetables.
Peninsulas, and Islands
Europe has a long, unusual coastline that touches
many bodies of water, including the Atlantic Ocean
and the Baltic, North, Mediterranean, and Black seas.
Most of Europe is less than 300 miles from a
seacoast.
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About 25% of the Netherlands lies below sea
level. Since the Middle Ages, the Dutch have
built large earth and stone embankments called
dikes to hold back the water.
The Dutch have reclaimed land from the sea.
They call this land polders. The Dutch drain the land
and keep it dry using windmills, pumps, and other
power sources. Although hundreds of thousands of
acres of polders have been rescued for farming and
settlement, stormy seas still breach the dikes, causing
flooding.
1/5/12 1:26 PM
 –euroPe—Physical GeoG raPhy–
Northern Peninsulas
Glaciation carved narrow, steep-sided fjords along
the coasts of Europe’s northern peninsulas, particu-
larly along Scandanavia, and created thousands of
sparkling lakes in Norway, Sweden, and Finland.
Northern Sweden and most of Norway are
mountainous. Warm ocean currents create a marine
west coast climate for coastal areas of the northern
peninsulas.
The Jutland Peninsula forms mainland Den-
mark and extends into the North Sea. Glaciers carved
fjords on the eastern coastline and deposited sand
and gravel on the flat west side. The Jutland interior
has low hills and flat plains.
Southern Peninsulas
Southern European peninsulas include the Iberian,
Italian, and Balkan Peninsulas. Mediterranean cli-
mate characterizes the Iberian and Italian Peninsulas.
The Iberian Peninsula extends from southwest
Europe, separating the Atlantic Ocean from the Med-
iterranean Sea. Most of Iberia is a plateau with coastal
plains.
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The Strait of Gibraltar is a stretch of water less
than 10 miles long separating Spain’s southern
tip from Morocco in North Africa. The Atlantic
Ocean is on one side and the Mediterranean Sea
is on the other.
The Pyrenees mountains in the Iberian north
isolated people from the rest of Europe and oriented
them toward the sea.
The Italian Peninsula extends like a boot into
the Mediterranean Sea. The long coastline has high,
rocky cliffs in some places and sandy beaches in oth-
ers. The young Apennine Mountains form the Italian
peninsula’s spine. Plains make up a third of the Ital-
GEOG_13_107-114.indd 109
ian Peninsula. Lombardy along the Po River in the
north is the Italian Peninsula’s most fertile plain.
Southeastern Europe’s Balkan Peninsula has the
Adriatic and Ionian seas on the west and the Aegean
and Black seas in the east. Craggy mountains and val-
leys stretch south from the Danube River, so people
of the area usually travel by river or sea.
Europe’s Islands
Iceland lies south of the Arctic Circle along the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge. Iceland has many volcanoes, glaciers
hot springs, and geysers. These sources of geothermal
power are often harnessed for home and industrial
heating.
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Nearly a quarter of Iceland’s population died
after the Laki volcano erupted in 1783 and set
off a famine.
Iceland has tundra and marine west coast cli-
mates. Iceland’s lowland coasts rise to an inland
plateau.
The British Isles, northwest of mainland Europe,
consists of two major islands, Great Britain and Ire-
land, as well as thousands of small, beautiful islands.
The rugged rocky cliffs of the coastlines drop to deep
bays in the British Isles.
Most of north and western Great Britain are
made up of mountains, plateaus, and valleys. Low,
rolling hills dominate the south. Ireland, the Emerald
Isle, is a lush, green land with cool temperatures and
abundant rainfall.
There are islands south of mainland Europe in
the Mediterranean Sea. Rugged mountains form the
islands of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete, and Cyprus.
109
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 –euroPe—Physical GeoG raPhy–
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Europe’s tallest active volcano, Mount Etna, rises
nearly 11,000 feet above Sicily.
Smaller island groups in the region include
Malta’s five islands, Spain’s Balearic Island, and
Greece’s 2,000 islands in the Aegean Sea.
water systems
Europeans depend on rivers and canals for transpor-
tation, trade, and leisure activities.
Rivers and Lakes
Many of Europe’s rivers run from mountains or high-
lands to the coasts. Canals link Europe’s interior to its
many navigable rivers. In Europe’s heartland, long
rivers link cities and run to the sea.
The most important river in Western Europe,
the Rhine, flows from the Swiss Alps through France
and Germany to the Netherlands. The Rhine con-
nects many industrial cities to Rotterdam on the
North Sea. The Main River, a tributary of the Rhine,
connects to the Danube River by canal and links the
North Sea with the Black Sea.
The Danube River is Eastern Europe’s major
waterway. The Danube flows from Germany’s Black
Forest through Hungary and Romania to the Black Sea.
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Europe’s dominant Rhine and Danube Rivers
carry hundreds of millions of tons of cargo every
year.
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GEOG_13_107-114.indd 110
France’s Seine, Rhone, and Loire rivers are
important for transportation and urban develop-
ment. The Po River in Italy is important for industrial
development. Europe’s rivers also provide irrigation
and electrical power.
European rivers differ region-to-region. Scandi-
navian rivers are short and rarely connect cities. Ibe-
rian rivers are too narrow and shallow for large ships.
However, England’s Thames River permits oceango-
ing ships to reach the port of London.
natural resources
Natural resources influence economic activity in
Europe. Europe’s abundant coal and iron ore fueled
development of modern industry.
The North Sea contains major petroleum and
natural gas reserves that meet Europe’s energy needs.
The United Kingdom, Germany, Ukraine, and Poland
also have significant coal deposits.
Lacking large oil and gas reserves, France has
invested heavily in nuclear power. Vegetable matter
from swamps called peat is also dried and burned as
an energy source. Sweden, France, and the Ukraine
have iron ore. Minerals, including bauxite, zinc, and
manganese, are also found in Europe.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. The ___________ Sea contains major petro-
leum and natural gas reserves that meet
Europe’s energy needs.
2. Europe’s dominant ___________ and
___________ rivers carry hundreds of millions
of tons of cargo every year.
1/5/12 1:26 PM
 –euroPe—Physical GeoG raPhy–

3. Natural resources such as ___________ and the same latitude receive. Therefore, Paris is often
___________ ___________ fueled develop- warmer than Boston in winter.
ment of modern industry.

4. The British Isles are made up of two major

tiP Use
this book.

islands, ___________ and ___________.

Eastern Europe may be colder due to distance
5. Spain and Morocco are separated by a narrow from the warm winds of the Atlantic Ocean, but
stretch of water called the ___________. it also gets less precipitation.

6. Mountains of northwest Europe were rounded

Location affects vegetation patterns in Europe.
by millions of years of ___________ and
Climate regions affect whether an area will have for-
___________.
ests, grasslands, tundra plants, or small shrubs.

7. Three nations, ___________, ___________,

Climate Regions
and ___________, are located on the Iberian
Europe’s climate regions range from the cold north-
Peninsula.
ern climates of the Alps to the dry steppe and Medi-
terranean climates found in southern parts of the
8. Glaciation carved ___________ on Denmark’s
continent.
eastern coastline.

High Latitude Regions

9. The ___________ form a barrier separating the
The far north’s high latitude climates have bitterly
warm, dry climate of the Mediterranean from
cold winters and short summers, causing permafrost
the cooler northern climates.
deep below the tundra’s surface. Tundra supports lit-
tle vegetation except for mosses, shrubs, and wild-
10. Croatia, Serbia, and Romania make up the
flowers that bloom during the brief summer. The
Great ___________ Plain.
subarctic climate, however, supports a vast conifer
forest that broadens in the east where Europe and
northern Asia meet. Fir, pine, and spruce trees fill this
influences on climate rugged northern landscape.
Western Norway, southern Iceland, and Sweden
Latitude, large mountain barriers, wind patterns, and
have a warmer midlatitude-type climate. This is
distance from large bodies of water influence Europe’s
because the North Atlantic and Norwegian currents
climate.
provide a marine west coast climate with cool sum-
Europe’s climate varies from the cold subarctic
mers, mild winters, and nearly 90 inches of annual
barren tundra of Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Fin-
precipitation. These tropical water currents keep
land to the warm, olive tree-covered Mediterranean
Norway’s jagged coastlines, or fjords, from freezing.
areas of Greece, Italy, and Spain.
Parts of eastern Norway, southern Sweden, and
Western and southern Europe lie near large
Finland that are sheltered by mountains have a humid
bodies of water. These areas receive warm maritime
continental climate. In this climate, warm summers,
winds brought by the North Atlantic current. These
cold winters, and less than 30 inches of annual pre-
winds provide a milder climate than other places at
cipitation prevail.

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 –euroPe—Physical GeoG raPhy–
Midlatitude Regions
Most of Western Europe has a marine west coast cli-
mate with mild winters, cool summers, and abundant
rainfall. The Gulf Stream and North Atlantic currents
bring warm waters from the Gulf of Mexico and the
equator. Prevailing westerly winds blowing over these
currents brings warm, moist air to Western Europe.
Natural vegetation of the midlatitudes includes
deciduous and coniferous trees. Deciduous trees that
lose their leaves, like ash, maple, and oak, thrive in the
area’s marine west coast climate. Coniferous trees like
fir, pine, and spruce are found in cooler Alpine moun-
tain areas up to the timberline. After that point, trees
cannot grow.
Southern Europe has a Mediterranean climate
with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. The
humid subtropical climate extends from northern
Italy to the central Balkan Peninsula.
Hot, dry winds from North Africa sometimes
bring high temperatures to southern Europe. Such
heat and lack of precipitation encourage the growth
of drought-resistant vegetation like shrubs and
small trees.
Most of Eastern Europe has a humid continen-
tal climate with cold, snowy winters and hot sum-
mers. This region is farther from the influence of the
Atlantic Ocean’s warm waters. The region’s humid
continental climate supports vegetation that is a mix-
ture of deciduous and coniferous forests.
The Alps have a highland climate with colder
temperatures and more precipitation than nearby
lowland areas. Dry winter winds called foehns blow
down mountains into valleys and plains. These
foehns cause avalanches—destructive masses of ice,
snow, and rock that slide with tremendous force
down mountainsides.
Dry Regions
Parts of southeastern and southwestern Europe have
a dry, steppe climate. Southeastern Europe’s steppe
extends through Serbia, Hungary, Montenegro,
Romania, Ukraine, and Central Asia. The steppe
has hot summers and extremely cold winters.
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GEOG_13_107-114.indd 112
Precipitation varies. Rainfall is scarce far from the
Atlantic Ocean’s winds in the eastern steppe. Extreme
temperatures, droughts, poor and easily eroded soils,
and high winds make farming the steppe very
difficult.
The interior Iberian plateau, the Meseta, has a
dry steppe climate. The Meseta extends over 81,000
square miles. Madrid is at its center.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
11. ____ The European steppe is easily farmed.
12. _____ Coniferous trees are common in the
warm Mediterranean climate of Southern
Europe.
13. _____ Permafrost is found in the midlatitudes.
14. _____ Western and Southern Europe have
milder climates due to winds brought by warm
ocean currents.
15. _____ Foehns cause avalanches in the Alps.
16. _____ Fir, pine, and spruce trees are found at
seal level near European coastlines.
17. _____ Temperatures in Southern Europe are
affected by winds from North Africa.
18. _____ The Mediterranean climate supports a
vast conifer forest that broadens in the east
where Europe and northern Asia meet.
19. _____ Most of Eastern Europe has a humid
continental climate with cold, snowy winters
and hot summers.
20. _____ Warm North Atlantic and Norwegian
currents keep Norway’s fjords from freezing.
1/5/12 1:26 PM
 –euroPe—Physical GeoG raPhy–

answers 10. Hungarian

11. F
1. North 12. F
2. Rhine and Danube 13. F
3. Coal and iron ore 14. T
4. Great Britain and Ireland 15. T
5. Strait of Gibraltar 16. F
6. Erosion and glaciation 17. T
7. Spain, Portugal, and Andorra 18. F
8. Natural gas 19. T
9. Alps 20. T

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GEOG_13_107-114.indd 114 1/5/12 1:26 PM
 14 europe—
l e s s o n

Human
GeoGrapHy

Lesson summary
The people of Europe belong to many different cultural
groups and speak a variety of languages. Throughout its
long history, Europe has overcome the challenges associ-
ated with blended cultures.

Europe is so well gardened that it resembles a work of art, a scientific theory, a neat metaphysical system. Man has
re-created Europe in his own image.
—Aldous Huxley

Countries

Albania Estonia Lithuania Romania

Andorra Finland Luxembourg San Marino
Austria France Macedonia Serbia
Belarus Germany Malta Slovakia
Belgium Greece Moldova Slovenia
Bosnia and Herzegovina Hungary Monaco Spain
Bulgaria Iceland Montenegro Sweden
Croatia Ireland Netherlands Switzerland
Cyprus Italy Norway Ukraine
Czech Republic Latvia Poland United Kingdom
Denmark Liechtenstein Portugal Vatican City

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 –europe—Human GeoGrapHy–
northern europe
Northern Europe is made up of the United Kingdom,
Ireland, and Scandinavia.
Population Patterns
The United Kingdom, which includes England, Scot-
land, Wales, and Northern Ireland, is ethnically
diverse and densely populated. Ireland, Iceland, Nor-
way, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark have smaller
populations dominated by one or two ethnic groups.
People
The British Isles are among the most diverse and
densely populated areas in Northern Europe. Celts, or
people who spoke Celtic languages, migrated from
Eastern Europe at least 3,000 years ago, as did Indo-
Europeans, who came from Central and Eastern
Europe and South and Central Asia. The Romans,
Normans, and others followed.
Since 1900, large numbers of immigrants from
the West Indies (the Caribbean) and South Asia have
arrived on the islands of Northern Europe. Many
European refugees fleeing for their safety settled in
Great Britain at the end of World War II.
Scandinavians share a Viking and Germanic
heritage and similar ways of life. Swedes, Norwegians,
and Danes speak different, but related, languages.
Density and Distribution
The most densely populated country in Northern
Europe is the United Kingdom, with roughly 660
people per square mile. Denmark and Ireland also
have high population densities. All three countries
have temperate climates and fertile soil that support
large populations.
Northern Europe’s important metropolitan
areas are also its economic centers. Some examples
116
GEOG_14_115-126.indd 116
are: London, England; Paris, France; Stockholm, Swe-
den; and Copenhagen, Denmark.
Northern Europe Rises
The Romans added Britain to their empire in a.d. 43.
They built roads, cities, and towns and brought
Christianity. The Roman Empire declined starting in
the a.d. 300s, and the Germanic Angles, Saxons, and
Jutes invaded Britain when the Romans left in the
early Middle Ages from a.d. 500 to 1500.
Britain fell to Norman invaders from France in
1066, and the Norman king established a system of
monarchs, or lords, giving lands to nobles for loyalty
pledges. Towns and villages formed to serve kingdoms.
The religious Reformation of the 1500s, which
began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic
Church, established Protestantism as a branch of
Christianity. The reform movement was led by a Ger-
man monk, Martin Luther.
Powerful Vikings from Scandanavia raided the
European coastlines from the eighth to eleventh cen-
turies. The Viking kingdoms provided the founda-
tions for Sweden, Norway, and Denmark.
Language and Religion
Northern Europe’s languages, like English and Swed-
ish, are mostly Indo-European. Local dialects exist.
Most North European countries are Protestant, but
many minority religions exist.
Education and Healthcare
Northern Europe has some of the world’s most edu-
cated populations. School is mandatory for at least 10
years and literacy rates are nearly 100%. Sweden, a
social democracy, offers complete healthcare and
social services to its citizens.
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 –europe—Human GeoGrapHy–
Western europe
The Western European countries form a cultural sub-
region influenced by its location, history, and revolu-
tionary role in world events. It is a crossroads of
cultures and a mix of the old and the new.
Population Patterns
Western Europe is one of the smallest but most popu-
lous regions of the world. It has long been and still is
a place of migrations.
People
The people of France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and
Switzerland are blends of two or more ethnic groups
that mixed over the centuries. Germany and Austria
were in ancient times ethnically homogeneous, but
now many ethnic groups live in each country.
France has recently attracted many Muslim
immigrants from Algeria and Morocco.
Density and Distribution
Most of Western Europe is densely populated, partic-
ularly in urban areas. Germany has the largest popu-
lation in Europe at 82.5 million people, while the
small urban countries of the Netherlands and Bel-
gium have the highest population density.
Migration in Europe is mostly to urban or sub-
urban areas. Since World War II, immigrant guest
workers began flocking to European cities.
History and Government
The history and governments of Western Europe have
been shaped by early civilizations, revolutionary poli-
tics, world wars, and migrations.
Early Peoples
Celts and other ancient peoples populated Western
Europe. Romans controlled their lands for centuries
GEOG_14_115-126.indd 117
until Germanic conquerors overpowered the Roman
Empire.
The Basques have lived in the Pyrenees between
France and Spain since more than 3,000 years ago,
well before the Celts arrived. The seafaring Frians set-
tled in Netherlands on the North Sea around 400 b.c.
Western Europe Rises
After the Roman Empire fell, the Franks adopted a
Roman form of Christianity later known as Roman
Catholicism. From a.d. 768 to 814, Charlemagne
expanded Christianity and the manorial land distri-
bution system known as feudalism.
Western Europe grew in power in the late Mid-
dle Ages (a.d. 1000–1500) and came into contact with
other regions. Starting in a.d. 1000, European armies
fought Crusades against Muslims to control Palestine,
the birthplace of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
In the late 1400s, educated Europeans engaged
in a popular renaissance of interest in classical Greek
and Roman ideas. Such ancient ideas were spread
across Europe by merchants and visitors from Italy.
Winds of Change
In the struggle for territorial and religious power,
mostly Catholic France and Protestant England
fought the Thirty Years War (1618–1648). France
emerged as a major world power.
In the 1700s, the Enlightenment inspired
democracy and social change. The British Empire
was defeated by a revolution of its colonies in North
America. The French monarchy was overthrown by
the French Revolution. France restored monarchy
by 1815, but kings would never again wield absolute
power.
In the mid-1800s, the kingdom of Prussia uni-
fied Germany with a strong industrial base and
expanding military. The Central and Allied powers
diplomatically, industrially, and militarily aligned
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 –europe—Human GeoGrapHy–
themselves in a struggle for world dominance that
pushed Europe into World War I (1914–1918).
Due to new methods of chemical, artillery,
machine gun, and aviation warfare, casualties in “the
Great War” were enormous. Having lost, Germany
was assigned blame for starting the war and was
forced to pay reparations for damages. German
aggression led to World War II, which lasted from
1939 to 1945. Millions of lives were lost, and the bor-
ders of many countries were redrawn. Germany, Fin-
land, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Romania all gave
up land to an expanding Soviet Union.
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The United Nations was developed after World
War II to prevent future worldwide conflicts. The
World Bank and World Trade Organization
(WTO) were also developed in response to World
War II.
New Era
After World War II, Germany was divided into com-
munist East Germany and democratic West Germany.
The Berlin Wall prevented movement between the
two sides. The divide remained until the fall of the
Soviet Union in 1991.
In the 1950s, West Germany, the Netherlands,
Luxembourg, France, Italy, and Belgium grew closer
together politically and economically.
Arts
Western Europe has been at the forefront of litera-
ture, architecture, music, and visual arts. Realism
became a prominent artistic movement in the mid-
1800s as a response to the emotional style of Roman-
ticism. Later, the Impressionists moved outdoors to
capture immediate impressions of the natural world.
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GEOG_14_115-126.indd 118
Language and Religion
The three official Indo-European languages of Swit-
zerland—German, French, and Italian—reflect the
influences of three unique cultures.
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The Basque language of Euskera is one of the
few languages that is not related to any other.
Western Europe is predominantly Christian. A
vast majority are nominal Roman Catholics who
engage in traditional celebrations.
Education and Healthcare
Just like in Northern Europe, Western Europe has a
tradition of compulsory education and comprehen-
sive healthcare and social services. Germany’s social
welfare system is typical in providing citizens with
unemployment benefits and other services. About
98% of Western Europe is literate.
eastern europe
Eastern Europe has emerged from centuries of power
struggles with a rich culture and growing economic
strength.
Population Patterns
Eastern Europe’s population patterns have been
shaped by diverse physical geography, migration, and
political and ethnic struggles. After the fall of com-
munism, this region experienced a dramatic increase
in emigration.
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 –europe—Human GeoGrapHy–
People
Most Eastern Europeans are ethnic Slavs. Slavs
descended from Indo-Europeans who migrated from
Asia. Eastern Slavs are from Russia, Ukraine, and
Belarus. Western Slavs include Poles, Czechs, and Slo-
vaks. South Slavs are the Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, and
Macedonians.
The central part of Eastern Europe is sometimes
called the Balkans. It includes the former countries of
Yugoslavia: Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herze-
govina, Croatia, Slovenia, and Macedonia. Southern
Slavic people here are Eastern Orthodox Serbs,
Roman Catholic Croats, and Bosnian Muslims. Fur-
ther north are the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary,
and Slovakia.
The eastern part of Eastern Europe includes
Slavic Russians and Ukrainians. The Baltic Sea coun-
tries of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania also border on
Russia.
Density and Distribution
Ukraine and Poland’s fertile soil and ample water
support large populations. Ukraine has the subre-
gion’s highest population density of 202 people per
square mile.
Eastern Europe has experienced large-scale
internal migration and emigration. Throughout the
1900s, people migrated from rural areas to cities in
pursuit of industrial jobs. After World War II, many
Polish people emigrated or left Poland to escape
Soviet control.
Most of the population of Eastern Europe lives
in large towns or cities. Since the end of Soviet occu-
pation in the late 1980s, many Eastern European cit-
ies like Budapest, the capital of Hungary, have been
reborn as business and cultural centers.
History and Government
The history and governments of Eastern Europe have
been shaped by political, economic, and ethnic strug-
gles, most recently by the dissolution of the Soviet
Union in the mid-1990s.
GEOG_14_115-126.indd 119
Early Peoples and Empires
Slavs migrated from Asia to Ukraine and Poland
thousands of years ago and lived among migrating
Celts and Germans. Starting in the 400s, Germanic
and Slavic groups moved south and west. Slavic
Czechs settled Bohemia in the 500s and Central
Europe’s Great Moravia by the 700s.
Slavs in the mountainous Balkans settled the
independent states of Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia.
In the 1400s, the Ottoman Empire named the area
the Balkans, or “mountains.”
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The Muslim Ottoman Turks ruled the Balkans for
500 years.
The eastern portion of the Roman Empire that
remained for 1,000 years after the fall of Rome
became known as the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine
missionaries spread Eastern Orthodox Christianity
across Eastern Europe.
Conflict, Union, and Division
Balkan Slavs overthrew the Ottoman Empire in the
early 1900s. Yugoslavia, or “Land of the Southern
Slavs,” has not remained unified. The area balkan-
ized, or broke up into smaller subdivisions with dif-
ferent ethnic and religious groups becoming hostile
to one another.
In the 1990s, ethnic hatred sparked violence in
Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Kosovo. Serb leaders
killed or expelled rival ethnic groups in the areas in a
process called ethnic cleansing. International peace-
keepers have helped many refugees return home.
New Era
From the 1950s to the 1980s, there were revolts in
Eastern Europe against communist rule. In 1989,
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 –europe—Human GeoGrapHy–
public demonstrations brought down the communist
governments of Eastern Europe.
Throughout the 1990s, free elections brought
democratic leaders and market economics to power
in Eastern Europe. Many Eastern European countries
recently joined the European Union (EU).
Language and Religion
Most Eastern Europeans speak Indo-European lan-
guages. Common Slavic languages include Polish and
Czech. Baltic languages include Lithuanian and
Latvian.
Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and
Islam are all common religions in Eastern Europe.
Education and Healthcare
Because school is mandatory and free of charge in
Eastern Europe, literacy rates are high. Former Soviet
satellites faced funding challenges in their transitions
to democratic governments. Although the healthcare
system was challenged in the 1990s, most Eastern
Europeans have access to healthcare.
southern europe
The centuries-old cultures of Southern Europe,
including Italy, Spain, Andorra, Greece, and Portugal,
created modern industrial nations with distinct
lifestyles.
Population Patterns
After decreasing steadily over the past 20 years, the
populations of several Southern European cities,
including Madrid, Barcelona, Rome, and Milan, are
again on the rise.
People
The Mediterranean countries of Southern Europe
have long been home to seafaring peoples and thriv-
ing civilizations. The Minoan (island) and Mycenaean
(mainland) Greeks trace their language and culture
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GEOG_14_115-126.indd 120
back more than 3,500 years. The tribal Etruscans and
Romans established ancient civilizations in Italy.
The prehistoric Iberians, who named their pen-
insula, settled Spain. Speakers of the Romance lan-
guage of Catalan settled northeast Spain and the state
of Andorra. At the western edge of Iberia, Portugal’s
coastline made seafaring accessible.
Density and Distribution
Southern Europe’s long history of emigration
includes millions of people leaving for America in the
1800s and 1900s. Most recently, immigration and
internal migration to cities has surpassed external
migration.
With approximately 505 people per square mile,
Italy is the most densely populated country in South-
ern Europe.
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Located within Italy’s capital of Rome, Vatican
City is the world’s smallest independent state
and home to the Roman Catholic church.
History and Government
Shortly before its fall to Germanic tribes in the 400s,
Christianity became the official religion of the Roman
Empire. The eastern half of the empire survived as
the Byzantine Empire. The capital of Byzantium was
Constantinople, later called Istanbul.
Germanic tribes that sacked Rome and over-
threw the Empire maintained Roman Catholicism.
Italy remained fragmented for hundreds of years. The
Muslim Moors invaded southern Spain in a.d. 711
and held it for 700 years.
The wealth and stability of Italian city-states led
to the Renaissance, a rebirth of ancient Greek and
Roman intellectual and artistic ideas, in the 1300s.
People who had the freedom of leisure time pursued
new ways of thinking. The vibrant new ideas and
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 –europe—Human GeoGrapHy–
beautiful art of the wealthy Italian city-states attracted
visitors. In the 1400s, Europe started exploring and
colonizing the world. In the 1500s, Spain and Portu-
gal achieved wealth from trade routes and colonies.
Winds of Change
In the 1800s and 1900s, Southern Europe experienced
independence, nationalism, civil wars, dictatorships,
and world wars, and has struggled through political
and economic instability. Spain and Portugal lost
most of their territories. Greece won independence
from the Ottoman Turks. The Italian territories
united in 1870.
Southern Europe was a major battleground in
World Wars I and II. Greece was ruled by a military
dictatorship from 1967 to 1974.
Many of the countries in Southern Europe now
have democratically elected governments and mem-
bership in the EU.
Education and Healthcare
Due to strong government support for education, the
literacy rate in Southern Europe is over 95%. Health-
care in Southern Europe depends on the country.
Spain has a high number of doctors per person, while
Greece does not have adequate healthcare. Govern-
ment funds all healthcare programs and other social
services in Southern Europe.
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The first European universities were located in
medieval Italy.
Language and Religion
The Romance languages of Italian, Spanish, and
Portuguese are Indo-European languages derived
from Latin.
Most of the people in Italy, Spain, and Portugal
are Roman Catholic. Most people in Greece belong to
the Greek Orthodox Church.
GEOG_14_115-126.indd 121
Arts
Ancient Greeks and Romans developed columns,
arches, and domes, basic elements of Western archi-
tecture. Italian Renaissance artists Leonardo da Vinci
and Michelangelo, and Spanish modernist Pablo
Picasso are part of the great Southern European artis-
tic tradition.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. With roughly 660 people per square mile,
___________ is the most densely populated
country in Northern Europe.
2. Southern European countries have a
___________ tradition.
3. Northern and Western Europe have a(n)
___________ population with declining birth
rates and death rates.
4. Most Eastern Europeans are ethnic
___________.
5. The ___________ brought Christianity to Brit-
ain in AD 43.
6. Since the end of World War II, Western Euro-
pean countries have experienced a surge of
___________ immigrants.
7. In terms of religion, most North European
countries are ___________.
8. Natives of three Scandinavian nations,
___________, ___________, and
___________, speak different but related
languages.
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 –europe—Human GeoGrapHy–
9. The Muslim ___________ Turks ruled the Bal-
kans for 500 years.
10. Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Spain are part of
___________ Europe.
manufacturing
Large deposits of coal and iron ore sparked the devel-
opment of heavy machinery and industrial equip-
ment in Europe in the 1800s. Germany’s Ruhr and
Middle Rhine, France’s Lorraine-Saar, Italy’s Po basin,
and Poland and the Czech Republic’s Upper Silesia-
Moravia are Europe’s leading industrial centers.
agriculture
Europe has fertile farmland. The percentage of agri-
cultural workers in Europe varies by country from
2% in the United Kingdom to 48% in Albania.
Olives, citrus fruits, dates, and grapes grow in
warm Mediterranean areas. In cooler northern plains
regions, farmers grow wheat, rye, and other grains,
and raise livestock.
Farming Techniques
Most Western European farmers own their own land
of more than 30 acres. They use advanced technology
to succeed in limited space. Mixed farming of several
crops and livestock is common. Danish and other
farmers form farm cooperatives to reduce costs, sell
products, and increase profits.
After communism failed, farming changed in
Eastern Europe. The lack of incentive and the out-
dated equipment of communism were replaced by
democracy, private ownership of land, and increased
food production yields and higher profits.
Agricultural Issues
Many Europeans are concerned about the safety of
genetically modified foods and chemicals used to kill
122
GEOG_14_115-126.indd 122
bugs and weeds. Organic farmers use natural prod-
ucts to increase crop yields. Western Europe is sus-
ceptible to livestock disease.
Agricultural subsidies are given to farmers to
raise their income, help develop the agricultural
industry, and protect agricultural prices. Opponents
of agricultural subsidies say they cause crop overpro-
duction and deflate prices.
railways and Highways
Rail lines connect Europe’s cities, airports, natural
resources, and industrial centers. In 1981, France
introduced high-speed rail lines that saved energy
and were better for the environment. Germany, Italy,
and Spain then constructed high-speed rail lines.
In 2000, Sweden opened a rail and road bridge
connecting it to Western Europe. Paris, Brussels, and
London are connected by a 31.4 mile-long tunnel
underneath the English Channel. This channel tun-
nel, often called the chunnel, took 15,000 workers
about seven years to construct, and transports around
15 million passengers per year.
Europe has a highly developed highway system
connecting its major cities.
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Europe is second only to the United States in
number of automobile owners.
seaports and Waterways
Europe’s long coastline gave it a maritime tradition.
Today Europe handles half the world’s international
shipping. Rotterdam, Netherlands, is the world’s larg-
est and busiest port.
Europe’s numerous navigable rivers and canals
save transport costs. The Rhine River and its tributar-
1/5/12 1:27 PM
 –europe—Human GeoGrapHy–
ies carry more freight than any other European river.
Cities along the Danube River depend on it for trade.
The Main-Danube Canal links inland ports between
the North Sea and Black Sea.
people and environment
Suffering the effects of damages caused by industry
and development, Europeans are identifying environ-
mental challenges, devising new ways of managing
natural resources, and reversing the damages.
Flooding
The natural climate cycle and global warming have
recently caused extremely heavy rains, flooding, and
mudslides. In Western Europe, violent Atlantic Ocean
and North Sea storms strike coastlines. After 1,800
people were killed by a flood in the Netherlands in
1953, engineers spent 30 years constructing a system
of dams and dikes to seal off and protect its south-
west coast.
Soil Erosion
Overfarming, removing too much vegetation, and
overgrazing livestock have led to soil erosion in
Europe. Long-term destruction of forests has caused
soil erosion in the Mediterranean basin and the
highly populated sandy coastal areas. Reforestation is
a solution.
Deforestation
In Western Europe and the Mediterranean, trees were
removed to build cities and farms. Northern Europe
has healthy commercial forests.
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Over 80% of Europe was once forest. Two-thirds
of it has been removed.
GEOG_14_115-126.indd 123
Many European countries are replanting trees
or reforesting. Some countries are responsibly cutting
trees. Since the 1800s, Sweden has maintained a strict
system of cutting and replenishing trees because it
takes 70 years to replace a full-grown spruce or fir in
the southern part of Sweden and 140 years to replace
one in the northern part.
Human Impact
Population growth and industrialization have impacted
Europe’s environment.
Europe’s concentration of industry has devas-
tated the environment in the heavily industrialized
“Black Triangle” of eastern Germany, Poland, and the
Czech Republic, where the air smells of sulfur from
smokestacks and soot covers the ground.
Before 1989, communist Eastern European
countries emphasized rapid industrial growth. There
were virtually no pollution control laws. Western
Europe has experienced environmental damage
from the dumping of industrial wastes into the air
and water.
Acid Rain
In the 1970s and 1980s, industrial smokestacks car-
ried acid-producing chemicals into the air where they
combined with moisture. Polluted clouds drifted
from the European industrial belt and dropped acid
rain on forests.
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Many Western European countries have shifted
from coal to natural gas to reduce acid rain.
Many Eastern European countries still rely on
coal and produce acid rain.
Snow carries pollution to the ground. In spring,
meltwater carries acid into lakes and rivers, causing
fish and aquatic life to die. Many lakes in Scandanavia
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 –europe—Human GeoGrapHy–

have declining fish populations or no fish at all. Some
rivers in Slovakia and the Czech Republic cannot sup-
port aquatic life.
Automobile exhaust adds acid-forming com-
pounds to the atmosphere. Wet or dry acid pollution
that is deposited on the ground harms the European
environment, historic buildings, bridges, statues, and
stained glass windows.
The EU sets strict emissions regulations for
vehicles and industries. Smokestacks and vehicle
exhausts must often be equipped with sulfur and
nitrogen compound removal devices. Many people
believe fossil fuels should be replaced by alternative
energy sources like solar power.
Air and Water Pollution
Air pollution in the form of traffic exhaust and indus-
trial fumes causes asthma, respiratory infections, and
eye irritations for people living in European indus-
trial areas. Eastern European factories built in the
communist era belch sulfur, soot, and carbon dioxide
into the air. Former communist countries are closing
polluting factories, but they are putting more cars on
the road that create traffic and pollution.
Growing populations along the coastline have
been polluting the Mediterranean Sea by dumping
industrial waste, sewage, garbage, and other pollut-
ants in the water.
Europe’s rivers and lakes also suffer from pollu-
tion. The Danube River is affected by algae growth
that deprives the river of so much oxygen fish cannot
survive. Industries in Western Europe deposit raw
sewage into rivers like the Meuse and the Rhine.
Global Warming
The EU has supported the Kyoto Protocol, an amend-
ment to the international treaty on climate change
designed to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases
emitted by each country.
Future Challenges
The EU requires environmental protection and thus
takes legal action. Industrial countries are regulating
pollution. Cities in Western Europe now put acid-
resistant coatings on buildings and statues.
Danube River pollution is crossing national
borders and threatening wildlife in its outlet, the
Black Sea. Many European countries must cooperate
to direct and finance water quality improvement.
Many industrial power plants are burning
cleaner natural gas instead of coal. In 2005, Sweden
introduced the first biofuel-powered passenger train.
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Biofuel is made of decomposing organic materi-

didUse
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it faithfully, and als (biomass) that are much less dangerous to
the environment than fossil fuels.
Because the Mediterranean Sea opens to the
Atlantic Ocean only through the narrow Strait of
Eastern European countries are seeking finan-
Gibraltar, it will take the polluted Mediterranean
cial aid from Western European countries to clean up
Sea about a century to renew itself.
and meet EU environmental standards. Western
European and U.S. companies are providing technol-
ogy and investment to help modernize Eastern
Pollution harms marine and animal life and is
Europe’s industries.
dangerous to the health of humans. The Mediterra-
nean is also overfished.

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 –europe—Human GeoGrapHy–

Practice answers
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read. 1. The United Kingdom
2. Seafaring
11. ____ Spanish, French, and Italian are Indo- 3. Aging
European Romance languages. 4. Slavs
5. Romans
12. ____ The Danube carries more freight than 6. Muslim
any other European river. 7. Protestant
8. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark
13. ____ In warm Mediterranean regions, farmers 9. Ottoman
grow wheat, rye, and other grains and raise 10. Southern
livestock. 11. T
12. F
14. ____ Since its formation, the EU has imposed 13. F
standards on trade, banking, and business law 14. T
as well as environmental and human rights 15. T
issues. 16. T
17. F
15. ____ Urban growth can be controlled by high- 18. T
speed, high-frequency rail lines and automatic 19. F
driverless trains that complement the existing 20. T
bus system.

16. ____ The European Union encourages a single

European currency, a central bank, and eco-
nomic and foreign policy.

17. ____ The European Union does not require

environmental protection and cleanup by
members.

18. ____ Sweden’s strict system of cutting and

replenishing trees dates back to the 1800s.

19. ____ Many Western European countries have

shifted from natural gas to coal in order to
reduce acid rain.

20. ____ By forming cooperatives, farmers not

only facilitate sales but also reduce costs and
increase profits.

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GEOG_14_115-126.indd 126 1/5/12 1:27 PM
 15 AfricA—
l e s s o n

PhysicAl
GeoGrAPhy

Lesson summary
Africa south of the Sahara is a region of dramatic land-
forms and abundant natural resources. Examination of the
physical geography of the region shows processes that
continue to shape the diverse landscapes, climates, and
vegetation of Africa south of the Sahara. The Sahara Des-
ert is a natural boundary between North and sub-Saharan
Africa. North Africa is largely dry and barren with rocky
plateaus.

From the top of Shifting Sands dune in the Serengeti Plain of Africa a million mammals are in motion. Wildebeests.
Zebras. Gazelles. The plain is black with them. . . . Many of the giant bearded antelope [wildebeests] have newborns
trailing them. . . . From the distance the movement seems a serene and constant march toward the southeast where
recent rains have made pastures greener.
—Rick Gore, “The Rise of Mammals,”
National Geographic (April 2003)

land

Africa formed millions of years ago by various physical processes that continue to shape the region today. Afri-
ca’s shape has changed very little since the continent was formed roughly 225 million years ago. When land
masses began to break apart from Pangaea, Earth’s original, sole continent, Africa did not move.

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 –AfricA—PhysicAl GeoGr APhy–

landforms The Eastern Highlands include the Ethiopian

Highlands as well as volcanic summits like Kiliman-
Africa south of the Sahara is a region formed by shift- jaro and Mount Kenya.
ing tectonic plates. There are two major land types in
Africa south of the Sahara: highlands are in the south
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it faithfully, and
and east, and lowlands in the north and west. More
than half of Africa is desert or dry land.
Kilimanjaro is the tallest mountain in Africa at
Mountains and Plateaus 14,298 feet. It is the highest freestanding moun-
Sub-Saharan Africa has plateaus that rise in elevation tain in the world.
from the coast inland and from west to east. They
range from 500 feet in the west to 8,000 feet in the
The Ruwenzori Mountains west of the Eastern
east. These plateaus are outcroppings of solid rock
Highlands divide Uganda and the Democratic
that make up most of the continent.
Republic of Congo. The snow-covered Ruwenzoris
Sub-Saharan Africa has step-like plateaus in the
are called the “Mountains of the Moon.” Moist Indian
south and east, rising to mountains that are cut in the
Ocean air creates clouds that wrap around the
east by a rift valley. The edges of the plateaus are
Ruwenzoris.
marked by steep, jagged cliffs called escarpments.
Further south in South Africa and Lesotho is
Most escarpments are less than 20 miles from the
the Drakensberg range. The Drakensberg Mountains
coast.
rise to more than 11,000 feet and form part of the
escarpment along the southern edge of the continent.
tiP Use
this book.
Great Rift Valley
Two deep cuts in the land run from north to south in
Rivers crossing the African plateaus plunge
the eastern part of Africa south of the Sahara. These
down escarpments in cataracts or waterfalls.
cuts are called the Great Rift Valley and the Western
Rift Valley.
Africa south of the Sahara has few mountain These deep depressions show the effects of two
ranges. They are not very long and not very high. of Earth’s tectonic plates pulling apart. Volcanic
Small ranges like the Wemmershoek Mountains can mountains are located nearby.
be found in Southern Africa.
The Atlas Mountains span 1,200 miles of the
North African coast, from Morocco to Tunisia. The didUse
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it faithfully, and
tallest of its peaks are in Morocco.
South of the Atlas Mountains, the dry Sahara At its deepest point, the Great Rift Valley
Desert covers 90% of North Africa. reaches nearly 10,000 feet below sea level. It
continues to grow larger as Earth’s tectonic
Eastern Highlands and Mountains plates keep pulling apart.
Most African mountains dot the Eastern Highlands,
which extend from Ethiopia south almost to the Cape
of Good Hope.

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 –AfricA—PhysicAl GeoGr APhy–
The Great Rift Valley stretches from Syria in
Southwest Asia to Mozambique in southeastern
Africa. A rift valley is a large depression in Earth’s
surface formed by shifting tectonic plates.
In East Africa, the Great Rift Valley has two
branches, with volcanic mountains rising at the edges
as well as deep lakes running parallel to its length.
didUse
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Mount Kilimanjaro, on the eastern branch of the
Great Rift Valley, has three volcanic cones—
Kibo, Mawenzi, and Shira. They are all inactive.
water systems
Landforms and physical processes have influenced
the water systems of Africa south of the Sahara. These
water systems include deep lakes, spectacular water-
falls, and great rivers.
Lakes and rivers drain into huge basins formed
millions of years ago by the uplifting of the land. The
great rivers of Africa have their sources in the high
plateaus and empty into the sea.
Escarpments and ridges break river paths to the
ocean with plunging rapids and cataracts. The broken
landscape makes it impossible to navigate most of the
region’s rivers from mouth to source.
Land of Lakes
Most of Africa’s lakes are near the Great Rift Valley.
Many low areas of the eastern rifts have filled with
water, forming a chain of lakes. Located between the
eastern and western branches of the Great Rift Valley
is Lake Victoria, Africa’s largest lake.
GEOG_15_127-134.indd 129
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it faithfully, and
Lake Victoria is the world’s second-largest fresh-
water lake, second to Lake Superior in North
America.
Lake Victoria is the source of the White Nile
River, one of the main tributaries of the Nile River,
and is only 270 feet deep.
Outside the Great Rift Valley in West Central
Africa is the landlocked Lake Chad. Lake Chad is fed
by three streams but is shrinking due to droughts in
the 1970s, water evaporation, and seepage into the
ground. Global warming, poor land use and irriga-
tion, and desertification compound the lake’s troubles.
didUse
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Through desertification, the desert expands on
the dry bottom of Lake Chad.
Lake Tanganyika, one of the deepest and longest
freshwater lakes in the world, lies on the western
branch of the Great Rift Valley.
South of the Rift Valley is Lake Malawi, a
mountain-rimmed lake that resembles a fjord. Four-
teen rivers feed into Lake Malawi, and only one flows
out from it.
Human-Made Lake—Lake Volta
The damming of the Volta River south of Ajena in the
1960s flooded 700 villages and forced 70,000 people
to find a new home. It also created one of the world’s
largest human-made lakes in the world, Lake Volta in
Ghana, West Africa.
The dam was intended to provide hydroelectric
power to an aluminum plant. Today, the lake provides
Ghana with electricity, supplies irrigation for farming
in the plains below the dam, and is stocked with fish.
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 –AfricA—PhysicAl GeoGr APhy–

River Basins The Congo River is different than most African

The Nile is the world’s longest river, flowing roughly
4,000 miles from East Africa to the Mediterranean
Sea. The drainage basin of the Nile covers nearly 10%
of Africa. The Nile and its tributaries flow though
nine countries: Uganda, Sudan, Egypt, Ethiopia,
Zaire, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi. It has
been used to transport goods since the earliest days of
Egyptian civilization.
The Niger River has many names, all signifying
“great river.” The Niger River is West Africa’s main
artery. The 2,600-mile-long Niger River originates in
rivers. It reaches the sea through a deep estuary where
freshwater meets seawater. The Congo’s estuary is 7
miles wide, and ships can navigate the deep water.
Smaller boats can navigate the other 2,700 miles
through tropical wet rain forests that make a network
of the Congo River.
Some parts of the Congo River have rapids and
waterfalls that present serious obstacles to traffic.
didUse
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the highlands of Guinea. In its great arc, the Niger

flows northeast and then curves southeast to the Not far from the Atlantic Ocean, in numerous
Nigerian coast. The Niger River is used for agricul- cataracts, the Congo River plunges over 900
ture and transportation. feet.
In southern Nigeria, the Niger splits into a vast
inland delta—a triangular section of land formed by
sand and silt carried downriver. The Niger Delta
stretches 150 miles north to south and is 200 miles
natural resources
wide along the Gulf of Guinea.
Mineral resources are among the most abundant nat-
Djenné Mali sits along the banks of the Bani
ural resources in Africa south of the Sahara. They are
River, one of the tributaries of the Niger River that
not evenly distributed among countries. Metals like
winds through much of West Africa.
copper, iron ore, manganese, and zinc are mined in
South Central Africa’s 2,200-mile-long Zambezi
Africa. Africa is rich in precious gemstones, coal, and
River flows from its western source near the Zambia-
metals including gold, iron, and uranium. South
Angola border to the Indian Ocean in the east where
Africa, Botswana, and the Congo River basin have
it fans out into a 37-mile-wide delta.
major diamond deposits. Nigeria, Angola, Gabon,
The region’s major rivers move quickly through
Congo, and Cameroon have about 4% of the world’s
rapids and waterfalls or broaden into marshy inland
oil reserves.
deltas in lowland areas. The Zambezi’s course to the
sea is interrupted in many places by waterfalls
At Victoria Falls, on the border of Zambia and didUse
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Zimbabwe, the Zambezi River plummets 355 feet
straight down.
South Africa has about half the world’s gold and
abundant stocks of uranium.
didUse
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it faithfully, and

Water is abundant in parts of Africa. West Africa

Victoria Falls pumps out 500 million gallons of
near the equator receives abundant rainfall. Because
water per minute, about three times as much as
rainfall is irregular and unpredictable, controlling
Niagara Falls.
water for practical uses like irrigation and hydroelec-

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 –AfricA—PhysicAl GeoGr APhy–
tric power is difficult. With a lack of financial sup-
port, there is unused hydroelectric power in parts of
the region.
The fertile lands of North Africa produce crops
such as wheat, oats, vegetables, and citrus fruits, many
of which are imported to the United States.
Solar power is a renewable energy source that
has been harnessed in the region. A rural electrifica-
tion program in Kenya has resulted in the installation
of more than 20,000 small-scale solar power systems
from 1986 to 1996. Solar power use is expanding in
Africa south of the Sahara.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. At ___________ Falls, on the border of Zambia
and Zimbabwe, the Zambezi River plummets
355 feet straight down.
2. A ___________ is a triangular section of land
formed by sand and silt carried downriver.
3. Lake ___________ is the world’s second-largest
freshwater lake, second to Lake Superior in
North America.
4. A ___________ valley is a large depression in
Earth’s surface formed by shifting tectonic
plates.
5. While Africa south of the Sahara has few
mountains, the ___________ Mountains span
1,200 miles of North Africa’s coastline.
6. The world’s longest river, the ___________,
flows from East Africa to the Mediterranean
Sea.
7. Mount ___________, a volcanic summit, is
found in the Eastern Highlands.
GEOG_15_127-134.indd 131
8. About half the world’s ___________ comes
from South Africa.
9. Damming a river created one of the world’s
largest human-made lakes in the world, Lake
___________ in Ghana, West Africa
10. The ___________ River is West Africa’s main
artery.
climate and Vegetation
Location near the equator, elevation, rainfall, and
ocean air masses influence the climate and vegetation
of Africa south of the Sahara. In many places in
Africa, water and rain are the same resource.
didUse
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it faithfully, and
Approximately 1.5 million wildebeests and
zebras migrate across the Serengeti Plain every
year. Their course is dependent on the rains in
Tanzania.
Tropical Climates
Most of Africa lies in the Tropics, so it has tropical
climate and vegetation.
Ocean currents, prevailing wind patterns, eleva-
tion, and latitude do, however, cause great variations
in climate and vegetation.
Tropical Wet
In the tropical wet climate zone near the equator, it is
warm, with more than 60 inches of rainfall.
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 –AfricA—PhysicAl GeoGr APhy–

nate. The tropical savanna here and elsewhere is not

didUse
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it faithfully, and very fertile.
One of the world’s largest savanna plains, the
The dense tropical rain forests, with an astound- Serengeti, lies in the north central region of Tanzania.
ing number and variety of life forms, do not have It is home to millions of animals; zebras, gazelles,
a dry season. hyenas, lions, giraffes, and cheetahs roam the plain,
much of which is now part of Serengeti National
Park, which serves to protect the wildlife and natural
Shrubs, ferns, and mosses grow at the lowest
environment.
levels of the rain forest. A layer of trees and palms
reaches as high as 60 feet above the undergrowth. A
Dry Climates
canopy of leafy trees reaches over 150 feet tall.
Dry climates of Africa south of the Sahara are located
Orchids, ferns, and mosses grow among branches of
in the north and south. Away from the equator, tropi-
the canopy. Tangled, woody vines link trees.
cal climates become semi-arid steppe areas and then,
Rain forest soils are not very fertile because
the driest climate of all, deserts.
heavy rains leach, or dissolve and carry, nutrients
away from the soil. Bananas, pineapples, cocoa, tea,
Steppe
coffee, and cotton are grown as cash crops on large
In Africa, the semi-arid steppe is a transition zone
plantations.
separating the tropical dry savanna from the desert.
The southern transition zone extends to the conti-
didUse
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it faithfully, and nent’s southern tip.

