Probability Models WSN

Journal of
Sensor and
Actuator Networks
Article
Optimization of Wireless Sensor Networks
Deployment Based on Probabilistic Sensing
Models in a Complex Environment
Meysam Argany 1, *, Farid Karimipour 2 , Fatemeh Mafi 3 and Ali Afghantoloee 4
1 Department of Remote Sensing and GIS, Faculty of Geography, University of Tehran,
Tehran 1417853933, Iran
2 School of Surveying and Geospatial Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran,
Tehran 1439957131, Iran; fkarimipour@ut.ac.ir
3 Department of Geomatics Engineering, Kerman Graduate University of Advanced Technology,
Kerman 7631818356, Iran; f.mafi@student.kgut.ac.ir
4 Center for Research in Geomatics, Department of Geomatics, Université Laval, Quebec, QC G1V 0A6,
Canada; ali.afghantoloee.1@ulaval.ca
* Correspondence: argany@ut.ac.ir

Received: 4 April 2018; Accepted: 7 May 2018; Published: 9 May 2018
Abstract: In recent years, wireless sensor networks have been studied in numerous cases. One of
the important problems studied in these networks is the optimal deployment of sensors to obtain
the maximum of coverage. Hence, in most studies, optimization algorithms have been used to
achieve the maximum coverage. Optimization algorithms are divided into two groups of local and
global optimization algorithms. Global algorithms generally use a random method based on an
evolutionary process. In most of the conducted research, the environment model and, sometimes, the
layout of sensors in the network have been considered in a very simplified form. In this research, by
raster and vector modeling of the environment in two- and three-dimensional spaces, the function of
global optimization algorithms was compared and assessed for optimal deployment of sensors and a
vector environment model was used as a more accurate model. Since the purpose of this paper is to
compare the performance and results of global algorithms, the studied region and the implementation
conditions considered are the same for all applied algorithms. In this article, some optimization
methods are considered for sensor deployment including genetic algorithms, L-BFGS, VFCPSO and
CMA-ES, and the implementation and assessment criteria of algorithms for deployment of wireless
sensor network are considered some factors such as the optimal coverage amount, their coverage
accuracy towards the environment model and convergence speed of the algorithms. On the other
hand, in this paper, the probability coverage model is implemented for each of the global optimization
algorithms. The results of these implementations show that the presence of more complex parameters
in environment model and coverage produce accurate results that are more consistent with reality.
Nonetheless, it may reduce the time efficiency of algorithms.
Keywords: wireless sensor networks; sensor deployment; network coverage; global optimization
algorithms; probability coverage model; raster model; vector model
1. Introduction
Today, wireless sensor networks have found numerous uses in engineering sciences and scientific
research. Smart cities, transportation, land use planning, studying the activities of volcanoes, and
environmental monitoring are some instances of these applications [1–3]. In general, sensors are
apparatuses in which there is the potential of traceability, computation and wireless connection. They
J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2018, 7, 20; doi:10.3390/jsan7020020 www.mdpi.com/journal/jsan

