Communication: Meaning, Principles and Models

Communication is giving, receiving or exchanging ideas, information, signals or messages through proper media,
enabling individuals or groups of people to persuade, to seek information, to give information or to express emotions. The
word communication is derived from the Latin word 'Communis' which means to make common, to transmit to impart
or to share between two or more persons or groups.” Communication is the natural aspect of man's life. Communication
is as old as human, human being himself starts communicating from birth. When a baby cries, we know that it is
communicating its need for attention or milk, when it gurgles (happy) it is expressing its sense of satisfaction. A society
cannot survive without communication. Every human person has always tried to share his thoughts, experiences and
feelings with others. We reach our goals according to our ability to communicate effectively. Thus communication is the
basis of all Socio-economic, Political and Cultural activities.

Communication- Definitions
According to W.H. Newman and C.F. Sumer Jr., the definition of communication is the following: “Communication is
an exchange of facts, ideas, opinion or emotions by two or more persons.”

According to Keith Davis the definition of communication is: “Communication is the process of passing information and
understanding - from one person to another.”

According to Peter Little, the definition of communication is:

1. “A Process
2. Information transmitted between individuals and organizations,
3. Ensures an understanding response from the receiver of the communication”.
Thus: Communication is Transmission of information + Reception + understanding Response.

Koontz and O' Donnell defines communication as: ‘Communication is a two-way activity. There is a
communicator and the receiver of communication. Exchange implies reception and response from the receiver to ideas,
emotions and opinions of communicator.’

All of us have started communicating from our birth. We all know that when a baby cries it is communicating its need for
attention or milk, when it gurgles or croons it is expressing its sense of satisfaction. Communication is not however the
monopoly of humans alone. Animals and sometimes inanimate objects, in a very broad sense, also communicate. A watch
dog that growls at an intruder or the alarm clock that wakes oneself up in the morning - both convey definite messages
which are understood. Any transmission of a meaningful message, which is understood, is communication.

We recognize that when a message is sent out it becomes communication only when it is understood,
acknowledged, reacted to or replied to by the receiving party. If a radio message is beamed to Mars or to the moon it does
not become communication unless there is someone there to receive the message and understand it. Similarly a person
talking in Marathi to a person who only understands Tamil cannot be said to be communicating. When the Dogri speaking
person, however, shakes hands with the Telgu knowing person, he can be said to be communicating, for shaking hands is
the universally recognized gesture of friendship. This brings us to another aspect of human communication, namely, that
communication need not be by words (spoken or written) only, but can be by actions, body language, dress, gestures,
secret codes, signals, facial expressions and even by silence.

Nature of Communication
Communication is understood to have an exchange of ideas or passing on information from one person to the
other. It is always found that very often communication is unsuccessful. We can thus very well see that the communication
process is often very complex. The success of communication depends on such factors as the nature of the message, how
an audience interprets the message, and the environment in which the message is received. The receiver understands of
the source and the medium used to transmit the message may also affect the ability to communicate, as do many other
factors. The factors such as words, pictures, sounds, and colors may have different meanings to different audiences, and
people’s perceptions and interpretations of them vary depending on their culture, place and language. As we all know
language of course is one of the major barriers to effective communication. There are many countries in the world with
multiple languages and dialects and therefore the nature of communication is really complex

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Need for Communication
A human baby starts to communicate when it produces the first noise by attracting its parents. Every expression
of like and dislike, anger and happiness etc are our ways of communicating to people around us. It is essential to have
communication in every society for its growth and development. Communication will help us to learn, to teach, to make
friendship and to maintain them. The modern world requires more of communicating individuals rather than intellectuals.
The great need for communication has made man to use the best of technology for developing communication gadgets
more than anything else. The communicative technologies in the world have increased in great number, but also in speed,
accuracy and clarity. We will take a closer look and make an in-depth analysis of need of communication in the modern
world.

(i) For Transfer of Ideas

Communication helps in transferring ideas from person to person. Inventions and discoveries are possible mainly because
of this transfer of ideas.These ideas can be implemented in real life and can turn into major creations too. Communication
is the only means of transferring these ideas and plans.

(ii) For Interacting with Society

Every moment of our lives we need to interact with our friends, relatives and other living things around us. We use
communication to interact and to grow in wisdom and knowledge.Communication thus helps us to be different than the
other living things and makes a great difference in our lives.

(iii) For Education

In order to educate we need to we need to exchange our ideas and tell them the various study materials that are available
to them. In educating the students we use materials that are in the form of audios, videos and lectures done through
communication.