The rain forest is threatened by commercial log- didUse

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it faithfully, and
ging and farmers clearing land for these cash
crops.
In the north, the Sahel, or “edge” in Arabic, is
the band of dry land, or steppe, extending from
Tropical Dry Senegal to Sudan.
Tropical grasslands with scattered trees, called
savanna, cover about half of Africa south of the
The Sahel has pastures of low-growing grasses,
Sahara. In the tropical dry climate, there are alternat-
shrubs, and acacia trees. Only 4 to 8 inches of rain
ing wet and dry seasons. The wettest areas, closest to
fall from June through August. The rest of the year is
the equator, have a six-month wet season followed by
very dry.
a six-month dry season and receive 35 to 45 inches of
rainfall a year.
Desertification
Hot, dry, dusty air streams from the Sahara
The Sahel has lost much land to the desert over the
called harmattans arrive on northeast trade winds
past 50 years. Some scientists believe this desertifica-
and soak up the moisture from the summer rains.
tion is due to climate change that brings long periods
Cool humid air blows in at the same time from the
of extreme dryness and water shortages. Others
southwest.
believe human land use and animal activities have
In some parts of the savanna biome, trees are
contributed to desertification.
the main feature. In other areas, tall grasses domi-

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 –AfricA—PhysicAl GeoGr APhy–
Land is depleted and topsoil eroded by humans
stripping trees and animals overgrazing short grasses.
Such activities reduce land productivity and the abil-
ity to recover from drought.
By 2000, all African countries joined the United
Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. The
Convention works to have laws enacted that will pro-
tect the environment and provide sustainable devel-
opment.
Desert
The Sahara Desert covers more than 3 million square
miles in North Africa. Its boundaries are the Red Sea
in the east, the Atlantic Ocean in the west, the Medi-
terranean Sea in the north, and the Sahel in the south.
Mostly undeveloped, the Sahara’s landscape is largely
shaped by wind over long periods of time, and fea-
tures ergs, or seas of sand, and hammada, or rocky
plateaus.
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it faithfully, and
The Sahara isn’t only the largest desert in the
world, it’s also the driest and hottest, too. Tem-
peratures rise above 120ºF in the warmest
months.
Isolated parts of southern Africa swelter in a
desert climate. In the east, hot, dry weather prevails in
most of Kenya and Somalia. The Namib Desert along
the Atlantic Coast of Namibia in southern Africa has
rocks, dunes, and sparse desert plants.
The Kalahari Desert occupies the interior of
eastern Namibia, most of Botswana, and part of
South Africa. The Kalahari is sand-swept and very
dry. Parts of it support some animals and a variety of
plants, including grasses and trees.
In the Kalahari Desert, average monthly tem-
peratures are high and there is little rainfall. Daily
GEOG_15_127-134.indd 133
temperatures in the Kalahari range from 50°F at night
to 120°F during the day.
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it faithfully, and
Winter in the Kalahari Desert brings even colder
or freezing temperatures at night.
Midlatitude Climates
Not as extensive as tropical and dry climates, midlati-
tude climates exist in Africa south of the Sahara. The
southern coastal areas of South Africa are character-
ized by marine and humid subtropical climates.
The East African highlands have comfortable
temperatures and enough rainfall for farming. The
lush green vegetation of protected forests and farm
crops abounds and snow even falls in the Highlands.
Vertical climate zones exist in the Highlands of
Africa, just as they do in Latin America. Temperature
decreases as elevation increases. Lower elevations
support woodlands and agriculture, while higher ele-
vations support shrubs and some grasses.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
11. ____ Heavy rains keep the soil of the rain for-
ests fertile.
12. ____ Bananas, pineapples, cocoa, tea, coffee,
and cotton are grown for subsistence, not
profit.
13. ____ The savanna is very fertile.
14. ____ Hot, dry, dusty air streams from the
Sahara are called trade winds.
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 –AfricA—PhysicAl GeoGr APhy–

15. ____ Most of Africa lies in the Tropics. Answers

16. ____ Tropical rain forests in Africa do not have 1. Victoria

a dry season. 2. Delta
3. Victoria
17. ____ Tanzania’s plains have been fed by rain; 4. Rift
there is a great migration on the Serengeti 5. Atlas
Plain. 6. Nile
7. Kilimanjaro or Kenya
18. ____ The Sahel has a tropical wet climate. 8. Gold
9. Volta
19. ____ The area around Cape Town has a sub- 10. Niger
arctic climate. 11. F
12. F
20. ____ Vertical climate zones exist in the High- 13. F
lands of Africa. 14. F
15. T
16. T
17. F
18. F
19. F
20. T

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 16 AfriCA—HumAn
l e s s o n

GeoGrApHy
(pArt i)

Lesson summary
Current events in Africa are best understood by knowing
about the region’s thousands of diverse ethnic groups
with different histories, languages, religions, and cultures.

Maps of the ancient sea kings demonstrate Africans along with many Middle Eastern peoples came to America way
before the Vikings. After all, if the Garden of Eden, the birthplace of humanity is anywhere, it is in Africa.
—John Henrik Clarke, Introduction to African Civilizations

Countries

Angola Congo, Democratic Republic of Ghana

Benin the Guinea
Botswana Congo, Republic of the Guinea-Bissau
Burkina Faso Cote D’Ivoire Kenya
Burundi Djibouti Lesotho
Cameroon Equatorial Guinea Liberia
Cape Verde Eritrea Madagascar
Central African Republic Ethiopia Malawi
Chad Gabon Mali
Comoros Gambia Mauritania

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 –AfriCA—HumAn GeoGrApHy (pArt i) –

Mauritius Senegal Swaziland

Mozambique Seychelles Tanzania
Namibia Sierra Leone Togo
Niger Somalia Uganda
Nigeria South Africa Zambia
Rwanda South Sudan Zimbabwe
São Tomé and Príncipe Sudan, Republic of

Less commonly referred to as African, these
Northern countries also share the African continent:
Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia, and
Western Sahara.
the sahel
The Sahel, a transitional zone between the Sahara and
the Sudan region, influences ways of life in the subre-
gion. It covers parts of Senegal, Mauritania, Mali,
Burkina Faso, Algeria, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Sudan,
Somalia, Ethiopia, and Eritrea.
In the Sudan, virtually all people live along the Nile
River. Areas of Mali and Mauritania are also
uninhabited.
Increased desertification and deforestation of
the Sahel have pushed people into the cities of Dakar
in Senegal, Niamey in Niger, and Bamako in Mali.
Senegal is the most urbanized country, with 43% of
people living in heavily European-influenced Dakar.
The physical environment and relative location
of the Sahel have brought together diverse cultures
that continue to influence the subregion. The Sahel’s
location near Europe and Southwest Asia has made it
susceptible to numerous invasions and migrations.

Population Patterns
The changing physical environment and many
diverse ethnic groups have shaped population pat-
terns in the Sahel. The farmers and herdsmen of vari-
ous ethnic groups who live off the land have endured
drought, deforestation, and overpopulation.
People
Hundreds of ethnic groups coexist, influenced by
Arab, European, and indigenous African cultures.
Major groups include the Mandé peoples of Senegal
and Mali, the Hausa of Niger, and the Wolof of Sene-
gal. Many people in the Sahel follow other traditional
African religious and cultural practices.
Density and Distribution
The Sahel has rapid population growth, but low pop-
ulation density spread unevenly across the subregion.
History and Government
First Civilizations
The fertile Nile River Valley gave birth to Egyptian
civilization. Between 2000 and 1000 b.c., the Egyp-
tians gained control of cultures along the Nile.
Empires and Colonization
Trading empires dominated West Africa. The gold-
for-salt trade started in the empire of Ghana was
taken up by the Mali and Songhai Empires. Extend-
ing west to the Atlantic Ocean, Mali’s wealthy city
center was Timbuktu.
The wealth of the African kingdoms reached
medieval Europe. Europeans brought back gold and
African goods as early as the 1200s. By the 1600s,
European trade with Africa for gold, goods, and slaves

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 –AfriCA—HumAn GeoGrApHy (pArt i) –
was extensive. In the 1800s, European powers treated
the Sahel as a source of raw materials and a market
for finished goods. The entire Sahel region was under
European control by 1914.
Sudan Today
There has been ongoing conflict in the Sudanese
region of Darfur since 2003. On one side are Arab
Muslims in the north who are characterized as intel-
lectuals, and on the other, non-Arab Muslims from
the south who are looked down on and called tribes-
men and slaves. These racist attitudes have fueled a
genocide that has taken hundreds of thousands of
lives, and also brought on starvation, disease, and
migrations. After years of civil war, South Sudan
gained independence as a nation in July 2011.
Arts
African art often expresses traditional religious
beliefs. African visual arts include the ceremonial
masks and wooden figures of the Dogon people of
Mali. Musical traditions of Africa include percussion,
the talking drum, and five-string guitar. Oral com-
munication has a strong tradition in the Sahel.
Written African literature developed mostly in
northeast Africa from contact with early Mediterra-
nean writing systems. Nafissatou Nian Diallo’s 1975
autobiography was one of the first literary works
published by a woman from Senegal.
Family Life
In rural areas, people often live in extended families
that are patriarchal, or male-dominated, with female
support. People are organized into clans, or large
groups of people descended from an early common
ancestor. In the cities, the nuclear family made up of
husband, wife, and children is replacing the extended
family.
Language and Religion
By some estimates, more than 2,000 languages are
spoken in Africa. In the Sahel, there are Afro-Asiatic,
GEOG_16_135-144.indd 137
Nilo-Saharan, and Congo-Kordofanian language
groups. Nilo-Saharan speakers, for example, live in
southern Sudan and Chad. Due to a legacy of colonial
rule, French is spoken throughout Africa.
Islam is the main religion of the Sahel. Christi-
anity is practiced by many people in Chad, Sudan,
Senegal, and Niger. Many people of the Sahel retain
their indigenous religious practices, including rituals
involving a supreme being and lesser-ranked deities.
Education and Healthcare
School enrollment and literacy rates are low in the
Sahel. In the poorest countries of Niger and Mali, less
than a third of children attend school.
Poverty in the Sahel results in high infectious
disease and mortality rates. The Sahel lacks adequate
healthcare during pregnancy and childbirth. The sub-
region has high infant and maternal mortality rates.
Very few rural Africans have access to clean water.
east Africa
East Africa’s peoples, history, and cultures have been
influenced by its location near the Indian Ocean,
which has been a gateway between the trading ports
of Africa, Asia, and the Arabian Peninsula.
The Swahili people living along the East African
coast, for example, are descendants of East African,
Arab, and Persian traders who made their living in
the ports of Zanzibar, Dar es Salaam, and Mogadishu.
Population Patterns
East Africans are as diverse as the subregion’s terrain.
The people of East Africa live along the coasts, in des-
ert and steppe areas, and in the highlands along the
Great Rift Valley.
People
In many East African countries, one ethnic group is
the majority. The Bantu make up most of Uganda
and Tanzania. The Hutu make up the majority in
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 –AfriCA—HumAn GeoGrApHy (pArt i) –
Rwanda and Burundi. There are ample Arab and
European influences in East Africa.
Density and Distribution
Due to the land and climate, population distribution
is uneven in East Africa. In Tanzania, for example,
population distribution ranges from 3 to 133 people
per square mile.
Most cities lie on coasts or rivers, but some
inland cities—like Nairobi in Kenya and Addis Ababa
in Ethiopia—grew because of trade.
didUse
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it faithfully, and
About 60% of people in Somalia are nomadic or
seminomadic.
Farmers are producing less in East Africa while
population growth soars rapidly. East African govern-
ments have pushed the export of cash crops to boost
national incomes. Meanwhile, not enough food has
been produced for domestic needs. Poor farming
practices have exhausted huge expanses of farmland,
and drought makes the situation worse.
History and Government
Throughout most of its history, East Africa’s location
has attracted people from many continents. East
Africa was home to the world’s first humans, count-
less indigenous peoples, and various European
colonizers.
Early Peoples and Kingdoms
Archaeologists have discovered human bones dating
back 3.2 million years in Ethiopia. Human bones over
2.6 million years old have been found in Kenya.
Arabs first settled East Africa in the a.d. 700s.
They brought the Arabic language and culture with
them. Persians settled the East African coastline from
138
GEOG_16_135-144.indd 138
about a.d. 700 until the Portuguese claimed control
in the late 1400s.
East Africa’s location along the Red Sea coast
near the Arabian Peninsula gave it trading relation-
ships with Arabian, Asian, and Mediterranean civi-
lizations.
European Colonization
The Portuguese who explored the East African coast
brought Roman Catholicism to Ethiopia. Arab domi-
nance in East Africa declined and hatred toward
Europeans and Christians lasted into the 1900s.
New steam-powered transportation and disease-
treating medicines allowed Europeans to explore the
mysterious “Dark Continent.” British doctor and
missionary David Livingstone was one of Africa’s first
explorers; he challenged Europeans to spread com-
merce, Christianity, and their culture across Africa.
European powers—mostly Britain, France, Ger-
many, and Portugal—competed ferociously to
expand their empires and protect trade routes. In
40-year periods, Europeans carved out of Africa more
than 40 countries.
Colonies to Countries
Most African groups who resisted foreign rule in the
colonial period failed. Independence movements
were more successful in the 1950s. Increasing pres-
sure gave many African countries self-rule in the
1960s, resulting in internal strife.
In Uganda, a brutal dictatorship under Idi Amin
in the 1970s caused social disintegration, human
rights violations, and economic decline.
In Rwanda and Burundi, colonial powers gave
Tutsi people positions of power over the Hutu. The
Hutu became resentful and beginning in 1959,
resorted to violence. The decades-long violence
reached its genocidal height in Rwanda in 1994 when
the Hutu killed thousands of Tutsi. Somalia and Ethi-
opia have had border disputes that lasted for years.
Warring factions, famine, and drought cause govern-
ments to collapse or weaken.
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 –AfriCA—HumAn GeoGrApHy (pArt i) –
International efforts to halt violent conflicts
often fail. Although local courts in Rwanda are trying
suspects accused of genocide, violence and instability
prevails in East Africa.
Language and Religion
East Africa has been influenced by the languages, reli-
gions, and ways of life of its colonizers. As in the Sahel,
most East African languages fit into one of the three
major language groups: the Congo-Kordofanian,
Nilo-Saharan, or Afro-Asiatic.
Arab settlers brought the language and religion
of Islam to the northern part of East Africa. Arabic is
the most common language in Sudan and Eritrea.
Indigenous languages and religions, with some Ara-
bic and European influences, dominate further south
in East Africa.
Christianity was adopted in Ethiopia in the a.d.
300s. It did not spread across all of East Africa until
the colonial period. Most people in East Africa are
Muslim or Christian, but traditional African religions
are common as well.
Education and Healthcare
Literacy rates are highest in urban areas and have
been going up in rural areas since independence. Lit-
eracy rates range from 35% in Ethiopia to 70% in
Uganda. Only a small percentage of East Africans
complete a secondary education.
Although healthcare is improving in East Africa,
many problems remain due to poor nutrition, fam-
ine, overpopulation, and the inability to cure com-
mon diseases.
Drugs that can control the diseases are available
in developed countries, but most African govern-
ments and individuals cannot afford to buy them.
HIV and AIDS are more widespread in Africa south
of the Sahara than anywhere else in the world. AIDS
has cut life expectancy throughout East Africa and
other parts of sub-Saharan Africa.
GEOG_16_135-144.indd 139
Varied Ways of Life
Ways of life in East Africa are as varied as the ethnic
groups who live there. Of the 120 ethnic groups in
Tanzania, the Sukuma farm land south of Lake Vic-
toria, while the Chaggas grow coffee in plains around
Kilimanjaro. In Tanzanian cities like Dar es Salaam
and the capital Dodoma, people work in factories
and offices.
In urban areas, families live in high-rises with
modern conveniences. Rural farmers often live in
thatched roof dwellings without modern or sanitary
conveniences.
The colorful Masai peoples of Kenya and Tanza-
nia are pastoralists who do not farm. They live in
hierarchically organized settlements in which elders
make important decisions.
west Africa
West Africa’s religions and social structures play a sig-
nificant role in people’s daily lives.
Population Patterns
The locations and densities of West African popula-
tions affect people’s way of life. With increasing pop-
ulation, decreasing food supplies, deforestation, and
climate change, West Africans from Benin to Togo to
Côte d’Ivoire to Guinea are moving to urban areas
seeking jobs and education.
People
There is a wide variety of ethnic groups in West
Africa. Some groups have lived there for centuries.
Some ethnic groups were split apart by colonial Euro-
pean boundaries and live in adjoining countries. The
Hausa, for example, who lived along the caravan
trade route to Southwest Asia and were traders and
farmers, live in northern Nigeria and southern Niger.
The Yoruba are one of the largest ethnic groups
in Africa. The Yoruba live in the grasslands, forests,
and cities of Togo, Benin, and southwest Nigeria.
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Early Empires
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and West African empires grew strong by virtue of trade
around the a.d. 700s. The modern countries of
Over 20 million people in West Africa speak the Ghana and Mali are named after these ancient
Yoruba language, which is part of the Congo- empires.
Kordofanian language group. Ghana grew wealthy trading gold for salt
brought by camels across the Sahara. Ghana pros-
pered for 500 years and its power was reflected in its
Density and Distribution
large capital of Kumbi.
West African countries face rapid population growth.
Nigeria’s population is expected to rise from 150 mil-
Colonial Era
lion in 2011 to 390 million by 2050. Increasing popu-
By the 1400s, the gold-seeking Portuguese had set up
lation growth in Niger is causing competition
trading posts along the African coast. Foreigners who
between herders and farmers for natural resources
saw the trading centers of Timbuktu, Kano, Gao, and
and land.
Wangara were impressed with the bustling markets
Most people in West Africa live along river
and thriving cultures.
plains and the coast because of the fertile soil and
African kings had enslaved and traded prisoners
mild climates that have drawn agriculture, industry,
of war for centuries. Arab traders brought enslaved
and commerce there.
Africans to the Muslim world starting in the a.d. 800s.
Although most Africans still live in rural areas,
The slave trade increased in the 1600s and 1700s.
as population growth and climate change deplete
natural resources, West Africans are moving from
Colonial Legacy: Nigeria
rural areas to urban settings for better job opportuni-
The British formed the colony of Nigeria in 1914,
ties, healthcare, and public services. Cities have spread
combining several small ethnic territories. In the
into the countryside. Towns and villages have become
north, the cultures were based on Islam. In the south,
service centers for rural dwellers, who travel there by
the cultures were based on African religions or Chris-
foot, bus, or boat.
tianity. After independence in 1960, ethnic and reli-
Over 60% of people in Gambia live in villages.
gious difficulties resulted in civil war in Nigeria. Such
Half of Senegal is rural. Despite Nigeria’s rapid urban
ethnic and religious divisions trouble Nigeria today.
growth, only 44% of its people live in cities.
Language and Religion
History and Government Hundreds of languages are spoken in West Africa.
Indigenous and outside forces with their own cul-
There are over 250 languages and cultures in Nigeria
tures shaped West African history. The resources that
alone. The language of instruction and official lan-
built empires attracted wealth-seeking European
guage of Nigeria is English, but most people do not
powers. Powerful West African empires were replaced
use it regularly. The Congo-Kordofanian language of
by colonial rule and later dissolved into independent
Yoruba is printed in books, newspapers, and pam-
countries. Colonial rule and ongoing economic prob-
phlets and taught in radio and broadcasting schools,
lems have left West Africa with many challenges.
secondary schools, and the universities of the south-
ern part of West Africa. English and French are widely
spoken and Arabic is common in the northern areas
of West Africa.

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Religion is an important part of everyday life in
West Africa. Islam, Christianity, and traditional Afri-
can religions are the most common religions in West
Africa. The different religions generally live peace-
fully, but conflict does sometimes occur between
competing religious groups.
Education and Healthcare
Free and universal education is inconsistent in West
Africa. Literacy rates rang from 18% in Niger to 75%
in Ghana, where the constitution mandates manda-
tory and free primary and secondary education. Stu-
dents in Ghana who complete high school attend
universities or polytechnic schools to learn trades.
Sierra Leone’s support for education has declined
over the past 30 years, whereas over 4 million stu-
dents attend school in Ghana today.
Arts
Most West African art expresses religious beliefs.
Music and dance are part of everyday life. Whole com-
munities participate while dancers wear masks honor-
ing deities or ancestral spirits, or celebrating births.
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Gospel, jazz, blues, ragtime, rock and roll, hip-
hop, and rap all owe great debts to the West
African musical style of “call and answer”
brought to the Americas by enslaved Africans.
The ways of life of Africans are connected to
their arts. The Ashanti of Ghana are expert weavers
known for the kente cloth worn by African rulers for
centuries. The cloth is now a symbol of Africa for
African Americans. Nigerian art includes wooden
masks used in religious ceremonies and sculptures
used as objects of worship.
GEOG_16_135-144.indd 141
Central Africa
Rain forests cover more than half of Central Africa.
People living in the dense forest must contend with
different growing conditions than those in more open
areas. It is a natural environment unlike any other in
Africa. While indigenous peoples built societies in
response to the natural environment, European pow-
ers exploited the region.
Population Patterns
Groups of people in Central Africa share a culture
based on physical environment. Central Africans live
in a temperate climate with thick tropical forests and
tropical grasslands. Central Africa is mostly rural
with few urban areas.
People
Dense natural vegetation near the equator makes
large-scale farming difficult, so most people are sub-
sistence farmers or cattle herders. In some places,
cacao and coffee are grown for export.
Like the rest of Africa, Central Africa has hun-
dreds of ethnic groups. At least 250 groups live in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo and Cameroon.
In Cameroon, peoples of the north such as the Fulani
are predominantly Muslim.
There are more than 40 ethnic groups in
Gabon who speak different languages. The Fang
group of Equatorial Guinea is divided into 67 clans
of Bantu origin.
The Mbuti of Central Africa live in the forest,
unchanged by outside influences. The Mbuti are
hunters and gatherers who live off animals and fruits.
The 145,000 inhabitants of the islands of São
Tomé and Príncipe descend from Portuguese settlers
and freed enslaved people who migrated there since
the late 1400s.
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 –AfriCA—HumAn GeoGrApHy (pArt i) –
Density and Distribution
Central Africa is one of the least densely populated
regions of Africa. Gabon has so few people it still
has a labor shortage despite a recent surge in
immigration.
The Republic of the Congo, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, and Cameroon are the more
densely populated parts of Central Africa. Although
the northern part of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo is minimally inhabited tropical forest, the rest
of the country, including its capital and the region’s
political, cultural, and economic hub, Kinshasa, holds
millions of people.
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The western highlands of Cameroon are believed
to be the starting place for the massive Bantu
migrations across Africa 2,000 years ago.
The west is the most densely populated part of
Cameroon, where people engage in intensive agricul-
ture and commerce.
History and Government
Central Africa was a location of constant early migra-
tions, and later, of European systems of slavery, colo-
nization, and plantation economy. When Europeans
arrived, Central Africa already had huge indigenous
trading empires.
Early Settlement
Although people lived in Central Africa for more
than 10,000 years, large numbers of African people
did not arrive until the a.d. 600s.
The Bantu established the Central African king-
doms of the Congo, Luba, and Luanda which are
today Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
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GEOG_16_135-144.indd 142
Slavery
European explorers came to the coasts of Central
Africa in the 1400s to trade. They carried away slaves
from the areas that became known as the Republic of
the Congo and Cameroon. Gabon became a slave-
trading center. As many as 10 to 20 million people
from the African interior were sold into slavery. King
of the Congo Nzinga Mbemba complained to the
king of Portugal that slave merchants were utterly
depopulating his country.
European Colonization
Large parts of Central Africa remained uncolonized
until the 1800s. France made treaties with local rulers
in the Republic of the Congo to protect them from
Belgium, France’s main rival. The French directed the
Congo economy toward resource extraction and
cash-crop farming for export. Towns rose along the
railway line to transport goods to the coast.
Huge plantations and cash crops disrupted vil-
lage life and local agriculture. Eventually, African cul-
ture was destroyed by European rulers, businessmen,
missionaries, and culture.
By the early 1900s, there were frequent revolts
against French rule and plantation economy. Resis-
tance to colonial rule increased after the mid-century.
After Central Africans fought for France in World
Wars I and II, France instituted reforms in Central
Africa. By 1960, all French colonies were independent.
Post-Independence Instability
Following independence, most Central African coun-
tries experienced ethnic strife, human rights abuses,
and harsh rule. In the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, serious instability led to the reign of the dic-
tator Mobutu Sese Seko from the 1960s to the 1990s.
This period saw one-party rule, human rights abuses,
and war.
Due to Central Africa’s abundant natural
resources, some countries in the region have achieved
economic stability. Increasing oil revenues have
helped countries like the Republic of the Congo ease
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 –AfriCA—HumAn GeoGrApHy (pArt i) –
debt burdens, but many countries still face unrest and
instability.
Language and the Arts
Central Africa has hundreds of languages. Over 700
languages are spoken in the Democratic Republic of
the Congo. A simplified form of speech called pidgin
is used by people who speak different languages.
The Mangbetu are world renowned for beautiful
pottery, sculpture, and building. Sculptures depicting
elongated heads are treasured by the Mangbetu.
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French colonial rule made French a regional lan-
guage throughout Central Africa.
Religion and Family Life
Religion and family life intertwine in Africa. In the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, some ethnic
groups mix indigenous and Christian beliefs. Labor is
frequently divided by gender. Many generations and
even people from different families live in the same
dwelling.
Traditional religions in Central Africa are
numerous and diverse, but have common elements.
They have a supreme being and a ranked order of
deities, and practitioners believe in nature spirits and
honor distant ancestors and family members who
have died.
European colonialism widely impacted religious
practices in Central Africa. French colonists and mis-
sionaries brought Roman Catholicism to Central
Africa. In many areas, a majority of people practice a
form of Christianity.
Education and Healthcare
Religion dominated education during colonial rule,
but violent conflicts and economic problems have
hurt Central Africa’s educational systems. There have
GEOG_16_135-144.indd 143
been increased efforts in education since indepen-
dence, but many rural areas still do not have schools.
Literacy ranges from 50% in the Central African
Republic to about 85% in Equatorial Guinea. Women
have a much lower literacy rate.
Equatorial Guinea achieved high literacy and a
fairly good healthcare system under Spanish colo-
nial rule.
Most Central African countries do not have the
resources to prevent diseases Western countries have
stopped. Central Africa’s primary health concerns
are a lack of safe drinking water, a shortage of vac-
cines for curable diseases, and the rising number of
AIDS victims.
Practice
1. In the sixteenth century, the ___________ col-
onized Angola and Mozambique.
2. People living in the dense ___________
___________ that cover more than half of Cen-
tral Africa must contend with different growing
conditions than those in more open areas.
3. In the Sudan, virtually all people live along the
___________ River.
4. The ___________ peoples of Kenya and Tanza-
nia are pastoralists who do not farm.
5. ___________ settlers brought the language and
religion of Islam to the northern part of East
Africa.
6. In Rwanda and Burundi, colonial powers gave
___________ people positions of power over
the Hutu.
7. The poorest countries of the Sahel are
___________ and ___________.
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 –AfriCA—HumAn GeoGrApHy (pArt i) –

8. The ___________ people living along the East Answers

African coast are descendants of East African,
Arab, and Persian traders. 1. Portuguese
2. Rain forests
9. Colonial rule made ___________ a regional 3. Nile
language throughout Central Africa. 4. Masai
5. Arab
10. After ___________, many European colonies in 6. Tutsi
Africa won self-rule. 7. Niger and Mali
8. Swahili
9. French
10. 1950

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 17 AfricA—HumAn
l e s s o n

GeoGrAPHy
(PArt ii)

Lesson summary
This lesson continues the rich history of Africa south of the
Sahara, touches on its relationship with the United States,
and discusses environmental and other problems it cur-
rently faces.

I dream of the realization of the unity of Africa, whereby its leaders combine in their efforts to solve the problems of
this continent. I dream of our vast deserts, of our forests, of all our great wildernesses.
—Nelson Mandela

Population Patterns

Southern Africa is experiencing significant population changes as it overcomes its colonial history and con-
fronts present challenges.

People
Throughout southern Africa, political borders have not stopped ethnic, linguistic, religious, and cultural over-
lap. Ethnic groups often share communal and family traditions.

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 –AfricA—HumAn GeoGr APHy (PArt ii) –
The Sena live in the marshes near the Zambezi
River dividing Zambia and Zimbabwe. They travel by
canoe up the Zambezi River to sell fish. They buy
items in markets in Malawi. They float downriver to
Mozambique to trade fish for sugar.
The Bantu ethnic group survives all over south-
ern Africa. The Swazis migrated to what is now Swa-
ziland in the 1500s and had to contend with the Zulu
population that has remained strong in what is now
South Africa.
The nearly culturally extinct San Bushmen live
remotely on the edges of the Kalahari Desert of
Botswana, Namibia, Angola, South Africa, Zimbabwe,
and Zambia. The San are a link to the hunter-gatherer
way of life that prevailed until 10,000 years ago.
Density and Distribution
Population densities vary in southern Africa. Namibia
has 6 people per square mile and Lesotho, surrounded
by South Africa, has 106 people per square mile.
Although some people practice subsistence
farming and herding in southern Africa, many are
moving to urban areas for jobs in gold and diamond
mines. Johannesburg, South Africa, grew because of
gold mining.
There are skyscrapers and trendy shopping cen-
ters in the cities of southern Africa. Most city resi-
dents, though, face inadequate public services,
overcrowded neighborhoods, and pollution. Over
35% of Zambia is urban. In the 1960s, white minority
land reforms in Zimbabwe forced black Africans off
farms to live in crowded areas around cities.
Population explosion in parts of Africa is coun-
terbalanced by deaths from AIDS. Over 70% of the 36
million people carrying HIV live in Africa south of
the Sahara. Over 2 million people in the region died
of AIDS-related diseases in 2005.
146
GEOG_17_145-152.indd 146
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The United Nations estimated in 2010, 10.7 mil-
lion children under 15 years old lost at least one
parent to AIDS.
History and Government
Situations created by colonial rule challenge southern
Africa today and will continue to do so in the future.
Early Cultures
Cultural artifacts over 1 million years old have been
found in southern Africa. Stone ruins of the “Great
Zimbabwe” date back to a.d. 800–1200. These
indigenous people traded along the southeastern
coast of Africa.
The Zulu culture is one of Africa’s oldest. The
Zulu, like many Africans, descend from the Bantu
who migrated across southern Africa.
European Colonization
People in Madagascar were trading with outsiders
starting in the a.d. 600s. Arabs and Europeans settled
in southern Africa for economic reasons. They set up
trading posts and highly restrictive colonies. Starting
in the late 1700s, ships carried rice from Madagascar
to the new state of South Carolina.
In the 1500s, the Portuguese set up a strong
slave trade in Angola. Workers and slaves were sent to
other Portuguese colonies and the Americas. In
Mozambique, the Portuguese built railroads to trans-
port labor to their mines and plantations. The Portu-
guese organized trading colonies in Comoros and
Mauritius.
Africans did not benefit and were often exploited
by outsiders across Africa. Such practices created
conflict and independence movements across the
continent.
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 –AfricA—HumAn GeoGr APHy (PArt ii) –
Challenges Post-Independence
Transition to independence was not easy in most
southern African colonies. Unrest grew in the early
to mid-1900s. In Angola, there was a quick coup
d’état, or overthrow of the Portuguese government,
in 1975.
Post-colonial rule has been difficult for most
African countries. Although countries in southern
Africa enjoy more freedoms under independence,
they face serious economic and healthcare problems.
Vast resources were not enough to rebuild Zam-
bia after independence. Few people were trained to
run the government, the economy depended on for-
eign oversight, and civil wars in neighboring coun-
tries pushed refugees into an already overburdened
country.
Although South Africa declared independence
from British rule in the early 1900s, the white minor-
ity ran the government throughout the century by
racially separating black Africans and racially mixed
peoples in a system called apartheid.
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Under apartheid, the minority white Afrikaners
of European descent, who wished race-based
slavery to continue, enacted strict codes sepa-
rating blacks while denying them the right to
vote.
In the early 1990s, internal unrest and interna-
tional pressure forced South Africa to end apartheid.
The country’s leading antiapartheid activist, Nelson
Mandela, was freed after 27 years in prison. In 1994,
South Africa held its first election based on universal
suffrage, or voting rights for all adult citizens. Man-
dela was elected South Africa’s first black president.
South Africa has moved from repression toward
democracy, but millions of black South Africans con-
GEOG_17_145-152.indd 147
tinue to live in poverty and the legacy of inequality
remains. South Africa is striving to meet the chal-
lenge of a better life for all its citizens.
Botswana has been stable and economically suc-
cessful since independence in 1966, however, and
Mauritius has established an open economy and
political system with coalitions and alliance building.
culture
Non-African languages of southern Africa include
the Indo-European languages of English, French,
and Afrikaans brought by traders, administrators,
and missionaries. Afrikaans was brought by early
Dutch settlers and includes German, French, and
English words.
Christianity is the most common religion of
southern Africa. Traditional religions are also practiced.
Education has expanded in southern Africa
since independence. Mozambique is constructing
new schools and training teachers to match popula-
tion increases. Rural areas often lack qualified teach-
ers and resources.
Southern Africa has a wide variety of indige-
nous art, crafts, music, and dancing. In 2003, South
African novelist J.M. Coetzee won the Nobel Prize in
Literature. In 2005, the South African film Totsi won
the American Academy Award for Best Foreign Lan-
guage Film.
People play games and spend leisure time with
family in southern Africa. They embrace local cul-
ture, including music and dance. Urban dwellers have
access to Western movies and music. They often have
Western style clothing, use cell phones, and watch
television.
economy
Africa south of the Sahara is making the slow transi-
tion from a subsistence-based farm economy to a
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 –AfricA—HumAn GeoGr APHy (PArt ii) –
participant in the global economy. There are eco-
nomic imbalances among the African countries south
of the Sahara due to an uneven distribution of natu-
ral resources.
Agriculture
More than two-thirds of Africans work in agriculture.
Some countries produce a single crop and others a
variety. Most Africans south of the Sahara engage in
subsistence farming to provide for their family or vil-
lage. Extra harvest or animals are sold at a local
market.
Farming Methods and Export Crops
Farmers use a variety of methods to work the land.
The Masai of Kenya and Tanzania and the Fulani of
Nigeria and other parts of West Africa are pastoral-
ists, meaning they raise livestock. In the forest, farm-
ers use the slash and burn, or shifting cultivation,
farming technique. They burn trees and brush they
cut down and then plant seeds in the ash-rich soil.
When the soil is no longer fertile, they move and
return when the soil has renewed itself.
Sedentary farming occurs at permanent settle-
ments with good soil. The Kikuyu in Kenya and
Hausa in Nigeria farm permanent plots. Europeans in
South Africa, Kenya, and Zimbabwe also practice sed-
entary farming
A small percentage of Africans work at large-
scale commercial farming. Cash crops are grown and
sold for profit.
Commercial farms supply the world with palm
oil, peanuts, cacao, and sisal, a vegetable fiber used
in rope.
The colonial economic system deeply influ-
enced the growth of commercial farming in Africa.
The same crops are the region’s main agricultural
crops today. Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Ghana, and Cam-
eroon depend on the sale of cacao, used to make
cocoa and chocolate. Kenya, Tanzania, and Madagas-
car produce tea and coffee. Most crops leave Africa to
be processed elsewhere, as in colonial times.
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GEOG_17_145-152.indd 148
Land Conflict: Zimbabwe
Cash crop plantations and large-scale farms take the
best land. This makes it hard for farmers to meet their
own needs.
Zimbabwe’s agriculture-based economy has
collapsed. Less than 1% of its farmers are white, but
they own 70% of the land. In 2000, Zimbabwe’s Presi-
dent Mugabe began redistributing land more evenly.
Small-scale farmers tried to take over large farms
seized by the government without compensation to
the owners. The result has been violence, even though
many white farmers support some reform.
Meeting Challenges
Overgrazing, overworked soil, and lack of technology
make farming difficult. Frequent tilling, clearing for-
ests, and use of heavy machinery have caused erosion
and desertification. Men work mostly in cash crop
production while women use basic tools for subsis-
tence farming. Food production has fallen short of
the region’s needs.
Some people have begun conservation farm-
ing, or growing crops where they grow best, to save
land. Better seeds, irrigation, and fertilizers have also
increased crop yields and production.
Logging and Fishing
Logging in Africa only provides about 10% of the
world’s lumber supply. Coastal rain forest countries
like Gabon and Côte d’Ivoire export large amounts of
hardwoods such as Rhodesian teak, ebony, African
walnut, and rosewood.
Few African countries build and support com-
mercial fishing fleets. Africa has a very narrow conti-
nental shelf near the coast, so fishes are scarce there.
The southwestern coast does yield sardine, tuna, and
herring for export.
Mining Resources
Miners do a dangerous and important job to support
their families. The 300-mile-long Witwatersrand gold
deposit makes South Africa the world’s largest gold
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 –AfricA—HumAn GeoGr APHy (PArt ii) –
producer. South Africa leads the world in the produc-
tion of gems and industrial diamonds. Its mineral
wealth makes it one of the region’s richest countries.
Diamonds have been in high demand for
thousands of years. Most commercial diamonds
come from Africa. The largest deposits of diamonds
are in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Demo-
cratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, Tanzania, and
Sierra Leone.
Most mineral deposits lie along the Atlantic
coast south of the equator. Abundant oil reserves
make Nigeria the region’s only member of the Orga-
nization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
Oil fields recently discovered off the coast of Equa-
torial Guinea have jump-started that country’s
economy.
Despite Africa’s mineral wealth, most people
never benefit due to government mismanagement
of mineral income and foreign corporations’ send-
ing their profits abroad. Chad became an oil-
producing state in 2003 and, unlike Nigeria, is trying
to use oil profits to protect the environment and
combat poverty.
Industrialization
Most countries never had the infrastructure to
develop manufacturing industries, so they often need
foreign loans to develop industries. But there are bar-
riers to industrialization in Africa. There is a lack of
skilled workers, so education and skills training are
essential. There are power shortages, and hydroelec-
tric resources are underutilized.
Since the 1960s, African governments have
encouraged industrial expansion. The region’s work-
ers produce textiles, processed food, paper goods,
leather products, and cement.
GEOG_17_145-152.indd 149
transportation
and communications
Developments in transportation and communica-
tions should have positive effects on the region’s
economy, but the physical environment makes creat-
ing and maintaining such systems challenging. Roads
and railways must cover vast distances and difficult
terrain. Water transportation is limited because some
rivers cannot be navigated from source to mouth and
the region has few natural harbors.
Roads and Railroads
Nigeria plans to link all its railroads. Uganda is repair-
ing the Trans-Africa Highway, which runs from the
urban-industrial centers of Mombasa, Kenya, to
Lagos, Nigeria. Mauritania, Senegal, and Morocco in
North Africa are finishing a 1,875-mile highway
between Tangier, Morocco, and Dakar, Senegal, that
will ultimately reach Lagos. The Trans-Sahara High-
way that opened in 2003 links markets in different
parts of Africa with Europe. Another highway con-
nects Dakar, Senegal, with N’Djamena, Chad.
People and environment
Human activities like war and deforestation have had
a tremendous impact on the environment and have
contributed to famine and starvation of millions of
people.
Managing Resources
Environmental challenges threaten Africa’s food,
healthcare, and plant and animal life. In Africa, pov-
erty and hunger threaten millions of people every day.
In Africa south of the Sahara, factors like pov-
erty, population growth, war, and drought have
severely strained the environment. Over 31 million
people in Africa south of the Sahara are in serious
need of food.
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In the 1990s, thousands of people died of star-
vation on the Horn of Africa, the strip of land that
juts into the Indian Ocean and includes the countries
of Somalia, Ethiopia, and Djibouti. The famine was
caused by drought and war.
Desertification
Africa south of the Sahara has many areas with dry
climates and poor soils. Thousands of years ago, pas-
toral peoples and livestock stripped fertile Sahel of its
vegetation. The desert is now spreading south into
Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and Sudan. The car-
rying capacity, or number of people a region can
sustain, has been greatly exceeded.
Droughts have become severe in the Sahel and
other parts of Africa south of the Sahara. Severe
droughts in the 1970s turned farmland to wasteland.
Since 1998 in East Africa, drought has killed crops
and livestock and threatened the lives of millions of
people. The 2004 drought in Niger put subsistence
farmers through a major food crisis. The next year, 3
million people needed food aid.
In 2000, the United Nations Food and Agricul-
ture Organization (FAO) warned that famine could
become a problem in Central Africa because of
unpredictable weather patterns and refugees. Good
harvests in West Africa have increased food supplies
in most countries, but civil war endangers food dis-
tribution in Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Guinea.
Conflict and Hunger
Since 1990, conflicts in Liberia, Sudan, Somalia, and
Rwanda have stopped economic growth and caused
widespread starvation. Massive refugee populations
leave war-torn areas, cross borders, and put a strain
on already meager food sources.
Somalia has been without a government since
1991 and 2 million people there are threatened by
civil war.
Looting and fighting cripples food distribution.
In former Sudan, decades of civil war between
the Muslim Arab government in the north and non-
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GEOG_17_145-152.indd 150
Muslim rebels in the south has, along with periodic
drought, created the world’s largest refugee popula-
tion. The 2005 peace did nothing about the separate
conflict and world’s worst humanitarian crisis in
western Sudan’s Darfur region.
To solve the hunger crisis, peace is necessary.
Ethiopia and Eritrea halted their two-year war in
2000. Although one of the worst droughts in the
area’s history continues, Ethiopia and Eritrea main-
tain a shaky peace and that gives farmers hope.
Farming in Peace
Since Eritrea became independent of Ethiopia in
1993, farmers have steadfastly worked to improve the
land. Farmers in the Ethiopian province of Tigray
terraced 250,000 acres of land and planted 42 million
trees to hold soil in place. They built earthen dams to
store rainwater. Grain crops thrived. In Eritrea, crops
were so abundant that its relief requests to other
countries were cut in half.
International Red Cross’s feeding centers and
Doctors Without Borders’s medical teams are nurs-
ing malnourished children and adults back to
health in Africa. Humanitarian aid continues
throughout Africa.
Human Impact
Human activities have destroyed rain forests, threat-
ened wildlife, and raised questions about land use in
Africa south of the Sahara.
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In 2000, Africa’s tropical forests were disappear-
ing at a rate of 12 million acres each year.
Hunting and tourism also raise serious land use
concerns.
1/5/12 1:28 PM
 –AfricA—HumAn GeoGr APHy (PArt ii) –
Tropical Forests
In 1990, Africa south of the Sahara had 1.5 billion
acres of tropical forest. In 2000, 126 million acres had
disappeared due to land clearing by farmers and log-
gers. Côte d’Ivoire and Madagascar lost 90% of their
forests. Half the continent’s original forests have
disappeared.
African countries have started forest services to
protect tropical forests. Logging companies are now
using scientific tree farming and replanting programs
to protect and renew forests.
Endangered Animals
Deforestation destroys animal habitats. Hundreds of
species in Madagascar exist nowhere else in the world
and are threatened by extinction. Population growth
has pushed farmers into forests to find land. Savan-
nas, home to giant herds of lions, elephants, and
giraffes, are being plowed for farmland. Many species
are quickly dwindling in numbers.
Hunting greatly decreased Africa’s wildlife dur-
ing the colonial era. Hunters still pursue African
game for sport and profit. The elephant population
has decreased from 2 million in the 1970s to 600,000
today due to poaching. The Cape Mountain zebra,
mountain gorilla, and rhinoceros are also at risk.
Ivory Trade
There were between 5 and 10 million elephants in
Africa in the 1930s. Hundreds of thousands of them
have been slaughtered for ivory, meat, and sport. The
price of ivory soared in the 1970s; gun-wielding
poachers started illegally killing elephants for their
tusks and more than 80,000 elephants were shot and
killed each year.
African elephants were put on the world’s
endangered species list in 1989. In 1997, Botswana,
Namibia, and Zimbabwe sold their stored government
stockpiles of ivory to Japan against public outcry.
GEOG_17_145-152.indd 151
Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park
At 135,000 square miles, the Great Limpopo Trans-
frontier Park (GLTP) on the borders of Mozambique,
Zimbabwe, and South Africa, is the largest of five
national peace parks committed to conserving eco-
systems and biodiverse species.
Countries formerly at war are now working
together to create and maintain peace parks.
Countries have removed fences and barriers to
allow wildlife to follow ancient migration routes.
After 50 million years, rhinos are on the verge of
extinction. The poaching of rhinos is very profitable.
Rhino horns are used in traditional Asian medicine.
Protecting wildlife and the environment can
lead to socioeconomic development and regional
peace. Local people are being taught how to benefit
from wildlife conservation.
If tourism, game farming of rhinos and other
animals, and controlled hunting produce jobs and
income, economic stability and peace should result.
challenges for the future
Democratic reforms are taking place in Ghana, Nige-
ria, and Liberia. Expansion of private enterprise has
had positive results. Very profitable crocodile farming
has brought the species back from very low numbers
caused by hunting and trapping. Habitat protection
and stricter laws against poaching are helping rhinoc-
eros and elephant populations to recover.
Some countries have created huge game reserves
to save endangered species. Tanzania’s Serengeti
National Park, Kenya’s Masai Mara, and Ghana’s
Kakum National Park have helped animals make a
comeback.
Ecotourism, or tourism based on concern for
the environment, has become big business in Africa.
It has brought millions of dollars into African econo-
mies. Rural people work in the reserves as trail guides
or become involved in development planning.
151
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 –AfricA—HumAn GeoGr APHy (PArt ii) –

Protecting tropical forests is becoming more Answers

important. In 1999, the leaders of six countries signed
an agreement to preserve forests, a sign Africa is mov- 1. F
ing in a positive direction. 2. F
3. F
Practice 4. T
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true 5. T
or false, based on what you’ve read. 6. T
7. T
1. ____ Africa south of the Sahara has not yet 8. T
exceeded its carrying capacity. 9. F
10. T
2. ____ Deforestation is a minor problem in
Africa south of the Sahara.