J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2018, 7, 20 2 of 19
receive the observational data from the environment and then measure them; next, they send them
into the integrated centers, named sinks, through wireless connections. These sinks are named base
stations, and are usually connected to the Internet to be able to send their data to far places for further
processing [4–6]. These sensors are located in the environment and receive various data from their
environment such as temperature, pressure, light, moisture, type of soil, vehicle motion, density of
pollutants, sound, noise level, existence and lack of existence of obstacles, mechanical forces, image
and videos [1–7].
It is evident that each sensor covers a limited section of the region and the area’s coverage
amount is obtained from the total coverage surface of sensors. Therefore, the optimal deployment of
sensors, which leads to achieve the maximum coverage, is one of the important problems in field of
wireless sensor networks [8–15]. In most of the research conducted about wireless sensor networks,
the raster data model has been used to model the environment around the sensors [16–18]. In a limited
number of studies, which used vector data model for environment modeling, only a two-dimensional
model has been considered and the presence of height obstacles and land topography have not been
considered [19,20]. Since the current available research deals with simplified forms of environmental
models for the Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) coverage problem, the contribution of this paper is that
it deals with a complex model for coverage optimization problem, by increasing the environmental
data dimension as well as using probabilistic optimization models. Hence, this paper applies global
optimization algorithms to two- and three-dimensional vector and raster models with considering
more obstacles in the environment.
The environmental obstacles, the type of data considered for environment modeling (raster or
vector) and the sensor detection model affect the computation of network coverage. Among the types
of used sensor detection models, we can refer to simple circular detection model, and directional
model [21–23].
The optimal layout of sensors is a very challenging problem and it has been proved that, for
most deployment formulas, it has high complexity. To cope with this complexity, several optimization
algorithms have been suggested to find the best place of location [24,25]. The global algorithms consider
all space of solving problem in the studied area for deployment of wireless sensor network, which
means they try altogether to find a solution to optimize the objective function in the space of unknowns.
Among the sensible features of these algorithms, we can refer to their randomness according to an
evolutionary process. In all of these algorithms, it is necessary to compute the sensor coverage as the
objective function. In fact, the coverage improvement is done regarding to the calculation method
of coverage.
Coverage is one of the important problems in deployment of sensor networks. The probability
coverage is closer to reality than binary coverage. Some parameters such as distance range and sensor
angle towards the objective are necessary to estimate the probability coverage. A specific area cannot
be assumed for this model. In this area, the objective is traced by a probability between zero and
one [22]. In this research, the suggested approach to gain the probability coverage is posed based on
these parameters.
Moreover, in the present research, the performance of global optimization algorithms in
two- and three-dimensional vector and raster models with various resolutions were implemented,
assessed, and compared irrespective of obstacles and environmental topography. Regarding the
coverage method of sensor, binary and probability omni-directional models in two-dimensional
mood of environment, and binary and probability directional model in three-dimensional mood
of environment have been considered. Since the purpose is to compare the performance and
ability of global algorithms in the problem of wireless sensor networks’ coverage, the studied
area and implementation conditions have been considered the same. In this article, several
optimization methods have been implemented for sensor deployment, such as Genetic Algorithms
(GA), Limited-memory Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno (L-BFGS), Virtual Force Co-evolutionary
Particle Swarm Optimization (VFCPSO), and Covariance Matrix Adaption-Evolution Strategy
(CMA-ES). The reason to select these algorithms has been their evolutionary nature in comparison to
other global methods in optimization of wireless sensor network deployment. Contribution of this
paper is to study the impact of complex model for coverage optimization in WSN, and considering
two- and three-dimension environment data instead of simplified forms of environment. Hence,
to present the performance of these parameters over the global optimization algorithms, these four
global optimization methods were applied to indicate that selected global optimization method has
no impact on the final results. Afterwards, the performance of global optimization algorithms using
the probabilistic models was investigated. The criteria of algorithms’ evaluation for the problem of
wireless sensor networks’ deployment are the amount of optimal coverage, accuracy of coverage
towards the environment model and the convergence speed of algorithms.
For this purpose, in Section 2, we review the research literature done regarding this topic,
and introduce the evolutionary global optimization algorithms in raster and vector environments.
In Section 3, different coverage methods in sensors and the implementation models are introduced,
and investigated by considering the spatial parameters of environment. In Section 4, the introduced
global optimization algorithms with the evolutionary nature are implemented in the studied area and
the results are evaluated. Ultimately, the presented selective optimization methods are compared with
each other and in Section 5. Then, the conclusions and suggestions for future research are stated.
2. Previous Research and Some of Evolutionary Global Optimization Algorithms of Sensor

Network Deployment in Raster and Vector Environment Models
In this section, previous research that used evolutionary global algorithms to solve the
problem of sensor deployment is investigated. Among the optimization algorithms with
evolutionary and global approach to solve the problem of sensor network coverage, we can refer
to genetic algorithm, Covariance Matrix Adaption-Evolution Strategy (CMA-ES), Limited-memory
Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno (L-BFGS) and Virtual Force Co-evolutionary Particle Swarm
(VFCPSO) Optimization. In addition, generally, in these studies, the model of raster environment
has been used to compute the coverage. In this section, the raster and vector models are defined as
environment model.
2.1. Genetic Algorithm

Genetic algorithm is a kind of evolutionary algorithms that is used to solve the optimization
problem with non-polynomial complexity. In deployment problem, increasing the number of sensors
will lead to NP complexity. Jordan et al. used genetic algorithm to optimize the network coverage
amount and as well, for network lifelong [22]. They considered the reduction of energy consumption as
the criterion of network lifelong increase. The input variables of genetic algorithm are the coordinates
of sensor nodes. In the first step of this algorithm, the vector of variables is made randomly in number
of the population defined in genetic algorithm. In each repetition, the coordinates of x and y are
integrated among the solutions and as well, they find direction randomly with a specific defined
proportion. Moreover, the vector of a variable with the best desirability is considered as the input of
next iteration. The termination condition in this algorithm is lack of change of network coverage in
next repetitions.
2.2. CMA-ES Algorithm

This evolutionary algorithm updates the covariance matrix of variables towards the optimal
objective function. The performance of this algorithm is similar to Hessian reverse matrix in
Newton method. Unlike pseudo-Newton method, this algorithm does not need to gradient analytic
computation. For deployment problem, position of sensors is considered as the solutions of algorithm
and the direction is considered as the solution for directional sensors. Akbarzadeh et al. used CMA-ES
algorithm for the problem of deployment by the approach of network coverage increase [25].
2.3. L-BFGS Algorithm