(iv) To Update Oneself

Communication is used for updating oneself. We can give the present day knowledge though the written and oral
communication given through books, magazines and new papers etc. Only by means of latest communication channels
we come to know of the current affairs in the world.

(v) For Entertainment

The means of communication in the forms of Television, Radio, internet, theatre and cinema give us entertainment and
information.
(vi) To Understand the World
Communication in every way helps us to understand the world with all its complexities. We really need to communicate
to the world in our own way and need to derive what is essential for us. We come to know of the treasures of knowledge
in the world only through means of communication.

Principles of Communication
Communication is a two-way process. There are many different channels through which we give and receive
information. There are certain elementary principles which we all need to follow to be effective communicators. Whether
it is an informal talk like speaking to a colleague, or a formal mode of communication like addressing a conference or
meeting, writing a newsletter article or formal report, the following basic principles apply:
a) Clarity: Every communication must have clarity. A message that leaves the reader scratching his head is a failed
message. Clarity springs from knowledge of the message (what you want to say), the method (how you want to
say it), and the medium (what format you want to say it in). A lack of mindfulness in any one of these components
affects the effectiveness of the message.
b) Conciseness: Communication is founded on the principles of conciseness. This applies not just to the length of
your message, but also its contents. Try to use short sentences and short words. Avoid jargon and words that send
the reader to the dictionary.
c) Objectivity: Any communication must always have a purpose. This purpose must be apparent to anyone who
glances through your message. Before you put a single word to paper, ask yourself: “What am I trying to achieve
with this message?” This will help you stay on course through the message creation process and effect a
remarkable improvement in the message efficacy.
d) Consistency: All communication must have consistency of tone, voice and content. Imagine that you’re reading
a book that starts out with a humorous satire on one page, a serious explanation on another, a serious medieval
romance half way through and finally finishing as a supernatural comedy! Such a book will alienate the readers
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 and leave them confused and even angry. Although you can stray from the set tone from time to time – a few
humorous jokes can help lighten the mood – the overall theme must remain consistent.
e) Completeness: Each message must have a clear and logical conclusion. The receiver shouldn’t be left wondering
if there is more to come. The message must be self-sufficient, that is, it must hold good on its own without support
from other messages. This is particularly apt for blog posts which often end abruptly and leave the readers
scratching their heads.
f) Relevancy: Every message sent out must be contextually cohesive with previous/future messages. The message
must also be relevant and related.
g) Audience Knowledge: Lastly, your message must have a thorough understanding of your primary audience.
Everything else – clarity, completeness, objectivity – results from your knowledge of your audience. Your
message must reflect the age, education level, aims and objective of your audience. This is possible only if you
thoroughly know your receivers and can see things from their perspective.
Components of Communication:

The main components of communication are as follows:

1. Context – Any message whether it is oral or written, begins with a context. Context may be a place, culture or
organization. Every organization, culture and country communicates information in its own way. Context also
includes external or internal stimuli. Meetings, letters, memos, telephone calls, fax, notes, email and even a
casual conversation are external stimuli. This external stimulus motivates you to respond which may be oral or
written. Internal Stimuli includes opinions, attitudes, likes, dislikes, emotions, experience, education and
confidence.

2. Sender / Encoder –A Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A sender makes use of symbols
(words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the required response. The sender may be
an individual, a group or an organization. The sender’s views, background, approach, skills, competencies, and
knowledge have a great impact on the message. The receiver interprets a message depending on the verbal and
non-verbal symbols chosen by the sender.

3. Message - Message is the information that is exchanged between sender and receiver. It is the key idea that the
sender wants to communicate. Communication process begins with deciding about the message to be conveyed.
It must be ensured that the main objective of the message is clear. The first task is to decide what you want to
communicate and what would be the content of your message; what the main points of your message are and what
other information to include. While writing the message, encoder should keep in mind all aspects of context and
the receiver (How he will interpret the message). Messages can be intentional or unintentional.

4. Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The sender must choose an appropriate
medium for transmitting the message; else the message might not be conveyed to the desired recipients. The
choice of appropriate medium of communication is essential for making the message effective and ensuring that
it is correctly interpreted by the recipient. For instance - a written medium would be more appropriate when a
message has to be conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral medium is chosen when immediate feedback
is required from the recipient.

5. Recipient / Decoder - Receiver is the person who interprets the message. S/he is a person for whom the message
is intended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon various
factors such as knowledge of the recipient, his perception, opinion, attitude and personality. Receiver is also
influenced by the context, internal and external stimuli.