3. ____ The physical environment has little effect

on the creation of transport systems.

4. ____ Countries in Africa south of the Sahara

are trying to develop their economies through
trading relationships.

5. ____ Over 31 million people in Africa south of

the Sahara are in serious need of food.

6. ____ The Sahara Desert is now spreading south

into Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and Sudan.

7. ____ Sudan had over two decades of civil war

between the Muslim Arab government in the
north and non-Muslim rebels in the south
before splitting into two independent nations.

8. ____ Somalia has been without a government

since 1991.

9. ____ Killing elephants for ivory tusks is now

legal.

10. ____ Rhinos are on the verge of extinction.

152

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 18 east asia—
l e s s o n

Physical
GeoGraPhy

Lesson summary
Covering nearly 30 percent of the Asian continent, East
Asia includes the countries Japan, North Korea, South
Korea, China, Taiwan, and Mongolia. Prone to earth-
quakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis, the region has
been shaped by tectonic activity and climatic influences.

Aspire to be like Mt. Fuji, with such a broad and solid foundation that the strongest earthquake cannot move you,
and so tall that the greatest enterprises of common men seem insignificant from your lofty perspective. With your
mind as high as Mt. Fuji you can see all things clearly. And you can see all the forces that shape events; not just the
things happening near to you.
—Miayamoto Musashi, Japanese Martial Arts Master (1584–1645)

land

Much of East Asia stretching from Central and South Asia to the Pacific Ocean is rugged terrain. East Asia’s
mountains do not reach great heights. Large plains cover northern and western East Asia. Some plains are cov-
ered by deserts, while others carry rich soil for extensive farming. The North China Plain gave birth to Chinese
civilization and remains one of the world’s most densely populated areas.
Multiple tectonic plates meet in East Asia. The region is therefore susceptible to earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and ocean flooding. The region is home to the world’s highest mountains, the Himalayas, and the
symbol of Japan, Mt. Fuji.

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 –east asia—P hysical GeoG raPhy–
landforms
Tectonic plate movements along the Ring of Fire leave
parts of East Asia vulnerable to earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and ocean flooding.
The People’s Republic of China takes up 80% of
East Asia and Mongolia takes up 13%. Japan, Taiwan,
North Korea, and South Korea make up the rest of
the region.
Ring of Fire
Several of the Earth’s tectonic plates, including the
Pacific, Indo-Australian, North American, South
American, and Eurasian tectonic plates, meet along
an arc of islands east of China. These mountainous
islands are part of the Ring of Fire, the site of frequent
volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Japan has about
50 active volcanoes and hot springs formed by volca-
nic activity, and experiences 1,000 small earthquakes
a year.
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Mount Fuji was formed by layer upon layer of
lava and ash. It has not erupted in 300 years, but
could erupt again.
An undersea earthquake generates a tsunami, a
huge wave that gets higher as it reaches the coast.
Major earthquakes and tsunamis are difficult to pre-
dict, so special building methods and emergency
preparedness help reduce casualties along the Ring
of Fire.
Peninsulas, Islands, and Seas
Many peninsulas and islands dot East Asia. The
Korean Peninsula juts southeast from China’s North-
east Plain to separate the Sea of Japan, or East Sea,
from the Yellow Sea. North Korea and South Korea
are mostly mountains surrounded by coastal plains.
154
GEOG_18_153-160.indd 154
Tectonic activity created most of the region’s
islands and seas. The Sea of Japan was created
through subduction millions of years ago. Other bod-
ies of water such as the Yellow Sea, East China Sea,
and South China Sea were created through tectonic
activity.
Four large, mountainous islands and thousands
of smaller ones form the archipelago, or island chain,
of Japan. Most of these islands were created by volca-
nic activity over millions of years. Honshu is the larg-
est and central island. Hokkaido– is to the north, while
Kyu–shu– and Shikoku are to the south of Honshu.
Most of Japan’s major cities are on Honshu, including
Tokyo, Kyoto, Kobe, and Hiroshima.
The Sea of Okhotsk is north of Japan. The Sea
of Japan and the East China Sea are to the west, the
Philippine Sea is to the south, and the Pacific Ocean
is to the east and southeast.
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Japan is an archipelago made up of thousands
of islands. It is separated from the Asian conti-
nent by the Sea of Japan.
Mountains, Highlands, and Lowlands
Many of Japan’s mountains, like Mount Asahi Dake
on the northern island of Hokkaido–, are volcanic
in origin.
Many mountain ranges spread out from an area
of high peaks and deep valleys in western China
called the Pamirs. The Kunlun Shan and Tian Shan
(shan means “mountain”) originate in this remote
interior region. The Altay Shan further north form a
natural barrier between Mongolia and China.
The world’s highest mountains to the south and
west, the Himalayas, separate China from South Asia.
The Himalaya range includes several of the world’s
highest peaks, including Mount Everest and K2. The
Ganges, Yangtze, and other major rivers run through
1/5/12 1:28 PM
 –east asia—P hysical GeoG raPhy–

it. There is a wide range of flora and fauna, which

varies with the climate and terrain. didUse
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Nomads in the Gobi build homes of animal skins

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and blankets stretched on wooden frames that
can be taken apart and moved.
Mount Everest, the world’s highest peak at
29,028 feet, straddles the border between China
and Nepal. Desert storms in the Gobi make life difficult in
southern Mongolia and north central China. Less
than three inches of rain fall in the Gobi each year.
The Kunlan Shan becomes the Qinling Shandi as
it crosses central China from west to east. The lower
Changbai Shan of Manchuria extend into the Korean
water systems
Peninsula to become the Northern Mountains.
Coastal plains surround the mountain interiors
Two major rivers in China have shaped population
of Japan and Taiwan. Mount Fuji, or Fujiyama, is a
patterns and agricultural development. In Japan and
dramatic 12,388-foot volcanic cone rising above the
Korea, numerous short, swift rivers are sources of
plains of Honshu. Mount Fuji is an important spiri-
hydroelectric power and also create many spectacular
tual symbol for Japan. Relatively young, it began to
waterfalls.
rise only 25,000 years ago. Its cone is one of the most
perfectly shaped in existence.
China’s Rivers
The Plateau of Tibet, or Xizang, in China’s
Landforms and physical processes shaped East
southwest is East Asia’s highest plateau. The plateau
Asia’s rivers. The region’s rivers provide transporta-
averages 15,000 feet in height. Other highlands
tion to urban centers, water for drinking, irrigation,
stretch north and east at lower elevations. The Mon-
hydroelectric power, and rich mineral deposits for
golian Plateau of the far north has extensive high-
fertile soils.
lands and mostly green pasture. The region’s only
China has tens of thousands of rivers. The
extensive lowlands are China’s Northeast Plain and
major ones start in the Plateau of Tibet and flow east
North China Plain.
to the Pacific Ocean.
Broad expanses of wasteland like the deserts
The Huang He, or Yellow, River is northern
and salt marshes of the Tarim Basin lie between Kun-
China’s major river system. It deposits almost 60
lun Shan and Tian Shan. West of the Tarim Basin is
times as much silt as the Mississippi River and causes
the dry, sandy Taklimikan. To the northeast is another
extensive flooding. This yellowish brown topsoil, or
desert, the Gobi.
loess, is eroded from western regions by wind and
The Gobi Desert in Mongolia and China is an
water. Its course has been redirected many times
interior lowland plain. It stretches 1,000 miles from
throughout history. It continues to flood and cause
southwest to northeast, and nearly 500 miles from
many challenges for the region. Loess and river water
north to south. It consists mostly of rock, rather
make the North China Plain a major wheat and soy-
than sand.
bean farming area.

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 –east asia—P hysical GeoG raPhy–

Rivers in Japan and Korea

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Unlike rivers in China, rivers in Japan and Korea are
short and swift. They flow through mountainous ter-
The Hung He is often called “China’s Sorrow” rain, often forming spectacular waterfalls. In the wet
because it often floods its banks, killing hun- season, the rivers in Japan and Korea provide hydro-
dreds of thousands of people. electric power. Many of Japan’s rivers, like the Shi-
nano Tone Rivers, have been altered for irrigation and
regulation of water flow. Korea’s chief rivers flow
Central China’s Chang Jiang, or Yangtze, River is
from inland mountains west to the Yellow Sea. The
Asia’s longest river at 3,965 miles. It is an unofficial
Han River flows through South Korea’s capital, Seoul.
marker between the north and south of China,
In North Korea, the Yalu, or Amnok, River flows west
though it doesn’t exactly run through the center of
to form the border with China.
the county. The Chang Jiang flows through awesome
gorges and broad plains and empties into the ocean
near Shanghai.
natural resources
The Chang Jiang is a major transport route,
providing water for a large agricultural area where
Mineral resources are abundant in East Asia, but they
more than half of China’s rice and grains are grown.
are unevenly distributed. East Asia’s fast-growing
The Three Gorges Dam, completed in 2006 and now
economy is proving to be a great strain on the region’s
the largest dam in the world, was constructed with
energy resources.
hopes of ending the flooding. It was intended to
China has the most and the widest range of
make more water available for irrigation and extend
minerals in East Asia—iron ore, tin, tungsten, and
more hydroelectric power to China’s growing popu-
gold. There are large oil deposits in the South China
lation and economy. An engineering and economic
Sea and Taklimikan. There are abundant coal depos-
success, the dam has simultaneously created new
its in northeast China. Coal is also mined in Mongo-
environmental concerns, including the increase of
lia and the Korean Peninsula. North Korea has iron
drought and waterborne disease and the triggering
ore and tungsten. South Korea has few minerals, but
of landslides.
graphite is found there. Taiwan has small mineral
The Xi, or West, River is south China’s most
reserves.
important river system. The soil deposits of the Xi
Productive farmlands are unevenly distributed
form a huge, fertile delta. Near the ports of Guang-
across East Asia. About 25% of the land is suitable for
zhou and Macau, this area is one of China’s fastest
farming in South Korea. The country produces two
developing areas. The Li River flows through eroded
crops per year in the prime farmland of the coastal
peaks in southern China.
south. North Korea has increased its cultivated land
Begun in the 400s b.c., China’s Grand Canal is
through irrigation, fertilizers, and mechanized tools.
the world’s longest artificial waterway.
Mongolia can use only less than 1% of its land
Over centuries the Grand Canal has been
for crops. Japan has limited farmland and poor soil.
expanded and rebuilt. The Grand Canal moves peo-
Less than 25% of Taiwan’s land is suitable for farming.
ple and goods along a 1,085-mile course from Beijing
Seafood farming has become a major industry
to Hangzhou.
in East Asia. Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and China
have the world’s biggest deep-sea fishing industries.

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 –east asia—P hysical GeoG raPhy–
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Environmental damage has resulted from Chi-
na’s rapid economic growth. Air pollution levels
in China’s larger cities are among the world’s
highest.
Rice Production
Rice is an important part of the culture and econo-
mies of East Asia. It has been grown in the region for
over 10,000 years. More than 90% of the world’s rice
is produced and consumed in Asia. China’s “rice
bowl” yields up to four harvests per year, making it
the world’s leading rice producer.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. ___________ has the most mineral wealth and
energy needs in East Asia.
2. The ___________ is northern China’s powerful
major river system.
3. Asia’s longest river is the ___________.
4. Mount Everest in the ___________ is the
world’s highest peak, at over 29,000 feet.
5. Mount ___________ is the spiritual symbol of
Japan.
6. Japan is a(n) ___________, or island chain.
7. An undersea earthquake generates a(n)
___________, a huge wave that gets higher as it
reaches the coast.
GEOG_18_153-160.indd 157
8. The Pacific, Philippine, and Eurasian
___________ plates meet along an arc of
islands east of China and cause volcanoes and
earthquakes.
9. ___________ takes up 80% of East Asia.
10. Less than 1% of ___________ land is suitable
for farming.
climate and Vegetation
Latitude, physical features, and seasonal wind pat-
terns influence East Asia’s climates and affect how
people live in different landscapes.
Chilling northwesterly winds sweep from Siberia
across the Sea of Japan, picking up abundant moisture
along the way. In the harshest climates, people and
animals on East Asia’s last frontier of Hokkaido– find
ways to adapt amid howling winter winds.
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Mongolian nomads survive one of Earth’s
harshest climates. In most of the country, aver-
age temperatures stay near or below freezing
year-round.
climate regions
East Asia’s natural vegetation parallels the region’s cli-
mate zones, which are influenced by latitude and
physical features.
Physical features like mountains, highlands, and
coastal areas shape climates, which range from tropi-
cal to subarctic. Dry highlands and grasslands domi-
nate the north and west. Humid and temperate
forests prevail in the south and east.
157
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 –east asia—P hysical GeoG raPhy–
Midlatitude Climates
The northeastern part of East Asia, including the
northern parts of Korea and Japan, has a cooler,
humid continental climate. Summers are warm but
winters are long, cold, and snowy.
Southeastern parts of East Asia including Tai-
wan, parts of China, South Korea, and Japan have a
humid subtropical climate with long, hot summers
and heavy rains.
The humid continental and humid subtropical
climates have needle-leaved and broad-leaved ever-
greens and deciduous trees. Bamboo grows in warmer
areas; it is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth.
It is used for food and herbal medicine, and home,
bridge, and skyscraper construction. Bamboo is the
only food of the rare giant panda.
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The mulberry tree, whose leaves provide food
for silkworms, the bamboo tree, and the tea
bush are important to East Asian culture and
economy.
Desert and Steppe Climates
Far from the moist winds of the coast, deserts spread
across inland northern China and Mongolia. Mois-
ture is blocked by the rain shadow effect. The Gobi
and Taklimikan are often cold and windy. Tempera-
tures can fall 55°F from day to night. Gobi Desert
temperatures range from 100°F to –30°F.
Sparse trees and grasses are the natural vegeta-
tion of the large steppe climate east of the deserts and
in most of Mongolia.
158
GEOG_18_153-160.indd 158
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Parts of Northwestern China, including the capi-
tal city of Beijing, experience seasonal dust
storms caused by erosion of the deserts.
Highland Climates
Climate changes with elevation in mountain areas.
The higher the elevation, the cooler the temperature.
East Asia’s highlands are cool or cold. On the Plateau
of Tibet with elevations of 13,000 to 15,000 feet, the
average annual temperature is 58°F. Small alpine
meadows with grasses, flowers, and trees dot the
lower mountain slopes. Above the tree line, where no
trees grow, only mosses and colorful lichens live.
Tropical Wet Climate
Hainan, off China’s southeast coast, has a tropical wet
climate. It has high year-round temperatures and
very rainy summer monsoons. In tropical areas,
palms and tropical hardwoods thrive alongside
broad-leaved evergreens and tropical fruit trees. Lush
rain forest covers most of Hainan.
Seasonal Weather Patterns
Prevailing winds and ocean currents create seasonal
weather patterns in East Asia. The air mass above the
Asian continent and the one above the Pacific Ocean
meet in East Asia. These moving air masses become
prevailing winds or monsoons that blow in one direc-
tion half the year and then switch directions.
The summer monsoon in East Asia blows from
southeast to northwest bringing heat and humidity
from the Pacific Ocean. From April through October,
intense downpours provide more than 80% of the
region’s annual rainfall.
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 –east asia—P hysical GeoG raPhy–

From November to March, the winter mon-
soon brings cold arctic air that blows northwest to
southeast. Along the coast, these winds pick up mois-
ture in the Sea of Japan and bring snow to Japan and
the Koreas.
East Asian economy relies on summer monsoons
to water crops. Late monsoons or less than heavy rain
causes crop failure. Too much rain means floods.
The warm Japan Current flows north along the
coasts of the Japanese islands, adding moisture to the
winter monsoon and warming the land.
The cold Kuril Current flows southwest to the
Bering Sea along the Pacific coasts of Japan’s islands.
It brings harsh, cold winters to Hokkaido–’s east coast.
In summer when the cold ocean current meets the
warm one near Hokkaido–, a dense sea fog develops.
Warm, humid air over the tropical ocean pro-
duces violent storms called typhoons. Typhoons
form in the Pacific and blow across coastal East Asia.
Parts of Japan experience five or six typhoons per
year. Like hurricanes in the western Atlantic and
Caribbean, typhoons are usually most severe between
late August and October. On occasion, a winter
typhoon brings welcome rains during the normal
dry season.
14. ____ Sparse trees and grasses are the natural
vegetation of the large steppe climate east of the
Asian deserts and in most of Mongolia.
15. ____ The humid continental climate of East
Asia’s northeastern region is characterized by
warm summers and long, cold winters.
16. ____ The Plateau of Tibet has a highland
climate.
17. ____ East Asia has humid continental and
humid subtropical climates.
18. ____ Hokkaido– has a tropical wet climate.
19. ____ Warm humid air over the tropical ocean
produces violent storms in the Pacific called
typhoons.
20. ____ Humid and temperate forests prevail in
the southern and eastern portions of East Asia.

Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.

11. ____ Monsoon winds change direction when

they come into contact with warmer or cooler
air in their path.

12. ____ Cold, moist winds from Siberia sweep

across the Sea of Japan affecting conditions as
far as Hokkaido–.

13. ____ Too much monsoon rain can mean

drought in East Asia.

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 –east asia—P hysical GeoG raPhy–

answers 10. Mongolia

11. F
1. China 12. T
2. Huang He, or Yellow, River 13. F
3. Chang Jiang, or Yangtze, River 14. T
4. Himalayas 15. T
5. Fuji 16. T
6. Archipelago 17. T
7. Tsunami 18. F
8. Tectonic 19. T
9. China 20. T

160

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 19
east asia—
l e s s o n

Human
GeoGrapHy
(part i)

Lesson summary
Powerful dynasties ruled China since 2000 B.C. The growth
of the enormous Chinese empire influenced the cultural
development of East Asia. Today, political and economic
differences divide the region. China and North Korea are
communist, while Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan have
capitalist, free market economies.

The most interesting thing about my entire trip to China was there are now 40 million electric scooters and bicycles
in China. They all take their little batteries upstairs at night to charge up and bring them back down in the morn-
ing and plug them back into their scooters and off they go.
—Jon Wellinghoff, U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (April 2008)

Countries

China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan.

China

China’s economy and culture are undergoing changes as people migrate from rural to urban areas.

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 –east asia—Human GeoG rapHy–
Population Patterns
Cities and rural areas are changing as large numbers
of Chinese move to urban areas.
People
About 92% of China’s 1.3 billion people descend
from the powerful Han family and ethnic group. The
Han dynasty and culture, or Middle Kingdom, dom-
inated China from 206 b.c. until a.d. 220. The rest of
the population belongs to 55 other ethnic groups.
Taiwan is an island off the southeast coast of
China. Taiwan’s original indigenous peoples are
related to peoples of Southeast Asia and the Pacific.
Many Chinese migrated to Taiwan hundreds of
years ago.
The ancestors of today’s Mongols ruled the
world’s largest land empire, which stretched from
China to Eastern Europe.
Density and Distribution
The North China Plain is one of the most densely
populated regions of the world. Over 90% of the peo-
ple live on one-sixth of the land. Most people inhabit
the fertile valleys and plains of the great Huang He,
Chang Jiang, and Xi rivers. The urban centers of Bei-
jing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Guangzhou lie in river
valleys or coastal plains.
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Mongolia has fewer than 4 people per square
mile.
Urban Growth
Most Chinese people live on farms. Still, millions of
Chinese people migrate to overcrowded urban areas.
To curb migration to cities, China has built agricul-
tural towns in remote areas with social services and a
better quality of life.
162
GEOG_19_161-170.indd 162
Population growth led the Chinese govern-
ment in 1979 to limit each family to only one child
and population growth slowed. The policy is no
longer strictly enforced and population growth is
rising again.
History and Government
China has experienced powerful transformations
throughout its long history. It has had long-ruling
dynasties and been a strong force in East Asia.
Early History
Chinese culture originated 5,000 years ago in the Wei
River valley and it spread to surrounding areas. The
Shang Dynasty took over the North China Plain in
1600 b.c. and kept China’s first written records. As
with all successive dynasties, the Shang faced rebel-
lions by local lords, attacks by Central Asian nomads,
and natural disasters.
The Zhou ruled for about 800 years from about
1045 b.c. The Zhou dynasty began making iron tools
and spreading Chinese culture and trade. Confucius,
or Kongfuzi, taught a system of thought based on dis-
cipline and moral conduct. Laozi, or Lao-Tzu,
founded Taoism, a philosophy of living in simplicity
and harmony with Nature.
In the a.d. 200s, the Qin Shi Huang Di united
all of China and started building the Great Wall to
stop attacks from Central Asia. In the Han and Tang
dynasties, traders and missionaries spread Chinese
culture throughout East Asia.
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Reaching approximately 5,500 miles from Shan-
haiguan in the east to Lop Nur in the west, the
Great Wall consists of several walls built through-
out China’s early history. Most of what remains
today was constructed during the Ming Dynasty.
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 –east asia—Human GeoG rapHy–
The Qing ruled China from the mid-1600s to
the early 1900s. By the 1600s, Western countries
attempted to set up shipping routes to East Asia; the
Chinese rejected foreign efforts to penetrate their rich
silk and tea markets. In the 1800s, Western warships
were used to force China to open ports. By the 1890s,
European and Japanese governments each claimed
spheres of influence or large areas of land where only
that country retained exclusive trading rights.
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Silk trading began in China as far back as the
Han Dynasty (206 B.C.–A.D. 220). The Silk Road
refers to 4,000 miles of trade routes used by
traders and merchants in Asia for almost 3,000
years.
Revolutionary China
In the 1900s, East Asia was involved in two world
wars. China had its own internal conflicts.
In 1911, Sun Yat-sen, or Sun Yixian, ended the
rule of Chinese emperors. Chiang Kai-shek, or Jiang
Jieshi, formed the Nationalist government of the
Republic of China. Chiang’s Communist rival Mao
Zedong gained the support of Chinese farmers. The
Communists gained power in 1949 after years of civil
war. Mao and the Communists set up the People’s
Republic of China on the mainland. The nationalists
fled to Taiwan and continued the Republic of China.
Economic Changes
In Mao’s Great Leap Forward campaign of the 1950s,
large government-owned farms replaced small coop-
eratives. Not enough food was produced, millions
starved, and the economy fell apart.
In the 1970s, Deng Xiaoping and other commu-
nist leaders permitted private ownership of busi-
nesses and farms. China began to modernize and
welcomed foreign business and technology. The
GEOG_19_161-170.indd 163
Communist Party welcomed free enterprise zones to
expand capitalism, but not political freedom. Mean-
while, Taiwan has built a powerful export economy
and expanded democratic reforms.
A Tale of Two Chinas
Taiwan and China have wanted to unify since the
1950s, but on their own terms. By the 1990s, Taiwan
was an economic force. Today, Taiwan has invested
billions of dollars in the factories of mainland China.
China and the world depend on Taiwan for computer
and electronic parts.
Free Mongolia
Mongolia was loyal to China’s Qing dynasty until it
fell in the revolution of 1911. Then, Mongolia felt no
obligation to the new China. Mongolia was a Soviet-
influenced Communist state from 1924 to 1991.
When the Soviet Union and communism fell, Mon-
golians adopted a democratic constitution that pro-
duced free elections and economic reform.
Culture
Chinese culture is a mix of modern and traditional
practices. Its influences include Confucianism, Bud-
dhism, and communism.
Education
Traditionally, the wealthiest Chinese learned to read
and write. In an effort to end academic elitism and
narrow the cultural gap, requirements for education
were increased under Communist rule.
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In the chaos of the Chinese Communist Cultural
Revolution of the 1960s, many historic and cul-
tural sites were destroyed and people thought
to be enemies of Mao Zedong were persecuted
or executed.
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 –east asia—Human GeoG rapHy–
Language and Religion
Most people in China speak the Mandarin dialect of
the Han Chinese language. The Chinese government
discourages religious practices. The traditional Chi-
nese New Year is celebrated, however, for over a week.
Many Chinese people say they are atheists. Others
hold on to their traditional Buddhist, Confucian, and
Taoist faiths. The Chinese government restricts reli-
gious practices of the Buddhist population of Tibet.
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Tibetans can be arrested for owning photos of
Tibet’s exiled Buddhist spiritual leader, the Dalai
Lama.
Arts
Ancient Chinese pottery described human relation-
ships and the beauty of nature. Traditional Chinese
opera uses elaborate costumes, music, and acrobatics
or martial arts. In the Tang dynasty, potters made
fine, thin porcelain we now call china.
Japan
Japan’s mix of Asian and Western cultures has helped
make the country globally influential. Ancient moats
and palaces sit next to modern glass skyscrapers in
the Japanese capital of Tokyo.
Population Patterns
Japan’s ethnically homogeneous and highly urban
society shapes population patterns.
Most of Japan’s people live in cities on the rela-
tively lowland seacoasts and in valleys and plains.
People
The population of Japan is ethnically homogeneous.
About 99% of ethnic Japanese are descendants of
164
GEOG_19_161-170.indd 164
Asian immigrants who centuries ago crossed the
Korean Peninsula to reach Japan. The aboriginal Ainu
were forced north; some still live on Hokkaido–,
Japan’s northernmost and second largest island.
Density and Distribution
Japan has limited land and the population density is
about 875 people per square mile. The central part of
the country consists of forest and mountains, so only
the valleys and coastal plains were settled. About 78%
of Japanese people live in coastal urban areas like the
To–kaido– corridor, a series of cities crowded along the
Pacific coast of Honshu between Tokyo and Ko–be.
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Tokyo is the world’s most populous urban area,
with more than 35 million people.
Urbanization has changed Japan. Japan’s busy
city streets have towering skyscrapers and giant elec-
tronic advertising signs. City apartments are small.
Because the population is so dense and land is so lim-
ited, suburban homes in Japan are relatively small,
but many have carefully landscaped gardens.
The urban areas of Tokyo have steadily expanded
in the twentieth century into outlying areas.
Japan has adapted to crowded conditions by
building expressways and train systems. Great for long
distance travel, the Shinkansen bullet train reaches
over 160 mph on the To–kaido– corridor.
History and Government
Japan has been shaped by isolation from and interac-
tion with other cultures throughout its history. Dur-
ing this last century, Japan has maintained cultural
traditions and modernized.
Early History
In the a.d. 400s, the Yamato dynasty united the ruling
families and adopted Chinese philosophy, writing,
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 –east asia—Human GeoG rapHy–
art, sciences, and governmental systems. Korean
scholars also influenced Japan.
In the 1100s, local nobles started fighting for
control of Japan. Minamoto became Japan’s first sho-
gun, or military ruler.
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Shoguns were supported by professional war-
riors called samurai. Emperors officially ruled
Japan, but samurai helped powerful shoguns
govern until the late 1800s.
Concerned about European invasion, Japanese
shoguns sharply restricted foreigners. Ultimately,
only a few merchants were allowed in Nagasaki. Japan
remained isolated for the next 200 years.
In 1854, using “gunboat diplomacy,” Commo-
dore Perry and the United States Navy forced Japan to
trade with the United States. Rebel samurai forced the
shoguns to return power to the emperor.
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During this Meiji Restoration, Japan modernized
its government, economy, military forces, educa-
tion, and legal systems along Western lines.
Modern Japan
From 1890 to 1940, Japan went from a feudal country
to a modern one. Education improved and the econ-
omy grew quickly.
Japan fought China in 1894 and 1895, winning
islands like Taiwan, then called Formosa. Japan
fought Russia in 1904 and 1905, winning control of
Korea and rights to Manchuria and the large Russian
island of Sakhalin. Japan’s quickly growing industrial
base and navy began to concern European powers.
GEOG_19_161-170.indd 165
As Japan joined the Allies in World War I, its
economy reached record prosperity. As Japan steered
toward democracy, military leaders took control of
the Japanese government. They invaded Manchuria
in 1931 and China in 1937 and signed a pact with
Nazi Germany in 1936.
Japanese leaders believed they would create a
“New Order” in the Pacific by expelling Western
empires. After four years of fighting in World War II
to dominate the Pacific, Japan lost more than 200,000
lives and suffered horrific damage from two atomic
bombs dropped on the industrial centers of Hiro-
shima and Nagasaki.
Within months of the bombings, Japan surren-
dered its military and territories at the end of World
War II in 1945. Japan became a democracy and
rebuilt its industrial base with American investment
and technical expertise. By the 1970s, Japan was a
global economic power with worldwide links to busi-
ness and trade.
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Japan is the third largest economy in the world
and it sells high-value products to almost every
country in the world.
Education and Healthcare
Education is highly valued in Japan; it is compulsory
to the age of 15. From a very early age, students focus
on getting into good schools. High school curricula
focus on preparing students for university.
Improved healthcare has brought life expec-
tancy in Japan to 82. However, the aging population
strains the healthcare and social service systems. Gov-
ernment provides healthcare, including preventive
services, for those who do not get such coverage
through their employers.
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 –east asia—Human GeoG rapHy–
Language and Religion
The Japanese language developed in isolation, but
may have some Korean and Mongolian influences.
Many Japanese words and some of its writing system
came from China. Western languages including Eng-
lish have influenced Japanese.
Although Japanese people incorporate Shinto, a
traditional Japanese religion stressing reverence for
nature, and Buddhist traditions into their holiday
and religious ceremonies, most Japanese people claim
no religious affiliation.
Arts
The tea ceremony, formal landscaping, and Japanese
kabuki theater are all Japanese art forms. Poetry
such as haiku was popular among the educated
classes of ancient Japan. Noblewoman Lady Mura-
saki Skikibu wrote one of the world’s first novels in
a.d. 1010. Her Tale of Genji told of the life and loves
of a prince at the emperor’s court.
Family Life and Leisure
The family is regarded in Japan as a source of sta-
bility and strength. Ancient beliefs—for example,
that being part of a group is more important than
individuality—remain strong. Families are smaller
now in Japan as the birthrate is declining.
north korea and south korea
North Korea and South Korea share similar histories
but have been moving in very different directions
politically and economically.
Population Patterns
Physical geography and an ethnically homogeneous
population affect population patterns in North Korea
and South Korea. North Koreans and South Koreans
have been migrating to other countries.
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GEOG_19_161-170.indd 166
People
Korea traces its origins to the early peoples of North-
ern China and Central Asia. Koreans have experi-
enced long periods of foreign rule and the division of
the peninsula into communist North Korea and dem-
ocratic South Korea. There are no indigenous minor-
ity peoples living in North Korea. Small groups of
Chinese and Japanese people have lived in South
Korea since the mid-1900s.
Density and Distribution
Most people in North Korea and South Korea live on
the coastal plains that wrap around the peninsula’s
mountainous interior. About two-thirds of the
Korean population live in growing cities like Seoul,
South Korea, and P’yŏngyang, North Korea.
The average population density of South Korea is
1,260 people per square mile. North Korea averages
much less at 518 people per square mile. In North
Korea, higher population densities occur on coastlines.
North Korea was controlled by the Soviet Union
after World War II. The communists focused on rapid
industrialization. People moved to cities for jobs and
there was a farm labor shortage. After the Korean War
(1950–1953), more people moved to cities.
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North Korea is now about 60% urban. People in
South Korea have moved to coastal cities to look
for work and South Korea is now about 80%
urban.
In the mid-1900s, many people fled communist
North Korea for South Korea and other countries.
Many Koreans emigrated to Canada and the United
States seeking political and economic freedom. South
Korea’s population doubled between 1950 and 1990.
South Korea today has 48 million people, about twice
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 –east asia—Human GeoG rapHy–
as many as North Korea, where there is a much lower
standard of living.
At the end of the Korean War, North Korea and
South Korea were divided by a demilitarized zone
(DMZ). No official peace treaty has ever been signed
and both sides have a large military presence along
the DMZ, where soldiers can see each other through
binoculars. The two sides have begun to cooperate on
trade and tourism despite tension.
History and Government
China and Japan have been aggressive neighbors to
Korea. The recent division of North Korea and South
Korea remains an important factor in the develop-
ment of the two countries. North Korea today experi-
ences harsh rule.
Early History
Around 1200 b.c., Chinese settlers brought their cul-
ture to neighboring Korea. Buddhism later spread
from China to Korea and became Korea’s major reli-
gion. Over the centuries to follow, the Silla and Koryo
dynasties united the Korean Peninsula.
Neighboring countries have invaded and fought
over Korea. Mongolia occupied Korea in the 1200s
and 1300s. Around 1300, the Chinese seized control
of Korea and introduced Confucianism as the model
for Korea’s government, education, and family life.
Japan repeatedly invaded Korea during the 1500s, the
height of Korean civilization.
Korea remained independent until the late 1800s,
when other countries became interested in it. China
and Japan fought over Korea in the Sino-Japanese
War of 1894–1895. Russia and Japan fought for con-
trol of Korea in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–
1905. Japan defeated China and annexed Korea to its
expanding empire in 1910.
Japan harshly administered over Korea and tried
to replace the Korean language and culture with Japa-
nese language and culture. Japan occupied Korea
until the end of World War II in 1945.
GEOG_19_161-170.indd 167
Divided Korea
After World War II, Korea was divided into U.S.-
backed South Korea and Soviet communist-ruled
North Korea. North Korea invaded South Korea in
1950, in an attempt to unite the country. By June
1951, both sides dug in at the 38th Parallel. The stale-
mate ended with a truce in 1953. Millions of Koreans
had died and both countries were devastated. North
Korea and South Korea remain separated.
Following World War II, North and South Korea
experienced harsh autocratic rule. In the early 1960s,
Major General Park Chung Hee took power in South
Korea. He was assassinated in 1979. South Korea’s
economy grew, but political freedoms were limited
under his regime. South Koreans often protested his
rule and there were violent confrontations between
the government and the pro-democracy movement.
North Korea’s centralized government is con-
trolled by the Korean Worker’s Party (KWP). All gov-
ernment officials are members of this party; it is the
only official party in North Korea. Very little is known
about the North Korean government today. Kim Jong
Il controlled the government and country from 1994
to December 2011. His son, Kim Jong Un, was
announced as the new leader of North Korea. His rule
will continue the Kim-family “cult of personality” in
North Korea.
Talks between North Korea and South Korea
commenced in 2000, but broke off two years later
when North Korea reactivated its nuclear reactor.
Strict government rule has caused acute food
shortages and mismanagement of essential resources
in North Korea.
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About 2 million North Koreans have died from
food shortages since the mid-1990s.
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 –east asia—Human GeoG rapHy–
There are more than 200,000 political prisoners
in North Korea and reports of human rights abuses
in slave labor camps.
Culture
Ancient ties have created a shared culture, while
modern political divisions have fueled differences in
North Korea and South Korea.
Education has improved in South Korea since
World War II. Most children attend middle and high
school and university enrollment is increasing. The
primary role of education in North Korea is to teach
communist ideology. South Korea rebuilt its health-
care system with the assistance of the United Nations
following World War II. Life expectancy is now 77
years in South Korea.
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North Korea provides healthcare to its citizens,
but the country still has inadequate food, water,
and heating supplies.
Korean is the language spoken in North Korea
and South Korea. The language is vaguely related
to Japanese and has some borrowed Chinese words.
The Korean way of life is based mainly on Con-
fucianism. People also practice Buddhism, Christian-
ity, and Cheondogyo, a combination of these
religions.
Both countries have similar traditional arts.
Artists made graceful vases with a pale green glaze
called celadon during the Koryo dynasty, which today
are still highly valued throughout the world. Bud-
dhist temples contain many statues and sculptures in
stone, bronze, or jade. Local woods and granite are
used to build Buddhist temples.
The arts are influenced by the different political
atmospheres of North Korea and South Korea. Com-
168
GEOG_19_161-170.indd 168
munist ideology shapes culture and art in North
Korea. South Korean art has been shaped by many
elements of Western culture.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. ___________ temples in Korea often contain
stone, bronze, jade, wood, or granite.
2. Talks between North Korea and South Korea
ended in 2002 when ___________ Korea reac-
tivated its nuclear reactor.
3. Since the end of World War II, ___________
Korea has been influenced by the United States.
4. Kabuki is a traditional form of ___________
theater.
5. ___________ has the third largest economy in
the world.
6. ___________ is an island off the southeast
coast of China with a powerful export
economy.
7. ___________ ruled the Communist People’s
Republic of China from 1949 until 1976.
8. Emperors officially ruled Japan, but the warrior
class of ___________ helped powerful shoguns
govern until the late 1800s.
9. The Chinese philosophy of ___________
teaches discipline and obedience.
10. Since the late 1970s, China has created
___________ zones to expand capitalism.
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 –east asia—Human GeoG rapHy–

answers 5. Japan
6. Taiwan [formerly Formosa]
1. Buddhist 7. Mao Zedong
2. North 8. Samurai
3. South 9. Confucianism
4. Japanese 10. Free enterprise zones

169

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GEOG_19_161-170.indd 170 1/5/12 1:29 PM
 20
eAst AsiA—
l e s s o n

HUmAn
GeoGrApHy
(pArt ii)

Lesson summary
East Asia’s increasing participation in the global commu-
nity and diffusion of the region’s cultures still has profound
impact in the world. East Asia’s growing and aging popu-
lations bring future challenges.

East Asia has prospered since the end of the Vietnam War, and Northeast Asia has prospered since the end of the
Korean War in a way that seems unimaginable when you think of the history of the first half of the century.
—William Kirby

east Asia and the United states

Migration and trade continues to bring East Asia and the United States together. Over 60% of high technology
imports to the United States come from East Asia. Cars, motorcycles, computers, MP3 players, and other high-
tech devices are often produced in East Asia and sold in the United States and throughout the world.

Chinatowns
The first major Chinese immigration boom in the United States started in the 1840s. Many immigrants worked
in gold mines and railroad construction. Asians often faced discrimination due to cultural and language differ-
ences. Chinese people often settled together in Chinatowns. Many of these Chinatowns were located on the west
coast, especially California. There are about 25 Chinatowns in the United States today.

