JOGMEC-TRC

Reservoir Engineering Course

Lecture Notes

Exploration Geology
February, 2022

Lecturer: Yuhei Komatsu

Japan Oil Engineering Co., Ltd.

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 Lecture Objective
The scales range from basin scale to pore scale in the petroleum exploration. Different
types of instruments are used to measure properties at these different scales (next
slide).
The objective of this lecture is to understand an overview of basic exploration
techniques.
The data obtained by these techniques is also used for the reservoir modeling.

SCALE OF RESERVOIR HETEROGENEITY

20 μm 4” 1000’ 10 Ml.
THIN SECTION CORE INTERWELL FIELDWIDE
MICROSCOPIC MESOSCOPIC MACROSCOPIC MEGASCOPIC

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 Exploration Methods and Resolution
Cheong, S. (2021)

Geoscience Scales

Surface Geophysics

Basin Studies
Investigative Technique

VSP's

Fm. Tests

Outcrop Studies

Well Logs

Core Analysis

X-Ray

Image Analysis
1.E-06 1.E-03 1.E+00 1.E+03 1.E+06

Scale (Feet) IODP Outreach / Photo Gallary

http://iodp.tamu.edu/publicinfo/gallery/exp305/pages/10.htm

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 Seismic-Reflection and Subsurface Imaging
Receiver
SEISMIC REFRECTION

Two Way Travel time

SEISMEC SOURCE Rock A
HYDROPHONE
Amplitude

Rock B

Seismic-reflection analysis has became the Two Way Travel time

dominant tool used hydrocarbon exploration, and
with some resolution limitations, it is becoming 𝑇𝑊𝑇 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
widely used for characterizing reservoirs.
The seismic-reflection method is based on the
=
principle that an energy source, such as dynamite, 2 𝑉
generates sound waves that travel though the earth. Velocity

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2D Seismic

Tsampouraki-Kraounaki, K. et al. (2021)

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 3D Seismic Volume
DATA VOLUME
Y

T or Z
Ab Rahman, S.S. et al. (2021)

Al-Masgari, A.A.-S. et al. (2021)

Alvarenga, R.d.S. et al. (2021)

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Seismic Interpretation

Tsampouraki-Kraounaki, K. et al. (2021)

7
 Seismic facies
Seismic facies are "mappable, three dimensional seismic units composed of groups of
reflections whose parameters differ from those of adjacent facies units”. Based on the
identification and mapping of the changes in reflection characters (amplitude,
continuity, frequency, interval velocity, etc.), sedimentary environment and facies
could be analogized.

Example of seismic facies observed

in the rift interval

Alvarenga, R.d.S. et al. (2021)

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Seismic geomorphology

Al-Masgari, A.A.-S. et al. (2021)

9
4D Seismic

Schlumberger / Oilfield Glossary

https://glossary.oilfield.slb.com/en/terms/t/time-lapse_seismic_data

10
 Logging
Well logging is used for electrical imaging, mine
mapping, and hydrocarbon and hydrological
exploration to obtain in situ properties of possible
reservoir rocks.

sonde log depth

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 Logging Tools

Leg Summaries & Maps IODP Publications

http://www.odplegacy.org/science_results/leg_summaries/Leg188/ https://mlp.ldeo.columbia.edu/LOG_SUM/exp339/339.fig02.html

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 Gamma Ray log
API Units
0 GR 100 Interpretation

Non reservoir

Sand Reservoir

Depth
Shale Non reservoir

Reservoir

Non reservoir

Sand
Sand line 0% shale
Net sand cut-off line 50% shale
Shale line 100% sale

• Gamma-ray logs provide indicators of lithology.

• The logging tool measures natural gamma radiation of the rock formation.
• Higher Gamma-ray counts indicate the presence of shale, because shale constituents,
including clay minerals, emit natural gamma radiation.

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 Density log
API Units Bulk Density
0 GR 100 2.0 ρb (gm/cc) 3.0
average log reading
in reservoir interval

γ-rays If ρma = 3.65 (quartz)

Sand and ρf = 1.00 (water)

Depth
2.65 −2.2
Shale 𝜑 = 2.65 −1.0 = 0.27

γ-rays
2.2
gm/cc
■ Long spacer detector
■ Short spacer detector
■ Radioactive source

• Density logs measure the density of the formation.

• Variations in formation density reflect the mineral composition of the rock, the porosity of
the rock, and the fluids contained within the rock’s pore spaces.
• Provided the rock matrix and fluid densities are known, the relative proportion of rock and
fluid (and hence porosity) can be determined.