6. Feedback –Feedback is the response or reaction of the receiver to a message. Feedback may be a written or oral
message. It may be an action or simply silence. Feedback helps the sender to know the efficacy of his/her message.
It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder.
Modes of Communication:

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 1. Interpersonal Mode: The Interpersonal Mode is characterized by active negotiation of meaning among
individuals. Participants observe and monitor one another to see how their meaning and intentions are being
communicated. Adjustments and clarifications can be made accordingly. As a result, there is a higher probability
of ultimately achieving the goal of successful communication in this mode than in the other two modes. The
Interpersonal Mode is most obvious in conversation, but both the interpersonal and negotiated dimensions can be
realized through reading and writing, such as the exchange of personal letters or electronic mail messages.
Examples of Interpersonal mode:
• Exchange information via letters, e-mail/video mail, notes, conversations or interviews on familiar topics (e.g.
school events, weekend activities, memorable experiences, family life).
• Express and compare opinions and preferences about information gathered regarding events, experiences and
other school subjects.
• Clarify meaning (e.g. paraphrasing, questioning).
• Give and follow directions, instructions and requests (e.g., installing software, dance steps).
• Demonstrate the ability to acquire goods, services or information (e.g., using public transportation, making a
hotel reservation, buying food).

2. Interpretive Mode: The Interpretive Mode is focused on the appropriate cultural interpretation of meanings that
occur in written and spoken form where there is no recourse to the active negotiation of meaning with the writer
or the speaker. Such instances of “one-way” reading or listening which include the cultural interpretation of texts,
oral or written, must be distinguished from the notion of reading and listening “comprehension,” where the term
could refer to understanding a text with an American mindset. Put another way, interpretation differs from
comprehension in that the former implies the ability to “read (or listen) between the lines.”Since the Interpretive
Mode does not allow for active negotiation between the reader and the writer or the listener and the speaker, it
requires a much more profound knowledge of culture from the outset. The more one knows about the other
language and culture, the greater the chances of creating the appropriate cultural interpretations of a written or
spoken text. It must be noted, however, that cultural literacy and the ability to read or listen between the lines are
developed over time and through exposure to the language and culture. Examples of Interpretive mode:
• Follow directions, instructions and requests (e.g., recipes, travel directions, prompts on ATMs).
• Use listening and reading strategies (e.g., skimming and scanning techniques) to determine main ideas and
purpose.

3. Presentational Mode: The Presentational Mode refers to the creation of messages in a manner that facilities
interpretation by members of the other culture where no direct opportunity for active negotiation of meaning
between members of the two cultures exists. Examples of the “one-way” writing and speaking require a substantial
knowledge of language and culture from the outset, since the goal is to make sure that members of the other
culture, the audience, will be successful in reading and listening between the lines. Examples of Presentational
mode:
• Summarize information from authentic language materials and artifacts (e.g., TV programs, articles from
youth magazines, Internet, videos, currency) and give personal reactions.
• Use information acquired from target language sources to solve everyday problems and situations (e.g., using
a newspaper to make plans to see a movie, perusing a catalog to shop for a birthday gift, watching a weather
forecast to help plan an activity).
• Create and present a narrative (e.g. current events, personal experiences, school happenings).
• Present differences in products and practices (e.g. sports, celebrations, school life) found in the target culture.
• Prepare and deliver a summary of characters and plot in selected pieces of literature.
• Apply age-appropriate writing process strategies (prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, publishing).

Models of Communication

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 Models of Communication are conceptual models used to explain the communication process in humans.
They can be graphically represented for easy comprehension of their process. In communication model, various
elements of communication process are depicted in a sequential and rational manner. It is the logical setting of
the elements of the communication process. There are various models of communications put forth by different
creators. Communication model helps us to know about various aspects of communication. The importance of
communication model can be described as follows:
• Presents the essential nature of what it describes by highlighting key features thought important by the model
builder.
• Visualizes for us how certain features are related to another and provides a more orderly understanding that
we might have without the model.
• At another level models have heuristic value; that is, they provide new ways to conceive of hypothetical ideas
and relationships.

i. Measuring the Effectiveness of Communication: The sender, message and the receiver are very important
in any communication process. Various communication models represent the significant elements of
communication process and help in measuring the effectiveness of communication. Such model helps in our
decision making process.
ii. Graphical Representation of Methods: The communication models rely on pictorial / graphical
representation of communication process. Here the sender, receiver, message, media/channel and feedback,
which are the essential elements of communication process, are represented in the form of pictures. This
graphical representation provides us with a complete idea of the communication process.
iii. Scope for further research: Communication model involves pictorial representation of various elements of
communication process which can be used as a sample for further research and investigation
iv. Measures of Inflexibility: Communication model can be used as an essential source of comprehending the
nature of inflexibility/variability in communication.
v. Representation of Objective: Each message which is communicated has certain objectives/goals and these
are represented in the communication model; thereby creating a meaningful communication.
At concluded point, above discussion presents that how much importance communication model bears for
modern communication.