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 –eA st AsiA—HUmAn GeoGrApHy (pArt ii) –
economy
The countries of East Asia are experiencing rapid
economic change as they emerge from the Asian
financial crisis of the 1990s and adjust to a global
economy.
China
China is East Asia’s most rural economy. About
40% of China’s workers are farmers. China is a
leading producer of rice, wheat, tea, soybeans, cot-
ton, and silk.
Since the establishment of the Communist Peo-
ple’s Republic of China in 1949, agriculture has
changed. Large farming communes were established
in 1958 during communist Mao Zedong’s Great Leap
Forward. Members shared equally in work and prod-
ucts. The government decided what and how much
to grow. Crop production plummeted and the result
was a national famine. In the 1980s, the Chinese gov-
ernment encouraged small household-run farms.
Farmers could profit from extra crops or animals.
Currently, growth in the industry and service sectors
is rapidly outpacing growth in agriculture as many
people move from rural areas to major cities in search
of a better life.
Mongolia
Most of the land in Mongolia is used for livestock
grazing. Privatization of some of the government-
owned farmland has led to economic growth. Harsh
winters and drought have made the transition to a
market economy difficult.
South Korea and North Korea
Only 7% of South Koreans are farmers. They often
work on small family farms. Because of migration to
urban areas, there is a farm labor shortage. To com-
pensate, modern machinery and efficient farming
methods are now being used.
172
GEOG_20_171-178.indd 172
About 36% of North Koreans work in agricul-
ture. Household farms are organized into coopera-
tives, with the communist government controlling
crop production and the rationing of agricultural
products. North Korea cannot meet its own needs for
rice, the country’s major crop.
Japan and Taiwan
Physical geography is a challenge for farmers in Tai-
wan and Japan. Because Japan is mountainous, Japan
uses terracing, modern machinery, fertilizers, and
irrigation to raise crop yields. The government pro-
vides farmers with financial support so they have as
much income as urban dwellers. Even with technol-
ogy, Japan does not have enough farmland to support
its population. Taiwan is mountainous, too, so terrac-
ing is often used on farmland to grow rice, sugarcane,
tea, bananas, and pineapple.
industry
Industrial growth in East Asia has been affected by
political events, government policies, and changes in
the global economy.
Japan
Japan developed its industries after World War II
through advanced technology and an educated work-
force. Japan was soon a leading producer of cars,
computers, telecommunications, electronic equip-
ment, and other consumer products. Its high-quality
goods made Japan a global economic power.
Japanese banks failed when they could not col-
lect on loans to risky businesses. Domestic produc-
tion dropped, the stock market and real estate values
plummeted, and unemployment soared. Implement-
ing reforms from 2001 to 2005, Japan recovered and
was back to a solid 4% annual growth in real gross
domestic product (GDP).
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 –eA st AsiA—HUmAn GeoGrApHy (pArt ii) –
?S outh Korea and North Korea
South Korea moved from an agricultural to an indus-
trial economy after the Korean War. By the 1980s,
South Korea was exporting steel, ships, electronics,
and motor vehicles. Financial reforms and interna-
tional aid helped South Korea build its economy after
the slump in the 1990s.
In North Korea, government-owned heavy
industries produce machinery, military equipment,
and chemicals. Consumer goods suffer because so
many resources go into military production.
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When economic aid fell with the Soviet Union,
North Korea’s industrial output fell by 50%.
North Korea’s communist leaders were forced to
trade with other countries.
North Korea and South Korea agreed to trade in
2000. Relations chilled when North Korea reactivated
its nuclear weapons in 2002. In 2006, North Korea
fired nuclear missiles into the Sea of Japan despite
warnings by the United States and other countries
that economic sanctions would follow.
Taiwan
Taiwan is one of the world’s leading export-based
economies. Profits from agriculture have been invested
in the manufacture and export of electronics, plastics,
and textiles. Taiwan’s economic boom made it a major
trading country. About 67% of people in Taiwan work
in service industries. Technology-based products are
replacing traditional manufactured products.
China
The Chinese government controls the major textile,
clothing, footwear, toy, and plastics industries. State-
run factories lack updated technology and perfor-
mance incentives. China has made reform and
GEOG_20_171-178.indd 173
privatization of unprofitable state-run industries a
top priority.
China has undertaken some market reforms;
privately run small businesses, foreign companies,
and foreign investment are now welcome.
China’s economy and standard of living have
grown sharply due to market reforms. There is still a
large economic gap separating industrial areas on the
coast and poor agricultural areas in the interior. Peo-
ple are moving to urban areas for work, hoping Chi-
na’s economic expansion will continue.
The Chinese territories of Hong Kong and
Macau are major industrial and trading areas. Hong
Kong provides great wealth for China and Macau has
a profitable market economy that also benefits China.
transportation
and Communications
Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan have nationwide
highway and railway networks. The rest of the region
is not as developed in terms of transportation
networks.
Improvements in transportation and commu-
nications networks will link the countries of East Asia
and contribute to economic growth.
The China-Tibet Railway, built in 2006, will,
according to China, boost Tibet’s economy by bring-
ing jobs, trade, and tourism. Conversely, more Chi-
nese people will be drawn into Tibet. That, critics say,
will dilute Tibetan culture.
China’s rivers provide routes from inland areas
to seaports. Shanghai lies near the mouth of the
Chang Jiang River. Large ocean-going ships travel
inland to Wuhan in Central China. Other important
ports are Tianjin on a tributary of the Huang He
River and Guangzhou on the Xi River.
Seaports and merchant marine fleets used for
commercial transport are vital to export trade. The
ports of Hong Kong, China; Chiba, Japan; and
Nagoya, Japan, are extremely busy.
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 –eA st AsiA—HUmAn GeoGrApHy (pArt ii) –
In North Korea and China, communist govern-
ments control communications, the media, and
access to the Internet. People in democratic Japan,
South Korea, and Taiwan enjoy a free press and most
own radios, televisions, telephones, and cell phones.
trade and interdependence
East Asian countries have become increasingly inter-
dependent, but trade disputes and political differ-
ences affect these relationships. China, Japan, South
Korea, and Taiwan are members of the Asia-Pacific
Economic Cooperation (APEC), which makes sure
trade among member countries is efficient and fair.
In 2004, China signed a trade agreement with the
10-nation Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) to create what became the world’s largest
free trade area in 2010.
Trade Surpluses: Japan
Japan imports raw materials like iron ore and fuels
because it has few mineral resources. The govern-
ment places taxes on many imported finished goods
to protect domestic producers against foreign
competition.
High global demand for Japanese goods and
high import taxes have given Japan a trade surplus.
Japan’s exports make more money than the value of
the country’s imports. China and Japan are numbers
one and two in trade surpluses with the United States.
Trade surpluses bring increased wealth to Japan
and lower profits for Japan’s trading partners.
The United States and other countries with
trade deficits have tried to persuade Japan to open its
markets.
In 2001, Japan and the United States established
the U.S.-Japan Economic Partnership for Growth
which supports opening of markets and cooperation
174
GEOG_20_171-178.indd 174
on global economic and trade issues. Trade policy
complicates Japan’s relations with other countries.
Trade and Human Rights: China
Seeking to modernize, China has pursued increased
trade with the United States and other market econo-
mies. China’s undervalued currency keeps export
prices low, so there is a flood of cheap Chinese goods
being exported to the United States. China’s 2006
record trade surplus renewed concerns that Chinese
currency values are artificially kept low.
China’s recent economic and trade successes
have not resulted in human rights reforms. Dissi-
dents or citizens who publicly contest government
policies, are harshly treated. In 1989, the world saw
on television the Chinese government’s brutal sup-
pression of democratic student demonstrators in
Tiananmen Square, Beijing.
The United States, Japan, and other important
trading partners have placed economic or trade
restrictions on China for human rights violations.
China released some dissidents and the United States
lifted sanctions.
In 2000, the United States granted full trading
privileges to China. The following year China was
admitted to the World Trade Organization (WTO),
which oversees international trade agreements and
settles trade disputes between countries.
people and environment
Throughout East Asia, rapid industrialization and
the burning of fossil fuels has led to severe pollution
of the air, land, and water. Most of the land along the
river plains has been completely transformed. Rapid
industrial and urban expansion and higher stan-
dards of living in East Asia are threatening the
environment.
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 –eA st AsiA—HUmAn GeoGrApHy (pArt ii) –

Managing Resources China

The increased burning of fossil fuels has led to severe Outdated industrial and transportation technology
pollution and the search for cleaner sources of power. has caused major air pollution in cities. China heavily
Industrialization and urbanization mean increased relies on large supplies of cheap coal that mixes with
demand for electric power. Higher standards of living air-blown dust to cause air pollution and lung
mean people buy and use more appliances and elec- disease.
tronic devices.
Acid Rain
Fossil Fuels Acid rain from burning coal is a major problem for
East Asia’s primary energy source is fossil fuels. China and its neighbors. Japanese forests receive pol-
China, North Korea, and Mongolia use large coal lution from China. Some of it reaches the Pacific
reserves to create power. Japan and South Korea rely Ocean and parts of the Western United States.
heavily on foreign sources of oil.
Solar panels are widely used in Japan and the
government has invested in nuclear power stations. didUse
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China’s massive Three Gorges Dam on the Chang
Jiang supplies hydroelectric power to China’s interior. Air pollution from China travels across the Pacific
Ocean and contributes to the smog over Los
Nuclear Energy Angeles.
Nuclear power provides about 40% of the energy for
Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. North Korea is
Human and Industrial Waste
thought not to have a single nuclear power facility.
Rapidly urbanizing countries like China have trouble
China plans to build over 100 nuclear plants. Japan
disposing of waste. Two-thirds of China’s cities do
has 54 nuclear reactors, South Korea has 19, and Tai-
not have clean, fresh water. Hundreds of millions of
wan 6 nuclear reactors.
people must boil their drinking water.
People in East Asia are concerned about nuclear
Industrial waste is linked to certain types of
radiation. There were nuclear accidents in Japan and
cancer. In 2000, China for the first time shut down a
South Korea in the 1990s. After a 1999 nuclear acci-
government-owned factory for environmental rea-
dent, Japan completed alternative wind- and solar-
sons—the metal factory in Shenyang was emitting
powered electricity generators. Some people are
toxic amounts of sulfur dioxide and other chemicals
concerned tectonic shifts could cause nuclear reactors
into the air, harming the health of nearby residents.
to crack and release radiation. The March 2011 tsu-
nami struck a nuclear facility in Fukushima, Japan,
Deforestation and Desertification
and caused a complete shutdown and radiation leaks.
China plants and cuts thousands of acres of forests to
meet its demand for lumber. Clear cutting timber
Human Impact
leads to deforestation and soil erosion. Trees slow rain
The impact of industrial and economic growth in
runoff. Without trees, flooding occurs. In the late
East Asia includes environmental damage, depletion
1990s, heavy rains caused the Chang Jiang and Hung
of natural resources, and health risks. China must
He Rivers to flood, altering the landscape, destroying
meet environmental challenges as it grows its indus-
property, and killing thousands of people.
tries and economy.

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 –eA st AsiA—HUmAn GeoGrApHy (pArt ii) –
China has begun planting trees on millions of
acres along deforested riverbanks.
Koreas and Taiwan
Negligent industrial controls have led to air and water
pollution in North Korean, South Korean, and Tai-
wanese cities. Untreated sewage contaminates water
supplies and threatens the health of humans and
wildlife.
Japan Leads the Cleanup
Japan’s environmental laws are among the world’s
strictest. Japan has urged other countries to reduce
emissions of carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), which destroy Earth’s protective ozone layer.
In 2002, Japan and other industrialized nations
signed the Kyoto Treaty and committed themselves
to reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Japan’s car-
bon dioxide emissions still increased by 8% over
1990 levels.
East Asia’s coastal waters, including the Inland
Sea, have been overfished. Many commercial fishing
companies are now fishing further off the coast in
international waters. Giant factory ships called super-
trawlers follow fishing fleets and quickly clean and
freeze large catches of fish. Harvesting large catches
leads to overfishing, so aquaculture, or cultivating
fish and other seafood, is emphasized.
Japan is internationally criticized for its whaling
practices. Overhunting for whale meat has caused the
whale population to seriously decline. Despite a 1986
international treaty limiting whale hunting, Japanese
fleets still steadfastly hunt them.
Future Challenges
Due to its location and physical geography, East Asia
faces challenges from natural disasters like floods and
earthquakes.
China’s Huang He and Chang Jiang can flood
disastrously. Flood control precautions include build-
ing networks of drainage and irrigation channels to
transport or redirect water, and constructing dikes,
176
GEOG_20_171-178.indd 176
levees, and dams. More than 30,000 of the dams built
in China in the 1950s and 1960s are defective and at
risk of failure. Severe flooding continues.
Construction of the Three Gorges Dam forced
the relocation of two million people, put farms, vil-
lages, and ancient temples under water, and destroyed
ecosystems. As the water rises, soil and chemical pol-
lutants in abandoned rivers may leach into the river.
East Asian countries will continue to face earth-
quakes like the ones that hit Taiwan in 1999 and Chi-
na’s Yunan Province in early 2000 and mid-2003.
Japan has over 1,500 small earthquakes a year.
Underwater earthquakes or volcanoes can trigger
tsunamis. In March 2011, a 9.0 magnitude earth-
quake triggered a tsunami that hit the northeast
coast of Japan, killing 25,000 people and causing bil-
lions of dollars in damage.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
1. ____ Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan have
command economies.
2. ____ China’s Great Leap Forward succeeded in
crop production.
3. ____ Japan and North Korea are agriculturally
self-supporting.
4. ____ When Soviet aid to North Korea stopped,
North Korea’s industrial production fell.
5. ____ Migration to urban areas in China is
increasing.
6. ____ Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan have
nationwide highway and railway networks.
1/5/12 1:29 PM
 –eA st AsiA—HUmAn GeoGrApHy (pArt ii) –

7. ____ In North Korea and China, communist Answers

governments control communications, the
media, and access to the Internet. 1. F
2. F
8. ____ The Kyoto Treaty, signed by Japan in 3. F
2002, marks a committment to reducing car- 4. T
bon dioxide emissions. 5. T
6. T
9. ____ Mongolia’s fertile soil has made it a lead- 7. T
ing world food producer. 8. T
9. F
10. ____ More than half of China’s cities do not 10. T
have clean fresh water.

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GEOG_20_171-178.indd 178 1/5/12 1:29 PM
 21 southeast
l e s s o n

asia—Physical
GeoGraPhy

Lesson summary
Southeast Asia is made up of the Asian continent south of
China and many islands north of Australia. Mainland
Southeast Asia stands between South Asia and East Asia.
The islands of Southeast Asia, or Maritime Southeast Asia,
curve in an arch from southwest to southeast of the main-
land. Most of the region’s islands belong to the countries
of Indonesia or the Philippines. These islands were formed
by the collision of Earth’s tectonic plates, so they have
many active volcanoes.

To travel in Europe is to assume a foreseen inheritance; in Islam, to inspect that of a close and familiar cousin. But
to travel in farther Asia is to discover a novelty previously unsuspected and unimaginable.
—Lord Byron

landforms

Millions of years ago the Eurasian, Philippine, and Indo-Australian tectonic plates collided and formed parallel
mountain ranges and plateaus called cordilleras. Tectonic activity including volcanoes created a group of islands
called archipelagoes.

Peninsulas and Islands

Southeast Asia runs 1,735,448 square miles along the equator and from the Asian mainland to Australia. The
southeast Asian mainland includes the Indochina Peninsula and the Malay Peninsula.

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 –southeast asia—Physical G eoGraPhy–
The Indochina Peninsula includes all of Viet-
nam, Laos, Cambodia, and Myanmar, and part of
Thailand. The peninsula is surrounded by the South
China Sea, the Gulf of Thailand, and Andaman Sea.
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Southeast Asia’s major rivers are located on the
Indochina Peninsula.
The northern portion of Indochina has a humid
subtropical climate. The southern part of Indochina
has tropical wet and tropical dry climates.
The Malay Peninsula includes parts of Thailand
and Malaysia. The peninsula is surrounded by the
Gulf of Thailand and the Strait of Malacca and has a
tropical wet climate.
The Malay Archipelago includes Indonesia, the
Philippines, Singapore, and most of Papua New
Guinea. With more than 25,000 islands, it is the larg-
est archipelago in the world. It is made up of several
smaller archipelagos, including the Philippines.
Mainland Southeast Asia
About half of Southeast Asia lies on the mainland; the
rest is islands.
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Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and Myanmar (for-
merly Burma) lie completely on the Indochina
Peninsula.
Most of Thailand lies on the Indochina Penin-
sula, but some of it trails south to the Malay Penin-
sula. Malaysia is a mainland and island country.
Malaysia shares the Malay Peninsula with Thailand.
The rest of Malaysia is located on the island of Bor-
neo and many other islands.
180
GEOG_21_179-186.indd 180
Maritime Southeast Asia
The insular, or island, countries of Southeast Asia are
a series of archipelagoes, or island chains, extending
from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. They
include Brunei, East Timor, Indonesia, Singapore,
and the Philippines. Many of the islands are not
inhabited and do not have names. Most of them have
a tropical wet climate.
Brunei, on the northern coast of Borneo, is
surrounded almost completely by Malaysia. Span-
ning some 2,200 miles, Brunei has two distinct,
nonadjacent regions: the mountainous west and the
lowland east.
Indonesia is the largest island country in the
region with 17,500 islands, of which approximately
6,000 are permanently settled. Temperatures in Indo-
nesia remain high year-round, with a wet season
between October and April.
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East Timor was once part of Indonesia, but is
now independent.
Singapore is made up of one large island and 62
smaller islands off the southern tip of the Malay Pen-
insula. The large island is roughly 270 square miles in
area, and a mere 50 feet above sea level. Only one
degree north of the equator, Singapore’s climate is
hot and humid with large amounts of rainfall all year.
With a total land area of more than 185,000
square miles, the Philippines are made up of some
7,000 islands. Over 95% of the people in the Philip-
pines reside on 11 of its islands; roughly half reside
on the island of Luzon. The Philippines have a tropi-
cal marine climate, with a rainy season from May
through December.
1/5/12 1:29 PM
 –southeast asia—Physical G eoGraPhy–
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Volcanic islands form when magma flows from
faults in Earth where it cools and hardens. The
hardened lava slowly builds itself up into a cone.
An active volcano eventually builds up enough
lava to rise above sea level and become an
island.
Mountains and Volcanoes
Mountains and volcanoes dominate the landscape of
Southeast Asia and create geographic and political
boundaries. The western and northern highlands of
Indochina’s Peninsula separate the region from India
and China.
To the south and east, three cordilleras, or
mountain ranges, on the mainland run parallel to
each other. These mountain ranges form natural bar-
riers between and within mainland countries. These
parallel ranges include the Arakan Yoma in western
Myanmar, the Bilauktaung between Myanmar and
Thailand, and the Annam Cordillera separating Viet-
nam from Laos and Cambodia.
Mountains on the islands of Southeast Asia
form part of the Ring of Fire, an area of volcanic and
earthquake activity surrounding the Pacific Ocean.
Some of the mountains in Southeast Asia are volca-
noes, and some are active.
More than 300 volcanoes stretch across Indone-
sia. The Indonesian island of Java is one of the most
active areas in the Ring of Fire. This geologic hot spot
has 21 of Indonesia’s 129 active volcanoes.
The 1883 eruption of Kratkatau in Indonesia
caused massive destruction and loss of life.
Java’s Gunung Merapi, or “Fire Mountain,” is
among the most active volcanoes in the world. When
Java’s tallest and most active volcano started spewing
toxic gas, volcanic ash, and molten lava in 2006, Indo-
nesian authorities put alert procedures and evacua-
tion plans into action. Volcanic activity is still
GEOG_21_179-186.indd 181
monitored in Java so the population can be warned
about a coming eruption.
In August 2010, Mount Sinabung in Indonesia,
just 40 miles from Sumatra’s main city, Medan,
erupted for the first time in 400 years.
tiP Use
this book.
Mineral-rich volcanic ash breaks down and
becomes rich fertile soil. The soil on these
islands makes many productive agricultural
areas.
The June 1991 volcanic eruption of Mount
Pinatubo in the Philippines was one of the most vio-
lent and destructive volcanic eruptions in the twenti-
eth century. The eruption created a large basinlike
depression that reduced the mountain’s size from
5,275 feet to 4,875 feet. The eruption caused inciner-
ation and destruction miles away. More than 300
people were killed.
Mayon Volcano erupted in 1993 and again in
2000. Mount Agung on the small Indonesian island
of Bali reaches 10,308 feet.
Plains and Plateaus
Hollowed-out stones, once used for storage by inhab-
itants, litter a plateau in Laos. The uplands of this
region are often lined by mountains.
water systems
Southeast Asia’s rivers provide food as well as trans-
portation and communication routes. Sediment
deposits make rich, fertile soils.
Mainland rivers originate in the northern
highlands of Southeast Asia and southern China.
Major rivers are the Irrawaddy River in Myanmar,
181
1/5/12 1:29 PM
 –southeast asia—Physical G eoGraPhy–
the Chao Phraya River in Thailand, and the Red
River in Vietnam.
The 2,600-mile-long Mekong River begins in
China and flows along the border of Thailand and
Laos before entering Vietnam to form a large delta.
Sediment deposits build up the shoreline of the
Mekong Delta by as much as 50 feet a year.
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The Mekong is the longest of Southeast Asia’s
five major rivers.
Southeast Asia’s island rivers are shorter than
those on the mainland and they flow in various
directions.
natural resources
Southeast Asia’s natural resources are just as varied as
its physical features. Fossil fuels, minerals, and gems
are some of the region’s natural resources. The flora
and fauna of Southeast Asia are valuable resources
and some of the world’s most diverse.
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Some traditional workers in Vietnam use rakes to
gather salt that has precipitated from seawater.
Fossil Fuels
Southeast Asia has large supplies of coal, oil, and nat-
ural gas. Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Vietnam
export large amounts of oil. Indonesia was a member
of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) until 2008.
182
GEOG_21_179-186.indd 182
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Oil and natural gas deposits off Borneo’s north-
ern coast have made the sultan, or ruler, of Bru-
nei one of the world’s wealthiest people.
Ownership disputes have stopped oil and natu-
ral gas exploration off the coast of the Spratly Islands
in the South China Sea. Coal comes from Vietnam
and the Philippines.
Minerals and Gems
Southeast Asia has abundant mineral reserves. Indo-
nesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Laos are leading tin
producers and exporters. Indonesia mines nickel and
iron and the Philippines mines copper.
Gems provide income for Southeast Asia. Pearls
are harvested in the waters off the Philippines. Sap-
phires and rubies are found in Myanmar, Thailand,
Cambodia, and Vietnam.
Most countries take advantage of nature’s
wealth. Some countries have untapped, underdevel-
oped, or mismanaged resources: Myanmar is rich in
zinc, jade, rubies, and sapphires, but decades of mili-
tary rule and government control of key industries in
Myanmar have led to mismanagement of natural
resources and a black market.
Flora and Fauna
Southeast Asia’s plant life is exotic and diverse. The
amazing Rafflesia arnoldii, with a three-foot blos-
som, is the world’s largest flower. Thailand cultivates
over 1,000 species of orchids. The flowers are a valu-
able trade commodity. Workers tap rubber trees in
Malaysia and process woods like teak from Myanmar
for export.
Southeast Asia’s fauna is distinctive and varied.
Wildlife sanctuaries and national parks in Southeast
Asia have roaming elephants, tigers, rhinoceros, and
orangutans. Southeast Asia has animals—like Bor-
1/5/12 1:29 PM
 –southeast asia—Physical G eoGraPhy–
neo’s bearded pig, Malaysia’s lacewing butterfly, and
the Komodo dragon—that cannot be found any-
where else in the world.
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The Komodo dragon, native to Indonesia, is the
world’s largest lizard.
Some of these animals are endangered, or at risk
of extinction. Sanctuaries and national parks have
helped protect endangered species in some countries.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. The Philippine and Indo-Australian tectonic
plates collided and formed parallel mountain
ranges and plateaus called ___________.
2. The ___________ Peninsula includes parts of
Thailand and Malaysia.
3. Maritime Southeast Asia includes many smaller
___________ extending from the Indian Ocean
to the Pacific Ocean.
4. The western and northern highlands of the
___________ Peninsula separate Southeast
Asia from India and China.
5. This geologic hot spot of ___________ has 21
of Indonesia’s 129 active volcanoes.
6. ___________ deposits make rich, fertile soils in
Southeast Asia.
7. The ___________ is the longest of Southeast
Asia’s five major rivers.
GEOG_21_179-186.indd 183
8. Southeast Asia’s ample fossil fuel reserves
include coal, oil, and natural ___________.
9. Sapphires, rubies, and ___________ are har-
vested in Southeast Asia.
10. The ___________ dragon of Indonesia is the
world’s largest lizard.
climate and Vegetation
Southeast Asia’s climates support many diverse eco-
systems and natural habitats, some of which have dis-
appeared or are endangered due to urbanization and
logging.
Moist summer monsoons blow in from the
south, bringing abundant rain. Exotic tropical flowers
perfume the air of Southeast Asia.
Tropical Regions
Southeast Asia’s extensive tropical climates support
diverse ecosystems. Island Southeast Asia mostly has
a tropical wet climate. Most parts of the mainland
and some parts of the islands have a tropical dry or
humid subtropical climate.
Tropical Wet Climate
The islands and coastal areas of Southeast Asia have
little temperature variation and mostly wet condi-
tions all year. With an average temperature of 79°F,
humidity of 80–90%, and rainfall between 79 and
188 inches, Southeast Asia is hot, humid, and rainy.
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The summit of Mount Isarog in southern Luzon
in the Philippines sometimes receives 468 inches
of rain a year.
183
1/5/12 1:29 PM
 –southeast asia—Physical G eoGraPhy–
The tropical wet climate of Southeast Asia sup-
ports a diverse ecosystem. The Malaysian rain forest
with triple canopies and broadleaf evergreen trees
dates back millions of years. Between river valleys and
higher elevations are several layers of vegetation. Peat
swamp forests dominate river valleys. Sandy coastal
soil supports shrubs and mangrove swamp forests
cover tidal mudflats. Lowlands with poor or shallow
soil support forests of tall trees with leathery ever-
green leaves. Some of these trees produce an aromatic
organic resin compound.
The tropical wet climate makes parts of South-
east Asia particularly subject to large numbers of
storm-induced flash floods. The rivers of mainland
Southeast Asia have seasonal flooding each year. A
cyclone is an area of low atmospheric pressure sur-
rounded by circulating winds extending out 10 to
1,000 miles. A typhoon is a tropical cyclone formed
in the Pacific Ocean near the equator. Typhoons, like
the one that hit the Philippines in 2006, can have
winds of 150 to 180 mph, with rain and high ocean
waves.
On December 26, 2004, an earthquake in the
Indian Ocean created a tsunami that left 225,000 peo-
ple dead and millions homeless. Banda Aceh, Indone-
sia, experienced massive destruction.
Singapore
Singapore has transformed from a mostly dense rain
forest surrounded by mangrove trees to a sprawling
urban area. Natural habitats and endemic, or native,
species are gone. Most trees and shrubs in Singapore
were imported from places like Central and South
America.
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The few, small portions of Singapore’s rain forest
that have survived are now part of larger for-
profit attractions.
184
GEOG_21_179-186.indd 184
Tropical Dry Climate
A tropical dry (winter) climate sweeps southeast
across the Indochina Peninsula and southeastern
parts of Indonesia. Wet and dry seasons alternate.
The vegetation includes tropical grasslands with scat-
tered trees and a few forests.
On the mainland from May to September, sum-
mer monsoons bring rain. Winter dry season lasts
from November to April. The first few months of this
time frame are cool, but the last few months are hot.
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South of the equator in southern Indonesia, the
wet and dry seasons occur in reverse. From May
to September, South Pacific trade winds bring
the hot dry season.
Monsoons bring rain from November until
April. Because winds blow rain to and away from land
at different times of the year, the islands frequently
have rain on one side part of the year, and on the
other side the other part of the year.
Midlatitude Regions
Humid subtropical and highland climates in the mid-
latitude regions of Southeast Asia support a variety of
vegetation. Parts of the mainland of Southeast Asia,
including most of Laos, a small portion of Thailand,
and northern Myanmar and Vietnam, have a humid
subtropical climate. From November to April, cool
dry temperatures average 61°F.
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The elevated Shan Plateau in Myanmar resembles
a cool climate and is called “tropical Scotland.”
1/5/12 1:29 PM
 –southeast asia—Physical G eoGraPhy–

Highland climates predominate in mountainous answers

areas of Myanmar, New Guinea, and Borneo. Cooler
temperatures support deciduous forests with moss- 1. Cordilleras
covered tree trunks on lower slopes. These deciduous 2. Malay
trees lose their leaves in autumn. Evergreen coniferous 3. Archipelagoes
forests stand on higher elevations. In the highland cli- 4. Indochina
mate of Myanmar, there are forests of rhodendrons. 5. Java
6. Sediment
Practice 7. Mekong
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true 8. Gas
or false, based on what you’ve read. 9. Pearls
10. Komodo
11. ____ In Southeast Asia, mangrove swamp for- 11. F
ests cover plateaus. 12. T
13. F
12. ____ Highland climates exist in New Guinea,
14. F
Borneo, and Myanmar.
15. F
16. T
13. ____ The Malaysian rain forest has only single
17. T
tree canopies.
18. F
14. ____ Parts of Southeast Asia experience below- 19. F
freezing temperatures through much of the 20. T
winter.

15. ____ In the humid subtropical climate of Viet-

nam, winter temperatures remain above 70°F
on average.

16. ____ Rhodendrons, evergreen trees, and mosses

can be found in the highlands of Southeast Asia.

17. ____ The world’s largest flower has three-foot

blossoms and grows in Southeast Asia.

18. ____ Moist summer monsoons blow in from

the north bringing abundant rain.

19. ____ The islands of Southeast Asia have a trop-

ical dry climate.

20. ____ The heavily urbanized Singapore we

know today was once a land covered with tropi-
cal rain forests and mangrove trees.

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GEOG_21_179-186.indd 186 1/5/12 1:29 PM
 22 southeast
l e s s o n

asia—human
GeoGraphy

Lesson summary
Southeast Asia has a large number of ethnic groups with
their own languages and cultures. The region stands at
the crossroads of South Asia and East Asia, so it has been
influenced by various cultures. Arab traders introduced
people in Southeast Asia to Islam. The countries of South-
east Asia are industrializing and urbanizing at different
rates. Rich in natural resources, Southeast Asia faces a
variety of environmental problems.

I don’t have any formula for ousting a dictator or building democracy. All I can suggest is to forget about yourself
and just think of your people. It’s always the people who make things happen.
—Corazon Aquino, president of the Philippines 1986–1992

Countries

Brunei Indonesia Myanmar Thailand

Cambodia Laos Philippines Vietnam
East Timor Malaysia Singapore

187

GEOG_22_187-198.indd 187 1/5/12 1:30 PM

 –southeast asia—human GeoGraphy–
mainland southeast asia
Settlement patterns and regional conflicts have influ-
enced the cultures of mainland Southeast Asia. The
people have been influenced by ancient migrations,
cultural and political changes, and the blending of
traditional and modern lifestyles. Some decades-old
conflicts remain, but mainland Southeast Asia retains
its timeless beauty and diverse cultures.
Population Patterns
The population patterns of mainland Southeast Asia
have been shaped by migrations and conflicts.
People
There have been humans in Southeast Asia for tens of
thousands of years. Migrants from western China
and eastern Tibet settled the region about 2,500 years
ago. On the mainland, the Khmers first settled in
Cambodia and Vietnam. The Khmers then migrated
into Vietnam, where they now make up about 90% of
the population. Some people migrated from China to
Vietnam.
The Mons, native to lower Burma, were invaded
by the Burma ruler in 1757. The survivors of the mas-
sacre fled to Thailand. Today the Mons are integrated
into the cultures of Myanmar and Thailand. The
Mons integrated into Burmese culture. The Thai peo-
ple of Thailand descend from the people of southwest
China. The Lao people descended from the Thai peo-
ple who moved into what is today Laos.
Density and Distribution
In Southeast Asia, population densities vary. Laos
has 65 people per square mile, while Vietnam has
650 people per square mile. Bangkok, Hanoi, Yangon
(Rangoon), Phnom Penh, and Ho Chi Minh City
each have populations of more than 1 million peo-
ple. Population is concentrated in river valleys and
coastal plains where there is water, fertile land, trans-
portation, and jobs. People in Southeast Asia are
188
GEOG_22_187-198.indd 188
moving to cities to escape political conflict, and to
seek jobs and education.
Primate cities serve a country’s ports and eco-
nomic centers, and are often the capital city. The pri-
mate city of Bangkok has grown by more than 5
million people since 1991. Since the 1970s, there has
been much external migration from mainland South-
east Asia. Between 1975 and 1990, thousands left
Vietnam and Laos to flee political oppression and
economic crisis. Many skilled and educated workers,
needed to sustain economic growth in Southeast Asia,
migrated to the United States.
History and Government
Ancient histories and modern political conflicts in
mainland Southeast Asia continue to shape the
region. European colonial rule led to struggles for
independence and democracy that still influence
Southeast Asia today.
Early Civilizations
Early peoples of Southeast Asia were highly skilled
farmers. Rice was their main staple, as it is today.
They were advanced metalworkers.
Southeast Asian cultural traditions, like the
worship of ancestors and animal and nature spirits,
or animism, developed around the same time.
Ancient Southeast Asia had matriarchal societies—
power and wealth were passed down through the
mother’s family.
Funan Kingdom
Traders from India set up trading posts along the
Gulf of Thailand during the a.d. 100s. People along
the gulf combined Indian traditions with their own
and formed the Kingdom of Funan. People in Funan
adopted Hinduism and the Indian idea of centralized
government under one powerful ruler. Funan was a
great maritime power, engaging in trade with India,
China, and Persia.
1/5/12 1:30 PM
 –southeast asia—human GeoGraphy–

Khmer Empire labor, European owners hired many Indian and

Organized agriculture brought wealth to mainland Chinese immigrants who settled permanently in
Southeast Asia. In the 1100s and 1200s, the Khmer Southeast Asia.
Empire used a complex system of lakes, canals, and
irrigation channels to grow three or four crops of rice Struggles for Freedom
a year. After World War II, Southeast Asians fought for their
independence. By 1965, every country in Southeast
Asia had won its struggle for freedom from at least
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one colonial ruler. Some countries suffered from con-
tinuing instability. Myanmar’s military overthrew its
Magnificent Khmer architecture like the government in the 1980s and instituted harsh mili-
800-year-old temple of Angkor Wat was tary rule known as martial law over civilians.
designed to mirror the home of Hindu gods.
War in Vietnam
In 1954, communist rebels under Ho Chi Minh
Vietnam
defeated the French in Vietnam. The Geneva Peace
The Vietnamese people controlled most of the Indo-
Accord divided the country into communist North
china Peninsula until 111 b.c. The Chinese then con-
Vietnam and non-communist South Vietnam. Hun-
quered the area and held it until the early a.d. 900s.
dreds of thousands of people left Vietnam during a
The Chinese introduced their system of writing and
grace period after the accord was signed. To stop the
ideas about philosophy and government to Vietnam.
spread of communism into South Vietnam, the
United States supported South Vietnam beginning in
Western Colonization
1962 by committing thousands of armed forces. An
By the 1500s, Europeans were trading, spreading
estimated 3 million Vietnamese were killed, including
Christianity, and claiming territory in Southeast Asia.
up to 2 million civilians. The United States left Viet-
They set up agreed-upon areas of control called
nam to a unified communist government in 1975.
spheres of influence. Later, Europeans established
colonies in Southeast Asia. The Kingdom of Siam
Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge
(now Thailand) served as a buffer state between rival
Communist forces called the Khmer Rouge took over
British and French powers.
Cambodia in 1975. They forced people out of cities
and towns and onto farms. People were not prepared
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Siam was the only territory in Southeast Asia to didUse

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it faithfully, and
remain free of European rule.

Over 1 million Cambodians died from overwork,

disease, starvation, or execution at the hands of
In the early 1900s, the Netherlands, the United
the communist Khmer Rouge.
Kingdom, France, and the United States replaced
small farms with large plantations in Southeast
Asia to make huge profits. To meet the need for

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 –southeast asia—human GeoGraphy–
Culture and Society
Mainland Southeast Asia today reflects the many gen-
erations of various cultures in the region. In Vietnam,
for example, Chinese, Hmong, Thai, Khmer, Man,
and Chan cultural traditions exist alongside Viet-
namese culture.
Education and Healthcare
After World War II, literacy and education expanded
in mainland Southeast Asia. Laos reorganized its
educational system in the mid-1970s and literacy
improved. Cambodia still faces a shortage of funds,
supplies, and trained teachers.
Mainland Southeast Asia has inadequate health-
care unevenly distributed across the mainland. Most
countries and rural areas in the region lack medicine
and necessary sanitation. Gastrointestinal diseases,
tuberculosis, malaria, and lately, avian flu, have been
epidemic. Cambodia, Thailand, and Myanmar have
high rates of HIV infection and AIDS.
Language and Religion
Most of the hundreds of languages in the region are
part of the Sino-Tibetan or Mon-Khmer families.
Urban residents of Vietnam speak Vietnamese,
Chinese dialects, French, or English. The languages of
Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand are tonal. Pitch varia-
tions help people distinguish between similarly pro-
nounced words. Most people in Myanmar speak
Burmese. Over 95% of Cambodians speak Khmer.
East Indian traders brought Hinduism and
Buddhism to Southeast Asia, and Arab traders
brought Islam. Buddhism is the major religion in
Southeast Asia.
Many people with Chinese ancestry follow Con-
fucianism or Taoism. Religions mingle in Southeast
Asia. In Vietnam, people blend Buddhism, Confu-
cianism, and in some cases, Catholicism.
190
GEOG_22_187-198.indd 190
maritime southeast asia
Indigenous and outside cultures have influenced the
thousands of islands of Southeast Asia. The islands
span oceans and seas and have a mix of traditional
and modern cultures. As these islands modernize and
share in the global economy, they attempt to main-
tain their cultural traditions.
Population Patterns
Migration and trade have shaped population patterns
in Island Southeast Asia. The Southeast Asian islands
of Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, Singapore, East
Timor, and the Philippines have sparsely populated
mountainous island interiors and densely populated
coastal areas.
People
The islands and peninsulas of Southeast Asia have
about 360 million people from various ethnic groups.
Many are descendants of people who came from the
mainland. The indigenous people of Malaysia, the
Malays, first settled Indonesia before arriving on the
Malay Peninsula.
Valuable spices attracted traders to the islands
of Southeast Asia. In about a.d. 1000, merchants
from India brought Hindu and Buddhist religions,
art forms, and government that glorified kings. Trad-
ers and soldiers from China influenced Brunei,
Malaysia, and Singapore, where 77% of the current
population has Chinese ancestry. In the a.d. 800s,
Arab traders brought Islam; the religion spread
widely. In the 1400s and 1500s, European traders
influenced Southeast Asia.
Density and Distribution
The people of Southeast Asia live mostly on coastal
plains where there are food, jobs, and transportation.
Some islands have very high population densities.
Java has an amazing 2,375 people per square mile.
Singapore, Southeast Asia’s smallest country, has an
incredible 18,513 people per square mile.
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 –southeast asia—human GeoGraphy–
People are migrating from rural areas to the cit-
ies of Southeast Asia for better economic and educa-
tional opportunities. The Indonesian trend toward
urbanization can be seen in its capital of Jakarta; over
10 million people live in this city on the island of
Java. To reduce overcrowding, Indonesia’s govern-
ment has relocated millions of people to the coun-
try’s less densely populated outer islands.
History and Government
The location of Southeast Asia’s islands has played an
important role in the region’s history. Trade has
always influenced the development of Southeast
Asia’s islands.
Early History
From Sumatra, the Srivijaya Empire controlled the seas
bordering Southeast Asia from a.d. 600 to 1300. The
empire acquired wealth by taxing passing trade ships.
Singapore uses the same trade routes today.
Indian and Muslim Arab merchants and mis-
sionaries shaped the islands of Southeast Asia. Many
people on the islands adopted Islamic ways and con-
verted. Islam quickly spread from the coast to interior
areas of the Malay Peninsula and to neighboring
islands. In the 1400s, Malacca on the Malay Peninsula
was an important seaport and cultural center.
Colonization and Freedom
In the early 1900s, when European countries started
colonizing Southeast Asia, the Netherlands claimed
most of the islands that today make up Indonesia and
called them the Dutch East Indies. The United King-
dom controlled what are now Singapore and Brunei.
The United States gained control of the Philippines
following a war with Spain in 1898.
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Over 1 million Filipinos died when Japan invaded
the Philippines during World War II.
GEOG_22_187-198.indd 191
After World War II, the United States granted
the Philippines independence. The Philippines and
many other Southeast Asian countries faced years of
fighting between communist and conservative forces.
On the islands of Southeast Asia, some ethnic
groups have struggled for independence. With assis-
tance from the United Nations, East Timor became
fully independent in 2002.
In 1998, Indonesia moved toward democracy
after years of dictatorship. The Philippine govern-
ment, also a democracy, has struggled with corrup-
tion, coup attempts, and debt. Singapore follows the
structure of a parliamentary republic, but has been
ruled by the same party for more than 50 years. Laos
and Vietnam are communist states. Brunei, Cambo-
dia, Malaysia, and Thailand are constitutional mon-
archies. The region’s monarchs have varying levels of
power. The sultan of Brunei has almost complete
power, while Cambodia’s king is limited by a demo-
cratically elected legislature.
Culture and Society
Maritime Southeast Asia’s location at the crossroads
of important trade routes led to its being influenced
by a variety of cultures. The region has added new
ideas to its indigenous cultural traditions.
Education and Healthcare
On the islands of Southeast Asia, education levels
have increased since independence. Most children in
Indonesia now attend primary school. In Indonesia
and Malaysia, the literacy rate is about 88%. In the
Philippines, Singapore, and Brunei, the literacy rate is
about 93%.
Healthcare is better on the islands than the
mainland of Southeast Asia. In Indonesia and Malay-
sia, the government provides most modern health-
care services, although they are usually better in cities.
Singapore states that the quality of its healthcare is as
good as that of developed countries.
191
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 –southeast asia—human GeoGraphy–
Language and Religion
Indonesia has over 300 ethnic groups with over 250
distinct languages. Colonization added new lan-
guages to the islands of Southeast Asia. English and
Spanish are common in the Philippines. Due to the
importance of global trade, Singapore’s official lan-
guages are Chinese, Malay, Tamil, and English.
The practice of Islam is widespread across the
islands of Southeast Asia.
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Indonesia has the largest population—
202,867,000—of Muslims in the world according
to a 2009 study by the Pew Research Center.
As a result of Spanish colonization, most people
in the Philippines are Roman Catholic. Many South-
east Asians of Chinese descent follow Confucianism
or Taoism.
Arts
The ancient art and architecture of India and China
influenced Southeast Asia. The stunning Buddhist
shrine of Borobudur in Indonesia was built of gray
volcanic stone around a.d. 800. Each level of the
shrine is connected by stairs that symbolize the stages
of the Buddha’s journey to enlightenment. The soar-
ing Petronas Towers of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,
blend traditional and modern styles of architecture.
Traditional dances of Southeast Asia often use
religious themes. On the Indonesian island of Bali,
young women perform a dance called the Legong.
Puppet plays using historical and religious charac-
ters to tell tales are popular in many parts of South-
east Asia.
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GEOG_22_187-198.indd 192
Leisure and Celebrations
Popular culture in Singapore is based on modern
mass media such as films from Hong Kong, Taiwan,
and the United States. Badminton and soccer are
popular in Indonesia.
Religious festivals and state and national holi-
days are celebrated throughout Southeast Asia. In
Indonesia, most government and private organiza-
tions observe national holidays such as the Chinese
New Year and the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. ___________ has the largest Muslim popula-
tion in the world.
2. ___________ is the most modern and crowded
country in Southeast Asia.
3. Following European colonization,
___________ occupied the islands of
Southeast Asia.
4. Europeans changed the economies of the
islands from small farms to large ___________
plantations
5. India brought the Hindu and ___________
religions to Southeast Asia.
6. ___________ cities like Bangkok serve a coun-
try’s ports and economic centers, and are often
the capital city.
7. Arab traders brought the religion of
___________ to Southeast Asia.
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 –southeast asia—human GeoGraphy–
8. The ___________ Rouge were harsh commu-
nist rulers in Cambodia.
9. Southeast Asian civilizations developed on
___________ or around strategic ports.
10. ___________ has always been the main staple
crop of Southeast Asia
economy
Southeast Asia’s fertile soil, warm climate, and rich
mineral deposits affect the region’s economic activi-
ties. War and political changes have affected eco-
nomic growth in Southeast Asia. Still, some countries
are rapidly developing and industrializing.
In the past 20 years, Vietnam’s government
loosened economic control. Its economy has made
notable progress through moi, or renovation.
Many countries in Southeast Asia are industri-
alizing. Still, most people continue to make their liv-
ing in agriculture. More than 75% of people in Laos
are farmers.
Rice Cultivation
More than half the region’s arable land is used to
grow rice. Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, and Myan-
mar are its top rice producers. Thailand and Vietnam
are the world’s leading rice exporters. Rice grows well
in Southeast Asia because of the abundant water sup-
ply, fertile volcanic and alluvial soil, and warm, wet
climate.
Seasonal flooding of the Mekong and Chao
Praya Rivers irrigate rice paddies, the flooded fields
where rice grows. Rainwater allows rice to grow in
Myanmar’s Irrawaddy River delta and in parts of the
Philippines.
Rice farming is difficult without modern
machinery. Most farmers plant and harvest crops by
hand using simple tools such as long, sharp, curved
knives called sickles. Water buffalo or oxen are tradi-
GEOG_22_187-198.indd 193
tionally used to pull plows, but some farmers now use
engine-powered plows.
Other Crops
In drier areas of Southeast Asia, yams, corn,
bananas, and cassava are grown. Indonesian farm-
ers grow the edible cassava root because it is easier
to grow than rice.
Plantations on the coastal lowlands provide
cash crops.
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Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia lead the world
in rubber production.
On a stretch of land 700 miles long on each side
of the equator called the rubber belt, large planta-
tions grow the world’s best rubber trees. Java and the
Philippines grow sugarcane. Regional exports include
coffee, palm oil, coconuts, and spices.
Fish Farming
Since people in Southeast Asia consume twice the
world average in seafood, fish remains an important
part of the regional economy. Large fleets of trawlers
compete with traditional fisherman and small opera-
tions. Fish yield has increased, but overfishing became
a concern. World demand for seafood has decreased,
so excessive fishing has leveled off.
Forestry and Mining
Forestry (logging, transporting timber, and manufac-
turing finished wood products) is important to many
Southeast Asian countries. Teak, ebony, and bamboo
lumber and finished products are essential to the
economies of Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia,
and Thailand. Logging has increased deforestation.
Many countries are working to make economic and
environmental goals compatible.
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 –southeast asia—human GeoGraphy–
There are rich mineral deposits beneath the
mountains of Southeast Asia. Malaysia, Thailand, and
Indonesia are leading producers of tin. Malaysia and
the Philippines extract iron ore.
Malaysia and Indonesia have large petroleum
and natural gas reserves. Almost half of Brunei’s
export income comes from crude oil, natural gas, and
petroleum products.
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Indonesia is Southeast Asia’s largest petroleum
producer. It was the only Asian member country
in OPEC until it withdrew in 2008.
The Indonesian government has reserved large
areas of Papua for resource development. Located on
the western side of New Guinea, Papua has timber
resources and rich mineral lodes, or deposits. Most
of the people in Papua are poor. Proponents of inde-
pendence claim the Indonesian government has
allowed foreigners to extract resources while invest-
ing very little to improve health, education, and pub-
lic services.
transportation
and Communications
Methods of transportation and distribution of
communications vary across Southeast Asia. Trans-
portation and communications are affected by
physical features, industrialization, and economic
development.
Southeast Asia’s rivers, long coastlines, islands,
and peninsulas make water transportation the most
common form of transport for people and goods.
Overflowing rivers can make travel difficult.
Southeast Asia has long been the crossroads of
major ocean routes. Most shipping today between
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GEOG_22_187-198.indd 194
Europe and East Asia passes through the Strait of
Malacca near Singapore.
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Singapore’s strategic location makes it a pros-
perous free port where goods can be unloaded,
stored, and reshipped without paying import
taxes, tariffs, or duties.
Haiphong, Vietnam; Bangkok, Thailand; Ja-
karta, Indonesia; and Manila, Philippines are also
important regional ports.
Because of different levels of economic devel-
opment, the quality of land transportation varies
across Southeast Asia. Cambodia lacks resources to
build an effective highway network. With more suc-
cessful economies, Singapore, Malaysia, and Thai-
land can fund road improvements and build urban
rail systems.
Highways and railroads on Southeast Asia’s
peninsulas and large islands only link major cities.
Paved roads in urban centers are overflowing with
trucks, automobiles, motorcycles, and buses. In most
of rural Southeast Asia, rugged terrain, forests, and
seas separating islands make travel difficult.
people and environment
Industrialization and economic development in
Southeast Asia have polluted the air, land, and water,
and destroyed valuable natural resources. Population
growth and urbanization have contributed to envi-
ronmental problems in the region. Poverty and polit-
ical conflict make these challenges more difficult as
people are forced to choose between personal survival
and environmental conservation.
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 –southeast asia—human GeoGraphy–
Urban Environments
Southeast Asia’s increased prosperity raised people’s
quality of life expectations, but economic growth
siphons off limited resources. Industries and manu-
facturing raise standards of living and create indus-
trial waste.
tip Use
this book.
Growing populations and crowding in Bangkok,
Jakarta, and Manila raise housing, sanitation,
water, and traffic control issues.
Bangkok is a bustling factory city, with sky-
scrapers and expressway traffic jams. The large popu-
lation increases and expansion of industry have raised
Bangkok’s temperature, humidity, and pollution lev-
els faster than the global average. Health problems are
on the rise in Bangkok.
Rural Environments
Pollution extends into rural areas and national parks
in parts of Southeast Asia. Poor waste disposal con-
taminated most of the freshwater wells in one of
Thailand’s national parks. The dumping of toxic
waste is a problem.
The clearing of land for farming and the timber
industry sometimes causes forest fires. Indonesian
forest fires have sent a haze of dust, ash, sulfur diox-
ide, and carbon dioxide into the air and caused respi-
ratory problems for people as far away as mainland
Malaysia.
Managing Resources
Southeast Asia’s natural resources are economically
important, but governments must find ways to
develop their economies without further destroying
resources.
GEOG_22_187-198.indd 195
Minerals, metals, and rain forest timber are
Southeast Asia’s most valuable resources and sources
of income.
Reforestation and Conservation
Southeast Asian countries have recently taken steps
to protect their environments. To stop further loss of
rain forests, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia,
and Thailand have limited certain timber exports
and started reforestation programs. Enforcement
has been a problem and illegal logging is reducing
forests. A variety of biodiverse environments and
plant and animal species are in danger of being lost
within a few years.
In the 1980s, Indonesia planned to set aside
large portions of the country as environmental con-
servation areas. The government abandoned the plan
and granted logging rights to timber companies amid
political turmoil.
Southeast Asian governments are beginning
to deal with the impact of urban growth on the
environment.
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Because of industrialization, overcrowding, and
expanded use of automobiles and other vehi-
cles, Bangkok, Thailand, is called an urban heat
island.
Possible solutions to this problem include creat-
ing “green zones” of environmental protection within
cities. Another idea is banning the construction of tall
buildings near the sea so winds can blow into the city
and provide ventilation.
Human Impact
Human activities have had a negative impact on the
environment, natural resources, and wildlife of
Southeast Asia. Industrialization, population growth,
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 –southeast asia—human GeoGraphy–
and economic development have caused pollution
and the destruction of natural resources. Whether
commuting through traffic in a busy city or control-
ling floodwaters to protect a cash crop, Southeast
Asians are challenged to work in harmony with their
environment.
Timber and Agriculture Industries
Malaysia, Thailand, Laos, and Myanmar rely on teak
and other timber for income. Since the 1960s, com-
mercial logging companies have set up modern log-
ging processes and provided training and jobs for
many Southeast Asians. Economies have benefited,
but the region’s forests have been diminished.
Mining Industry
The mining of metals and minerals has led to envi-
ronmental abuses. At Indonesia’s largest gold mine
waste is dumped into the Akjwa River in Papua.
Dumping diverts the river from its course and dis-
places people.
Fishing Trade
Coral reefs, like tropical rain forests, have amazing
biodiversity. Local people use poisons and explosives
to capture certain types of fish in demand at Asian
restaurants and the world’s aquariums. Live reef-fish
trade generates huge profits, but destroys the reefs.
Once the reefs are gone, local communities lose their
primary food source.
Shipping and Trade
For centuries, the lower Mekong River has been one
of Southeast Asia’s major water highways. Shallow
water and rapids have made travel in the upper
Mekong dangerous. In 1992, China started the Upper
Mekong Navigation Improvement Project, which is
deepening and widening the river and building dams
upstream to increase the river’s shipping capacity.
The navigation plan should bring needed economic
benefits, but critics wonder about the impact on local
fisheries and agriculture.
196
GEOG_22_187-198.indd 196
Future Challenges
Due to Southeast Asia’s location, countries in the
region face continuing challenges from natural
disasters.
Floods and Typhoons
Each year in Southeast Asia, hundreds of people are
killed and millions of crop acres are destroyed by
storm-induced flash floods. Human activity magni-
fies the effects of floods—in the Philippines in 1991
and 1995, so much forest had been cleared there were
widespread runoff and mudslides.
The rivers of mainland Southeast Asia have sea-
sonal flooding each year. Built on unstable land,
Bangkok is facing a constant threat of flooding.
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Some parts of Bangkok are sinking more than 25
inches a year.
Mount Pinatubo and Evacuation
The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines
in June 1991 killed more than 300 people and caused
damage up to 11 miles away. Volcanic fallout ren-
dered 212,511 acres of farmland and fishponds infer-
tile. More than 100,000 people were left homeless.
Healthcare facilities, airports, schools, and a U.S. air
base were damaged and closed. Fine particles called
aerosols were released into the upper atmosphere; the
haze lasted for three years. Weather patterns across
the globe were affected. Global temperatures dropped
nearly 1°F and the amount of sunlight reaching Earth
was reduced.
Scientists had predicted Mount Pinatubo’s
eruption and the authorities were prepared. Effective
monitoring of the volcano prior to eruption allowed
for the government’s successful evacuation of 60,000
Filippinos and 18,000 American military workers and
their families at a nearby base. The evacuation saved
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 –southeast asia—human GeoGraphy–