This algorithm is one of the numerical optimization methods, which is used for nonlinear
optimization problems. This method is an example of pseudo-Newton optimization method, as
it moves towards the optimal part of the problem without computing the reverse Hessian matrix. This
algorithm updates the reverse Hessian matrix in estimated form. When the number of problem’s
variables increases, the computation time and a computer memory volume spent on updating the
matrix C increases greatly. Hence, LBFGS method can be used [26]. This algorithm aims to make an
approximation of Hessian reverse matrix properly. Instead of storing and updating the whole reverse
Hessian matrix C, this method uses the memory m, the last position of x and gradient of f(x). The last
memory, m, is used since m repetition in two methods of BFGS and L-BFGS have rather equal step and
motion direction. The complexity of this method equals O(nm) (size of m is usually small; for example,
for n = 103, m is chosen within 2–35). L-BFGS algorithm was used by Akbarzadeh et al. in deployment
problem to increase the network coverage [24].
2.4. VFCPSO Algorithm

This algorithm has been made by combination of VF algorithm as a local optimization algorithm
and CPSO algorithm. VF algorithm is a self-organizing algorithm which considers the obstacles
and position of other sensors. This algorithm uses attraction and repulsion forces for displacement
of sensors [27]. This algorithm is inspired from the theory of closed disk [28] and uses the robotic
concepts [29]. To make VFPSO algorithm, VF algorithm is added into the updating of particles’ speed to
improve the convergence speed of PSO algorithm. It is different from PSO as, when updating the speed
of particles, it uses the force used on sensors in VF algorithm as well as previous parameters. CPSO
algorithm was introduced to improve the capability of PSO for problems with high dimensions [30].
This algorithm divides the search space into one-dimensional subdivisions. In fact, the solution vector
is divided into smaller vectors [31]. A point that should be considered when combining VF and PSO or
CPSO is that the force computed in VF algorithm is inserted only on the position parameters of sensor,
which means, to compute the speed of position change, parameters such as direction from the force
inserted on the sensors, which is obtained by VF algorithm, are not used.
3. Coverage Computation Model in Sensors and Models of Problem

Implementation Environment
In terms of the considered data, environment models are divided into vector and raster models.
In most of conducted research, and in the problem of sensor deployment, raster models have been used
to consider the environmental obstacles and land topography [32–34]. For this purpose, digital surface
model (DSM) has been used as the land model. Nonetheless, the accuracy of this raster modeling is
limited to the model’s resolution (Figure 1A–C). Moreover, DSM model has two and half dimensions;
thus, it cannot model buildings’ sides, under bridges, and inside buildings, which consequently has
great effects on the network coverage computation. Hence, by presenting a proper model to solve the
coverage in more accurate environmental models, which are related to vector models, the impact of
environment on algorithms’ evaluation can be investigated (Figure 1D).
This article uses the model proposed and presented in [35] for environment vector and raster
models in two and three-dimensional spaces to compute the sensor coverage (Figure 2). In both
methods, two parameters of limited angle and the distance of sensor performance are used to calculate
the coverage.
In two-dimensional raster model (Figure 2), pixel q with distance range (Rs, 0) and performance
angle (G1, G2) is covered by sensor S. Therefore, the pixel should have the following conditions to be
located in the coverage range of sensor:
(
Distance(S, q) ≤ Rs
(1)
G1 ≤ Gsq ≤ G2
parameters of sensor, which means, to compute the speed of position change, parameters such as
direction from the force inserted on the sensors, which is obtained by VF algorithm, are not used.
J. Sens. 3.
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Coverage 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Model in Sensors and Models of Problem 5 of 19
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toBy
consider the environmental
thecoverage.
above conditions, obstacles
the area and landwhole
of the topography
zone [32–34].
covered Forby
this purpose,
sensor digital surface
is obtained by the
calculate the
model formula:
following (DSM) has been used as the land model. Nonetheless, the accuracy of this raster modeling is
limited to the model’s resolution (Figure 1A–C).
Area = number Moreover,
of covered pixels ×DSM
(sizemodel has
of pixel) 2 two and half dimensions;
(2)
thus, it cannot model buildings’ sides, under bridges, and inside buildings, which consequently has
In three-dimensional
great raster
effects on the network model computation.
coverage (Figure 3), weHence,
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algorithms’
compute evaluation
the sensorcan be investigated (Figure 1D).
coverage.
J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19