Various Models of Communication

I. Linear Model

The first model of interpersonal communication (Laswell, 1948) depicted communication as a linear, or
one-way, process in which one person acts on another person. This was a verbal model that consisted of five
questions describing a sequence of acts that make up communication. It is also known as the Action Model.

The linear communication model was further revised by Mathematicians Shannon and Weaver and advocated
the one-way model to communicate with other. The linear model consists of the sender encoding a message and
channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise.

❖ Process of communication:
The model portrays a source at one end of the field that encodes and sends information. This encoded
message then travels through a neutral medium until it arrives at the mind of the other participant, who then
receives the message. The model suggests that, at any given time during a conversation or communication between

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people, only one party is expressing the information because the other party is exclusively absorbing the
information.

The various elements of the model and their role are as follows:
a. Source: also known as information source, it is a person who encodes a message. The communication process
starts from the source.
b. Message: Piece of information which is sent by the information source and received by the receiver.
c. Transmitter: The instrument used to transmit information or message from the source to the destination. In
case of Shannon's model, the transmitter is a telephone that captures audio signals from the source, converts
it into an electronic signal, and amplifies it for transmission through the telephone network
d. Signal: Signal is that which flows through a channel. There may be multiple parallel signals, as is the case in
face-to-face interaction where sound and gesture involve different signal systems that depend on different
channels and modes of transmission. There may be multiple serial signals, with sound and/or gesture turned
into electronic signals, radio waves, or words and pictures in a book.
e. Carrier or channel: It is represented by the small unlabeled box in the middle of the model. The most
commonly used channels include air, light, electricity, radio waves, paper, and postal systems. Note that there
may be multiple channels associated with the multiple layers of transmission, as described above.
f. Noise: These are secondary signals that obscure or confuse the signal carried. In Shannon’s model, noise is
restricted to noise that obscures or damages some portion of the signal within the channel.
g. Receiver: In face to face communication, the person’s set of ears (sound) and eyes (gestures) are the receiver.
In Shannon's notion, the receiving telephone instrument is the receiver. In television there are various layers
of receivers which include an antenna and a television set.
h. Destination: A person who uses and processes the message.
Information
Transmitter Receiver Destination
source
Signal Received
Message Message
Signal

Noise
Source
Limitations
▪ The main flaw in Shannon’s linear model is that it is actually not a model of communication rather it depicts
a flow of information through a medium.
▪ It is incomplete and a biased model; applicable to systems like telephone and telegraph and not other media.
▪ Here the communication is a one-way process where speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that
listeners listen and never speak or send messages.
▪ The linear model assumes that there is a definite beginning and end to communication. It does not take into
consideration to feedback from the receiver. For example; the communication process seen in a letter, email,
text message or a lecture.

II. Interactive Model

A more interactive model of communication was put forth by Schramm (1955) and Wood (2009). In this
model, there is an exchange of ideas that takes place between the participants which are involved in
communication and they have an effect on each other. The participants involved in communication can be
humans, machine or art forms. The model given by them is dynamic in nature and has a two-way flow of
information. In this communicaiton model, the speaker or the sender of the message also gets the feedback given
by the receiver or listener. The speaker and the listener both take turns to speak and listen to each other. Feedback
is in the form of verbal or non-verbal means or in both ways.

Process of communication

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 In an interaction model, two linear models are kept one above the other. The sender encodes a message and
sends it to the receiver who in turn decodes it, encodes it and sends it back to the original sender. In this model
there is a two way communication process that takes place. This model has added feedback, indicating that
communication is a two way process not one way. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural
background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences gathered in our
lifetime. This model indicates that the speaker and listener would be able to communicate better if they have
common fields of experience, or fields which overlap.

Limitations:
There are certain drawbacks to this model. They are as follows:
• This model does take feedback into consideration however it is not simultaneous. For example, in case of
instant messaging, the sender sends an instant message to the receiver, and then has to wait for the instant
message from the receiver to react. Here the sender and the receiver have to wait for their turns, only when
one sends the feedback then the second can receive and send a feedback.
• This model does not indicate that communicators can both send and receive messages simultaneously.
• The model fails to acknowledge the dynamic (changes over time) nature of communication process.