thousands of lives as mud slides, a common occur- 16. ____ Minerals, metals, and rain forest timber
rence following volcanic eruptions, engulfed nearby are Southeast Asia’s most valuable resources
villages. and sources of income.

Other Volcanic Eruptions 17. ____ Sustainable development is not impor-

Bali’s Mount Agung erupted in 1963. The Balinese
people worship the volcano as the sacred hallmark of
their faith and leave food and flower offerings on the
crater’s rim. Despite the eruption that took over 1,500
lives, many Balinese people risk their lives and prop-
erty to live near Mount Agung.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
11. ____ The Vietnamese government still strictly
controls the country’s economy.
tant for natural resource management.
18. ____ Creating “green zones” and limiting tall
building near coastlines may help urban heat
islands like Thailand.
19. ____ Economic growth siphons off limited
resources.
20. ____ Air and water pollution, deforestation,
and toxic waste dumping are naturally occur-
ring problems in Southeast Asia.

12. ____ Southeast Asia is a leading producer of

rubber.

13. ____ Indonesia lacks valuable fossil fuels.

14. ____ Most shipping today between Europe and

East Asia passes through the Strait of Hormuz
near Singapore.

15. ____ Healthcare is better on mainland South-

east Asia than on the islands.

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 –southeast asia—human GeoGraphy–

answers 10. Rice

11. F
1. Indonesia 12. T
2. Singapore 13. F
3. Japan 14. F
4. Commercial 15. F
5. Buddhism 16. T
6. Primate 17. F
7. Islam 18. T
8. Khmer 19. T
9. Waterways 20. F

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 AustrAliA And

23
new ZeAlAnd,
l e s s o n

oceAniA, And
AntArcticA—
PhysicAl
GeoGrAPhy
Lesson summary
Australia, Oceania in the South Pacific, and Antarctica are
extremely different. The Australian Outback is dry. In the
South Pacific, there are volcanic islands. Antarctica is a
cold ice cap. Each of these subregions offers unique
opportunities for economic growth, tourism, and scientific
research.

For we are as connected to the planet as the corals are to the algae living within them.
—Jean-Michel Cousteau, in the 2003 documentary Coral Reef Adventure

Australia

Australians have adapted to life in a country with large expanses of dry, flat land. At the same time, it is sur-
rounded by water like an island. Australia’s physical environment contributes in various ways to the country’s
economy.

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 –AustrA liA And new ZeAlAnd, oceAniA, And AntArcticA—PhysicAl G eoGr APhy–

Central Lowlands
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The arid grassland and desert of the Central Low-
lands in east central Australia separate the Great
Australia is the only place in the world that is a Dividing Range from the Western Plateau. Lakes and
continent and country. It is the smallest of the rivers in the Central Lowlands are dry most of the
continents, but the sixth-largest country. year. When it rains heavily, the rivers and lakes fill
with water.
In the southeast, the Murray and Darling rivers
Mountains and Plateaus
provide water for irrigation. The Murray River is Aus-
The Great Dividing Range, also known as the Eastern
tralia’s longest river at over 1,400 miles. It rises in the
Highlands, is a chain of hills and mountains inter-
Australian Alps and empties into Lake Alexandrina.
rupting Australia’s flat landscape. Peaks stretch more
The Darling is 915 miles long and flows through
than 2,300 miles along Australia’s east coast from the
Southern Queensland. The Great Artesian Basin
Cape York Peninsula to the island of Tasmania. Eleva-
underlies one-fifth of the continent. Waters from the
tions range from 2,000 feet to more than 7,000 feet.
Eastern Highlands are absorbed by the lowlands in
The southern highlands, averaging 3,000 feet, are
underground wells, some over a mile deep. More than
known as the Australian Alps. Mount Kosciuszko, at
350 million gallons of water are discharged to the
7,310 feet, is Australia’s tallest mountain. Most of
surface daily. Ranchers use these artesian wells for
Australia’s rivers start in the range and water the
livestock since it is too salty for humans or crops.
country’s most fertile land.
The Western Plateau is a primarily low flatland
Great Barrier Reef
in central and western Australia covering two-thirds
The world’s largest coral reef, the Great Barrier Reef,
of the continent. Few people live in this Outback.
lies along Australia’s northeast coast in the Coral Sea.
Erosion caused the Western Plateau’s barren land-
It reaches from the Torres Strait in the north to Lady
scape. Across the plateau are the Great Sandy, Great
Elliot Island in the south. Warming temperatures and
Victoria, and Gibson deserts. A few erosion-resistant
rising sea levels created conditions for the formation
mountains exist in the Western Plateau, including the
of the reef. The reef is a national park and a United
Hamersley, MacDonnell, and Musgrave mountain
Nations World Heritage site because of its beauty and
ranges. Many gorges are also in this region.
the habitats it provides to thousands of plant and ani-
South of the Great Victoria Desert is the virtu-
mal species. The reefs extend more than 1,500 miles.
ally treeless Nullarbor Plain. The plain ends abruptly
Several islands surround the reef with an abundance
in the immense Bunda Cliffs. The Koonalda Caves are
of plant and bird life and new luxury resorts. Coral
among the many limestone caves in this area. Churn-
bleaching, a loss of pigment in the coral that signifies
ing hundreds of feet below the cliffs is the Great Aus-
stress or death, is increasing due to rising tempera-
tralian Bight, a bay.
ture of the water.

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The Nullarbor Plain is the world’s largest single

The Great Barrier Reef is a chain of more than
piece of limestone. It measures roughly 77,000
2,500 small reefs formed from the limestone
square miles.
skeletons of a tiny sea animal.

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 –AustrA liA And new ZeAlAnd, oceA niA, And AntArcticA—PhysicAl G eoGrAPhy–
Natural Resources
Agriculture is important to Australia even though
only 10% of its land can be farmed. Farmers grow
wheat, barley, fruit, and sugarcane along the Murray
and Darling rivers. Ranchers raise cattle, sheep, and
chickens in the arid Outback.
Australia is mineral rich. With deposits of
petroleum, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, gold, and nickel,
Australia is a world leader in mining. Australia has
most of the world’s high-quality opals.
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Australia has over 25% of the world’s raw alumi-
num, bauxite.
oceania
Oceania is made up of thousands of islands of differ-
ent sizes spread across millions of miles of the Pacific
Ocean. Some islands formed when tectonic plates
collided millions of years ago. Other islands were cre-
ated by volcanic hot spots. Life on the islands of Oce-
ania is influenced by the type of island and the
physical processes that formed it.
Island Groups
The islands of Oceania can be classified by location,
how they formed, and the culture of inhabitants. The
“black islands” of Melanesia, including New Guinea
and Fiji, lie north and east of Australia. The 607 “little
islands” of Micronesia lie north of Melanesia. The
“many islands” of Polynesia cover an area larger than
Melanesia and Micronesia. They include Samoa, the
Cook Islands, French Polynesia, and others. Polynesia
extends from Hawaii’s Midway Island in the north to
New Zealand in the south. The Polynesian Triangle
refers to the shape formed by the island groups of
New Zealand, Easter Island, and Hawaii, and all the
GEOG_23_199-206.indd 201
islands that fall within it, such as Samoa, the Cook
Islands, and French Polynesia.
Island Types
Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur on high
island landscapes. High islands such as Tahiti have
mountain ranges split by valleys that fan out into
coastal plains. The volcanic soil on high islands sup-
ports some agriculture. Freshwater bodies dot the land.
Volcanoes also shaped Oceania’s low islands.
Many of the Marshall Islands are ring-shaped low
islands called atolls. Coral reef buildup on the rims
of submerged volcanoes makes atolls. Atolls encircle
shallow pools of clear water called lagoons that rise
just a few feet above sea level.
The rising and folding of ancient rock from the
ocean floor creates continental islands from bodies of
land that lie on the continental shelf.
tiP Use
this book.
Most of Oceania’s larger islands, like New
Guinea and New Caledonia, are continental
islands.
Coastal areas include swamps, rivers, and plains.
Interiors include volcanoes, mountains, plateaus, and
valleys. Continental islands have a variety of rocks
and soil and contain most of Oceania’s minerals.
Continental mining yields oil, gold, nickel, and cop-
per. Some larger forested islands process timber.
new Zealand
The sandy beaches, emerald hillsides, and snow-
tipped mountains of New Zealand’s North Island and
South Island lie 1,200 miles southeast of Australia,
across the Tasman Sea. Cook Strait separates the two
mainland islands. The northern part of North Island
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has golden beaches, ancient forests, and rich soil. The
central plateau of volcanic stone has hot springs and
several active volcanoes including North Island’s
highest point, Mount Ruapehu. The plateau has many
shining freshwater lakes. East of the plateau, a band
of hills runs north and south.
On South Island’s western edge stand the tower-
ing snow-capped peaks of the Southern Alps and the
capital city of Wellington.
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New Zealand’s earliest inhabitants, the Maori,
named the highest peak on South Island Aor-
angi, meaning “cloud piercer.”
Also called Mount Cook, Aorangi rises 12,316
feet amid glacier-carved, sparkling lakes and tum-
bling rivers. New Zealand’s flattest and most fertile
land, the Canterbury Plains lie on the east coast. The
west coast has rugged cliffs, deep fjords, and coastal
caves. The north is thickly forested.
New Zealand’s most valuable natural resource is
its fertile volcanic soil. Half of the land supports crops
and livestock. Sheep and wool products are New Zea-
land’s top exports. Its forests yield valuable timber.
New Zealand’s rivers provide abundant hydroelectric
power.
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New Zealand uses geothermal energy—water
heated underground by volcanoes to generate
power.
Most of the hundreds of New Zealand’s outly-
ing small islands are populated. Stewart, Chatham,
Great Barrier, and Auckland are some of the larger
202
GEOG_23_199-206.indd 202
small islands of New Zealand. The land mass of all of
the small islands and North Island and South Island
together is approximately equal to the size of the state
of Colorado.
Antarctica
Antarctica is a continent located at the southernmost
point on Earth. It is surrounded by the Pacific, Atlan-
tic, and Indian Oceans. Its nearly 5.4 million square
miles is completely covered by ice. Antarctica has no
indigenous people and very limited plant and animal
life. Since Antarctica was first seen by modern human
eyes in 1820, the frigidly cold continent has intrigued
explorers and scientists.
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Mount Erebus, on Antarctica’s Ross Island, is the
world’s southernmost active volcano.
Land and Climate
The Transantarctic Mountains separate this vast ice-
covered land into East Antarctica, a landmass about
the size of Australia, and West Antarctica, a group of
islands. East Antarctica contains the South Pole and is
covered by a massive ice dome rising from coastal
plains to a high plateau. West Antarctica is geographi-
cally younger and has several active volcanoes. Gravity-
driven winds, known as katabatic winds, blow from
the high interior to the coast. Blizzards often form in
the plateau.
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Vinson Massif in West Antarctica, at 16,066 feet,
is the highest point in all Antarctica.
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 –AustrA liA And new ZeAlAnd, oceA niA, And AntArcticA—PhysicAl G eoGrAPhy–
Antarctica’s climate is cold and the severity
depends on location. East Antarctica is higher in ele-
vation and the coldest.
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In East Antarctica, the lowest yearly temperature
is about –126°F.
The Antarctic Peninsula and surrounding
islands of West Antarctica have the mildest tempera-
tures. During the heart of Antarctic summer in Janu-
ary, the average temperature is above freezing.
Plant and Animal Life
Plant and animal life are difficult to sustain in the
freezing temperatures and isolation of Antarctica.
Most plant life is found in the milder climate of West
Antarctica, especially the Antarctic Peninsula. There
are no trees in Antarctica; algae, lichens, and mosses
make up the vegetation.
Most animal life in Antarctica can be found in
the Antarctic Ocean. Penguins, whales, and seals sur-
vive on a variety of food sources including krill, larger
fish, and squid.
The Antarctic minke whale has been hunted for
its blubber, meat, and oil. International treaties pro-
hibiting hunting protect the remaining minke whale
population, under threat from hunters since the early
nineteenth century.
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Antarctica is home to some 70 lakes, including
Lake Vostok, which may contain microbial life.
The emperor penguin is well adapted to the
Antarctic environment. The emperors swim and
GEOG_23_199-206.indd 203
catch food in the water, but lay their eggs and hatch
their young on land.
Antarctic hair grass and pearlwort are the only
two flowering plants found on Antarctica. They
bloom and set seeds very quickly during the Antarctic
spring.
Natural Resources
Scientific evidence shows the continent is rich in coal,
copper, lead, zinc, silver, gold, oil, and natural gas.
The harsh conditions in Antarctica make resource
extraction difficult. The environmental and political
impacts of mining in Antarctica are a deep concern.
Mining restrictions in Antarctica were laid out in the
1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection.
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Only 1% of Antarctica’s land has been surveyed
for minerals.
Exploration and Scientific Research
In the 1770s, Captain James Cook became the first
modern person to cross the Antarctic Circle. Captain
Cook did not see land, but throughout the nineteenth
century explorers, scientists, and whalers discovered
land. In 1821, American seal hunters made the first
known landing on Antarctica.
In 1901, British explorer Robert F. Scott began
the first known inland exploration of Antarctica. In
1911, Norwegian Roald Amundsen became the first
human known to reach the South Pole. In 1929,
Admiral Richard E. Byrd made the first flight over the
South Pole.
The International Geophysical Year of 1957–
1958, a year of global geophysical research, focused
world attention on Antarctica. New bases were estab-
lished and new research was carried out.
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3. The world’s largest coral reef, located off the

didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and coast of Australia, is the ___________
___________ Reef.
In 1959, the 12 countries involved in the project
negotiated the Antarctic Treaty to preserve Ant- 4. British explorer Robert F. Scott began the first
arctica for peaceful scientific research. All terri- known inland exploration of ___________ in
torial claims were put on hold. 1901.

5. Only 1% of the land in Antarctica has been sur-

Since 1959, other countries have established
veyed for ___________.
research programs in Antarctica and 26 new coun-
tries have signed on as consultative members. There
6. The ___________ and ___________ are two
are 43 stations operated by 27 countries. Station pop-
animals that can be found in the Antarctic
ulations are about 4,000 in summer and about 1,000
Ocean.
in winter.
7. The country of ___________ harnesses under-
Tourism
ground geothermal energy created by volcanic
In 1958, the first tourists visited Antarctica. Tourism
heat.
in Antarctica is slowly growing; in the 1990s, about
10,000 tourists visited. Most of these tourists took
8. Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia make up
cruises from Australia or New Zealand and only made
___________.
short excursions onto the mainland. In 2005 and
2006, the number of tourists grew to almost 30,000.
9. ___________ encircle shallow pools of clear
Some people are concerned about human effects on
water called lagoons that rise just a few feet
the environment of Antarctica, but most people think
above sea level.
tourism will increase interest in the region. The cold
temperatures make the tourist season short. It takes
10. Tahiti is a ___________ island.
place during the Antarctic summer, which runs from
October to February.

climate and Vegetation

Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
Australia has several different climates. Oceania has a
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
tropical wet climate. Australia and Oceania experi-
ence wet and dry monsoons each year. Such seasonal
1. The Canterbury Plains are ___________’s flat-
weather patterns impact the natural vegetation of the
test and most fertile land.
region and the lives of people. New Zealand has a
marine west coast climate. Each type of climate
2. Australia’s cattle ranching Western Plateau is
affects human activities.
also called the ___________.

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 –AustrA liA And new ZeAlAnd, oceA niA, And AntArcticA—PhysicAl G eoGrAPhy–
Australia
In Australia, differences in rainfall cause differences
in climate and vegetation. In Australia, there are trop-
ical climates in the north, deserts in the interior, and
midlatitude temperate areas of grassland, scrub, and
mixed forests along the eastern, southern, and south-
western coasts.
Each year from December to March, subtropi-
cal, high pressure air masses block moisture-laden
Pacific Ocean winds from reaching the Western Pla-
teau, Australia’s large interior desert area. The sun
scorches the land, but nighttime temperatures drop
dramatically.
A milder steppe climate encircles Australia’s
desert region. In the steppe, more regular rainfall
results in vegetation including eucalyptus, acacia
trees, and small shrubs.
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Acacia tree saplings were used by early settlers
to make wattle, a strong interwoven wooden
framework used for home construction.
The coastal areas of Australia have a variety of
moister climates. The humid subtropical northeast-
ern coast averages more than 80 inches of rain a year.
Less rain falls in the Mediterranean climate area of
the southern coasts and in the marine west coast cli-
mate area along the southeastern coast. These coastal
areas provide Australia with most of its agriculture.
Oceania and New Zealand
Since most of Oceania lies between the equator and
Tropic of Capricorn, many of the islands have a tropi-
cal wet climate. Most days are warm and range from
70 to 80°F.
Seasons in most of Oceania alternate between
wet and dry. The dry season has blue skies without
GEOG_23_199-206.indd 205
clouds and the wet season has constant rain and high
humidity. Low islands receive little rainfall. The larger
landmasses of high islands give off warm, moisture-
laden air. When this air rises to mix with cool ocean
breezes, there is heavy rainfall.
Dry, low islands only have shrubs and grasses.
Islands with more rainfall have coconut palms and
other trees. Hot, steamy rain forests thrive where
heavy rains drench island interiors. A mostly windless
area called the doldrums is a narrow band near the
equator where opposing ocean currents meet. The
calm within the doldrums can turn into violent
storms known as typhoons.
Most of New Zealand has a more temperate
marine west coast climate. In winter, ocean winds
warm the land. The winds from the ocean cool New
Zealand in summer. Temperature extremes are con-
trolled by the ocean. In summer, temperatures range
from 65 to 85°F. In winter, temperatures range from
35 to 55°F.
Climate variations result from geographic dif-
ferences. The central plateau of North Island is warm
and sunny during summer, but the mountaintops
may have snow all year. Mountainous areas exposed
to western winds often have more rainfall than other
areas. Although New Zealand averages 25 to 60 inches
of rain a year, the Southern Alps on South Island have
an average annual rainfall of 315 inches.
Because of its geographic isolation, New Zea-
land has unique plant life. About 90% of New Zea-
land’s indigenous plants are native only to New
Zealand. A small shrub called manuka grows where
prehistoric volcanic eruptions destroyed ancient
forests. Early settlers from Great Britain cut down
almost all the pinelike kauri trees. Some still grow
amid thriving evergreen forests. Several tree species
have been imported to address erosion in defor-
ested areas.
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Practice Answers
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read. 1. New Zealand
2. Outback
11. ____ The doldrums are calm and do not pro- 3. Great Barrier
duce typhoons. 4. Antarctica
5. Minerals
12. ____ New Zealand has two major islands and a 6. Minke whale, penguin, seal, squid, and fish.
marine west coast climate with variations. 7. New Zealand
8. Oceania
13. ____ The northern regions of Australia enjoy a 9. Atolls
tropical climate. 10. High
11. F
14. ____ Winds from the ocean cool New Zealand 12. T
in summer and warm it in the winter. 13. T
14. T
15. ____ Islands with more rainfall have coconut 15. T
palms and other trees. 16. T
17. T
16. ____ Australia has desert, steppe, and forest 18. T
vegetation. 19. T
20. T
17. ____ Seasons in most of Oceania alternate
between wet and dry.

18. ____ Most of New Zealand’s indigenous plants

can only be found there.

19. ____ In the Australian steppe, more regular

rainfall results in vegetation like eucalyptus,
acacia trees, and small shrubs.

20. ____ Oceania has a tropical wet climate.

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 AustrAliA

24
And new
ZeAlAnd,
l e s s o n

oCeAniA, And
AntArCtiCA—
HumAn
GeoGrApHy
Lesson summary
The geography and climates of Australia, Oceania, and
New Zealand have drawn people from great distances.
Despite physical barriers and long distances for those
who live in and visit Australia and Oceania, improved
transportation and communications have made the region
more interdependent.

We are all visitors to this time, this place. We are just passing through. Our purpose here is to observe, to learn, to
grow, to love . . . and then we return home.
—Australian Aboriginal Proverb

Countries

Australia Micronesia, Federated Palau Tonga

Fiji States of Papua New Guinea Tuvalu
Kiribati Nauru Samoa Vanuatu
Marshall Islands New Zealand Solomon Islands

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 –AustrA liA And n ew ZeAlAnd, oCeAniA, And AntArCtiCA—H umAn GeoGrApHy –
Australia and new Zealand
Migration and settlement patterns have influenced
the cultures and landscape of Australia and New Zea-
land. For thousands of years, Australia and New Zea-
land have been meeting places. Dramatic deserts,
mountains, and forests meet oceans on temperate
coastlines. In the colonial period, British colonists
met indigenous people. Travelers today can meet
amazing wildlife in Australia and New Zealand.
Population Patterns
Indigenous peoples and foreign colonizers influenced
the look of modern-day Australia and New Zealand.
People
Australia’s earliest settlers, the Aboriginal people
may have the world’s oldest surviving culture. More
recent arrivals provide Australia with great diversity.
These nomadic hunters and gatherers arrived in
Australia 40,000 to 60,000 years ago from Southeast
Asia. About 2% of the population of Australia is
Aboriginal.
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Aboriginal people feel a direct relationship with
the landscape and believe in Dreamtime, a sys-
tem of beliefs that connects them to the begin-
ning of time.
Different groups live in different regions of the
continent. The Arrente have lived in central Australia
for 20,000 years. The Palawa have lived on the island
of Tasmania for about 32,000 years.
The Maori of New Zealand came from the
islands of Polynesia. The Maori have lived by hunt-
208
GEOG_24_207-218.indd 208
ing, fishing, and raising crops. Many ancient Maori
traditions still survive.
Beginning in the 1500s, Europeans started sail-
ing the waters around Australia and New Zealand.
Europeans eventually colonized the region. Today,
most of the people in Australia and New Zealand are
of British descent.
Australia has recently recruited immigrants.
The number of East and Southeast Asians who have
moved to Australia for economic opportunities has
increased.
Density and Distribution
Australia’s physical geography results in uneven dis-
tribution of people. Very few people live in the dry
central plateaus and deserts. Most people live along
the southeastern, eastern, and southwestern coasts
where there are mild climates, fertile soil, and access
to the sea. Most of New Zealand’s people live along
the coasts as well.
The largest Australian cities are Sydney and
Melbourne. Each has more than 3 million residents
and they serve as major commercial ports. New Zea-
land’s ports of Auckland, Christchurch, and Welling-
ton are the country’s largest cities.
History and Government
Early indigenous inhabitants, the effects of British
colonization, and the experience of independence
have shaped the cultures of Australia and New
Zealand.
Early Peoples
Australia’s earliest settlers may have migrated over
land bridges during the Ice Age when ocean levels
were much lower than today. The early Aboriginals
were nomads using well-traveled routes to reach
water and seasonal food sources. Family groups called
clans traveled together in their ancestral territories,
1/5/12 1:31 PM
 –AustrA liA And n ew ZeAlAnd, oCeA niA, And AntArCtiCA—H umAn GeoGrApHy –
carrying only baskets, bowls, spears, and sticks for
digging.
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The term Aboriginal refers collectively to the
many indigenous communities and societies of
mainland Australia.
Increased trade expanded migration across the
islands. Between a.d. 900 and 1300, the Maoris left
eastern Polynesia and settled in New Zealand. Maori
farmers lived in villages and grew traditional root
crops like taro and yams that they brought from their
Polynesian homeland.
European Exploration
From the 1500s to the 1700s, Europeans from various
nations explored the vast spaces of the South Pacific.
British Captain James Cook led three voyages to the
region between 1768 and 1779. In 1769, he became
the first European to set foot on New Zealand. In
1770, he discovered what would become known as
the Great Barrier Reef. When he arrived that same
year on the eastern coast of Australia, he claimed the
land for Great Britain.
European Settlement
Beginning in 1788, Great Britain started using Aus-
tralia as a penal colony to which convicts from over-
crowded British prisons were transported. By the
1850s, the imprisonment of British convicts ended
and free British settlers were establishing coastal
farms and settlements. Livestock, mostly sheep, were
introduced to the continent. Settlers profited from
the export of wool to Britain. Gold was discovered in
Australia in the 1850s and it has been a source of
wealth ever since.
GEOG_24_207-218.indd 209
Attracted by the rich soil and fishing grounds,
the British and other Europeans started establishing
settlements in New Zealand. By the end of the 1800s,
raising livestock was a major segment of New Zea-
land’s economy.
Indigenous Peoples
The arrival of Europeans had a disastorous impact on
indigenous peoples. The British forcibly removed
many Aborigines from the land and denied them
basic rights. Diseases and violence steadily reduced
their populations. Still, the Aboriginal people fought
back. In the mid-1800s, Aboriginals were placed in
segregated reserves.
British settlements in New Zealand brought
hardships for the Maori. When the British colonists
introduced new ways of farming and European cul-
ture, the Maori social structure weakened. In the
1800s, the Maoris armed themselves and resisted
British rule for 15 years. Many Maori were killed and
most of their land was lost to the British.
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Before European settlement in Australia, there
were more than 200 Aboriginal languages and
about 600 dialects. Today, most Aboriginal
people speak English.
Independence
In the early 1900s, Australia and New Zealand peace-
fully won their independence from Great Britian. In
1901, Britain’s Australian colonies became states and
formed the Commonwealth of Australia. The new
country was a dominion, a largely self-governing
country within the British Empire. In 1907, New Zea-
land became a self-governing dominion with a Brit-
ish parliamentary system.
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In 1893, New Zealand became the first country
in the world to legally recognize women’s right
to vote.
Since World War II, Australia and New Zealand
have forged closer economic and political relation-
ships with the United States. The Aboriginals and
Maori have won greater recognition of their unique
cultural identities and become politically active.
Culture and Society
Indigenous cultures and European traditions shaped
the cultures of Australia and New Zealand. Asian
influences have also added to the ethnic mix.
Although daily life in New Zealand and Australia
looks a lot like it does in other places in the West,
there are many different ways of life in different parts
of the region.
Education and Healthcare
The quality of education varies throughout Australia
and New Zealand. Both countries provide free, com-
pulsory education, and literacy rates are over 99%.
Many students attend universities. Many students in
Australia’s remote Outback receive and turn in
assignments by mail or communicate with teachers
via two-way radios. In recent years, the Internet has
led to increased and faster communication, with
courses and information available all online.
Australians and New Zealanders, particularly in
cities, usually have access to quality medical care and
other social services. In some parts of Australia, rug-
ged terrain and long distances make access to health-
care difficult. However, doctors consult with patients
through the use of two-way radios and mobile clinics.
Indigenous people do not generally receive such
benefits. Aboriginal people suffer from poverty, mal-
nutrition, and unemployment. Recently, the Austra-
210
GEOG_24_207-218.indd 210
lian government and private organizations have been
trying to make up for past injustices. Courts have rec-
ognized the claims of Aboriginal people to govern-
ment assistance, land, and natural resources.
Language and Religion
English is the major language in Australia and New
Zealand.
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Australian English, called Strine, has a unique
vocabulary made up of Aboriginal words and
slang created by modern Australians.
Because the Maori population of New Zealand
is quite large, their language is widely spoken in cer-
tain areas. Only about 2% of Australians, about the
number of Aboriginal people in the country, speak
Aboriginal languages.
The religion of the indigenous people of Aus-
tralia and New Zealand focuses on the connection
between humans and nature.
Europeans brought Christianity, which attracted
many indigenous followers. Today, Christianity is the
most widely practiced religion in Australia and New
Zealand.
Arts and Leisure
The peoples of New Zealand and Australia tradition-
ally used art, music, dance, and storytelling to pass on
knowledge from generation to generation. Australian
Aboriginals recorded their past in rock paintings and
developed songs to pass on information.
Sports and leisure in Australia and New Zealand
reflect the region’s colonial heritage. British settlers
brought cricket to Australia and New Zealand. In
urban areas, where Western influence is dominant,
leisure activities, including tennis, boating, waterski-
1/5/12 1:31 PM
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ing, and other water sports appear alongside metro-

politan beaches. didUse
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Micronesia includes the U.S. territories of Guam

oceania and the Mariana Islands. Polynesia includes the
U.S. state of Hawaii.
Indigenous and Western cultures have shaped the
societies of Oceania. Hundreds of cultures on thou-
Micronesians have several ethnicities, all derived
sands of islands in the South Pacific have shared reli-
from the Micronesian culture. More than a dozen
gious beliefs that tie them to the land and sea.
indigenous languages are spoken by Micronesians.
Micronesia has four official national languages, of
Population Patterns
which English is one.
Migrations of people among the islands in Oceania
have shaped life on the islands today.
Polynesia
Polynesia is located in the central Pacific Ocean. The
Many Peoples
three independent countries of Polynesia are Samoa,
People came to Oceania from Asia more than 45,000
Tonga, and Tuvalu. Other island groups like Tahiti,
years ago. Waves of immigrants from Asia continued
Polynesia’s largest island, are called French Polynesia
to arrive over the centuries. People already living
because they remain under French rule.
there moved from island to island and settled into
The largest numbers of Polynesians live on the
three major groups—the Polynesians, Micronesians,
Samoan Islands. Samoans practiced horticulture, the
and Melanesians.
raising of plants and fruits on small plots of land.
Women gathered wild plants and were weavers. Most
Melanesia
Polynesians today share similar languages and cul-
Located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, Melanesia
ture. Polynesians arrived in Hawaii around a.d. 500
includes the independent island countries of Papua
and had profound effects on the culture.
New Guinea, Fiji, and the Solomon Islands, as well as
French-ruled New Caledonia. Melanesian groups,
Density and Distribution
even those on the same island, differ greatly. The
Oceania covers a vast area. Most of the islands are not
Chimbu, the largest indigenous group of Papua New
suited for human habitation. The area’s population is
Guinea, is known for its egalitarian social structure.
unequally distributed among the island countries.
Papua New Guinea has about 5.9 million people. The
Micronesia
world’s smallest republic, Nauru, only has about
Micronesia is in the western Pacific east of the Philip-
10,000 people. Most people live on the coasts and not
pines. The independent countries of Micronesia
in the usually rugged interiors.
include the Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru,
Oceania’s population is growing at the high
and Kiribati.
average rate of 2.3% because the population is young.
Oceania’s 25,000 islands only total about 551,000
square miles. Population density varies greatly. Papua
New Guinea covers so much land it only has 33 peo-
ple per square mile.

