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Writing reports

WRITING REPORTS
There are many different types of report, from mid-term sales and marketing forecasts, proposals or requests for funding, through to case studies and scientific lab reports. When writing a report it is important to keep in mind: why the report is being written (e.g. to provide information, to make a request or to influence decision-making) what it will cover (the focus, themes and issues) and who the audience is (e.g. what does the audience already know about the subject area, what do they want/need to know, what is their likely opinion).

All these things can influence how you prepare, write and present your report. You will also need to keep in mind the constraints or limitations on time and budget, what evidence is needed, and the aims which define the scope and objective of the report (Payne and Whittaker 2000).

Report Structure
The structure of reports varies according to the subject matter, and different courses may have different report formats. Students may find that not all of the sections discussed here are relevant to the type of report they have to produce. For example a business school report may not require a methodology section, whereas a scientific report based on primary research would almost certainly need a methodology section. Check the assignment guidelines/instructions carefully to ascertain which sections to include. Many departments put out a guide to the structure and style of reports they require for their subject areas; read these carefully and/or ask your tutor if you are in doubt. In this topic we will look at two commonly used types of report: academic style reports and corporate style reports. Many features are common to both, but there are some important differences that you need to be aware of (always check with your department if you are unsure of which style to use). Note that reports can have flexible formats, so the following should be used as a guide only.

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Academic style reports

Typical sections include: Title page Abstract (executive summary) Contents page Introduction Literature review Methodology Results Discussion Conclusion Recommendations References/Bibliography Appendices

What do these terms mean? Abstract (executive summary) An abstract (sometimes called an executive summary) is a brief summary of the report, containing key information from each section (for example, key points in the methodology, key findings, conclusions and recommendations etc). The abstract should be self-contained so that anyone can read it to get an overview of the whole report without having to read through the entire text. Although it appears at the beginning of a report, it is often easier to write the abstract after you have completed the other sections. Introduction The introduction gives background information to provide a context for the report. It provides an overview of the topics covered and the purpose of the report. It differs from the abstract in that it shouldnt state key findings, conclusions and recommendations. Literature review The literature review is a critical evaluation of sources you have reviewed while researching the topic you are writing about. It is more than a
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summary as it should provide a critical analysis of the sources, for example identifying similarities and differences or gaps in the literature etc. (see Critical Thinking and Writing Analytically). Methodology The methodology section summarises the techniques used to collect the data presented in the report. It may also include justifications for using a particular data gathering method and/or any problems encountered during collection and collation. Results The results section presents the results of the investigation and may include tables, graphs, charts or diagrams to visually present the information (make sure these are all labelled accurately). If the results are extensive, you should present a summary of the findings in this section and put the raw results in an appendix (see below). Discussion This section provides a more in-depth analysis and discussion of the findings in the results section. In some reports the discussion section may be combined with the conclusion section. Conclusion The conclusion section explains the significance of your findings. It should critically discuss these findings in the context of your analysis of the literature review. You might also discuss the limitations of the report findings (e.g. sample size, restricted sample, bias, or any problems encountered). Recommendations The recommendation section is where any suggestions for action or further investigation are made. It may sometimes be included in the conclusion section.

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References/Bibliography The reference list should contain the full details of all the references used in the text (a bibliography can include texts consulted but not used/cited in your text). Follow your departments recommended style for references. Appendices Appendices contain material that is referred to in the report, but which is too large or detailed to include in the body of the report (e.g. raw data, questionnaires). The reader should be able to choose whether or not to consult the appendices, so information in the appendices should not be essential to understanding the report. Academic report checklist Title Page: Does the title page contain all the correct detail? Contents page: Are the contents list, list of tables and charts and appendices complete and in order with correct page references (check these haven't shifted during rewriting)? Abstract: Does the summary/abstract stand alone as a complete and accurate summary of the report? Introduction: Is the background as brief and as thorough as possible and are any definitions clarified? Are the aims of the report clearly stated (note: sometimes the aims are presented in a separate section)? Methods: Are the methods used in the report appropriate and clearly stated? Will the reader be able to establish the validity of the methods used? Results: Are the findings presented in a logical order? Is the content relevant to the aims of the report? Does the text flow naturally and is the language clear and concise? Discussion: Is the material well-balanced and are any opinions/assertions supported?

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Conclusions: Are the conclusions well-supported and do they reflect a sound analysis of the material presented in the main body? Check that new information hasn't been introduced. Recommendations: Do you need a separate section for recommendations or can they go in the conclusion? Are the recommendations relevant to and fulfill the aims of the report? Is it clear what action (if any) is required? References Is the list of references complete and are all the in-text citations correct and in the right place? Will the reader be able to trace the references? Appendices: Are all the appendices present, in the correct order and numbered accordingly? (Adapted from Payne & Whitaker 2000)

Corporate style reports

Some courses, particularly business courses, may require you to write reports that dont necessarily follow the standard academic report format we have outlined above. If this is the case your department should provide you with a detailed outline of the format they require. In corporate style reports the sections are numbered and it is up to the writer to structure and label the different sections according to what is appropriate for the contents and/or assignment instructions. This style of report is similar to reports generated in corporate environments. If you are assigned a corporate style report it is important to read through the assignment instructions carefully as these will often contain clues as to how to structure the report and what labels will be required for each section (see Understanding Assignment and Exam Questions). It would be useful to plan out the structure in advance to ensure the sections are cohesive and that the flow of information through the report is logical (see Structuring Assignments and Exam Essays). Note: in corporate style reports abstracts are known as an executive summaries. Below is an example of an excerpt from a corporate style report:

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Example of corporate style report (excerpt)

2.0 Marketing Strategies historical perspective Between 1939 and 1954 Dyce and Dyer relied primarily on word of mouth advertising and shop-front appeal (Peeler 2003). With the arrival of rival haberdashery Pauls on the corner of Market and Union Streets in 1953, however, the company was faced with its first major retail competition (Considine 1976). Pauls had secured a prime location and set up lavish window displays that snagged shoppers attention before they reached Dyce and Dyer further down Market Street. By the time founding partner Robert Dyce stepped down due to ill health and his son Robert took over in 1954, sales were down 25 percent (Bruce 1998). Later that year, Robert Dyce launched the first Dyce and Dyer door-to-door marketing campaign. 2.1 The door-to-door marketing campaign was begun with two clear objectives: to advertise the store, thus promoting brand awareness, and to offer loyalty discounts. 2.1.1 Brand awareness was achieved through well-designed marketing leaflets clearly displaying the Dyce and Dyer logo and shop front. The leaflets also contained a map with the stores location clearly displayed. Carefully worded descriptions of the store suggested a superior shopping and after-sales service experience (see appendix 2). 2.1.2 Loyalty discounts were offered to consumer who bought more than 50 worth of items over a twelve month period. Consumer purchases and loyalty discounts were tracked on personalised cards kept in the store (Bruce 1998). 2.2 The door-to-door marketing campaign was a major success for Dyce and Dyer and spawned a number of copy-cat loyalty schemes (Henderson 2005). Within two years sales at Dyce and Dyer had outstripped its rival Pauls (Bruce 1998) and the company seemed poised on the brink of retail victory over its rival Pauls.

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Sources and further reading

PAYNE, E. and WHITTAKER, L., 2000. Developing Essential Study Skills. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited

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