III. Transactional Model

The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each person in the
communication acts as both speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously sending and receiving messages.
There are three implications in the transactional model:
i. “Transactional” means that communication is an on-going and dynamic process. The sender is
changing; the receiver is changing as well as the environment where the communication is taking
place is also changing over time.
ii. In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements. These elements
are interdependent on each other wherein there can be no source without a receiver and no message
without a source.
iii. The factors like the person’s background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem
affects the communication process.

Communication Process
The transactional model presupposes that the people involved in the communication process are connected
and they engage in transaction. In this model each person is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or receiver. It
identifies all elements which are involved in the communication get affected. Therefore communication is
dynamic as well as simultaneous. The transactional model contains sets that represent the communication
environment. Where the ellipses intersect is the most effective communication area because both the
communicators share the same meaning of the message. For example while talking/listening to friends. When one
friend is talking to another, then the one listening will constantly give feedback using facial expression, verbal
feedback without necessarily stopping the sender from conveying the message.

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 The above figure shows a transactional model of communication that takes into account “noise” or
interference in communication as well as the time factor. The outer lines of the model indicate that communication
happens within systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common campus, hometown, and culture) or
personal systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It also takes into account changes that happen in the
communicators’ fields of personal and common experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both
sender as well as receiver simultaneously

Advantages and Limitations

▪ Due to constant messages and feedback, good communication is established.
▪ Disadvantage is that this becomes more difficult to do if the receiving side increases beyond the capabilities
of the source.

IV. Cascading model

The Cascade Communication Process downloads team deliberations to all organizational levels. At the same
time, it uploads the organization’s reactions, suggestions, alternatives, and ideas back to the team—and all without
elaborate technology. The benefit of this dynamic two-way communication is that teams truly become interactive
bodies that tap into the creativity of the whole organization.

Communication Process
Cascade communications work by sending messages down the chain from senior executives or Executive
Board to senior managers. They in turn pass the message to their junior managers and then through every layer
of management through to the workforce. Research shows that staff likes to receive information via their
managers; this approach utilizes that personal approach.
Let us understand this example:
• Senior managers or Executive Board meet to discuss the messages they want to see broadcast throughout
the organization
• These are then discussed with the internal communications team (or HR) and the messages developed
• Senior managers then call together all their direct reports and brief them, this process of reporting down
occurs until everyone in the organization has received the message
• Meetings should last no more than 20 – 30 minutes. If they are longer including feedback, questions and
discussion, then there are too many messages or the messages given are too complicated.

Advantages and Limitations

• Needs to be done quickly or it can lead to problems in message delivery
• Often senior managers want to give too much information
• Message can become corrupted as it is passed on
• Only as good as the managers delivering the message
• Can suffer from managers refusing to give the message or holding on to information – the ‘need to know’ or
power syndrome
• It will leak, out so if market sensitive be aware that it won’t stay within the organization

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 • Can be time consuming
• Can be difficult over a multi-site or international organization
• Only works if senior executives buy in to the system.

V. Circular Model

This model was introduced by Osgood and Schramm. This model

highlights two way communications. Here the response of the receiver
is given importance. So, sender always anticipates feedback from
receiver. Therefore the receiver of the message reacts in the context of
the message forwarded by the sender. As a result, communication is
completed.

Communication Process
In a Circular Model, the communication is something circular in nature. The various elements in the process of
communication are as follows:
• Encoder– Who encodes the message and sends it. The encoder is also the originator of the message. He is the
starting point in the communication cycle.
• Decoder– Who receives the message and decodes it.
• Interpreter-Who tries to understand, analyse, perceive or interpret the message.
Throughout the communication process, there is an interpretation that goes on and based on this the message
is received. The model breaks the conventional sender and receiver model and highlights communication in a
practical way. Here communication can take place at intrapersonal level (within yourself) or at the interpersonal
level (between people), in both the cases, each person acts as the sender and the receiver. The person thereby
simultaneously encodes, interprets and decodes the messages.
The concept of semantic noise is introduced in this model which implies to different meaning applied by the
sender and the receiver to the same message. Semantic noises generally occur due to words and phrases used by
the sender and receiver which cause a deviation or alteration of the actual meaning of the communication.
❖ Advantages
• It is a dynamic model and shows how a situation can change over time.
• It shows that redundancy is an essential part to combat the noise structure involved.
• It is a very practical and simple model, breaks the notion of conventional model and states that there is no
separate sender and receiver, sender and receiver is the same person. The communication cycle ends up where
it started from.
• Communication is circular in nature and hence the communication process completes
• Feedback is the central feature. The sender and the receiver decode, interpret and encode the message.
❖ Disadvantage
• This model does not talk about semantic noise and it assume the moment of encoding and decoding.