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History and Government
Outside influences on indigenous cultures have
shaped Oceania’s societies. Migrations over genera-
tions, European colonization, and independence have
shaped the nations of Oceania.
Early Migrations
Asian migrants in family groups settled along the
island coasts of Oceania. They survived on fish, tur-
tles, shrimp, breadfruit, and coconuts. They culti-
vated root crops like taro and yams and raised small
animals like chickens and pigs.
The well-built canoes they made allowed them
to travel great distances among the islands and trade
gradually developed among them. To make trading
easier, people on some islands used long strings of
shell pieces as money.
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Today, on an island off the coast of Papua New
Guinea called New Britain, shell money is still
traded for canned goods and vegetables at
markets.
European Colonization
Europeans settled Oceania in the 1800s. They set up
commercial plantations to grow sugarcane, pineap-
ple, and other tropical products that could be sold
around the world.
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European diseases killed so many indigenous
peoples the Europeans had to bring more work-
ers in from other Pacific islands and more distant
areas like South Asia.
212
GEOG_24_207-218.indd 212
The mix of cultures weakened indigenous soci-
eties and led to violent ethnic conflicts in countries
like the Solomon Islands and Fiji. Europeans were
trying to replace traditional ways of life with Euro-
pean beliefs and customs.
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Britain, Ger-
many, France, Spain, and the United States struggled
for control of various Pacific Islands. These countries
sought to acquire or expand influence in the region
and gain new sources of raw materials.
The two world wars changed the course of his-
tory in Oceania. After World War I, many of Germa-
ny’s Pacific colonies fell to Japanese control. During
World War II, some Pacific Islands like Guadalcanal
and Iwo Jima were sites of ferocious battles. When
Japan was defeated, its South Pacific possessions like
the islands of Micronesia were turned over to the
United Nations as trust territories, dependent areas
the United Nations placed under temporary control
of a foreign country.
Since the 1970s, most of these islands, like Palau,
the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of
Micronesia, have become independent countries.
Independence
Starting in the 1960s, a number of small islands in
Oceania took steps toward independence. In 1962,
Samoa (formerly Western Samoa) became the first
Pacific island to win freedom after periods of rule by
Germany and New Zealand. Today, most of the South
Pacific islands enjoy some form of independent
government.
In some countries of Oceania, like the Solomon
Islands, traditional beliefs are starting to revive and
guide decision making. People in the Solomon Islands
are again valuing egalitarian relationships, subsis-
tence agriculture (growing only enough for their own
needs), and developing a strong connection to the
land.
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 –AustrA liA And n ew ZeAlAnd, oCeA niA, And AntArCtiCA—H umAn GeoGrApHy –
Culture and Society
Oceanic societies have been shaped by European and
Asian cultural traditions and indigenous practices.
Indegenous peoples still value living in harmony with
their natural environment. European colonizers
introduced new customs, social structures, and
cultures.
Sports and Leisure
Sports and leisure reflect the region’s diversity. West-
ern style resorts attract people to beaches where they
and locals enjoy the Pacific island sport of surfing.
Traditional sports like outrigger canoe racing and
spearfishing are also popular. In former American
territories, baseball is popular. The French introduced
cycling and archery to islands they controlled. Even
small communities often have facilities for these and
other sports like soccer, volleyball, and tennis.
Language and Religion
Before modern transportation and communications,
the vast ocean separated the peoples of the South
Pacific from the rest of the world. Isolated groups
developed many different languages without interfer-
ence from the outside world.
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it faithfully, and
Of the world’s 3,000 languages, 1,200 are spo-
ken in Oceania alone. Some are spoken by only
a few hundred people.
European colonization brought European lan-
guages to Oceania; French is widely spoken. In many
areas of Oceania, pidgin English, a blend of English
and an indigenous language, developed to allow bet-
ter communication between different groups.
Peoples of the South Pacific islands practice
various forms of Christianity. These practices are
often combined with traditional religious beliefs.
GEOG_24_207-218.indd 213
Christianity is the most widely practiced religion in
Oceania today.
On some islands, religions were introduced by
immigrants many years ago. When thousands of
Indians were brought to Fiji to work on plantations,
they brought Hinduism with them. Over 30% of the
people in Fiji practice Hinduism.
Education and Healthcare
Education quality varies across Oceania. Missionary
schools in the Solomon Islands provided primary
education until the 1970s. Secondary schools and
universities are now common in the Solomon
Islands, Fiji, and Papua New Guinea. Different edu-
cation quality can be seen in different literacy rates.
Fiji has the high rate of 94% literacy. Papua New
Guinea has the low literacy rates of 51% for women
and 63% for men.
Expanded educational opportunities for Aborig-
inals and new native studies programs will hopefully
bridge the gap and open a path out of what Western-
ers define as poverty.
Healthcare is unevenly distributed across Ocea-
nia. Many Pacific Islanders suffer from poor econo-
mies and low standards of living. On remote islands,
fresh food, electricity, schools, and hospitals are often
inadequate. Recently, island countries have begun to
improve their quality of life with international aid.
Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.
1. ___________ is a system of beliefs that connect
Aboriginal people to the beginning of time.
2. New Zealand and Australia have ___________
colonial influences.
3. ___________ is widely spoken in Oceania.
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 –AustrA liA And n ew ZeAlAnd, oCeAniA, And AntArCtiCA—H umAn GeoGrApHy –
4. In the early 1900s, Australia and New Zealand
peacefully won their independence from
___________.
5. In the twentieth century, Western and Japanese
powers were interested in ___________
___________ of the South Pacific.
6. ___________ ___________ racing is a tradi-
tional sport in the South Pacific.
7. Guadalcanal and ___________ ___________
were the sites of ferocious battles in the Pacific
during World War II.
8. ___________ was the first country in the South
Pacific to become independent in the modern
era.
9. ___________ workers were brought in to
replace native workers dying of European dis-
eases in the South Pacific.
10. Europeans established ___________ planta-
tions in the South Pacific to feed global trade
and their appetites for wealth.
economic Activities
Remote geographic locations and challenging envi-
ronments influence how people earn a living in Aus-
tralia and Oceania. Agriculture is the most important
activity in Australia and Oceania. New industries are
contributing to national economies.
Agriculture
Agriculture is the most important economic activity
in the South Pacific. Australia and New Zealand
export large quantities of farm products. Australia
leads the world in wool production.
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GEOG_24_207-218.indd 214
Less than 5% of Australians work in agriculture.
Yet most of the country’s vast lands are devoted to
raising livestock. The dry climate forces animals to
need large areas to find vegetation they can eat.
Australia’s dry climate makes only 10% of its
land arable, or suitable for growing crops. Australian
farmers use irrigation, fertilizers, and modern technol-
ogy to make the best use of limited agricultural land.
Over 50% of the land in New Zealand is used
for agriculture. Ranchers in New Zealand, called gra-
ziers, raise sheep, cattle, and red deer.
New Zealand’s fertile soils permit farmers to
grow barley, wheat, potatoes, and fruit.
A lack of arable land in much of Oceania limits
agriculture; island farmers sometimes practice sub-
sistence farming and fishing. Some islands have rich
volcanic soil and ample rainfall. The major crop is
copra, dried coconut meat. Fiji exports sugarcane,
copra, and sugar. Papua New Guinea supplies coffee,
copra, and cacao.
Mining and Manufacturing
There is a variety of mineral deposits in parts of the
South Pacific. Australia exports gold, diamonds,
opals, iron ore, and bauxite. High transportation
costs make mineral extraction difficult. Public debates
about Aboriginal land rights limits mining in Austra-
lia. New Zealand has a large aluminum smelting
industry and Papua New Guinea’s rich deposits of
gold and copper have only recently been exploited.
Australia and New Zealand are the South Pacif-
ic’s leading manufacturers. Because agriculture is
important to both countries, food processing is their
leading industry. Because Australia and New Zealand
are isolated geographically, to export they must
import costly machinery and raw materials. Con-
sumer product industries in both countries concen-
trate on making products for the home, such as
appliances.
The rest of the South Pacific is less industrial-
ized than Australia and New Zealand. Manufacturing
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 –AustrA liA And n ew ZeAlAnd, oCeA niA, And AntArCtiCA—H umAn GeoGrApHy –
in Oceania is limited to small-scale enterprises like
apparel production.
Trade and Interdependence
Trade between Australia, New Zealand, Oceania, and
other parts of the world has increased due to
improvements in transportation and communica-
tions and trade agreements. The region’s agricultural
and mining products are its greatest sources of export
income. Countries in Oceania export copra, timber,
fish, vegetables, spices, and handicrafts.
Throughout the 1900s, Australia and New Zea-
land traded mainly with the United Kingdom and the
United States. Recently, South Pacific countries have
increased trade with the neighboring countries of
China, Taiwan, and Japan. Australia is a member of
the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
forum and is pursuing trade agreements with China
and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN).
people and environment
Australia and Oceania have some of Earth’s richest
and most diverse natural resources and wildlife. Nat-
ural resources have not always been well managed.
Unique Animals
Because Australia has been isolated for so long from
other landmasses, it has many unique animal species.
Kangaroos, koalas, and wallabies are some of Austra-
lia’s 144 species of marsupials, mammals whose
young mature in a pouch after they are born.
The Australian island of Tasmania is home to
the Tasmanian devil, a powerful meat-eating marsu-
pial about the size of a badger.
GEOG_24_207-218.indd 215
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it faithfully, and
Australia’s strangest wildlife may be the duck-
billed platypus and the echidna, a spiny ant-
eater. They are the only two mammals in the
world that lay eggs.
The introduction of nonnative animals is seri-
ously threatening these unusual species of wildlife in
Australia. Hunting dogs called dingoes were brought
from Asia by migrating Aboriginals. European settlers
brought sheep, cattle, foxes, rabbits, and cats to Aus-
tralia. Without natural predators, these animals have
multiplied and taken over the habitats of the native
species.
Some of Australia’s native species have become
extinct. At least 16 kinds of marsupials are now
endangered. Efforts to restore Australia’s ecological
balance include using electric fencing to keep out
nonnative animals, hunting and trapping programs,
introducing natural predators, and creating native
wildlife reserves.
New Zealand is isolated, remote, and sur-
rounded by ocean. It is home to many unique animal
species, including seabirds that multiplied without
mammalian predators. The penguin is a surprising
inhabitant of New Zealand.
Human settlement and other factors threaten
the animal species of New Zealand. Like Australia, the
most serious threat to the native animals of New Zea-
land comes from introduced species like cats, rats,
and ferrets.
New Zealand is taking steps like implementing
predator control techniques and establishing island
sanctuaries. More than 200 of the hundreds of small
islands and islets off the coast of New Zealand are
managed by the national Department of Conserva-
tion as protected reserves.
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 –AustrA liA And n ew ZeAlAnd, oCeAniA, And AntArCtiCA—H umAn GeoGrApHy –
Forest, Soil, and Water
Protecting forest, soil, and freshwater resources is
important throughout the South Pacific. In Australia,
woodlands have been cleared for farms and grazing
lands. This leaves little protection from soil erosion,
which is a major problem in Australia. Overgrazing
arid areas and the country’s worst drought in more
than a century made Australia’s erosion problem
worse.
tip Use
this book.
Reducing deforestation is essential for soil con-
servation.
Countries like New Zealand, Papua New
Guinea, and Vanuatu with large timber reserves are
developing plans to use forest resources without
damaging the environment.
Australia’s freshwater sources are threatened by
drought, salt, irrigation, and agricultural runoff. In
the Murray-Darling River basin, one of the world’s
largest drainage basins, using water for agriculture
and the growing city population has greatly reduced
river flow. Large areas of the basin are at risk from
increasing soil salinity, one of Australia’s most press-
ing environmental problems. The replacement of
native vegetation with pastures and nonnative shallow-
rooted crops are a major cause for increased salinity
in Australia’s water.
Oceania faces challenges in managing freshwa-
ter resources. Many small coral atolls and volcanic
islands have limited supplies of fresh water. These
water supplies are threatened by inadequate sanita-
tion and agricultural runoff. The standard of living
remains low where there is a lack of clean drinking
water. It also restricts economic growth in many
countries. Better management of runoff, construc-
tion of sanitation facilities, and less expensive ways of
removing salt from water will help Oceania.
216
GEOG_24_207-218.indd 216
The region’s oceans are threatened by agricul-
tural runoff, chemical fertilizers, and organic waste.
Toxic waste endangers Australia’s Great Barrier Reef
and other Pacific coral reefs. Coral environments are
increasingly stressed by tourists, boaters, divers, oil
shale mining, and increasing water temperatures.
Environmental programs that protect and mon-
itor the condition of the Great Barrier Reef are the
key to its survival. The Australian government has
taken steps to protect the complex ecosystem, like
restricting fishing and creating sanctuaries to pre-
serve the unique biodiversity of the region.
Although oil drilling and mining stopped on
the reef, commercial and sport fishing, spearfishing,
and collecting aquarium fish and shells are regulated
by the Australian government.
Nuclear Legacy
Nuclear weapon testing has had major effects on the
region’s environment. In the late 1940s and 1950s, the
United States and other countries carried out above-
ground testing of nuclear weapons in the South
Pacific. The dangers of this testing were underesti-
mated at the time.
In 1954, the United States exploded a nuclear
weapon on Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands. The
people on Bikini Atoll were moved to safety, but those
downwind of the explosion on Rongelap Atoll received
massive doses of radiation resulting in deaths, ill-
nesses, and genetic abnormalities.
Even though U.S. nuclear testing stopped, the
effects of radiation exposure and environmental
damage have continued for generations. Atolls
affected by the testing remain off-limits to human
settlement. Recent studies show hope for eventual
environmental recovery.
1/5/12 1:31 PM
 –AustrA liA And n ew ZeAlAnd, oCeA niA, And AntArCtiCA—H umAn GeoGrApHy –
didUse
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it faithfully, and
In the 1990s, the United States government pro-
vided $90 million to help decontaminate Bikini
Atoll and a $45 million trust fund for blast survi-
vors and their offspring from Rongelap Atoll.
The nuclear legacy had political effects. Antinu-
clear activism is a major factor in regional politics. In
1985, New Zealand banned nuclear-powered ships
and those with nuclear weapons from entering its
waters. Because the ban is still in effect, the United
States withdrew from a defense agreement with New
Zealand.
Future Challenges
Environmental concerns related to atmosphere and
climate changes threaten Australia, Oceania, and
other world regions. In the 1970s, scientists found a
hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica. This hole
quickly grew between 1975 and 1993 to cover more
than 9 million square miles. In October 2006, the
hole in the ozone covered more than 10.6 million
square miles. It has since stopped expanding and is
showing signs of closing back up.
The loss of the protective ozone layer may cause
increased rates of skin cancer and cataracts. Both
conditions are caused by overexposure to the sun’s
ultraviolet rays. Increased solar radiation reaching
Earth may contribute to global warming, the gradual
rise in Earth’s temperatures.
Climate and weather in the South Pacific are
very sensitive to changes in the El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) weather pattern. This seasonal
weather event, called El Niño, causes droughts and
powerful cyclonic storms in the South Pacific. These
ENSO-related weather patterns are increasing in fre-
quency and severity and may be linked to global
warming.
GEOG_24_207-218.indd 217
Continued increases in Earth’s temperatures
could cause the polar ice caps to melt and raise ocean
waters. This would cause many of Oceania’s islands to
be flooded. Rising ocean temperatures could cause
more of certain types of algae and plankton to grow.
The overgrowth would choke out other life forms.
Diatoms, plankton that grow in cold ocean waters,
would die if temperatures rose. That would affect life
forms that feed on them. Scientists in the region, par-
ticularly Antarctica, are studying global warming to
determine causes, predict consequences, and provide
solutions.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
11. ____ Over Antarctica, there is a hole in the
ozone layer that is more than 10 million square
miles.
12. ____ In 1954, the United States exploded a
nuclear weapon in the Marshall Islands.
13. ____ Native Australian marsupials like kanga-
roos, koalas, and wallabies have benefitted from
the introduction of sheep, cats, and cows to
their land.
14. ____ Oceania’s freshwater supplies are threat-
ened by inadequate sanitation and agricultural
runoff.
15. ____ Levels of salinity have decreased in Aus-
tralia’s water as more shallow-rooted crops are
introduced.
16. ____ Nonnative species of animals have taken
over Australian habitats.
217
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 –AustrA liA And n ew ZeAlAnd, oCeAniA, And AntArCtiCA—H umAn GeoGrApHy –

17. ____ The only two known species of egg-laying Answers

mammals are indigenous to Oceania.
1. Dreamtime
18. ____ Maori farmers brought root crops like 2. British
taro and yams to New Zealand in the 1900s. 3. French
4. Great Britain
19. ____ Australia and New Zealand have ample 5. Raw materials
mineral deposits. 6. Outrigger canoe
7. Iwo Jima
20. ____ Australia dedicates most of its land to 8. Samoa
livestock grazing. 9. Asian
10. Commercial
11. T
12. T
13. F
14. T
15. F
16. T
17. F
18. F
19. T
20. T

218

GEOG_24_207-218.indd 218 1/5/12 1:31 PM

 25
l e s s o n

subContinents
(Part i)

Lesson summary
This and the following two lessons focus on the physical
and human geography of the subcontinents. The subcon-
tinents include: Southwest Asia, including the Middle East
and North Africa; Central Asia; South Asia, or Southern
Eurasia; and Greenland.
We examine the physical geography—landforms,
water systems, natural resources, climate, and vegetation—
of the subcontinents. We also look at the human geogra-
phy—population, culture, language, religion, economy,
education, healthcare, arts, and family life—of the region.

Forget not that the earth delights to feel your bare feet and the winds long to play with your hair.
—Kahlil Gibran, Lebanese-American writer and mystic

Countries

Afghanistan Iran Libya Turkey

Algeria Iraq Morocco Turkmenistan
Armenia Israel Oman United Arab Emirates
Azerbaijan Jordan Qatar Uzbekistan
Bahrain Kazakhstan Saudi Arabia Yemen
Cyprus Kuwait Syria
Egypt Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan
Georgia Lebanon Tunisia

219

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 –subContinents (Part i) –
Physical Geography
The huge region of Southwest Asia—including the
Middle East and North Africa—and Central Asia, is
where ancient civilizations began thousands of years
ago in river valleys. Ancient rivers like the Nile remain
vital to the people of the region because water is
essential in an arid land. Dramatic landforms can be
found Southwest Asia even though it is a region dom-
inated by deserts and mountains.
Earthquakes
The African, Arabian, Anatolian, and Eurasian plates
come together in Southwest Asia and Central Asia,
and the regions regularly experience earthquakes. In
1999, Turkey, at the intersection of the Arabian and
Eurasian plates, felt the effects of an earthquake mea-
suring 7.4 out of 10 on the Richter scale. Tectonic
shifts built the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and Alge-
ria, the Zagros Mountains of southern Iran, and the
Taurus Mountains of Turkey.
Mountains
The Atlas Mountains are Africa’s longest mountain
range. They reach across Morocco, Algeria, and Tuni-
sia. The northern slopes have Mediterranean climate
and support farming.
The Taurus Mountains are located on the south-
ern part of Anatolia, which comprises the western
two-thirds of Turkey. Enough precipitation falls on
the northern side of these mountains to water the
coastal regions for farming.
In Southwest Asia, the Hejaz and Asir mountains
stretch along the western coast of the Arabian Penin-
sula. The taller Asir Mountains receive more precipi-
tation and are thus more productive agriculturally.
The Pontic and Taurus mountians rise from the
Turkish landscape. Between these ranges stands the
Anatolian Plateau, 2,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level.
East of the Pontic range, north of Mount Ararat
220
GEOG_25_219-228.indd 220
between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea, are the Cau-
casus Mountains.
West of the Tian Shan range, which spans
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and western China, the dry
Turan Lowland also has irrigated farmland. Dune-
covered kums, or deserts, contrast with the farm-
lands. The Kara-Kum, or black sand desert, covers
Turkmenistan. The Kyzl-Kum, or red sand desert,
covers half of Uzbekistan. To the west, the Ustyurt
Plateau has salt marshes, sinkholes, and caverns.
Coastal Plains, Seas, and Peninsulas
The region’s agricultural base can be found along the
Mediterranean Sea, the Caspian Sea, and the Persian
Gulf. Southwest Asia and Central Asia include a vari-
ety of seas and peninsulas. The Mediterranean Sea
separates Africa and Europe. The Red Sea and the
Gulf of Aden separate the Arabian Peninsula from
northeastern Africa. The Persian Gulf is to the east of
the peninsula and the Arabian Sea is to the south. In
the northwest, the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba
meet the Sinai Peninsula. There are ample oil and
natural gas reserves on the eastern side of the Sinai
Peninsula.
Across the Mediterranean Sea in the north, the
Anatolia peninsula, the westernmost tip of Asia,
points west to the Aegean Sea. The Black and Medi-
terranean seas lie to the north and south of Anatolia.
The Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, and the Bospo-
rus strait connect the Black and Aegean seas and sep-
arate Asia and Europe.
East of the Mediterranean Sea are three land-
locked saltwater bodies. The Dead Sea sits at the
mouth of the Jordan River. In Central Asia, the Cas-
pian Sea, touching Asia and Europe, remains the larg-
est inland body of water on Earth.
East of the Caspian Sea is the Aral Sea, sand-
wiched between Kazakhstan to the north and Uzbeki-
stan to the south. It has been reduced to a fraction of
its size since the 1960s, when the Soviet Union began
1/5/12 1:31 PM
 –subContinents (Part i) –
diverting water from the rivers that fed it for irriga-
tion projects. By the late 1980s, the sea split into two
separate bodies, the North and South Aral seas. The
water levels in the North Aral Sea increased by 2006,
after dams were built to ensure the flow of freshwater
to the sea.
Plains and Plateaus
Early civilizations thrived in the Fertile Crescent
between the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys of
Southwest Asia. The ancient civilization of Mesopo-
tamia, “land between two rivers” in ancient Greek,
was irrigated by a network of canals that supported
farming. Now Iraq, the area is largely arid and barren.
The two rivers are thirty miles apart and they meet in
southern Iraq to form the Shatt al Arab, which emp-
ties into the Persian Gulf. The Euphrates is about
1,700 miles long and the Tigris is 1,180 miles long.
Dams control both rivers and hydroelectric power
plants provide electricity.
Water Systems
For thousands of years, people have relied on the
region’s rivers and fertile river valleys where civiliza-
tions developed. Rivers nourish Southwest Asia,
North Africa, and Central Asia.
The Nile River in Egypt is the world’s longest
river at 4,160 miles. The Nile delta and fertile land
along its banks gave birth to one of the world’s earli-
est civilizations.
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Nearly all of Egypt’s people live on 3% of Egypt’s
land near the Nile delta and river banks.
Several dams control the Nile’s flow, reducing
flooding and the deposits of alluvial soil made of
GEOG_25_219-228.indd 221
sand and mud left by moving water. In particular, the
Aswan High Dam provides Egypt with water for agri-
culture as well as hydroelectric power. Lake Nasser, a
human-made reservoir created when the dam was
built, stores water and regulates the flow of the Nile.
The water in the lake has brought more land under
irrigation and has converted flood land to irrigated
farmland.
Streambeds
Arid Southwest Asia and North Africa have streams
that appear and disappear very quickly. In deserts,
runoff from rare rainstorms creates wadis, stream-
beds that remain dry until a heavy rain. Irregular
rainstorms often create flash floods. Wadis fill with so
much sediment they become mudflows, moving
masses of wet soil dangerous to humans and animals.
natural resources
Some of Southwest Asia, North Africa, and Central
Asia have abundant resources important to the world
economy.
Oil and Natural Gas
Over 63% of the world’s known oil reserves and 50%
of its natural gas are located in this region. Reserves
under the Gaza Strip and Caspian Sea have not been
measured yet.
Petroleum exports have enriched the region.
Minerals
Turkmenistan has one of the world’s largest deposits
of sulfur and sulfate used in paperboard, glass, and
detergent. Morocco is a major producer of phos-
phate, a chemical used in fertilizers. Chromium, gold,
lead, manganese, and zinc are also spread across the
region. Recent discoveries indicate that the region
may hold up to 10% of the world’s iron ore reserves.
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 –subContinents (Part i) –
Large lithium reserves were discovered in Afghani-
stan in 2010.
Building Diverse Economies
Some countries in the region are decreasing their reli-
ance on oil and mineral exports and diversifying their
economies. The United Arab Emirates is investing oil
earnings in banking, information technology, and
tourism. Libya, which depends on oil for 95% of
export income, is investing in agriculture, fisheries,
and infrastructure.
Climate Challenges
A lack of precipitation in Southwest Asia, North
Africa, and Central Asia affects the region’s climates,
vegetation, and human activities. Because large parts
of the region receive less than 10 inches of rainfall a
year, most of it contains arid areas and experiences
desert climate.
Ancient cave paintings show that North Africa
was once wet and green. Now, vast stretches of sand
with an occasional watering hole mark the region.
Desert Climate
Deserts, which receive less than 10 inches of rainfall a
year, cover almost 50% of Southwest Asia, North
Africa, and Central Asia. The Sahara Desert, covering
3.5 million square miles, is the largest desert in the
world and covers most of North Africa. Droughts
have expanded the Sahara in recent decades. Sand
covers about 20% of the Sahara, and the rest is desert
pavement, or stony plains covered with gravel known
as regs, barren rock, and mountains.
The desert has extreme weather patterns. The
deserts of the northern parts of Central Asia have rel-
atively cold winters with freezing temperatures. Win-
ters in the Arabian Desert and Sahara are milder.
Summers in these deserts are long and hot.
The largest sand area in the region, the Rub’ al-
Khali, or Empty Quarter, covers 250,000 square
222
GEOG_25_219-228.indd 222
miles. It is one of several deserts on the Arabian Pen-
insula and covers most of the southern part of the
peninsula.
The arid deserts in the region support vegeta-
tion like drought-resistant shrubs and cacti. In Cen-
tral Asia’s Kara-Kum, nomadic herds of goats, sheep,
and camels graze on brush. In an oasis, or place
where underground water surfaces, small-scale farm-
ing is possible. Villages, towns, and cities developed
around numerous Saharan oases.
Steppe Climate
The second-largest climate in Southwest Asia, North
Africa, and Central Asia is steppe. Steppe, which lies
to the north and south of the Sahara, borders desert
climates across Turkey to eastern Kazakhstan. Precip-
itation in this semiarid climate averages less than 14
inches a year. This supports short grasses, shrubs, and
some trees which provides pasture for goats, sheep,
and camels. Pastoralism is a way of life for people liv-
ing on the steppe.
Midlatitude Regions
Countries in the midlatitudes benefit from rainfall in
the Mediterranean, highland, and humid subtropical
climates. Mediterranean climates have hot, dry sum-
mers and cool, rainy winters. This climate is common
in the Tigris-Euphrates river valley, the highland
areas, and on the coastal plains of the Mediterranean,
Black, and Caspian seas.
Rainfall
Highland and coastal areas near mountain ranges
receive the most rainfall as warm, moist air is driven
off the sea by prevailing winds. The North African
coast near the Atlas Mountains receives about 20
inches a year, nourishing forests. Monsoons arrive on
the coast of Oman in July and August and their rains
keep forests and pastures lush. Near the Elburz
Mountains in Iran, more than 60 inches of rain falls a
year. Batumi, Georgia, one of the region’s wettest
places, receives more than 100 inches of rain a year.
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 –subContinents (Part i) –
exports and tourism
Countries with Mediterranean climates like Morocco
and Tunisia export olives, citrus fruits, and grapes to
Europe and North America to supplement their
national incomes. Tourism is also lucrative, as people
from colder climates seek the sun and warmth of the
Mediterranean. European tourists, for example, go to
Agadir, Morocco, where the sun shines for 360 days of
the year, and also visit the ancient cities of Fès, Casa-
blanca, and Marrakech.
Areas of higher elevation like the Caucasus
Mountains have a highland climate; they are usually
colder and wetter than other climates in the region.
The highland climate varies with elevation and expo-
sure to wind and sun.
north africa—
Human Geography
North Africa has been home to many ethnic groups
and cultures who, despite modernization and urban-
ization, hold on to many traditional ways of life. The
Sahara and access to water have profoundly affected
the people of North Africa.
Population Patterns
Indigenous ethnic groups, migrations, and the dra-
matic climate have shaped population patterns in
North Africa. The indigenous cultures of North
Africa have mixed with those of the Arabian Penin-
sula and Europe to form distinct cultures.
People
European immigration and colonialism have influ-
enced the coast of North Africa—especially in
Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia—for hundreds of
years. Romans, Jews, Muslims, and Spaniards have all
influenced the North African subregion. Indigenous
and Arab cultures dominate the rest of North Africa.
Indigenous North Africans preceding the Arab
GEOG_25_219-228.indd 223
invasions are called Berbers, pastoral nomads who
moved based on the season and availability of grass
and water for grazing. Today, most are farmers.
Although estimates of Berbers range from 14 million
to 25 million throughout North Africa and Europe,
their numbers are highest in the Atlas Mountains and
Sahara.
Arabs are the other major ethnic group in North
Africa. They first left the Arabian Peninsula and came
to North Africa in the a.d. 600s. Arab-speaking Bed-
ouins migrated from deserts in Southwest Asia. They
herd animals in the desert where there is vegetation
and water to grow food on oases. Egypt was the pri-
mary gateway to North Africa.
Density and Distribution
Geographic factors, especially water availability,
influenced settlement in the region. For centuries,
people settled along seacoasts or river deltas because
of water scarcity elsewhere.
The major urban population centers of North
Africa are: Casablanca, Morocco; Algiers, Algeria;
Tunis, Tunisia; Tripoli, Libya; and Cairo, Egypt. As
Egypt’s primate city, Cairo dominates the country’s
social and cultural life. People move there from the
rural areas looking for a better life. Urban growth has
been so quick that jobs, housing, and infrastructure
like streets and utilities have lagged behind.
History and Government
Numerous migrations and invasions have influenced
different cultures throughout the history of North
Africa. Because the region is so close to Europe and
Southwest Asia, indigenous Berbers faced migrations
and invasions by Arabs and Europeans.
Early Peoples and Civilizations
About 10,000 years ago, at the end of the last Ice Age,
hunters and gatherers settled North Africa. Along the
Mediterranean Sea and the Nile River valley, Egyptian
civilization developed about 6,000 years ago. The Nile
deposited rich soil on the floodplain each year.
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 –subContinents (Part i) –
Egyptians used sophisticated irrigation systems to
water crops in the dry season so they could grow two
crops a year.
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
The ancient Egyptians used a 365-day solar cal-
endar, built massive temples and pyramids as
tombs, and invented hieroglyphics.
Invasions
In the a.d. 600s, invaders from the Arabian Peninsula
influenced the native Berber culture. The Berbers
readily assimilated with Arab cultures in Morocco
and Algeria and did so to a lesser extent in Tunisia
where, following Vandal and Byzantine invasions,
Arab rule was established in Tunisia. Arab and Turk-
ish culture dominated North Africa until the end of
the Ottoman Empire in 1922.
Internal Arab invasions from the east brought
the religion and culture of Islam to Morocco. Muslim
and Jewish exiles fleeing persecution in Catholic
Spain brought Spanish culture to Morocco in the
1400s. In Algeria in the 1500s, early Berber-Arab rule
was overthrown by the Ottoman Empire.
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
The Ottoman Turks also dominated the Mediter-
ranean Sea for 400 years, forcing Europeans to
seek other land and sea routes to trade in the
East.
European Colonialism
As Europe became more skilled at sea travel, the Arab
and Ottoman Turkish empires grew weaker. Euro-
pean colonial rule influenced the people and culture
of North Africa. In the mid-1800s, Algeria’s
224
GEOG_25_219-228.indd 224
independence was cut short by French invasion and
conquest. The European colonial empires drew linear
geometric boundaries for Libya, Egypt, and Algeria
without considering natural or cultural characteris-
tics. Because local governmental practices differed
from imperial designs, there was conflict.
In the 1800s, a well-educated urban middle class
developed in North Africa. Trained in the European
idea of nationalism, North Africans learned that eth-
nic groups have the right to their own countries.
Independence
Egypt became independent of the United Kingdom
in 1922. Trade between the Mediterranean Sea and
the Red Sea through the Suez Canal made Egypt a
regional power. Egypt is also a center of Arab
nationalism.
In the mid-1900s, Algeria’s strong nationalist
movement achieved independence through civil war.
Since independence in 1962, Algeria has developed its
resources and raised its standard of living.
In the 1950s and 1960s, other countries in North
Africa achieved independence from European colo-
nialism. Libya won independence from Italy in 1951,
but was still ruled by a strong pro-Western monarchy.
Until 1969, when the monarchy was overthrown in a
coup led by Colonel Muammar al-Qaddafi. Qaddafi
ruled oil-rich Libya until civil war broke out in 2011.
Tunisia achieved independence from France in 1956.
Morocco won independence from France the same
year and established a constitutional monarchy that
still rules the country today.
Religion and Language
Most people in North Africa are Sunni Muslims. Sun-
nis believe leadership in Islam belongs to the com-
munity. Shias believe leadership in Islam belongs to
the descendants of Muhammad’s cousin Ali. Most
Berbers have accepted Islam, but some practice indig-
enous religion.
In countries with large Muslim populations,
calls to prayer occur five times a day. The muezzin, or
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 –subContinents (Part i) –
crier, calls the faithful from the local mosque’s mina-
ret or tower. Following the movements of the imam,
or prayer leader, worshippers bow, kneel, and touch
their foreheads to ground in the direction of the holy
city of Makkah, or Mecca, in Saudi Arabia.
The Arabic language spread with Islam across
North Africa. Non-Arabic Muslims learned Arabic to
read Islam’s holy book, the Quran (or Koran). As
more people joined Islam, Arabic became the region’s
primary language.
Education and Healthcare
Most young people in North Africa go to school. Pri-
mary education is free and increasing. Literacy rates
vary. Morocco’s is 52%. Libya’s is 82%. Healthcare has
improved in the last few decades. People usually go to
government-owned hospitals for medical treatment.
Due to doctor shortages, there is limited health care
for rural people.
Arts
The ancient Egyptian pyramids are an engineering
wonder set to coordinate with star constellations. The
Egyptians combined the sciences of mathematics and
astronomy with spirituality.
The art of weaving, embroidering, and metal-
working was highly influenced by Islam. Because
many Muslims believe that creating a human form is
sinful, Islamic arts tend to contain intricate patterns
rather than pictures. A popular form of music in
Algeria, rai, features a number of instruments and
poetic lyrics. Whirling dervishes dance in a Sufi mys-
tic Muslim trance.
eastern Mediterranean—
Human Geography
Ancient civilizations and cultures continue to influ-
ence the Eastern Mediterranean subregion. This
region is where the religions of Judaism, Christianity,
GEOG_25_219-228.indd 225
and Islam were born. Palestinian and Jewish people
claim rights to the land of Israel.
Population Patterns
Migrations, claims to ancestral homes, and boundary
disputes have influenced population in the Eastern
Mediterranean. About 7.5 million people live in Israel.
Almost 80% are Jews who trace their heritage back to
the Israelites who settled in Canaan, or modern-day
Israel, and Lebanon.
Density and Distribution
To avoid the desert climate, most people in the East-
ern Mediterranean live along the coastal plains or the
Euphrates river valley. Because of a lack of water in
many areas, small land areas, and large human popu-
lations, the area has some of the highest population
densities in Southwest Asia; Lebanon, for example,
has 1,046 people per square mile.
The Eastern Mediterranean subregion is mostly
urban. More than 92% of the Israeli population lives
in cities. Many people live in Tel Aviv-Jaffa and other
coastal cities of central Israel. Over 50% of Syrians
and Palestinians live in urban areas. A majority of
Lebanon’s population lives in coastal cities like Beirut
and Tripoli.
Modern Israel has faced intense immigration
since its founding in 1948. Since 1989, about a mil-
lion Jews migrated from the former Soviet Union.
Because people have migrated to Israel from at least
100 countries, the country remains ethnically diverse.
History and Government
The eastern Mediterranean is home to three of the
world’s major religions that have shaped politics and
culture for centuries. Jerusalem is the Jewish capital
and religious center kings David and Solomon built.
The city is also sacred to Christians because many of
Jesus’ acts took place there. Mohammed also ascended
to heaven in Jerusalem.
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 –subContinents (Part i) –
Early Civilizations
Over the centuries, the Eastern Mediterranean has
been occupied by powerful cultures and empires. The
Phoenicians widely traveled the Mediterranean start-
ing about 3000 b.c. They created an alphabet with
letters representing sounds, an idea that influenced
many modern alphabets. Ebla, Syria, was an impor-
tant commercial center by 3000 b.c. By 2400 b.c.,
hundreds of thousands of people lived in this Semitic
empire. Damascus, Syria, remains one of the oldest,
continuously settled cities in the world.
Religion
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam share many beliefs
such as monotheism, or belief in one God; life after
death; and a claim to Jerusalem.
Independence and Conflict
For centuries, Islamic empires called caliphates rose
and fell in the Eastern Mediterranean. Physical geog-
raphy restricted economic development. The region’s
Islamic empires lacked resources like minerals, wood,
and coal used in the Industrial Revolution of Western
Europe. Western European powers controlled large
parts of the Eastern Mediterranean by the late 1800s.
Eastern Mediterranean countries achieved inde-
pendence around the time of World War II. Lebanon
gained independence from France in 1943. In 1946,
Syria became independent of France. The same year,
Jordan gained independence from the British.
Modern Arab-Israeli Conflict
After the Romans drove the Jews from their home-
land in a.d. 135, they settled in communities across
the world where they continued to face persecution.
In the late 1800s, Zionists began calling for return to
and resettlement of Palestine the homeland.
The British promise of an Arab homeland in
Palestine convinced many Arabs to fight for the Brit-
ish in World War I. The United Nations divided Pal-
estine into a Jewish state and an Arab state in 1947.
When British forces left the region the next year, Jews
226
GEOG_25_219-228.indd 226
proclaimed the independent state of Israel. Disputes
over land ownership and settlement led to six wars. In
1948 and 1967, Israeli forces occupied Arab lands.
Israeli-Palestinian Peace Process
Many Palestinians became refugees in other lands.
The status of Palestinian refugees and the need for a
stable Palestinian state remain important issues in the
Arab-Israeli conflict.
Israeli and Palestinian leaders made strides
toward peace in the 1990s, but the peace process
stalled in 2002. There have been numerous steps for-
ward and backward since.
Israel has created a wall to separate the West
Bank from Jerusalem. Palestinian terrorists often
come from refugee camps in Palestine. The United
States, European Union, United Nations, and Russia
have all called for a “Road Map to Peace,” to include
establishment of a Palestinian state. Israel claims the
entire city of Jerusalem; the Palestinians want east
Jerusalem to serve as capital of the Palestinian state.
Religion and Language
Most Muslims in the eastern Mediterranean are
Sunni. Arabs in Syria and Lebanon are Shia.
Jews and Christians are only a small part of the
population of the Eastern Mediterranean. Most Jews
live in Israel. Large groups of Christians live in Syria
and Lebanon, where they remain a minority.
Family life in the Eastern Mediterranean often
involves extended family and religious worship. Dur-
ing the holy month of Ramadan, Muslims fast during
daylight.
Western-style dress is gaining popularity, par-
ticularly among Jewish and Christian women of the
eastern Mediterranean. Many Muslims dress conser-
vatively. Some Muslim women wear a veil over their
faces and completely cover their feet and hands.
Arabic is the primary language of the Eastern
Mediterranean. Hebrew is spoken in Israel. Hebrew
and Arabic are Semitic languages. English is spoken
in some areas.
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 –subContinents (Part i) –

Education and Healthcare answers

Education is compulsory and free in the Eastern
Mediterranean. Most young people attend school. 1. Steppe
Literacy rates vary from 97% in Israel to 80% in Syria. 2. Sahara
Healthcare has improved over the past few decades. 3. Petroleum and natural gas
Many hospitals are government-owned. 4. Aswan
5. Water
Arts
For thousands of years, the people of the Eastern
Mediterranean have expressed themselves through
art and architecture. The Phoenicians who lived along
the coast created the first alphabet. Jewish, Christian,
and Muslim artists and writers have been inspired by
the religions of the region.
Muslim scholars wrote about Islamic achieve-
ment and translated classic Greek texts into Arabic.
These works added to the European knowledge of the
ancient world. Syrian arts and scholarly writings
rivaled those of Mesopotamia and even influenced
Roman culture and thought.

Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.

1. ___________ is a semiarid region.

2. The ___________ is the largest desert in the

world.

3. Southwest Asia has a large reserve of

___________ and ___________.

4. The ___________ High Dam in Egypt reduces

flooding of the Nile.

5. ___________ is a scarce resource in Southwest

Asia.

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GEOG_25_219-228.indd 228 1/5/12 1:31 PM
 26
l e s s o n

subcontinents
(Part ii)

Lesson summary
Discussion of the Subcontinents continues with the north-
eastern Mediterranean, Central Asia, and Greenland.

Afghan society is very complex, and Afghanistan has a very complex culture. Part of the reason it has remained
unknown is because of this complexity.
—Mohsen Makhmalbaf

northeast Mediterranean

Descendants of ancient civilizations affect society, politics, and culture today.

Population Patterns
Ethnic diversity and Islam have profoundly shaped the northeastern Mediterranean. Muslim religious tradi-
tions have also shaped the subregion.