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 Resistivity log
API Units Formation Resistivity （Rt）
Rs 0 GR 100 2.0 ohm.m 200

Rm
high Rt
(oil or gas bearing
Rxo formation)
Rt

Depth
Rmc Sand oil / water or
gas / water contact
Univaded Flushed Rmf Rw
zone zone Mudcake low Rt
Zone of
(water bearing formation)
transition Sw Shale
or Sxo
annulus

Rs

• Resistivity logs are electrical well logs that record the resistivity of a formation.
• Three depths of resistivity can be logged (shallow, medium, and deep) that record the
resistivity of the formation with increasing distance away from the borehole.
• The resistivity log can also be used to define oil-water or gas-water contacts. The fluid
contact can be defined as the point at which the resistivity begins to increase in the
reservoir interval, inferring the presence of hydrocarbons above that point.

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 Borehole-Image log
Schlumberger HP / FMI Fullbore Formation Microimager
https://www.slb.com/reservoir-characterization/surface-and-
downhole-logging/wireline-openhole-logging/fmi-fullbore-
formation-microimager
N E Orientation
0°90°180°270°360°

N E S W N
Dip azimuth is trough of sinusoid
Dip Angle = tan-1(h/d)
This logging tool creates an image of the borehole wall by mapping the wall’s resistivity using
array of small, pad-mounted button electrodes.

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Example of Borehole-Image log

Kharitontseva, P. et al. (2021)

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 Well correlation
To start the correlation process,
Well-3
select a datum plane (sequence
boundary, unconformity surface, Well-2
flooding surface).
Well-1

Marker

A sand

B sand

C sand

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 Coring

Schlumberger HP / Resource Library / Defining Coring

https://www.slb.com/resource-library/oilfield-review/defining-series/defining-
coring

ODP LEGACY / Coring Methods

http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/tnotes/tn31/jr/jr.htm

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Photograph of Core

Kharitontseva, P. et al. (2021)

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Core plug

Ab Rahman, S.S. et al.(2021)

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 Direct Observation
Thin section SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope)

Zhou, L. et al. (2021) Pearce, J.K. et al. (2021)

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 Summary

• There are many tools and techniques at different scales for hydrocarbon exploration.
• Seismic-reflection techniques include conventional 2D and 3D seismic, 4D time-lapse
seismic, seismic facies analysis, all designed to enhance stratigraphy/structure detection,
resolution, and characterization.
• Drilling and coring a well provides the “ground truth” for seismic interpretation. Rock
formation are directly sampled by core and in directly characterized with a variety of
conventional and specialized well logs.
• To maximize reservoir charactrization and optimize production, many of these tools as
possible should be employed.

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 References
Ab Rahman, S.S.; Husen, M.H.; Soto, G.J.; Bing Bing, S.; Jamin, N.H.M.; Rosli, R.; Poppelreiter, M.C. Application of Spectral
Decomposition Technique to Delineate the Evolution of Karst on Carbonate Platforms of Central Luconia, Offshore
Sarawak, Malaysia. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11627. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112411627
Al-Masgari, A.A.-S.; Elsaadany, M.; Siddiqui, N.A.; Latiff, A.H.A.; Bakar, A.A.; Elkurdy, S.; Hermana, M.; Babikir, I.; Imran,
Q.S.; Adeleke, T. Geomorphological Geometries and High-Resolution Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy of Malay Basin’s
Fluvial Succession. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5156. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11115156
Alvarenga, R.d.S.; Kuchle, J.; Iacopini, D.; Goldberg, K.; Scherer, C.M.d.S.; Pantopoulos, G.; Ene, P.L. Tectonic and Stratigraphic
Evolution Based on Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy: Central Rift Section of the Campos Basin, Offshore Brazil.
Geosciences 2021, 11, 338. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11080338
Cheong, S.; Kim, Y.-J.; Chun, J.-H.; Kim, J.-K.; Huh, S. Integrated Offshore Seismic Survey Using an UnmannedWave Glider.
Energies 2021, 14, 297. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14020297
K.; Sakellariou, D.; Rousakis, G.; Morfis, I.; Panagiotopoulos, I.; Livanos, I.; Manta, K.; Paraschos, F.; Papatheodorou, G. The
Santorini-Amorgos Shear Zone: Evidence for Dextral Transtension in the South Aegean Back-Arc Region, Greece.
Geosciences 2021, 11, 216. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11050216
Kharitontseva, P.; Gardiner, A.; Tugarova, M.; Chernov, D.; Maksimova, E.; Churochkin, I.; Rukavishnikov, V. An Integrated
Approach for Formation Micro-Image Rock Typing Based on Petrography Data: A Case Study in Shallow Marine
Carbonates. Geosciences 2021, 11, 235. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11060235
Pearce, J.K.; Dawson, G.K.W.; Sommacal, S.; Golding, S.D. Micro CT and Experimental Study of Carbonate Precipitation from
CO2 and ProducedWater Co-Injection into Sandstone. Energies 2021, 14, 6998. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14216998
Zhou, L.; Li, Y.; Jin, F.; Fu, L.; Pu, X.; Da, L.; Li, H.; Liu, H.; Xu,W. Tight Sandstone Reservoir Formation Mechanism of Upper
Paleozoic Buried Hills in the Huanghua Depression, Bohai Bay Basin, Eastern China. Minerals 2021, 11, 1368
https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121368

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