GRAMMAR of

Academic Writing

yatmikaika
Grammar of
formal style

Academic style 2
1. Avoid contractions
2. Use the more appropriate formal negative forms
3. Limit the use of "run on" expressions, such as "and so
forth" and "etc."
4. Avoid addressing the reader as "you" (except, of
course, if you are writing a textbook)
5. Limit the use of direct questions
6. Place adverbs within the verb

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1. Avoid contractions

▪ Export figures won't improve until the

economy is stronger. ✋

▪ Export figures will not improve until the

economy is stronger. 👍

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2. Apropriate formal negative forms

▪ not . . . any — > no

▪ not. . . much —> little
▪ not . . . many —> few

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89,526,124$
▪ The analysis didn't yield any new results. -»
👍 The analysis yielded no new results.
▪ The government didn't allocate much funding for
the program. -»
👍 The government allocated little funding for the
program.
▪ This problem doesn't have many viable solutions.
—»
👍 This problem has few viable solutions
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3. Limit "run on" expressions

▪ These semiconductors can be used in robots,

CD players, etc. ✋
▪ These semiconductors can be used in robots,
CD players, and other electronic devices. 👍
Notes:
etc. = contraction = Χ
and so on; and so forth = better
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explain them = the best
4. Avoid "you"

▪ You can see the results in Table 1. ✋

▪ The results can be seen in Table 1. 👍

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5. Limit direct questions

▪ What can be done to lower costs? ✋

▪ We now need to consider what can be done to
lower costs. DECLARATIVE FORM

▪ We now need to consider how costs may be

lowered. still DECLARATIVE FORM

▪ It is important now to consider how costs can

be lowered. 9
6. Place adverbs within the verb

▪ Then the solution can be discarded.

▪ The solution can then be discarded. 👍

▪ The blood is withdrawn slowly.

▪ The blood is slowly withdrawn. 👍

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This + Summary word
(to maintain flow)
 this/these + a noun to join ideas together

ESL lecturers know that students need to understand the differences between
formal and informal language. However, this understanding....

In recent years, the number of students applying to Ph.D. programs has increased
steadily, while the number of places available has remained constant. This
situation has resulted in intense competition for admission.

Nowadays, laptop computers are lighter, more powerful, and easier to use than
they were five years ago. These developments have led to an increase in the sales
of these machines.

a summary noun or word that refers back to the idea in the previous sentence
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The grammar of definitions
 A/ an before both the term and the class

A sole proprietorship is a business . . .

Annealing is a metalworking process . . .
A star is a celestial body . . .
Writing is a sociocognitive process . . .

❑ A/ an before the class you are classifying a term, as you do in a

definition
❑ A/ an before the term any representative of this term will fit the
assigned class

indefinite article signals a definition

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 Other examples…. See the difference

a) A disinfectant is an agent capable of destroying disease causing

microorganisms.
b) A disinfectant is the agent capable of destroying disease causing
micro-organisms.

❑ Sentence a classifies the term; it does not refer to a particular representative.

❑ Sentence b identifies or describes the term. Further, in b, it is implied that
there has been some previous mention of other agents that are not capable of
destroying disease-causing microorganisms.

indefinite article signals a definition

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 Consider the academic in set A & less academic pairs in set B

1) A solar cell is a device that converts the energy of sunlight

into electric energy.
2) A foundation is a base on which a structure can be built.

1) A solar cell is something that changes sunlight into

electricity.
2) A foundation is a base a structure can be built on.

NOTE: informal word; verb + prep.; preposition at the end of the sentence
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 NOTICE
❑ Avoid using any form of your term in the definition (can result in a circular
definition).
Erosion is a process during which the surface of the earth erodes.
—> Erosion is a process during which the surface of the earth is degraded by the
effects of the atmosphere, weather, and human activity.

❑ Avoid using when and where in definitions.

Pollution is when the environment becomes contaminated as a result of human
activity.
—> Pollution is a form of environmental contamination resulting from human
activity.

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Deletions
 The restrictive relative can be reduced if:

1) It consists only of the relative pronoun + to be + one or more prepositional

phrases;
2) It consists of a passive verb + some additional information;
3) It contains the relative pronoun + an adjective ending in –ble + additional
information.
Examples:
1) A gill is an external respiratory organ which is in the gill chamber at the rear of the
mouth of most aquatic animals.
2) A theater is a building which has been specifically designed for dramatic
performances
3) A robot is a multiprogrammable device which is capable of performing the work
of a human
Can be dropped
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Change in Word (Form)
 The relative clause can be reduced if:

❑ It contains the verb have. the relative pronoun + have with;

A parliament is a national governing body which has the highest level of
legislative power within a state.
→ A parliament is a national governing body with the highest level of
legislative power within a state.

❑ It contains an active state verb. the relative pronoun + state verb

-ing form. Exceptions to this are to be and have
Pollution is a form of contamination that often results from human activity.
→ Pollution is a form of contamination often resulting from human activity.

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 NOTICE

❑ A relative clause containing a modal auxiliary cannot be reduced.

❑ In a full relative clause, the relative pronoun can be preceded by a preposition

(on which; to whom; etc.). These clauses cannot be reduced.
e.g.: A foundation is a base on which a structure can be built.

❑ Whereby is commonly used in formal writing instead of by which, by means

of which, and through which.
e.g.: Collective bargaining is a process whereby employers agree to discuss work-
related issues with employee representatives.

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-ing Clauses of Result
 An alternative to therefore; as a result

A. The magma flows into the pores of the rocks; as a result, the rocks rupture.
B. → The magma flows into the pores of the rocks, thereby causing them to
rupture.

C. A current is sent through the material. As a result, the electrons are polarized.
D. A current is sent through the material, polarizing the electrons.

A. When the piston is drawn upward, the air below rises. This causes the
pressure to fall.
B. → When the piston is drawn upward, the air below rises, thus causing the
pressure to fall.

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Indirect Questions
 S + V; end with a period

Direct question: What time is it?

Indirect question: He asked what time it is/was.

Direct question: What the price of oil will be next year?

Indirect question:
✋ It is unclear what will be the price of oil next year.
✋ It is unclear what will the price of oil be next year.
👍 It is unclear what the price of oil will be next year.

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