229

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 –subcontinents (Part ii) –
People
People came to the northeastern Mediterranean from
Central Asia and the Arabian Peninsula. Despite
diverse languages and customs, Islam connects the
people of the subregion.
Turks
For 8,000 years, many peoples occupied Anatolia, or
modern-day Turkey. Turkic people arrived on the
peninsula from Central Asia around a.d. 1000. The
Ottoman Turks ruled the eastern Mediterranean for
600 years. Turks practice Islam and their culture
blends Turkish, Muslim, and Western elements.
Iranians
Iran was called Persia until 1935. Iran means “land of
the Aryans.” Many of the 67 million Iranians believe
they are descendants of the Aryans, Indo-Europeans
who came from southern Russia about 1000 b.c. Per-
sians, or Iranians, retained their culture and language,
Farsi, despite numerous invasions. About 89% of Ira-
nians are Shia Muslims.
Arabs
With ethnic ties to the Arabian Peninsula, most peo-
ple in Iraq are Arab. Most Arabs in Iraq are Shia Mus-
lims. About 35% of Iraq is Sunni. Saddam Hussein
was a Sunni Muslim. Arabic is the language of Iraq.
Kurds
Kurds have lived in the mountainous areas of Turkey,
Iran, and Iraq. Most Kurds speak Kurdish, which is
related to Farsi, and practice Sunni Islam. Kurdish
customs and dress differ from those of Arabs in the
region. They have no country of their own, but call
their region Kurdistan. Their efforts at self-rule have
been crushed by Turkish and Arab rulers.
Density and Distribution
Iran and Turkey have populations of about 70 million
each. Iraq has a population of about 29 million. More
than half the people live in cities. Most Iraqis live in a
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GEOG_26_229-238.indd 230
strip from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf. Regional
population density ranges from 110 people per
square mile in Iran to 244 people per square mile in
Turkey.
The large urban centers of Tehran, Iran; Istan-
bul, Turkey; and Baghdad, Iraq, influence social and
cultural life in their countries. Cities are overcrowded.
Traffic control systems and public transportation
have expanded. Iran has moved some of its govern-
mental offices to towns and villages in an effort to
expand services and slow urban growth.
History and Government
Ancient empires and thriving civilizations influenced
the early history of northeast Mediterranean. Today
the subregion is shaped by the oil industry and rela-
tions with the outside world.
Civilizations and Empires
The area between the Tigris and Euphrates River
where Mesopotamia developed was one of the world’s
first influential cultural hearths. The rich agricultural
region was known as the Fertile Crescent.
Sumerians used irrigation canals to grow crops
year-round. Sumerians created a code of laws and
made advancements in mathematics, astronomy, and
engineering; they kept records using a wedge-shaped
writing system on clay called cuneiform.
The Persian Empire stretched across the region
in the 500s b.c. Persian engineers designed under-
ground canals called qanats to overcome evaporation
and deliver water from mountains to farmlands.
The Ottoman Empire that lasted for 600 years
(1299–1923) was based in modern-day Turkey. It
covered North Africa, Western Asia, and Southeastern
Europe.
Modern Era
By the late 1800s, Western Europe controlled north-
eastern Eurasia. Britain controlled Iraq until 1932.
After that, Iraq suffered from turmoil, including the
U.S. wars against Iraq in 1991 and from 2003 to 2011.
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 –subcontinents (Part ii) –
The Ottoman Empire was destroyed by World
War I. Turkey established itself as a secular republic in
1923. It is poised to join the European Union.
The Zagros Mountains form a natural barrier
between Iraq and Iran. In the Islamic Revolution of
1979, radical and fundamentalist Muslims in Iran
overthrew the U.S.-supported shah. Muslim clerics
called mullahs came to power and radicals still dom-
inate Iranian politics despite civil unrest in urban
centers.
Oil
The discovery of oil in the Persian Gulf in the early
1900s gradually brought riches to the region. The
wells fell to regional powers. The Gulf States of Iraq,
Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait joined Venezuela to
form the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC). They agreed on regulating pro-
duction to keep oil prices high. With growing
demand, OPEC grew in power.
Language and Religion
Although most Muslims speak Arabic, Iranians speak
Farsi and people in Turkey speak Turkish. Most peo-
ple in Iraq and Iran are Shia Muslims. Most Muslims
in Turkey are Sunni.
Education and Healthcare
Education is required to grade 6 in Iraq and to grade
8 in Turkey. The literacy rate is 77% in Iran and 87%
in Turkey. Before the revolution in Iran, less than half
the people could read or write. Since the revolution,
there have been reforms diminishing secular ideas
and emphasizing religious ones.
Healthcare varies in the subregion. Since the
Persian Gulf War of 1991 when Iraq attacked Kuwait,
Iraq has struggled to rebuild its hospitals. In other
countries, government-run hospitals suffer from doc-
tor shortages in rural areas.
GEOG_26_229-238.indd 231
Arts
Early civilizations created large buildings, fine metal-
work, and sculptures. The Sumerians built large
mud-brick “stairway to heaven” temples called ziggu-
rats. They were pyramid-shaped and stood straight
up from the flat landscape. Literature from the north-
eastern Mediterranean is based on oral traditions,
poetry, and epics. The Rubáiyát by the Persian poet
Omar Khayyám comes from this tradition.
arabian Peninsula
The harsh desert climate and coastal regions, as well
as Islam, have shaped the Arabian Peninsula. The
nomads of the subregion have adapted to the climate,
mixing tradition and religion with commerce.
Population Patterns
A shared religion, a common language, and rapid
modernization have formed today’s Arabian
Peninsula.
People
Most of the 56 million people of the Arabian Penin-
sula live along the coast. Most are Arab and Muslim.
Islamic religion and the Arabic language are still
influential here.
Arab people lived here before the rise of Islam.
Many people here descend from Egyptians, Phoeni-
cians, Saharans, Berbers, and other Semitic speakers.
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
Many Arabs migrated to Kuwait when oil was
discovered there in the 1900s.
Many South Asians also live in the larger cities
of the eastern Arabian Peninsula. Muslims from
231
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 –subcontinents (Part ii) –
India, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and Iran have also
immigrated here looking for jobs.
Density and Distribution
As in North Africa, the region’s harsh desert climate
pushed people to the lush coastal climates of the Ara-
bian Peninsula. Some Bedouin nomads roam the vast
Arabian Desert, but many have migrated to cities.
The population density of some cities and oases in
Saudi Arabia is 2,600 people per square mile, but the
country’s immense size and harsh desert climate
makes its total population density average to only
about 30 people per square mile. In Bahrain, 89% of
people live in the cities of Manama and Al Muharraq.
In Oman, more than half the population lives along
the coastal plain.
Arab people in Yemen are not nomads. They
settled in villages and small towns. Bedouin nomads
have historically roamed the desert looking for water
and grazing spots for their herds of cattle.
didUse
this book. you know?
it faithfully, and
Over 95% of the Bedouin population of Saudi
Arabia is now settled.
Since the discovery of oil in the early 1900s,
Arab countries have experienced increased wealth,
modernization, and migration. Newly arrived immi-
grants make up most of the population of many
countries like the United Arab Emirates; only 20% of
its people are citizens. Foreign workers make up 50%
of the population in Qatar and 60% of the popula-
tion in Kuwait.
History and Government
Conquering empires and unified governments have
imposed cultures on the peoples of the Arabian Pen-
insula that are still influential today. Many of the
countries are young, but their cultural history is long.
232
GEOG_26_229-238.indd 232
In the 1800s, the people sought British protection
against invaders like the Ottoman Turks.
Early Cultures and Conquests
Vital cultures have existed on the Arabian Peninsula
for 5,000 years. One center of civilization, Yemen,
thrived from 1100 b.c. to the a.d. 500s.
The harsh desert climate of the peninsula made
the coasts the only place large settlements could exist.
An island near Kuwait was used as a trading post by
the ancient Greeks for 2,000 years.
A local family took control of the Arabian Pen-
insula in 1750. The native people struggled against
invading Ottoman Turks and others. The United
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was established in 1932.
In the 1800s and early 1900s, Kuwait, Bahrain,
and Qatar allied with Great Britain to protect them-
selves from the Ottoman Empire. Parts of Yemen also
allied with the British during that time. Oman has
remained independent.
Language and Religion
Makkah, or Mecca, in Saudi Arabia is the sacred Mus-
lim pilgrimage site. Most people on the Arabian Pen-
insula are Sunni or Shia Muslims. Most Muslims
believe in making a pilgrimage, or hajj, to Makkah at
least once during their lives.
A different form of Islam, Ibadhism, is practiced
in Oman. This form of the religion exhibits a moder-
ate conservatism by choosing its ruler by communal
consensus and consent. Oman is the only Muslim
country to have a majority Ibadhi population.
The Wahabi sect of the Sunni branch originat-
ing in Saudi Arabia advocates the literal interpreta-
tion of the Quran and independence from Western
imperialism.
Islam influences the language in the Arabian
Peninsula—the Quran is written in Arabic and most
people speak and pray in Arabic. South Asian and
Afro-Asian languages are found on the Arabian Pen-
insula, too.
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Education and Healthcare
Most children in the subregion attend school. Public
education is important to Kuwait and Qatar. Kuwait
has a literacy rate of 93% and in Qatar it is 89%. Bah-
rain uses its oil revenues for education, so its literacy
rate is 87%. Oman has made secondary and post-
secondary education a priority because the govern-
ment wants a trained workforce.
Healthcare varies by country. Rural and urban
healthcare services vary. Government-owned hospi-
tals are often understaffed. Private social or religious
groups provide healthcare and social services.
Arts and Celebrations
Some of the best art on the Arabian Peninsula is
found in architecture. Mosques and palaces are fine
examples of Islamic architecture. Because Islam con-
demns depicting living figures in religious art, Mus-
lim artists work in geometric and floral designs. They
also use artistic writing, or calligraphy, for decora-
tion. Passages from the Quran adorn the walls of
many mosques.
Muslim families and community (umma) come
together for religious holidays and observances. Many
Muslims mark Id al Adha, the Feast of Sacrifice, by
making a pilgrimage to Makkah. They also observe
the holy month of Ramadan by fasting from dawn
until dusk.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
1. ____ The United States armed the mujahedeen
of Afghanistan in their struggle against the
Soviet military.
2. ____ Islam was born on the Arabian Peninsula.
3. ____ The Quran is written in Farsi.
GEOG_26_229-238.indd 233
4. ____ Hebrew and Arabic are Semitic
languages.
5. ____ Oil has meant urban population growth
for Southwest Asia.
central asia
Population Patterns
Invasions, domination by many empires, and rugged
landscape have created challenges for Central Asia.
Some people were defeated by war or famine or
absorbed by more powerful groups. Others have sur-
vived and flourished.
People
Afghanistan sits at the southern end of Central Asia
south of Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
Afghanistan’s many ethnic groups reflect centuries of
migrations and invasions. Pashtun is the major eth-
nic group.
Over 50 ethnic groups and nationalities live in
the Caucasus area. Armenians and Georgians are the
most numerous. Armenia and Georgia became inde-
pendent when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991.
Many Turks live in the Central Asian republics.
Uzbeks and Kazakhs are large Turkish ethnic groups.
They make up the populations of Uzbekistan and
Kazakhistan. Kazakhs make up only half the popula-
tion in their own country.
Density and Distribution
The population of Central Asia is spread unevenly
across the mountainous terrain. Russia is the most
populous country in the subregion, with 140 million
people, though because it spans from Europe to the
Pacific, Afghanistan, with 29 million people, is the
region’s true population leader.
The population of Central Asia has often faced
conflict. In 1915, between 1 million and 1.5 million
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 –subcontinents (Part ii) –
Armenians in Turkey were massacred, deported, or
died by the hand of the Ottoman Turks. In the mod-
ern era, about 20% of the population left the country
looking for a better life. About 300,000 people in
Georgia are displaced.
Most of Tajikistan’s people live in the Amu
Dar’ya and Syr Dar’ya river valleys. The rivers flow
through the country.
History and Government
Central Asia’s location has left the region’s people vul-
nerable to invasion for centuries and new challenges
in the modern era. Newly independent, these coun-
tries work to find political and economic stability.
Cultures and Conquests
Central Asia is a crossroads of cultures at least 2,500
years old. Because Afghanistan is situated on trade
routes between the Middle East and South Asia, it has
often been invaded. The mountainous areas that
extend into modern Pakistan were so treacherous
that Alexander the Great and the British gave up try-
ing to control the country. For the past 30 years the
country’s stability has been plagued by invasions and
ethnic conflict.
The Kingdom of Urartu’s rule over the Cauca-
sus dates back to the thirteenth century b.c., and
peaked around 800 b.c. before declining in the sixth
century. The area was later occupied by the Roman
Empire and adopted Western philosophical, political,
and religious traditions.
Starting about 100 b.c., parts of Central Asia
prospered using the Silk Road, a trade route connect-
ing the Mediterranen Sea to China. Many cities in
Central Asia, such as Samarqand in modern-day
Uzbekistan, thrived as trading centers along the road.
Accessible because of its location along trade
routes, Central Asia fell under the control of empires.
In the a.d. 1200s, Genghis Khan’s nomadic Mongol
tribes from north of China invaded the region, kill-
ing tens of thousands of people. The Mongols
brought improvements like paper money and safer
234
GEOG_26_229-238.indd 234
trade routes. Alexander the Great, the Persians,
Arabs, and Ottoman Turks all unified the region at
different times.
Armenians resisted conquest. The country is
located next to the Muslim countries of Turkey and
Azerbaijan. Over 90% of Armenians practice Christi-
anity and it is often called the first Christian country.
It is an enclave, an area culturally or ethnically differ-
ent from its surrounding cultures. Even though Azer-
baijan is surrounded by the Christian Caucasus
region, it also maintains an Islamic culture.
The Russian Empire unified parts of Central
Asia in the 1800s. By 1936, most of Central Asia was
an extension of the Soviet Union. The region was
controlled politically, economically, and culturally by
the Soviets, and many countries had increased liter-
acy rates and standards of living under the Soviets.
Many people left Kyrgyzstan to escape harsh living
conditions.
Independence
When the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, numerous
Central Asian countries declared independence.
Armenia has had some stability and economic
reform. After the breakdown of central authority,
Tajikistan experienced chaos and still has a Russian
military presence.
The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979
to spread communism. The United States, England,
and China armed the country’s guerilla rebels, the
mujahedeen, to stop Soviet expansion. The Soviets
withdrew in 1988. The mujahedeen stormed the capi-
tal of Kabul, overthrew the government, and estab-
lished the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.
A militant fundamentalist Islamic group, the
Taliban, violently cracked down on crime, drug traf-
ficking, and women’s rights in an effort to restore
order through theocratic means.
After the terrorist attacks on the Pentagon and
the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, a
Saudi, Osama bin Laden, claimed responsibility and
was reputed to be hiding in Afghanistan. The Tali-
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 –subcontinents (Part ii) –
ban refused to turn him over, and the United States
attacked Afghanistan in October of 2001. In 2004,
Afghanistan held its first successful election, and
Hamid Karzai was elected president. The Taliban
has regrouped and revived as a strong insurgency
movement. American forces are attempting to stabi-
lize the region.
Afghanistan is plagued with a decentralized
power structure run by warlords, a history of weak
central government, corruption, and terrorism.
World peace organizations and foreign aid will help
build infrastructure and communications systems.
Although some Central Asian countries are
moving toward political and economic stability,
unemployment and poverty are widespread. Arme-
nia, Georgia, and Kazakhistan hope oil and gas
reserves will make their countries stable.
Language and Religion
The overwhelming majority of people speak a Turkic
language. The Armenian, Tajikistan, Afghan Persian,
and Pashto languages are Indo-European languages
spoken in Armenia, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan.
Georgia has a unique alphabet and language. Russian
is the official language of Kazakhistan and is spoken
widely in Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
Islam is the dominant religion, and most Mus-
lims in Central Asia are Sunni. Most Azerbaijani
Muslims are Shia. Christianity is the main religion of
Armenia and Georgia. About 90% of Armenians
belong to the Armenian Apostolic Church which
dates back to the a.d. 300s. Most Georgians belong to
the Georgian Orthodox Church.
Education and Healthcare
Education is universal throughout Central Asia and
mandatory through secondary school in a few coun-
tries. Most Central Asian countries have a literacy
rate above 99%. Afghanistan, at 28%, lags far behind
the average.
Since the breakup of the Soviet Union, health-
care resources have gone lacking in Central Asia.
GEOG_26_229-238.indd 235
Years of civil strife and economic challenges leave
scant financial resources for social programs.
central asia today
Economic Activities
The large oil and natural gas reserves of Central Asia
have brought economic growth to some of the region’s
countries and have affected its relations with other
regions. Most countries rich in oil have little water.
Agriculture and Fishing
Only a small part of Central Asia is suitable for farm-
ing, but a large percentage of people work in agricul-
ture. Only about 12% of the land in Afghanistan is
arable, yet 67% of the people farm for a living. Geor-
gia’s humid subtropical climate is good for growing
fruits, grapes, and cotton.
The steppes of Central Asia provide fertile soil
for growing crops and grasslands for grazing live-
stock. Uzbekistan is one of the world’s leading cotton
producers. Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan raise silk-
worms. Although only 21% of Azerbaijan’s land is
arable, Kazakhstan is a major grain producer.
Industry
During the 1990s, Russia underwent significant
change torward a market-based economy, and by
2009 was the world’s top exporter of natural gas, the
second-leading exporter of oil, and the third-largest
exporter of aluminum and steel.
Aside from Russia, Kazakstahn is the biggest
former Soviet republic, and is one of the top twenty
oil-exporting nations in the world. It also produces
metals including manganese, lead, zinc, and copper,
and has a large agricultural production of spring
wheat. Azerbaijan’s main industry is also oil and
petrolem products, along with natural gas.
The region’s other countries are poor and tend
to rely on agriculture. During the Soviet era, Arme-
nia modernized and began exporting textiles,
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 –subcontinents (Part ii) –
machine tools, jewelry, and other manufactured
goods, but since independence it has relied on farm-
ing products like livestock, vegetables, and fruits,
particularly grapes. Georgia, like Armenia, has to
import most of its energy needs. It produces manga-
nese and copper. The mountainous country of Kyr-
gyzstan exports small amounts of gold, uranium,
mercury, and natural gas, and desert-dominated
Turkmenistan also exports a significant amount of
gas while relying on cotton production. Tajikstan is
one of the region’s poorest countries, with 60%
unemployment. Most of the country’s laborers work
abroad and send money home.
Managing Resources
Growing populations throughout North Africa,
Southwest Asia, and Central Asia severely strain
scarce water resources. According to the World Health
Organization and UNICEF, two out of three of the
world’s households do not have a source of fresh
water close to them.
Water Resources
Most freshwater in Central Asia comes from aqui-
fers, underground layers of porous rock, gravel, or
sand containing water. Population growth requires
more water.
Troubled Seas
The Aral Sea and Caspian Sea face environmental dif-
ficulties. Pollution and overfishing threaten the
southern end of the Caspian Sea near the Elburz
Mountains of Iran. The Aral Sea was diverted from
feeder rivers to irrigate croplands. This killed the fish-
ing industries and dust storms spread polluted soil.
People near the Aral Sea are creating a chain of lakes
to support fishes.
Nuclear and Chemical Dangers
Central Asia inherited Soviet-era environmental
problems. Kazakhstan had Soviet nuclear bases and
236
GEOG_26_229-238.indd 236
nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons were tested
there during the Cold War. Residents were not warned
or evacuated before testing, and there were radiation
leaks. Kazakhstan was used by Soviet planners for
heavy industry. Industrial pollution there raised the
infant mortality rate.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
6. ____ Russia is the world’s top exporter of natu-
ral gas.
7. ____ Afghanistan has a literacy rate on par
with the rest of the region.
8. ____ Most Muslims in Central Asia are Sunni.
Greenland
The term subcontinent in the sense of “a large land-
mass that is smaller than any of the usually recog-
nized continents” can also refer to Greenland.
Greenland is a large island landmass, smaller than the
recognized continents.
Physical Geography
Greenland is a continental island. It is part of the
continental shelf, a shallow underwater platform
forming a continental border. Greenland is near
Ellesmere Island, which is also a continental island.
Greenland is the world’s largest island at 839,399
square miles.
Along the coasts of Greenland, there is sparse
tundra vegetation like sedge, cotton grass, and lichens.
Greenland’s ice-free areas have few trees. Dwarfed
birch, willow, and alder scrubs survive. As in other
northern areas, few people inhabit Greenland due to
its harsh climate.
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 –subcontinents (Part ii) –
Greenland’s interior has an ice cap climate. This
type of climate has layers of ice and snow often more
than 2 miles thick constantly covering the ground.
Human Geography
Norseman, or Viking, Erik the Red arrived in Qaqor-
toq in a.d. 982. He was on the lam (a Viking word)
after killing a man who did not return his property.
Erik came from Iceland and gave the land the name
Greenland to encourage settlement. It worked. Over
4,000 Vikings settled there. Vikings farmed, raised
sheep and cattle, and built churches on the southern
and western sides of Greenland. They traded seal and
walrus skins for timber and iron from Europe.
The Inuits came from Canada around the same
time. Kalaallisut, an Inuit dialect, is the official lan-
guage of Greenland. About a quarter of Greenland’s
people live in its capital, Nuuk, which was settled by a
Lutheran missionary in 1721. Greenland has been an
overseas territory of Denmark’s since 1721, and since
1979 has been self-governing.
Greenland Today
Greenland is melting due to global warming. Satellite
imaging and ice penetrating radar shows Greenland’s
melting ice caps are raising the level of the oceans.
Greenland is returning to the warm medieval climates
that brought the Vikings from Scandinavia. Much of
the ice in many areas is now too thin for sledding.
Most of the population’s 56,000 live on Green-
land’s western coast. Fishing run by a state-owned
company brings in more than 70% of the national
income. Greenland imports most of its produce.
GEOG_26_229-238.indd 237
Oil beyond the fishing grounds may lead to eco-
nomic self-sufficiency, but it would destroy the Inuit
and Viking ways of life.
An Australian company has discovered in
Greenland rare earth metals that, if mined, could be
used in green technologies like hybrid car batteries,
wind turbines, and compact fluorescent light bulbs.
China currently dominates 95% of this market.
Denmark pumps about $620 million into
Greenland’s anemic economy every year. Many of the
people were brought into the city by the Danish gov-
ernment in the 1950s and 1960s. In 2008, the people
of Greenland voted for greater independence from
Denmark.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
9. ____ Greenland is the world’s largest island.
10. ____ Greenland has Viking, Inuit, and Danish
cultural influences.
11. ____ Traditional hunting and fishing has
declined in Greenland due to global warming,
but oil and mining are prospects for economic
revival.
237
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 –subcontinents (Part ii) –

answers

1. T
2. T
3. F
4. T
5. T
6. T
7. F
8. T
9. T
10. T
11. T

238

GEOG_26_229-238.indd 238 1/5/12 1:31 PM

 27
l e s s o n

subcontinents
(Part iii)

Lesson summary
This discussion of the subcontinents ends with coverage
of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan,
and Sri Lanka. Due to the amount of information in this
lesson, break your study up into two separate days in
order to fully process what you learn.

Europe is merely powerful; India is beautiful.

—Savitri Devi

Physical Geography

The phrase the subcontinent, used on its own in English, commonly refers to the East Subcontinent. The region
largely comprises a peninsula of Eurasia south of the Himalayas. Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal,
Pakistan, and Sri Lanka are all separated from the rest of Asia by the Himalayas but are still joined to it and thus
are part of the South Asian subcontinent. South Asia contains desert, plateaus, rain forests, mountains, and a
myriad of languages, races, and religions.

landforms

South Asia’s landforms affect where people live and seasonal rain patterns.

239

GEOG_27_239-252.indd 239 1/5/12 1:32 PM

 –subcontinents (Part iii) –
Northern Landforms
The towering Himalayas were created by the collision
of tectonic plates. According to the theory of conti-
nental drift, 200 million years ago the Indian subcon-
tinent broke off from Africa and collided with the
southern edge of Asia to create the Himalayan moun-
tain ranges along the northern edge of the peninsula.
The Himalayas are about 1,500 miles long and hun-
dreds of miles wide.
The Himalayas meet the Karakoram Mountains
in the north and the Hindu Kush range in the west,
creating a wall between the subcontinent and the rest
of Asia. Invaders could only use the Kyber Pass
between Pakistan and Afghanistan.
The region’s great rivers, the Indus, Ganges, and
Brahmaputra, are at the foot of the Himalayas. They
water the wide fertile plains. One-tenth of the world’s
people live on the northern plain, the Gangetic Plain.
The Chota Nagpur Plateau of forests is located in
northeastern India.
Central and Southern Landforms
The Vindhya and Satpura mountain ranges across
central India were also created by the collision of tec-
tonic plates. These ranges separate the cultures of
northern and southern India. The Narmada River
flows through the valley between the two ranges.
At the base of the subcontinent is a triangle of
rugged hills called the Eastern Ghats and the Western
Ghats (Ghats means “benevolent mountains” in the
ancient Sanskrit language of India). Between them is
the Deccan Plateau, which was connected to Africa
more than 200 millions years ago. The plateau was
covered in lava that is now rich, black soil. The West-
ern Ghats range absorbs most of the rain-bearing
winds. The Karnataka Plateau, southwest of the Dec-
can Plateau, receive a lot of rain and is lush and green.
The island of Sri Lanka broke from the original
Indian landmass. It is a chain of coral atolls and vol-
canic outcroppings. The Maldives cover 35,200
square ocean miles, but its land area is only 116
square miles.
240
GEOG_27_239-252.indd 240
Water systems
From the north, South Asia’s major river systems
bring fertile soil to the floodplains during the mon-
soon seasons from high atop the Himalayas. These
northern rivers serve as transportation routes and
provide hydroelectricity.
Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers
The Ganges River flows east from the Himalayas and
empties into the Bay of Bengal. Its drainage basin
covers about 400,000 miles.
didUse
this book. you knoW?
it faithfully, and
The river is named for the sacred Hindu goddess
Ganga. The Ganges flows even during the dry
season, December to June.
During the summer monsoon season, there can
be devastating floods.
The Gangetic Plain has been cleared of grass-
land and forest for rice, sugarcane, and jute. It is the
world’s longest alluvial plain, or area of fertile soil
deposited by river floodwaters. It is India’s most agri-
culturally productive and densely populated area.
The Brahmaputra River flows east to the Hima-
layas, west into India, and south into Bangladesh. The
Brahmaputra joins the Ganges River to form a delta
that empties into the Bay of Bengal. The Brahmapu-
tra is a main inland waterway. Boats can travel 800
miles into the interior using the Brahmaputra River.
The Brahmaputra also provides hydroelectric power.
Indus River
The Indus River is known as the cradle of ancient
India even though it flows mainly through Pakistan,
watering peach and apple orchards and then empty-
ing into the Arabian Sea. The Indus is still an impor-
tant transportation route.
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 –subcontinents (Part iii)–
natural resources
South Asia has many natural resources on which the
large population depends. Rivers are the most impor-
tant resource providing drinking water, fish, alluvial
soil, hydroelectric power, and transportation.
Water resource management is difficult in South
Asia because rivers cross national boundaries. Bhutan
works with India on hydroelectric power and they
share generated power. Massive dam projects, like the
Tarbela Dam in Pakistan, threaten to flood existing
settlements or are choked up with built-up silt.
South Asia has large and diverse mineral stocks.
India is a leading exporter of iron ore and mica.
Chromium and gypsum need development. Nepal
produces mica and copper. Sri Lanka is one of the
world’s leading makers of graphite, the lead used for
pencils, and it has precious and semiprecious stones.
There are petroleum reserves near the Ganges
Delta, along India’s northwest coast, in the north of
Pakistan, and in the Arabian Sea. There are natural
gas fields in the Ganges Delta, southern Pakistan, and
in Bangladesh. India has uranium north of the East-
ern Ghats.
Timber resources are Indian sandalwood, teak,
and sal. Nepal’s and Bhutan’s forests have silver fir
and other conifers, oak, magnolia, beech, and birch
hardwoods. Nepal’s forests are threatened by overcut-
ting and massive soil erosion. The government of
Nepal is leading remedial conservation and reforesta-
tion projects.
didUse
this book. you knoW?
it faithfully, and
Sri Lanka has banned timber exports since 1977
to protect its rain forests.
GEOG_27_239-252.indd 241
climate and Vegetation
The seasonal winds in South Asia heavily influence
temperature and rainall. They also affect which crops
people grow and how people and the environment
are affected by not enough or too much rain.
Climate Regions
Most of South Asia is south of the Tropic of Cancer,
so it has tropical climates with ample rainfall and
diverse vegetation. Climates do vary in the north and
west. In the north there are highlands in the Himala-
yas. In the west, there are deserts near the Indus River.
When rain-bearing winds sweep in, hot climates
burst forth.
Tropical Regions
India’s west coast, Bangladesh, and southern Sri
Lanka have tropical wet climates with a variety of
vegetation. South Asia’s rain forests absorb the mois-
ture from seasonal rains blowing out of the south-
west. Rain forests in western Sri Lanka, in
southwestern India, and north of the Bay of Bengal
have lush vines and orchids and ebony trees.
Surrounding the rain forest near the Western
Ghats are coniferous and deciduous trees. Hot, damp
Bangladesh has tropical forests with bamboo, mango,
and palm trees.
The Sundarbans are threatened by rising sea
levels and flooding saltwaters of the Bay of Bengal.
Midlatitude and Highland Regions
Cold Central Asian winds are blocked by the Himala-
yas. There is then a humid subtropical climate across
Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and northeastern India.
There are temperate mixed forests here.
South Asia is coldest in the Himalayan Moun-
tains and Karakoram Mountains where there is snow
year round. Little vegetation survives at high alti-
tudes. In lower elevations, in the upper temperate
region, are coniferous and hardwood trees. Bamboo
stands and grasslands cover foothills.
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 –subcontinents (Part iii) –
Dry Regions
Northwestern India by the Indus River is arid, wind-
swept desert land. East of the Indus in the Thar Des-
ert thorny trees and grasses grow, and cattle graze.
Indus irrigation aids in some wheat growth in the
sandy soil.
Steppe surrounds desert, except on the coast.
There are few trees in semiarid grassland. Between
the Ghats in the Deccan Plateau of South India is
steppe. Summer monsoons rise up in the Ghats,
releasing rainfall moisture. Over the mountains,
winds lose most of their moisture. This rain shadow
effect makes the leeward mountainsides dry. India’s
interior is scrub and deciduous forest.
seasonal Weather Patterns
Seasonal weather patterns bring badly needed rainfall
to South Asia. Monsoon winds and other natural
disasters bring catastrophe and hardship. The hot
season with high temperatures is from late February
to June. The cool season is October to late February.
The mixed blessing of wet season with possible natu-
ral disasters is June to September.
Monsoon Rains
Monsoons are seasonal winds. In the hot season, hot
air rises and becomes unstable. Moist Indian Ocean
winds from the south and southwest change direction
in the hot air bringing rainfall and flooding. In the
cool season, it is reversed. Air from the interior of
Asia cools, stabilizes, and blows south across the sub-
continent to the ocean. The air is cool and dry.
East South Asia gets the heaviest monsoon
rains. The Himalayas block rains from moving north,
so they move west to the Gangetic Plains with rains
for crops.
242
GEOG_27_239-252.indd 242
didUse
this book. you knoW?
it faithfully, and
India’s 700 million farmers depend on monsoon
rains and celebrate them when they come.
natural disasters
In India and Bangladesh, high temperatures and
water permit farmers to grow needed rice crops. High
temperatures without rain, such as those outside the
monsoon paths in western Pakistan, bring drought
and hunger while the Gangetic Plain receives down-
pours of rain and crops grow.
didUse
this book. you knoW?
it faithfully, and
Too much rain in low-lying Bangladesh causes
flooding; kills people, livestock, and crops; and
leaves people homeless.
Cyclones with high winds and heavy rains are a
hazard in South Asia, especially Bangladesh. The 1999
cyclone in Orissa, India, had 160-mph winds and
20-foot waves that killed 10,000 people and caused
more than $20 million in damages.
Tsunami
Indian Ocean and Himalayan Mountain tectonic
activity affect India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. The
December 26, 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was gener-
ated by the fourth most powerful earthquake
recorded since 1900. Its epicenter was west of Suma-
tra. It measured 9.0 on the Richter scale. The 100-foot
waves swept villages away, killed over 229,000 people
in 12 countries, and destroyed farmlands, freshwater
wells, coral reefs, mangrove forests, and coastal wet-
lands. The most damage was in South Asia and
Southeast Asia.
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 –subcontinents (Part iii)–
In October 2005, an earthquake measuring 7.6
on the Richter scale killed 70,000 people and left mil-
lions without shelter and food in north Pakistan and
Kashmir.
Practice
Insert T or F to indicate whether the statement is true
or false, based on what you’ve read.
1. _____ India has mountains, deserts, and
steppes.
2. _____ South Asian farmers celebrate the com-
ing of monsoons.
3. _____ South Asia is safe from earthquakes and
tsunamis.
4. _____ No vegetation is able to grow in India
and Bangladesh.
india—Human Geography
The cultural history of India is thousands of years
old. India is today a mix of ancient influences and
modern cities, and is the world’s largest democracy.
Population Patterns
The population of South Asia exceeds 1.1 billion peo-
ple. That is more than 15% of the world population.
Population density and distribution, in addition to
urbanization, shape India’s population patterns. The
population is diverse.
People
The Dravidians lived in south India for 8,000 years.
The Aryans came across Central Asia 3,000 years ago.
The identity of many Indians is based on religion.
They see themselves as Hindu, Muslim, Buddhist,
Sikh, Jain, or Christian. Hindus define themselves by
jati, or by occupation and social position.
GEOG_27_239-252.indd 243
Population Structure
India is growing so quickly it cannot provide basic
food, education, and healthcare for its large, young,
dependent population. Thirty-six percent of India’s
population is under 15 years old. In India, having few
children is not a traditional value. Many people live
on the streets; cities are overcrowded and too strained
to provide adequate social services.
Economic development in India will mean
higher wages and standards of living, education, and
healthcare.
Density and Distribution
India’s population density of 869 people per square
mile is seven times the world average and varies by
place. Climate, vegetation, and physical features affect
how many people a place can support. Some monsoon-
affected areas of India’s southern coast and the fertile
Gangetic Plain have 2,000 people per square mile,
while the Thar Desert is sparsely populated.
Most of India’s population (70%) is rural. They
barely grow enough food for their families and some
of their crops go to land owners. Cities have been
growing as people migrate looking for jobs and better
wages. Mumbai (Bombay) is India’s main port on the
Arabian Sea and its largest city, with 18.3 million
people. Kolkata (Calcutta) is a port city on a branch
of the Ganges specializing in iron and steel produc-
tion. Delhi is part of a megalopolis closely linking
metropolitan cities. Urban public resources and facil-
ities are strained.
History and Government
India’s ancient history still influences its population
today. The Indus Valley civilization in Pakistan dates
back 4,500 years. Today, India is integrating into the
modern world.
First Civilizations
The Aryans, a group of hunters and herders from the
northwest, settled in the Indus Valley around 2000
b.c. The Aryans created a rigid social structure
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 –subcontinents (Part iii) –
Europeans called the caste system. Social structure
and religion are defined in the sacred Aryan writings
called the Vedas. Religion defines India’s history and
culture.
Invasions and Empires
Other cultures followed the Aryans into northwestern
India through the Khyber Pass in the Hindu Kush
Mountains. The Mauryan Empire ruled India from
320 to 180 b.c. The Gupta Empire governed central
India from a.d. 320 to 500 and became one of the
most advanced world civilizations. The Muslim
Moghul Empire converted many Indians to Islam.
Most of South Asia was ruled by the British
Empire. As mercantilists, they used colonies to supply
materials and markets to the empire. The British
practiced political and economic imperialism, or
domination. The British raj (the Hindu word for
empire), introduced English, restructured the educa-
tional system, built railroads, and developed a civil
service.
Independence
India’s fight for independence was led by Mohandas
K. Gandhi. Gandhi advocated nonviolence in his
public statements and actions for Indian self-rule. In
1947, the British colony of India was divided into
mostly Muslim Pakistan and mostly Hindu India.
Education and Healthcare
Children in India attend school to age 14. The literacy
rate is 61%, but lower in rural areas. The government
strives to provide educational opportunity to women
and the poor. Urban schools require uniforms and
attendance two Saturdays a month.
India’s state-run hospitals are improving.
Malaria and other diseases are now controlled. HIV
and AIDS are still a problem.
Language and Religion
The people of India speak 18 official languages and
hundreds of dialects. Hindi is most widely spoken
244
GEOG_27_239-252.indd 244
and English, the language of international business
and tourism, is spoken in former British areas. Gov-
ernment documents are written in Hindi and
English.
Hindu is the main, polytheistic religion of India.
Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, and Sikhism are prac-
ticed. Sikhism, founded by the guru, or teacher, Na–
nak, is monotheistic and stresses good deeds and
meditation. Most Sikhs live in northwest India and
want an independent state.
Arts
The Maha–bha–rata and Ra–ma–yana, two great epic
poems, mix Hindu and social beliefs. India has many
classical dance styles mostly based on themes from
Hindu mythology. Indians have loved movies since
the first ones arrived in 1896. Bollywood (a portman-
teau of Bombay and Hollywood) produced 1,041
full-length films in 2005. Hollywood made 699 full-
length films in the same year. Bollywood is the largest
film center in the world.
Family Life and Leisure
Family is the most important social unit in India with
extended families living together, sharing household
chores and finances. A bride will go to live with her
husband and his extended family. The traditional
arranged marriage based on caste, economic status,
and education is slowly changing. Within the family,
influence is based on gender and age, and for women,
the number of male children they produce. Movies
and television are important leisure activities for the
middle class and rural people attend weddings and
family celebrations.
Pakistan and bangladesh
Histories of Pakistan and Bangladesh have included
horrible conflict, but also great cultural achievement.
Both have a history of Muslim influence, British colo-
nial rule, and the pursuit of independence. The war
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 –subcontinents (Part iii)–
on terror has made the world more familiar with Pak-
istan’s legacy of hardship.
Population Patterns
Population growth and movement have deeply
impacted Pakistan and Bangladesh. Most people in
Pakistan and Bangladesh share Islam and a rural
existence.
People
Punjabis, Sindhis, Pashtuns, Mohajirs, and Baluchis
are Pakistan’s major ethnic groups. Ethnic identity is
based on ethnic background, language, and religion.
Most people in Bangladesh are Bengali, like most
people in the Hindu Indian state of Bengal. Most
people in Bangladesh, however, are Muslim.
Density and Distribution
South Asia’s most densely populated area is Bangla-
desh, with 2,596 people per square mile. Dhaka is
now the third most densely populated city in the
world. Although Bangladesh has rich soil and
improved farming techniques, it has a hard time feed-
ing its population. Fertility rates have decreased since
women’s education has improved. The Bengali gov-
ernment and private groups have provided women
with small business loans.
Pakistan is South Asia’s most urbanized coun-
try, with 34% of its population living in the city.
Urban populations in Pakistan are growing. There are
job and housing shortages and pollution in cities.
Rural Pakistanis are attracted to Pakistan’s modern
capital Islamabad and its booming port city Karachi.
History and Government
Similarities and differences have impacted the histo-
ries of Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Indus Valley Civilization
About 2500 b.c., the Indus River valley civilization
developed a writing system, a strong central govern-
ment, a thriving world trade, and some of the world’s
GEOG_27_239-252.indd 245
first cities with indoor plumbing at Mohenjo Daro
and Harappa. Environmental changes like flooding
or drought destroyed these cities around 1750 b.c.;
then the Aryans moved into the area.
Islam’s Impact
Muslim invaders and traders settled in southeast Pak-
istan around the a.d. 700s. Muslim teachers converted
many people to Islam in what is now Bangladesh.
Islam ruled both areas from the 1500s to the 1800s.
Parts of Pakistan and India were conquered in the
nineteenth century by Sikhs, who combined Islam
and Hinduism. The British took back the land.
The idea of a separate Muslim state emerged in
the 1930s. Since the Muslims and Hindus could not
agree on a constitution, the British granted indepen-
dence to India and Pakistan. Pakistan consisted of
East and West Pakistan, separated by 1,000 miles of
Indian land.
Conflicts and Government
North of India and Pakistan, Kashmir was ruled for
centuries by Indian princes, or maharajas. When
Kashmir was declared part of Pakistan, the Hindu
prince fled to Delhi and signed his state over to India.
India claimed legal right to Kashmir, but Pakistan
insisted Pakistan was a better ruler for the majority of
its Muslim residents.
There have been wars and fighting between India
and Pakistan for decades. In 1998, India, then Pakistan,
conducted underground nuclear weapons tests.
People in East Pakistan are Muslim, but they are
ethnic Bengali and speak the language Bangla. Fol-
lowing independence, West Pakistan wanted to
impose its language, Urdu, on all of Pakistan. Benga-
lis in the east protested.
In 1970–1971, Bengali nationalists declared
independence from Pakistan after a difficult civil war,
naming the country Bangladesh, which means “Ben-
gal country.” Bangladesh is a parliamentary republic.
Violence and political and ethnic rivalry make stable
rule difficult.
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 –subcontinents (Part iii) –
Pakistan is a parliamentary republic plagued
with instability and military rule. In 1999, charges of
corruption led a military coup against Prime Minis-
ter Navez Sharif, led by General Pervez Musharaf. In
2008, Musharraf resigned and is currently in exile.
Education and Healthcare
Education in Pakistan and Bangladesh lags behind
the rest of South Asia. The literacy rate is 49% in Pak-
istan and 48% in Bangladesh. Most children attend
elementary school in Bangladesh, but only 47% go on
to secondary school. Only 36% of females are literate
in Pakistan. In some parts of Pakistan, educating girls
is prohibited on religious grounds.
Both countries have very poor healthcare. In
2005, an earthquake near Islamabad destroyed 85%
of the city’s infrastructure, including healthcare facil-
ities and schools. The people of Bangladesh face the
serious threat of water-borne disease since the coun-
try lies in a vast flood plain.
Language and Religion
The main language of Bangladesh is Bangla. Even
though the official language of Pakistan is Urdu, only
8% of the people there speak it; Punjabi is the domi-
nant language of Pakistan. People from Pakistan and
Bangladesh who attend university or work in govern-
ment speak English.
Islam is the main religion in Pakistan and Ban-
gladesh. Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity are
practiced in both countries. Sikhism is practiced in
northern Pakistan.
Arts
South Asians have used visual arts to express religious
beliefs and document daily life. Stone carving and
sculpture date back to the Indus Valley civilization.
Mauryan Empire techniques for marble polishing
have never been duplicated. Mogul emperors relaxed
Muslim prohibitions against representing human
forms and they commissioned portraits and decora-
tive paintings.
246
GEOG_27_239-252.indd 246
Literature and dance are important in Bangla-
deshi culture. In 1913, Bengali Rabindranath Tagor
became the first non-European writer to win the
Nobel Prize for Literature. The plays and poetry of
Kazi Nazrul Islam, “the voice of Bengali nationalism,”
have inspired farmers for decades with their political
and historical themes about the oppression of Mus-
lims. Bangladesh is also home to creative indigenous
dances.
The richest Pakistani art forms are music and
literature. A form of devotional singing called Qaw-
wali is very popular. At public musha’irahs people
recite poetry. The traditional rhythmic form of raga
can be traced back to the thirteenth-century poet and
musician Amir Khosrow.
Family Life
The center of social life in Pakistan and Bangladesh is
family. Extended families are nearby and multiple
households often share a home. Many marriages are
arranged, but educated men and women are starting
to choose their own partners. A new wife usually lives
with the husband’s family. Urban areas have smaller
families.
nepal, bhutan, Maldives,
and sri lanka
Population Patterns
The mountainous northeast and island cultures of
South Asia demonstrate centuries of influence from
surrounding regions. Ethnic diversity creates fasci-
nating cultures, but they can clash.
People
Nepal was influenced by migrations from the north
in Tibet. The Sherpas are master Tibeto-Nepalese
mountaineers. Nepal also had migrations from the
Indus region to the south.
The majority of people in northern, central, and
western Bhutan are descendants of Tibetans called
1/5/12 1:32 PM
 –subcontinents (Part iii)–
the Bhote. The Bhote and the Sharchrops in eastern
Bhutan speak Tibetan dialects and practice Tibetan
Buddhism. In southern Bhutan, 35% of the popula-
tion is Nepalese. Called the Gurung, they speak Nep-
alese and practice Buddhism.
The islands of Maldives have people from
southern India, Sri Lanka, East Africa, and Arab
countries. Southern Indians probably settled there
first, then Sri Lankan, East African, and Arab sailors.
On the island of Sri Lanka, the Buddhist Sinha-
lese are in the majority and control the government.
The Hindu Tamils have been fighting for an indepen-
dent Tamil state in the north since the early 1980s.
Since 1984, more than 60,000 Sri Lankans have been
killed or disappeared.
Density and Distribution
In Nepal and southern Bhutan, population density is
between 55 and 447 people per square mile. In the
north, population decreases with elevation. There are
only 25 people per square mile in the Himalayas due
to the harsh climate. The most densely populated
area of Nepal is the Kathmandu Valley.
There are 778 people per square mile in Sri
Lanka. The 1,190 tiny coral islands of the Maldives
are crammed full of 2,586 people per square mile.
History and Government
India, Arab countries, and European powers, as well
as internal influences, have shaped the histories of
Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and Maldives.
Early History
In a.d. 400, the Licchavi dynasty was established in
Nepal’s Kathmandu Valley. They likely came from
India. Around the ninth century, three new dynasties
replaced the Licchavi dynasty, which ceased to exist.
Under the new Shah dynasty, Nepal expanded south-
ward in the 1700s and confronted the British in a
two-year Anglo-Nepalese war (1814–1816). Nepal
was reduced to its current size, but remained
independent.
GEOG_27_239-252.indd 247
Not much is known of Bhutan prior to Tibetan
Buddhist monks arriving there in the a.d. 800s. Bhu-
tan’s political and religious history is linked to the
monasteries and monastic schools.
The Sinhalese arrived in Sri Lanka from India
during the 500s b.c. Arab, Greek, and Roman sailors
glimpsed the Sinhalese civilization from 200 b.c. to
a.d. 1200.
Buddhists from South Asia first settled the Mal-
dive Islands. In the twelfth century, Islam arrived on
the Maldives. Portuguese traders came to the Mal-
dives in the fourteenth century.
Path to the Modern
In the early 1600s, a Tibetan lama, or Buddhist monk,
consolidated political and religious power in Bhutan
by developing a system of law. After his death, civil
war and chaos plagued Bhutan until the 1800s, when
a ruler established links to the British in India. India
and Britain respected Bhutan’s sovereignty. Bhutan is
now evolving into a constitutional monarchy with
representative government.
In the late 1700s, a ruler of a small principality
combined states to form Nepal. Nepal experienced
periods of internal political strife before achieving
stability. Because of its isolation, Nepal was not colo-
nized by European powers. Nepal has seesawed
between representative government and monarchical
rule with a king as head of state. The country’s ruling
party and rebel groups continue to discuss peace.
Since the 1500s, Portuguese, Dutch, and British
powers fought to control Sri Lanka’s very profitable
position on the spice trade route. Portugal and Spain
entered the South Asian maritime trade in the 1500s.
The Dutch became dominant in the 1600s. The Brit-
ish were dominant in the 1700s. Although the British
came to rule Sri Lanka, Dutch law remains. The Brit-
ish developed plantation economies for tea, rubber,
and coconuts.
Sri Lanka is a parliamentary republic. Over
30,000 Sri Lankans were killed in the 2004 underwa-
ter earthquake and tsunami. Millions of people lost
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 –subcontinents (Part iii) –
everything and needed water, food, shelter, and medi-
cal care. Disputes between the Sri Lankan govern-
ment and the now-defunct Hindu Tamil Tigers in the
north delayed delivery and distribution of interna-
tional aid to the needy.
Since the 1100s, Arab and Muslim influence has
been strong in the Maldive Islands. Sultans have ruled
the islands most of the time. In the 1500s, the Portu-
guese ruled the Maldives briefly. From the late 1800s
to 1965, the British ruled the Maldives. In 1965, the
Maldives became an independent republic.
Language and Religion
In Nepal, most people are Hindu. A small number of
people in Sri Lanka also practice Hinduism. In Sri
Lanka and Bhutan, Buddhism dominates. It is also
practiced in Nepal. In Bhutan and Nepal, people fly
colorful prayer flags and prayer wheels sending out
invocations twirl in many places. Monks chant or
repeat prayers called mantras. The Maldives was
founded as a Muslim state when traders began com-
merce on the islands.
The languages of Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Mal-
dives have Indo-European roots. In Nepal most peo-
ple speak Nepali, but twelve other languages are
spoken there. Sri Lankans speak Sinhalese, the official
language, and Tamil, whose roots are Dravidian from
southern India. People of the Maldives speak Dhivehi
and English. People from Bhutan speak Dzongka of
Tibetan origin.
Education and Healthcare
Education levels in South Asia are uneven. In the
Maldives, where literacy reaches 93%, traditional
schools teach the Quran and English-language
schools teach children through the secondary level.
Sri Lankans receive free education from primary
school through university. Only 20% of elementary-
age children in Bhutan are enrolled in school. Bhu-
tan’s literacy rate is 47% and Nepal’s is 48%.
The availability and quality of healthcare is
low. In the Maldives, people rely on traditional
248
GEOG_27_239-252.indd 248
medicine. Hospitals and healthcare professionals
are few in these countries, especially in rural areas.
Short life expectancies are often the result, although
Sri Lanka does have a 73-year life expectancy, close
to that of the United States. With scarce clean water,
water-borne diseases like cholera and dysentery are
common.
Arts
The spirit of art is seen every day all across South
Asia. Buddhist stupas, or domed shrines, of Nepal
and Sri Lanka and the fortified monasteries, or
dzong, of Bhutan reveal this spirit. Dance is popular
in Nepal and Bhutan and it often incorporates reli-
gious and historical stories. In literature, Michael
Ondaatje, born in Sri Lanka and now living in Eng-
land, won England’s prestigious Booker Prize for his
novel The English Patient, which became an Academy
Award-winning film.
economy
Economic growth has occurred in different ways and
at different rates in the countries of South Asia.
Increased trade has made South Asia’s countries more
economically interdependent.
Agriculture is the primary economic activity in
South Asia. A variety of economic activities contrib-
ute to South Asia’s growth.
Agriculture
About 60% of the labor force in South Asia is
employed in agriculture. Many people practice tradi-
tional subsistence farming and grow just enough food
to survive. Many people use hand plows and digging
sticks and sow seeds by hand. Some people have
irrigation.
They use oxen and water buffalo to pull wood
plows, turn water wheels, or power mills for grinding
grain. They may use long-haired yaks accustomed to
1/5/12 1:32 PM
 –subcontinents (Part iii)–
high elevations, camels in deserts, and elephants
instead of tractors.
Agricultural Conditions
Farms in South Asia vary in size depending on geo-
graphic, historic, and cultural factors. In the high-
lands, terracing is used on the sleep slopes to carry
water downhill. There are fruit orchards in the fertile
highlands of Pakistan. In Bangladesh’s deltas and
along South Asia’s rivers, farmers wade knee-deep in
water to grow rice. Farms in India are small; British,
Dutch, and Dutch colonizers established huge, tech-
nically advanced tea, rubber, and coconut plantations
in Sri Lanka.
Crops
Plantations in India grow cash crops like bananas,
tobacco, coffee, and tea for domestic sale or export.
Cotton is the big cash crop in India and Pakistan.
Bangladesh’s cash crop is jute fiber used to make rope,
string, and cloth. Rice grows in the tropical wet cli-
mate of the Ganges; India is second only to China in
rice production.
Agricultural Improvements
Since the 1960s, the Green Revolution has sought
ways to increase crop yields in developing countries
using managed irrigation, fertilizers, and yield variet-
ies of crops. Modern irrigation and mechanization is
costly, so when short on petroleum, plant material or
biomass fuel (animal dung) is used for energy.
didUseyou
this book. knoW
it faithfully, and
Supporters of the Green Revolution say it
relieves hunger. Opponents say chemicals pol-
lute water and build up insect resistance to
chemical fertilizers.
GEOG_27_239-252.indd 249
Mining and Fishing
Mining and fishing continue to be profitable in
South Asia. The Gangetic Plain and the mountains
of east India are rich in minerals like iron, coal, cop-
per, and bauxite. Bhutan has lead and marble. Sri
Lanka has graphite and precious and semiprecious
stones. Several South Asian countries have petro-
leum and natural gas.
Bordered in part by oceans and watered by riv-
ers, South Asia has rich fishing resources that bring
needed income. Pakistan and Sri Lanka export
shrimp and lobster.
didUse
this book. you knoW?
it faithfully, and
Two thirds of Sri Lanka’s fishing fleet was
destroyed in the 2004 tsunami.
transportation
and communications
Transportation and communications vary across
South Asia. Nepal has footpaths and India a vast rail
system.
Land Travel
Nepal has the least developed transportation system
in South Asia. India has a 150-year-old rail system
developed by the British and 20,000 miles of high-
ways to all major cities. Bangladesh has a British rail
system and roads with cycle risckshaws and buffalo
carts. Pakistan and Bhutan have recently invested in
highway construction.
Water Travel
South Asian countries, aside from landlocked Bhutan
and Nepal, have many seaports linking major ocean
trade routes. Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai handle
India’s trade. Karachi and Port Qasim handle
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 –subcontinents (Part iii) –
Pakistan’s trade. Inland waterways are important to
Bangladesh.
People and their environment
South Asian countries are looking for ways to manage
natural resources. These resources are in danger of
depletion due to exploding population growth, high
population densities, and a growing middle class.
Countries in South Asia are attempting to man-
age their natural resources in ways that do not deplete
them or cause more damage to ecosystems. Sustain-
able development, using resources at a rate that does
not deplete them, is what South Asia needs.
Water
Lack of clean water is a persistent problem in South
Asia. Even in India, the most developed country in
the region, only 54% of urban dwellers and 21% of
rural folk have access to sanitation facilities. Most
people in the region must use water polluted by
human waste and chemical runoff.
Due to climate variations in South Asia, north-
west India may face drought while Bangladesh deals
with flooding. Dams can control flooding and hold
reserve water for drought. Unfortunately, though,
dams trap soil nutrients, flood some areas and dis-
place villagers, and disrupt the balance of the ecosys-
tem. Reservoirs breed malaria-carrying mosquitoes.
The building of dams in central India’s Nar-
mada River basin has been plagued by 25 years of
controversy—millions of acres subject to drought
can be irrigated and hydroelectric power created, but
ancestral villages would be flooded and people would
have to be resettled.
Forests
India was covered by forests. Commercial timber and
mining operations, human settlement, slash-and-
burn agriculture, and burning biomass for fuel
destroyed old-growth forests. Destroying the man-
grove forests of Bangladesh’s Sundarbans by the
250
GEOG_27_239-252.indd 250
Ganges River delta weakens protection from cyclones
and erosion. The destruction of mangrove forests in
Sri Lanka made the 2004 tsunami much more
devastating.
Tropical rain forest tree roots trap precipitation,
keep soil in place, and cool temperatures. Destroying
these forests erodes soil, causes rain flooding, and
raises temperatures.
Gandhi’s follower Sunderlal Bahaguna built on
the traditional South Asian respect for trees with his
chipko “tree hugger” movement. Bahaguna has
reminded villagers of the importance of trees and
provided nurseries with seedlings for reforestation.
Wildlife
Deforestation and irrigation destroy the amazing
variety of wildlife habitats in South Asia. They also
drive wildlife into contact with humans. India’s and
Sri Lanka’s rain forests have elephants, monkeys, and
water buffalo. Bengal tigers and crocodiles roam Ban-
gladesh. Colonials and farmers have killed animals to
protect crops and livestock.
South Asian governments and conservation
groups have created wildlife reserves and written laws
against hunting and logging. Poaching of protected
animals is challenged with economic reasons to pro-
tect wildlife.
Solution Seeking
Industrialization causes air pollution. The four most
polluted cities in the world, Mumbai, New Delhi,
Chennai, and Kolkata, are in India. To protect against
monsoon destruction, meteorologists studying
weather patterns research how to predict how intense
approaching storms in the Bay of Bengal are and
when they might hit.
didUse
this book. you knoW?
it faithfully, and
Satellite imaging is helping scientists understand
erosion caused by flooding in Bangladesh’s
coastal deltas that displaces families each year.
1/5/12 1:32 PM
 –subcontinents (Part iii)–

Future challenges answers

Continuing conflicts impact the people and environ- 1. T

ments of South Asia. Ethnic and religious diversity in 2. T
South Asia often result in conflict. Minority Hindus 3. F
or Muslims on the wrong side of the India-Pakistan 4. F
border still face violence. 5. Hinduism
6. Islam
Conflict in Kashmir 7. Erosion
India and Pakistan still fight over who should control 8. Hindi
mostly Muslim Kashmir. They have had three wars 9. Pakistan
over the territory. Pakistan today controls Kashmir’s
northwestern portion while the rest is held by India.
Troops from both countries patrol the border India
wants internationally recognized. Economic ties and
trade agreements created in 2005 may steer India and
Pakistan away from the kind of armed conflict that
occurred in 2002.
India and Pakistan tested nuclear warheads in
1998. The escalation of nuclear capabilities, or
nuclear proliferation, costs both countries money
people need for food, housing, education, and health
care. International sanctions leveled against India and
Pakistan have made worse the hardships people of
the region face.

Practice
Fill in the blank with the correct word from the infor-
mation in the preceding paragraphs.

5. India’s majority religion is ____________.

6. The religion of most people in Pakistan and

Bangladesh is ___________.

7. Rain forest tree roots stop ____________.

8. Government documents in India are written in

___________ and English.

9. _________ is South Asia’s most urbanized

country

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GEOG_27_239-252.indd 252 1/5/12 1:32 PM
 POSTTEST

N ow that you have completed all the lessons, it’s time to show off your new skills. Take the posttest
in this chapter to see how your geography knowledge has improved. This test has 50 multiple-
choice questions covering the topics you studied in this book. While the format of the posttest is
similar to that of the pretest, the questions are different.
After you complete the posttest, check your answers with the key at the end of the chapter. If you still have
weak areas, go back and work through the applicable lessons again.

253

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GEOG_28_POSTTEST_253-262.indd 254 1/5/12 1:32 PM
 –lE arningExPrESS anSwEr ShEET–

1. a b c d 18. a b c d 35. a b c d
2. a b c d 19. a b c d 36. a b c d
3. a b c d 20. a b c d 37. a b c d
4. a b c d 21. a b c d 38. a b c d
5. a b c d 22. a b c d 39. a b c d
6. a b c d 23. a b c d 40. a b c d
7. a b c d 24. a b c d 41. a b c d
8. a b c d 25. a b c d 42. a b c d
9. a b c d 26. a b c d 43. a b c d
10. a b c d 27. a b c d 44. a b c d
11. a b c d 28. a b c d 45. a b c d
12. a b c d 29. a b c d 46. a b c d
13. a b c d 30. a b c d 47. a b c d
14. a b c d 31. a b c d 48. a b c d
15. a b c d 32. a b c d 49. a b c d
16. a b c d 33. a b c d 50. a b c d
17. a b c d 34. a b c d

255

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GEOG_28_POSTTEST_253-262.indd 256 1/5/12 1:32 PM
 –P0STTEST–

Directions: Select the letter of the best answer and 6. Seas, gulfs, and bays are small ___________
circle it. water bodies.
a. fresh
1. The Earth’s atmosphere is made of mostly b. salt
___________. c. lake
a. oxygen d. tributary
b. carbon dioxide
c. nitrogen 7. Nearly all Earth’s surface water is ___________
d. helium water.
a. ground
2. The Tropic of ___________ at 23.5° N is the b. fresh
northernmost point to receive direct sunlight. c. salt
a. Cancer d. river
b. Capricorn
c. Equinox 8. The lithosphere is Earth’s ___________.
d. Solstice a. landforms
b. mantle
3. A(n) ___________ is a community of plants c. crust
and animals dependent on one another and d. core
their surroundings to survive.
a. biosphere 9. The ___________ of Fire is an area of earth-
b. resource quake and volcanic activity that crosses conti-
c. ecosystem nents and oceans.
d. physical geographic process a. Magma
b. Trench
4. ___________ geography focuses on history, c. Slope
government, population growth, urban devel- d. Ring
opment, economic production and consump-
tion, the arts, healthcare, and education. 10. As glaciers melt and recede, they leave large
a. Physical piles of rock and debris known as
b. Habitat ___________.
c. Human or cultural a. icebergs
d. Transitional b. glacial lakes
c. moraines
5. Birth rates are high in the ___________ world. d. wind erosions
a. developed
b. industrial 11. The Grand ___________ was formed by water
c. Western erosion.
d. developing a. Tsunami
b. Tetons
c. Colombia
d. Canyon

257

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 –POSTTEST–

12. Lines of ___________, or parallels, circle Earth 18. The cities of Quebec, Montreal, and Ottawa
in degrees horizontally along the equator. developed along the ___________.
a. latitude a. Mississippi River
b. longitude b. Great Plains
c. legend c. St. Lawrence River
d. meridians d. Gulf of Mexico

13. Lines of longitude, or ___________, circle 19. Since the 1970s, the mild climates of the Ameri-
Earth vertically from Pole to Pole. can ___________ and Southwest have attracted
a. meridians rapid population growth.
b. prime meridians a. Midwest
c. international date lines b. Northeast
d. time zones c. Rust Belt
d. South
14. Southwest Asia, North Africa, and Central Asia
are rich in ___________. 20. The ___________ climate zone of South Amer-
a. timber ica is coldest.
b. water a. tierra helada
c. produce b. puna
d. petroleum c. tierra fria
d. tierra templada
15. Indigenous North Africans preceding Arab
invasions were ___________. 21. The Olmec, Maya, Inca, Maori, Australian,
a. Maoris Native American, and other indigenous tribes
b. Berbers are also known as ___________ cultures.
c. Bedouins a. aboriginal
d. Ottoman Turks b. mestizo
c. machismo
16. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam were born in d. Creole
the ___________.
a. Eastern Mediterranean 22. The largest country in the world is
b. Arabian Peninsula ___________.
c. Sahel of North Africa a. Russia
d. Central Asian steppe b. China
c. India
17. ___________ largest agricultural floodplain d. Indonesia
surrounds the Ganges River.
a. India’s 23. Ample coniferous forests make up Russia’s larg-
b. China’s est climate zone, the ___________.
c. Pakistan’s a. tundra
d. Nepal’s b. subarctic
c. taiga
d. humid continental
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 –P0STTEST–

24. Not including migration, negative population 30. South Africa has about half the world’s
growth simply means ___________. ___________.
a. the birth rate exceeds the death rate a. rice
b. the death rate exceeds the birth rate b. gold, diamonds, and uranium
c. the birth rate is not recorded c. spices
d. birth rate and death rates are equal d. bat guano

25. Glaciation formed the fjords of ___________. 31. Large parts of Africa south of the Sahara cur-
a. the Mediterranean rently face ___________.
b. Scandanavia a. drought, famine, lack of clean water,
c. canals inadequate sanitation, and epidemic disease
d. the North Sea b. corruption, civil war, and human rights
violations
26. England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland c. a and b
make up ___________. d. none of the above
a. the United Kingdom
b. the Celts 32. Independence from European rule came most
c. the British Isles recently in ___________.
d. Great Britain a. Latin America
b. Asia
27. The ___________ now combine(s) most of c. Africa
Europe into one economic community and d. the Middle East
conducts more trade by volume than any coun-
try in the world. 33. Racial segregation in South Africa was called
a. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) ___________.
b. Organization of Petroleum Exporting a. apartheid
Countries (OPEC) b. Afrikaner
c. European Union (EU) c. Zimbabwe
d. guest workers d. Angola

28. One positive response to deforestation is 34. Mount Fuji is in ___________.

___________. a. the Himalayas
a. replanting trees and forests b. China
b. expanding industrial use of coal c. Japan
c. a and b d. Taiwan
d. none of the above
35. The Himalayas separate China from
29. The edges of African plateaus are marked by ___________.
steep, jagged cliffs called ___________. a. Japan
a. cataracts b. Taiwan
b. escarpments c. South Asia
c. estuaries d. Mount Everest
d. kums
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 –POSTTEST–

36. Seasonal monsoon winds help the major crop 42. ___________ cultivates over 1,000 species of
of ___________ to grow in Southeast Asia’s orchids.
fertile paddies. a. Thailand
a. rice b. Vietnam
b. wheat c. Indonesia
c. corn d. Laos
d. livestock
43. In the highland climate of Myanmar, you can
37. Where is population density lowest? find ___________.
a. China a. mangrove trees
b. Japan b. cypress trees
c. Singapore c. rhodendrons
d. Mongolia d. moss

38. ___________ is the world’s most populous 44. ___________ cities like Bangkok serve as a
urban area, with more than 35 million people. country’s port, economic center, and often the
a. Beijing capital.
b. Tokyo a. Primate
c. Rio de Janiero b. Viceroyalty
d. Shanghai c. Megalopolis
d. Animism
39. Since 1945, Communist ___________ Korea
has sought to unify Korea and expand its 45. The temple complex of Angkor Wat in Cambo-
nuclear capabilities. dia was influenced by ___________.
a. North a. Hinduism
b. South b. Koryoism
c. West c. Islam
d. East d. Roman Catholicism

40. Over 60% of high-tech imports to the United 46. Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia lead the
States come from ___________ Asia. world in ___________ production.
a. South a. tea
b. Southeast b. bamboo
c. East c. rubber
d. Central d. petroleum

41. The ___________ Peninsula includes all of 47. Trawlers are used in commercial ___________.
Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, and part a. cattle ranching
of Thailand. b. rice farming
a. Korean c. timber cutting
b. Indochina d. fishing
c. Hong Kong
d. Malay
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 –P0STTEST–

48. The June 1991 volcanic eruption of Mount anSwErS

Pinatubo in ___________ was one of the twen-
tieth century’s most violent and destructive vol- 1. c.
canic eruptions. 2. a.
a. Indonesia’s island of Bali 3. c.
b. Indonesia’s island of Java 4. c.
c. the Philippines 5. d.
d. Japan 6. b.
7. c.
49. The world’s largest coral reef lies off the coast 8. a.
of ___________. 9. d.
a. New Zealand 10. c.
b. South Africa 11. d.
c. Australia 12. a.
d. the United States 13. a.
14. d.
50. Most animal life in Antarctica, such as whales, 15. b.
seals, and penguins, can be found 16. a.
___________. 17. a.
a. in the Antarctic Ocean 18. c.
b. in the Vinson Massif 19. d.
c. in East Antarctica 20. a.
d. at the South Pole 21. a.
22. a.
23. b.
24. b.
25. b.
26. a.
27. c.
28. a.
29. b.
30. b.
31. c.
32. c.
33. a.
34. c.
35. c.
36. a.

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 –POSTTEST–

37. d. 44. a.
38. b. 45. a.
39. a. 46. c.
40. c. 47. d.
41. b. 48. c.
42. a. 49. c.
43. c. 50. a.

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 GLOSSARY

Aboriginal being the first or earliest known inhabitants of a region

absolute location the exact position of a place on Earth’s surface
accretion the slow process of a sea plate sliding under a continental plate, creating debris that can cause continents
to grow outward
acculturation the cultural modification of an individual, group, or people by adapting to or borrowing traits
from another culture
acid depositions wet or dry airborne acids falling to Earth
acid rain precipitation carrying large amounts of dissolved acids damaging buildings, forests, and crops, and killing
wildlife
alluvial plain a floodplain, such as the Gangetic Plain in South Asia, on which flooding rivers have deposited rich
soil
alluvial soil rich soil made of sand and mud deposited by running water
altiplano Spanish for “high plain”; a region in Peru and Bolivia encircled by the Andes Mountains
animism the belief that spirits inhabit natural objects and forces of nature
apartheid the policy of strict separation of the races adopted in South Africa in the 1940s
aquaculture the cultivation of fish and other seafood
aquifer underground water-bearing layers of porous rock, sand, or gravel
arable suitable for growing crops
archipelago a group or chain of islands
artesian well a bored well from which water flows up like a fountain
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) a trade group whose members ensure that trade among the
member countries of Asia and the Pacific is efficient and fair
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) an organization formed in 1967 to promote regional devel-
opment and trade in Southeast Asia

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 –GLOSSARY–
atheism the belief there is no God
atmosphere a layer of gases surrounding Earth
atoll a ring-shaped island formed by coral building
up along the rim of an underwater volcano,
usually with a central lagoon
autocracy a government in which one person rules
with unlimited power and authority
autonomous areas minor political subunits created
in the former Soviet Union and designed to
recognize the special status of minority groups
within existing republics
avalanche a large mass of ice, snow, or rock that
slides down a mountainside
axis an imaginary line that runs through the center
of the earth between the North and South Poles
balkanize to divide a region into smaller regions,
often hostile toward each other
Bedouin a member of the nomadic desert peoples of
North Africa and Southwest Asia
bilingual speaking or using two languages
biofuels energy sources derived from plants or ani-
mals. Throughout the developing world, wood,
charcoal, and dung are primary energy sources
used for cooking and heating
biomass plant and animal waste used especially as a
source of fuel
biome ecologically interactive flora and fauna
adapted to a specific environment. Examples: a
desert or a tropical rain forest
biosphere the part of Earth where life exists
birth rate the number of births per year per 1,000
people
black market the illegal trade of scarce or illegal
goods, usually sold at high prices
blizzard a snowstorm with winds of more than 35
miles per hour, temperatures below freezing,
and visibility of less than 1,320 feet for 3 hours
or more
Bolshevik a member of the communist party that
seized power in Russia in the Revolution of
November 1917
264
GEOG_29_GLOS_263-278.indd 264
boomerang a curved throwing stick used by Aborig-
ines for hunting in Australia
boreal forest coniferous forest found in high-
latitude or mountainous environments of the
Northern Hemisphere.
brain drain the loss of highly educated and skilled
workers to other countries
buffer state neutral territory between rival powers
campesinos farm workers or people who live and
work in rural areas
canopy the top layer of a rain forest, where the tops
of tall trees form a continuous layer of leaves
carrying capacity the population that an area will
support without undergoing deterioration
cartogram a map that presents statistical data by
geographic distribution
cartography the science of mapmaking
cash crop farm products grown to be sold or traded
rather than used by the farm family
caste system the complex division of South Asian
society into different hierarchically ranked
hereditary groups. Most explicit in Hindu soci-
ety, but also found in other cultures to a lesser
degree
cataract a large waterfall
caudillo a Latin American political leader or strong-
man from the late 1800s to the present, who is
often a military dictator
central business district the traditional business
and commercial center of a city or town, some-
times referred to as downtown
cereal any grain such as barley, oats, or wheat, grown
for food
channel a long gutter, groove, or furrow
chaparral a type of vegetation made up of dense
forests of shrubs and short trees, common in
Mediterranean climates
chernozem rich, black topsoil found in the North-
ern European Plain, especially in Russia and
Ukraine
chinampas floating farming islands made by the
Aztec
1/5/12 1:33 PM
 –GLOSSARY–
chinook seasonal warm wind blowing down the
Rockies in late winter and early spring
chipko India’s “tree hugger” movement protecting
forests through reforestation and by supporting
limited timber production
chlorofluorocarbon chemical substance, found
mainly in liquid coolants, that damages Earth’s
protective ozone layer
city-state an independent community consisting of
a city and the surrounding lands
civil of or relating to citizens
clan a tribal community or large group of people
related to one another
clear-cutting the removal of all trees in a stand of
timber
climate weather patterns typical for an area over a
long period of time
Cold War the power struggle between the Soviet
Union and the United States after World War II
collectivization the combining of small, privately
owned agricultural parcels into larger, state-
owned farms. This was a central component of
communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet
Union
colonialism the formal, established rule over local
peoples by a larger, imperialist government; the
expansion of political and economic empire
Columbian exchange an exchange of people, dis-
eases, plants, and animals between the Ameri-
cas and Europe/Africa initiated by the arrival of
Christopher Columbus in 1492
command economy a system of resource manage-
ment in which decisions about production and
distribution of goods and services are made by
a central authority
commercial farming agriculture or aquaculture
organized as a business
commodities goods produced for sale
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) a
loose political union of former Soviet republics
established in 1992 after the dissolution of the
Soviet Union
GEOG_29_GLOS_263-278.indd 265
commune a collective farming community whose
members share work and products
communism a totalitarian system of government
compass rose a map tool that indicates direction
compound something formed by a union of ele-
ments or parts
condensation the process of excess water vapor
changing into liquid water when warm air cools
coniferous vegetation having cones and needle-
shaped leaves, including many evergreens that
keep their foliage throughout winter
conquistador the Spanish term for “conqueror,”
referring to soldiers who conquered Native
Americans in Latin America
conservation farming a land management tech-
nique that helps protect farmland
consumer goods products and services that directly
satisfy human wants
continental drift the theory that the continents were
once joined and then slowly drifted apart
continentality the effect of extreme variations in
temperature and very little precipitation within
the interior portions of a landmass
continental shelf the part of a continent that
extends underwater
cooperative a voluntary organization whose mem-
bers work together and share expenses and
profits
coral limestone deposits formed from the skeletons
of tiny sea creatures
cordillera parallel chains or ranges of mountains
core innermost layer of Earth. The core is made up
of a super-hot but solid inner core and a liquid
outer core
Coriolis effect the sideways movement of prevailing
winds caused by Earth’s rotational movement
and speed
cottage industry businesses that employ workers in
their homes
coup d’état a violent overthrow of the government
crude oil unrefined petroleum
265
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 –GLOSSARY–
Crusades a series of religious wars (AD 1100–1300)
in which European Christians tried to retake
Palestine from Muslim rule
crust the rocky shell forming Earth’s surface
cultural convergence the mixing of cultures
cultural diffusion the spread of new knowledge and
skills from one culture to another
cultural divergence the separation of people or soci-
eties, with regard to beliefs, values, and cus-
toms, because of distinctly different political
systems
cultural hearth a center where cultures developed
and from which ideas and traditions spread
outward
culture the way of life of a group of people who
share beliefs and similar customs
culture region a division based on a variety of com-
mon factors, including government, social
groups, economic systems, language, or religion
cuneiform Sumerian writing system using wedge-
shaped symbols pressed into clay tablets
current a cold or warm stream of seawater that flows
in the oceans, generally in a circular pattern; an
interval of time during which a sequence of a
recurring succession of events or phenomena is
completed
cyclone a storm with heavy rains and high winds
that blow in a circular pattern around an area
of low atmospheric pressure
czar the ruler of Russia until the 1917 revolution
dalits the “oppressed.” In India, people assigned to
the lowest social class
death rate the number of deaths per year for every
1,000 people
deciduous falling off or shed seasonally or periodi-
cally; trees such as oak and maple, which lose
their leaves in autumn
decolonialization the process of a former colony
gaining (or regaining) independence over their
territory and establishing (or reestablishing) an
independent government
266
GEOG_29_GLOS_263-278.indd 266
deforestation the loss or destruction of forests,
mainly for logging or farming
delta alluvial deposit at a river’s mouth that looks
like the Greek letter delta
democracy any system of government in which
leaders rule with consent of citizens
demographic transition a model that uses birth
rates and death rates to chart changes in the
population trends of a country or region
demography the study of population
deregulate to remove restrictions and regulations
desalination the removal of salt from seawater to
make it usable for drinking and farming
desertification the process in which arable land is
turned into desert
developed country a country that has a great deal of
technology and manufacturing
developing country a country in the process of
becoming industrialized
dharma in Hinduism, a person’s moral duty, based
on class distinctions, which guides his or her
life
dialect a local form of a language used in a particu-
lar place or by a certain group
dike a large bank of earth and stone that holds back
water
dissident a citizen who speaks out against govern-
ment policies
divide a high point or ridge that determines the
direction rivers flow
doldrums a frequently windless area near the
equator
domestic relating to, made in, or done in one’s own
country
domesticate to adapt plants and animals from the
wild to make them useful to people
dominion a partially self-governing country with
close ties to another country
doubling time the number of years it takes a popu-
lation to double in size
1/5/12 1:33 PM
 –GLOSSARY–
dry farming a farming method used in dry regions
so that land is plowed and planted deeply to
hold water in the soil
dynasty a ruling house or continuing family of rul-
ers, especially in China
dzong a fortified monastery of Bhutan, South Asia
Eastern Hemisphere the part of Earth east of the
Atlantic Ocean including Europe, Asia, Austra-
lia, and Africa; longitudes 20° W and 160° E
often considered its boundaries
e-commerce selling and buying on the Internet
economic of, relating to, or based on the production,
distribution, and consumption of goods and
services
economic sanction a trade restriction
ecotourism the practice and business of recreational
travel based on concern for the environment
elevation the height above the level of the sea
El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) a seasonal
weather event that can cause droughts in Aus-
tralia and powerful cyclones in the South
Pacific
emir a prince or ruler in Islamic countries
enclave a region or community, as within a country
or city, made up of people of a different race or
cultural background
endemic native to or belonging to a particular
environment
Enlightenment a movement during the 1700s that
emphasized the importance of reason and
questioned traditions and values
environmentalist a person actively concerned with
the quality and protection of the environment
equator the parallel of 0 degrees latitude from which
other latitudes are calculated
equinox one of two days (about March 21 and Sep-
tember 23) on which the sun is directly above
the equator, making day and night equal in
length
erosion the wearing away of the earth’s surface by
wind, flowing water, or glaciers
escarpment a steep cliff or slope between a higher
and lower land surface
GEOG_29_GLOS_263-278.indd 267
estuary an area where the tide meets a river current
ethnic of or relating to races or large groups of peo-
ple classed according to common traits and
customs
ethnic cleansing the expelling from a country or
killing of rival ethnic groups
ethnic group a group of people who share common
ancestry, language, religion, customs, or a com-
bination of such characteristics
European Union (EU) an organization whose goal is
to unite Europe so that goods, services, and
workers can move freely among member
countries
eutrophication the process by which a body of water
becomes too rich in dissolved nutrients that
stimulate aquatic plant growth, usually result-
ing in depleted oxygen
exclave a distinct group of people who are isolated
from the main or larger part of a country
export a commodity sent from one country to
another for purposes of trade
extended family a household made up of several
generations of family members
extinction the disappearance or end of an animal or
plant species
farm cooperative an organization in which farmers
share in growing and selling farm products
fault a crack or break in the earth’s crust
fauna the animal life of a region
federal system a form of government in which pow-
ers are divided between the national govern-
ment and the state or provincial government
feudalism in medieval Europe and Japan, a system
of government in which powerful lords gave
land to nobles in return for pledges of loyalty
fisheries areas, freshwater or saltwater, in which fish
or sea animals are caught
fjord a long, steep-sided glacial valley now filled by
seawater
flora the plant life of a region
flow-line map a map that shows the movement of
people, animals, goods, ideas, and physical pro-
cesses like hurricanes and glacial movement
267
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 –GLOSSARY–
foehn a dry wind that blows from the leeward sides
of mountains, sometimes melting snow and
causing avalanches; term used mainly in
Europe
fold a bend in layers of rock, sometimes caused by
plate movement
formal region a region defined by a common char-
acteristic, such as production of a product
fossil fuel a resource formed in the earth by plant
and animal remains
free port a port city, such as Singapore, where goods
can be unloaded, stored, and reshipped without
the payment of import duties
free trade the removal of trade barriers so that goods
can flow freely between countries
free trade zone an area of a country in which trade
restrictions do not apply
functional region a central place and the surround-
ing territory linked to it
genetically modified food food sources, the genes of
which have been altered to cause increase in
size and speed of growth or greater resistance to
pests
geographic information systems computer tools for
processing and organizing details and satellite
images with other pieces of information
glaciation the process whereby glaciers form and
spread
glacier a large body of ice that moves across the sur-
face of the earth
glasnost the Russian term for a new openness in
areas of politics, social issues, and media; part
of Mikhail Gorbachev’s reform plans
global economy the merging of resource manage-
ment systems so countries are interconnected
and dependent on one another for goods and
services
globalization the increasing interconnectedness of
people and places throughout the world
through converging processes of economic,
political, and cultural change
268
GEOG_29_GLOS_263-278.indd 268
global warming the gradual warming of Earth and
its atmosphere that may be caused in part by
pollution and an increase in the greenhouse
effect
globe a spherical representation of Earth
glyphs picture writing carved in stone
graziers farmers who raise sheep or cattle in New
Zealand
great circle route an imaginary line that follows the
curve of Earth and represents the shortest dis-
tance between two points
Greater Antilles the four large Caribbean islands of
Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico
Great Escarpment this landform rims southern
Africa from Angola to South Africa. It forms
where the narrow coastal plains meet the ele-
vated plateaus in an abrupt break in elevation
greenhouse effect the capacity of certain gases in the
atmosphere to trap heat, thereby warming Earth
green revolution the program begun in the 1960s to
produce higher-yielding, more productive
strains of wheat, rice, and other food crops
gross domestic product (GDP) the value of goods
and services created within a country in a year
gross national product (GNP) is similar to GDP but
is a broader measure including the inflow of
money from other countries in the form of the
repatriation of profits and other returns on
investments, as well as the outflow to other
countries for the same purposes
groundwater water within the earth that supplies
wells and springs
guest worker a foreign laborer working temporarily
in an industrialized, usually European, country
guru a teacher or spiritual guide
habitat an area with conditions suitable for certain
plants or animals to live
haiku a form of Japanese poetry originally consisting
of 17 syllables and three lines, often about nature
hajj in Islam, the yearly pilgrimage to Makkah
(Mecca)
1/5/12 1:33 PM
 –GLOSSARY–
harmattan a dust-laden wind that blows on the
Atlantic coast of Africa in some seasons
headwater the source of a stream or river
heavy industry the manufacture of machinery and
equipment needed for factories and mines
hemisphere half of a sphere or globe, as in Earth’s
Northern and Southern Hemispheres
hierarchical of, relating to, or arranged in order of
rank
hieroglyphic belonging to an ancient Egyptian writ-
ing system in which pictures and symbols rep-
resent words or sounds
Holocaust the mass killing of 6 million Jews by Ger-
many’s Nazi leaders during World War II
homogeneous of the same or similar kind or nature
horticulture the science and art of growing fruits,
vegetables, and plants
human-environment interaction the study of the
interrelationship between people and their
physical environment
hurricane a large, powerful windstorm that forms
over warm ocean waters
hydroelectric power electrical energy generated by
falling water
hydrosphere the watery areas of the earth, including
oceans, lakes, rivers, and other bodies of water
hypothesis a scientific explanation for an event
Ibadhism a conservative form of Islam distinct from
the Sunni and Shia sects
ideogram a pictorial character or symbol that repre-
sents a specific meaning or idea
ideology ideas, characteristics of a person, group, or
political party
immigrant a person who comes to a country to take
up permanent residence
imperialism the actions by which one nation is able
to control other, usually smaller or weaker,
nations
GEOG_29_GLOS_263-278.indd 269
indentured laborers foreign workers contracted to
labor on Caribbean agricultural estates for a set
period of time, often several years. Usually the
contract stipulated paying off the travel debt
incurred by the laborers. Similar indentured
labor arrangements have existed in most world
regions.
industrialization the transition from an agricultural
society to one based on industry or
manufacturing
infrastructure the basic urban necessities like streets
and utilities
insular constituting an island, as in Java
introduced species plants and animals placed in
areas other than their native habitat
Inuit a member of the Arctic native peoples of
North America
Iron Curtain a term coined by British leader Win-
ston Churchill during the Cold War that
defined the western border of Soviet power in
Europe. The notorious Berlin Wall was a con-
crete manifestation of the Iron Curtain
Islamic fundamentalism A movement within both
the Shiite and Sunni Muslim traditions to
return to a more conservative, religious-based
society and state. Often associated with a rejec-
tion of Western culture and with a political aim
to merge civic and religious authority
Jainism A religious group in South Asia that
emerged as a protest against orthodox Hindu-
ism about the sixth century BC. The ethical
core of Jainism is the doctrine of noninjury to
all living creatures
Japan Current a warm-water ocean current that
adds moisture to the winter monsoons
jati in traditional Hindu society, a social group that
defines a family’s occupation and social
standing
269
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 –GLOSSARY–
jazz a musical form that developed in the United
States in the early 1900s blending African
rhythms and European harmonies
jute the plant fiber used to make string and cloth
karma in Hindu belief, the sum of good and bad
actions in one’s present and past lives
key a map legend or guide
Khmer Rouge Literally, “Red (or communist) Cam-
bodians.” The left-wing insurgent group led by
French-educated Marxists who rebelled against
the royal Cambodian government, first in the
early 1960s and then again in a peasants revolt
in 1967
kibbutz a collective farm in Israel
kolkhoz in the Soviet Union, a small farm owned by
a collective that paid farmers as salaried
employees
kum the term for a desert in Central Asia
lagoon a shallow pool of water at the center of an
atoll
lama the Buddhist religious leader
landlocked enclosed or nearly enclosed by land
language family a group of related languages that
have all developed from one earlier language
latifundia in Latin America, large agricultural
estates owned by families or corporations
latitude the distance north or south from the equa-
tor measured in degrees
leach to wash nutrients out of the soil
leeward being in or facing the direction toward
which the wind is blowing
Lesser Antilles the arc of small Caribbean islands
from St. Maarten to Trinidad
Levant the eastern Mediterranean region
light industry manufacturing aimed at making con-
sumer goods, such as textiles, or food process-
ing rather than heavy machinery
lingua franca a common language used among peo-
ple with different native languages
literacy rate the percentage of people in a given
place who can read and write
270
GEOG_29_GLOS_263-278.indd 270
lithosphere the surface land areas of the earth’s
crust, including continents and ocean basins
llano the fertile grassland in inland areas of Colom-
bia and Venezuela
lode a deposit of minerals
loess fine, yellowish-brown topsoil made up of par-
ticles of silt and clay usually carried by the wind
longitude the distance measured by degrees or time
east or west from the prime meridian
Loyalist a colonist who remained loyal to the British
government during the American Revolution
Maastricht the site of a 1992 meeting of European
governments in the Netherlands, at which a
treaty was signed forming the European Union
Maghreb a region in northwestern Africa, including
portions of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia
magma molten rock that is pushed up from Earth’s
mantle
maharaja regional Hindu royalty, usually a king or
prince, who ruled specific areas of South Asia
before independence, but who was usually sub-
ject to overrule by British colonial advisors
mantle the thick middle layer of Earth’s interior
structure, consisting of dense, hot rock
mantra in Hinduism, a sacred word or phrase
repeated in prayers and chants
manuka a small shrub that grows in plateau regions
of New Zealand
Maori the indigenous Polynesian people of New
Zealand
map projection a mathematical formula used to
represent the curved surface of Earth on the flat
surface of a map
maquiladora in Mexico, a manufacturing plant set
up by a foreign firm
marianismo an idealized woman stressing the vir-
tues of patience, deference, and work in the
home
1/5/12 1:33 PM
 –GLOSSARY–
marine west coast climates moderate climates with
cool summers and mild winters heavily influ-
enced by maritime conditions. It is usually
found on the west coasts of continents between
latitudes of 45 and 50 degrees. Climates are
moderated by their proximity to oceans or large
seas. They are usually cool, cloudy, wet, and
lack the temperature extremes of continental
climates.
maritime concerned with travel or shipping by sea
market economy an economic system based on free
enterprise; businesses are privately owned, and
production and prices are determined by sup-
ply and demand
marsupials mammals whose offspring mature in a
pouch on the mother’s abdomen
martial law the control and policing of civilians by
military rules
matriarchal describes a woman who rules her family
and descendants
megacity a city with more than 10 million people
megalopolis a thickly populated area centered
around several large and small cities, or one
large city
Melanesia the Pacific Ocean region that includes the
culturally complex, generally darker-skinned
peoples of New Guinea, the Solomon Islands,
Vanuatu, New Caledonia, and Fiji
meltwater water formed by melting snow and ice
merchant marine a country’s fleet of ships that
engage in commerce or trade
mestizo refers to biracial people of Native American
and European descent
metropolitan area the region that includes a central
city and its surrounding suburbs
Micronesia the Pacific Ocean region that includes
the culturally diverse, generally small islands
north of Melanesia. Includes the Mariana
Islands, Marshall Islands, and Federated States
of Micronesia.
Middle Ages the period of European history from
about a.d. 500 to about a.d. 1500
GEOG_29_GLOS_263-278.indd 271
migration the movement of people from place to
place
minifundia in Latin America, small farms that pro-
duce food chiefly for family use
mistral a strong northerly wind from the Alps that
can bring cold air to southern France
mixed economy a system of resource management
in which the government supports and regu-
lates enterprise through decisions that affect the
marketplace
mixed farming raising several kinds of crops and
livestock on the same farm
mixed forest a forest with both coniferous and
deciduous trees
monarchy a form of autocracy with a hereditary
king or queen exercising supreme power
monopoly the total control of a type of industry by
one person or one company
monotheism belief in one God
Monroe Doctrine a proclamation issued by U.S.
President James Monroe in 1823 that the
United States would not tolerate European mil-
itary action in the Western Hemisphere.
Focused on the Caribbean as a strategic area,
the doctrine was repeatedly invoked to justify
U.S. political and military intervention in the
region.
monsoon in Asia, seasonal wind that brings warm,
moist air from the oceans in summer and cold,
dry air from inland in winter
moraine piles of rocky debris left by melting glaciers
mosque in Islam, a house of public worship
mujahedeen Islamic guerrilla fighters
mural a wall painting
nationalism the belief in the right of each people to
be an independent nation
natural boundary a fixed limit or extent defined
along physical geographic features like moun-
tains and rivers
natural increase the growth rate of a population
natural resources substances from the earth that are
not man-made
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 –GLOSSARY–
natural vegetation plant life indigenous to an area
newly industrialized country a country that has
begun a transition from primarily agricultural
to primarily manufacturing and industrial
activity
nomad a member of a wandering pastoral people
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
the trade pact made in 1994 by Canada, the
United States, and Mexico
nuclear of, relating to, or using the atomic nucleus,
atomic energy, the atom bomb, or atomic
power
nuclear family a family group made up of a hus-
band, wife, and children
nuclear proliferation the spreading development of
nuclear arms
nuclear waste the by-product of nuclear power
production
oasis a small area in a desert where water and vege-
tation are found
oligarchy a system of government in which a small
group holds power
oral tradition stories passed down from generation
to generation by word of mouth
organic farming the use of natural substances rather
than chemical fertilizers and pesticides to
enrich the soil and grow crops
Organization of African Unity (OAU) founded in
1963, the organization grew to include all the
states of the continent except South Africa,
which finally was asked to join in 1994. It is
mostly a political body that has tried to resolve
regional conflicts.
Organization of American States (OAS) founded in
1948 and headquartered in Washington, D.C.,
the OAS advocates hemispheric cooperation
and dialogue. Most states in the Americas
belong, except Cuba.
outsourcing the practice of subcontracting manu-
facturing work to outside companies, especially
foreign or nonunion companies
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overfishing harvesting fish to the extent that certain
species are depleted and the fishing area made
less valuable
ozone layer the atmospheric layer with protective
gases that prevents solar rays from reaching
Earth’s surface
pampas grassy, treeless plains of southern South
America
Parliament in British-influenced areas, the national
legislature that is made up of the Senate and the
House of Commons
pastoralism the raising of livestock
patois dialects that blend elements of indigenous,
European, African, and Asian languages
patriarchal relating to a social group headed by a
male family member
perceptual region a region defined by popular feel-
ings and images rather than by objective data
perestroika in Russian, “restructuring;” part of Gor-
bachev’s plan for reforming Soviet economy
and government
permafrost a permanently frozen layer of soil
beneath the surface of the ground
pesticide a chemical used to kill insects, rodents, and
other pests
petrochemical a chemical product derived from
petroleum or natural gas
phosphate a natural mineral containing chemical
compounds often used in fertilizers
physical map a map that shows the location of natu-
ral features such as mountains and rivers; can
also show cities and countries
pidgin simplified speech used among people who
speak different languages
pidgin English a dialect mixing English and a local
language
planar projection a map created by projecting an
image of Earth onto a plane
plate tectonics the term scientists use to describe the
activities of continental drift and magma flow,
which create many of Earth’s physical features
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 –GLOSSARY–
poaching illegal hunting of protected animals
pogrom in czarist Russia, an attack on Jews carried
out by government troops or officials
polder a low-lying area from which seawater has
been drained to create new farmland
political map a map that shows the boundaries and
locations of political units such as countries,
states, counties, cities, and towns
pollution the existence of impure, unclean, or poi-
sonous substances in the air, water, or land
Polynesia the Pacific Ocean region, broadly unified
by language and cultural traditions, that
includes the Hawaiian Islands, Marquesas
Islands, the Society Islands, the Tuamotu Archi-
pelago, Cook Islands, American Samoa, Samoa,
Tonga, and Kiribati
polytheism belief in many gods
population density the average number of people
per square mile or square kilometer
population distribution the pattern of population
in a country, a continent, or the world
postindustrial refers to an economy with less
emphasis on heavy industry and manufacturing
and more emphasis on services and technology
prairie an inland grassland area
precipitation moisture that falls to the Earth as rain,
sleet, hail, or snow
primate city a city that dominates a country’s econ-
omy, culture, and government and in which
population is concentrated; usually the capital
Prime Meridian the meridian of 0 degrees longitude
from which other longitudes are calculated
privatization a change to private ownership of state-
owned companies and industries
prophet a person believed to be a messenger from
God
province an administrative district or division of a
country
puna a treeless, windswept tableland or basin in the
higher Andes
radioactive material material contaminated by resi-
due from the generation of nuclear energy
GEOG_29_GLOS_263-278.indd 273
rain shadow effect the result of a process by which
dry areas develop on the leeward sides of
mountain ranges
raj the Hindi word for “empire”
realism an artistic style portraying everyday life that
developed in Europe during the mid-1800s
reforestation planting young trees or seeds on lands
where trees have been cut or destroyed
refugee one who flees his or her home for safety
regime a form of government
region a broad geographical area distinguished by
similar features
relief the elevations or inequalities of a land surface
Renaissance in Europe, a 300-year period of
renewed interest in classical learning and the
arts, beginning in the 1300s
reparation a payment for damages
restriction a regulation that confines, limits, or
restrains
retooling converting old factories for use in new
industries
revenue the income produced by a given source
revolution in astronomy, the Earth’s yearly trip
around the sun, taking 365 days
rice paddy flooded field in which rice is grown
Richter scale measures the amount of energy
released at the epicenter of an earthquake
rift valley a crack in Earth’s surface created by shift-
ing tectonic plates
Romanticism the artistic style emphasizing individ-
ual emotions that developed in Europe in the
late 1700s and early 1800s as a reaction to
industrialization
samurai in medieval Japan, a class of professional
soldiers who lived by a strict code of personal
honor and loyalty to a noble
satellite a country controlled by another country,
notably Eastern European countries controlled
by the Soviet Union by the end of World War II;
also a form of telecommunications involving
the beaming of radio signals into the atmo-
sphere so they can be reflected back again
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 –GLOSSARY–
savanna a tropical grassland containing scattered
trees
scale the size of a picture, plan, or model of a thing
compared to the size of the thing itself
scale bar a map key that shows the relationship
between map measurements and actual dis-
tance on Earth
sect a subdivision within a religion that has its own
distinctive beliefs and/or practices
sedentary farming farming carried on at permanent
settlements
separatism the breaking away of one part of a coun-
try to create a separate, independent country
serf laborer obliged to remain on the land where he
or she worked in feudal times
service industry a business that provides a service
instead of manufacturing goods
shantytown a makeshift community on the edge of
a city
shari’ah Islamic law derived from the Koran and the
teachings of Muhammad
sheikhdom a territory ruled by an Islamic religious
leader
shields large upland areas of very old exposed rocks
that range in elevation from 600 to 5,000 feet
(200 to 1,500 meters)
shifting cultivation clearing forests to plant fields
for a few years and then abandoning them
shogun a military ruler in medieval Japan
sickle a large, curved knife with a handle, used to cut
grass or tall grains
sirocco hot desert wind that can blow air and dust
from North Africa to Western Europe’s Medi-
terranean coast
situation refers to the geographic position of a place
in relation to other places or features of a larger
region
slash-and-burn farming a traditional farming
method in which all trees and plants in an area
are cut and burned to add nutrients to the soil
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smog haze caused by the interaction of ultraviolet
solar radiation with chemical fumes from auto-
mobile exhausts and other pollution sources
socialism the political philosophy in which the gov-
ernment owns the means of production
socialist realism the realistic style of art and litera-
ture that glorified Soviet ideals and goals
solstice one of two days (about June 21 and Decem-
ber 22) on which the sun’s rays strike directly
on the Tropic of Cancer or Tropic of Capricorn,
marking the beginning of summer or winter
sovereignty self-rule
Soviet era the period between 1921 and 1991 when
Russia was part of the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics
sovkhoz in the Soviet Union, a large farm owned
and run by the state
spreading a process by which new land is created
when sea plates pull apart
station an Australian term for an outlying ranch or
large farm
steppe the wide, dry plains of Eurasia; also, similar
semiarid climate regions elsewhere
Strine colloquial English spoken in Australia
stupa a dome-shaped structure that serves as a Bud-
dhist shrine
subcontinent a large landmass that is part of a con-
tinent but still distinct from it, such as India
subduction a process by which mountains can form
as sea plates dive beneath continental plates
subsidy a grant or gift, especially of money
subsistence agriculture farming that produces only
enough crops or animal products to support a
farm family’s needs. Usually little is sold at local
or regional markets.
suburb an outlying community around a city
Sunbelt the mild climate region in the southern
United States
supercell a violent thunderstorm that can spawn
tornadoes
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 –GLOSSARY–
sustainable development technological and eco-
nomic growth that does not deplete the human
and natural resources of a given area
syncretism a blending of beliefs and practices from
different religions into one faith
taiga the Russian term for the vast subarctic forest,
mostly evergreens, that covers much of Russia
and Siberia
tariff a tax on imports or exports
technology the use of science in solving problems
tectonic plate a massive, irregularly shaped slab of
Earth’s crust and uppermost mantle, composed
of both continental and oceanic lithosphere
temperature the degree of heat or cold measured on
a set scale, such as Fahrenheit or Celsius
thematic map a map that emphasizes a single idea
or a particular kind of information about an
area
tierra calienta the Spanish term for “hot land”; the
lowest altitude zone of Latin American high-
lands climates
tierra fria the Spanish term for “cold land”; the
highest altitude zone of Latin American high-
lands climates
tierra helada the Spanish term for “frozen land”; a
zone of permanent snow and ice on the peaks
of the Andes
tierra templada the Spanish term for “temperate
land”; the middle altitude zone of Latin Ameri-
can highlands climates
timberline the elevation above which it is too cold
for trees to grow
topography the shape of Earth’s physical features
tornadoes twisting funnels of air with winds up to
300 mph
total fertility rate the average number of children a
woman has in her lifetime
trade deficit spending more money on imports than
earning from exports
trade surplus earning more money from export
sales than spending for imports
tsunami a very large sea wave induced by underwa-
ter earthquakes
GEOG_29_GLOS_263-278.indd 275
tundra the arctic region with a short growing season
in which vegetation is limited to low shrubs,
grasses, and flowering herbs
typhoons large tropical storms, similar to hurri-
canes that form in the western Pacific Ocean in
tropical latitudes and cause widespread damage
to the Philippines and coastal Southeast and
East Asia
unitary system a government in which all key pow-
ers are given to the national or central
government
universal suffrage equal voting rights for all adult
citizens of a nation
urbanization the movement of people from rural
areas into cities
urban sprawl the spreading of urban developments
on undeveloped land near a city
viceroy a representative of the Spanish monarch
appointed to enforce laws in colonial Latin
America
wadi a streambed that is dry except during a heavy
rain in the desert
wat a temple in Southeast Asia
water cycle the regular movement of water from
ocean to air to ground and back to the ocean
wattle a woven framework made from acacia sap-
lings by early Australian settlers to build homes
weather the condition of the atmosphere in one
place during a short period of time
weathering chemical or physical processes, such as
freezing, that break down rocks
welfare state a nation in which the government
assumes major responsibility for people’s well-
being in areas such as health and education
Western Hemisphere the half of the Earth compris-
ing North and South America and surrounding
waters; longitudes 20° W and 160° E often con-
sidered its boundaries
windward being in or facing the direction from
which the wind is blowing
World Trade Organization (WTO) an international
body that oversees trade agreements and settles
trade disputes among countries
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