Figure 2. Estimation of two-dimensional coverage: (A) raster model (gray pixels are covered by the
sensor
This S); and (B)
article vector
uses the model
model(gray part isand
proposed in the sensor S coverage
presented zone)
in [35] for [32].
environment vector and raster
models in two and three-dimensional spaces to compute the sensor coverage (Figure 2). In both
InFigure
two-dimensional
Figure
1. 1. raster
(A–C)Raster
Raster model
models of(Figure 2), pixel
environment qdifferent
with distance range (Rs,vector
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methods, two (A–C)
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limited angle andwith
environment with
the distance resolution;
different of sensorandperformance
resolution; (D)
and (D) model
vector ofused to
model
are
angle (G1,
of G2) is covered
environment.
environment.
calculate the coverage. by sensor S. Therefore, the pixel should have the following conditions to be
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑆, 𝑞) ≤ 𝑅𝑠
{ (1)
𝐺1 ≤ 𝐺𝑠𝑞 ≤ 𝐺2
By the above conditions, the area of the whole zone covered by sensor is obtained by the
following formula:
Area = number of covered pixels ×(size of pixel)2 (2)
In three-dimensional raster model (Figure 3), we should review the visibility between sensor
and pixels
Figureregarding theof presence
2. Estimation of obstacles
two-dimensional coverage:
coverage: and(A) topography,
(A) raster model
raster besides
model (gray
(gray pixelsangle
pixels restriction,
are covered by the and
performance distance
sensor S); and (B)of sensor
vector to compute
model (gray part the
is insensor coverage.
the sensor S coverage zone)
zone) [32].
[32].
In two-dimensional raster model (Figure 2), pixel q with distance range (Rs, 0) and performance
angle (G1, G2) is covered by sensor S. Therefore, the pixel should have the following conditions to be
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑆, 𝑞) ≤ 𝑅𝑠
{ (1)
𝐺1 ≤ 𝐺𝑠𝑞 ≤ 𝐺2
By the above conditions, the area of the whole zone covered by sensor is obtained by the
following formula:
Area = number of covered pixels ×(size of pixel)2 (2)
In three-dimensional
Figure 3. 3.
Figure Estimation ofof
Estimation raster model (Figure
three-dimensional coverage
three-dimensional 3),inin
coverage we should
raster
raster review
model
model(red the visibility
(redpixels
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notcovered
covered by sensor
by the
the
andsensor
pixels regarding the presence of obstacles and topography, besides angle restriction, and
S).S).
sensor
performance distance of sensor to compute the sensor coverage.
Hence, the coverage condition of each pixel q is reviewed. In the following condition, pixel q is
Hence, the coverage condition of each pixel q is reviewed. In the following condition, pixel q is
covered byby
covered the
thesensor
sensorS.S. 
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑆,
 distance(S,𝑞)
 q) ≤≤Rs𝑅𝑠
{ 𝛽𝑠𝑞β sq≤≤ 𝛼α (3)
(3)
 visibility (S, q) = 1
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑆, 𝑞) = 1
To investigate the visibility between sensor and pixels, the line of sight is used [36]. The algorithm
To investigate
of line of sight usesthe
thevisibility
height ofbetween sensor
each pixel in DSMandmodel
pixels,
to the line ofthe
determine sight is used
visibility of [36]. The
one pixel
algorithm of line of sight uses the height of each pixel in DSM model to determine the visibility
through sensor, which is itself located in another pixel. This visibility depends on some parameters, of
Figure 3. Estimation of three-dimensional coverage in raster model (red pixels are not covered by the
sensor S).
one pixel through sensor, which is itself located in another pixel. This visibility depends on some
among which we can refer to position and height of sensor, position and height of pixel, orientation of
parameters, among which we can refer to position and height of sensor, position and height of pixel,
sensor, detection distance of sensor, line of sight and position of obstacles. All of these parameters are
orientation of sensor, detection distance of sensor, line of sight and position of obstacles. All of these
simply extractable
parameters from three-dimensional
are simply model of GIS tomodel
extractable from three-dimensional review ofthe
GISvisibility.
to review the visibility.
In In
two-dimensional vector model, the surrounding
two-dimensional vector model, the surrounding of sensors is defined of sensors is definedasasa aflat
flat plate
plate restricted
restricted
to to
a rectangle. Each polygon is made up a set of line segments. In the
a rectangle. Each polygon is made up a set of line segments. In the proposed method to computeproposed method to compute
thethe
coverage
coverage value,
value,wewe should
shouldfirst
firstidentify
identifythe theline
linesegments
segmentsand and arcs
arcs visible
visible by
by sensor, and then,
sensor, and then, itit is
necessary
is necessary to collect the area of sectors and triangles resulted from identified arcs and line segments to
to collect the area of sectors and triangles resulted from identified arcs and line segments
compute the coverage
to compute the coverage rate. Finally,
rate. Finally,in in
three-dimensional
three-dimensionalmodel, model, the environment
environmentisismodeledmodeled based
based
ononCity
CityGML
GMLStandard,
Standard,which whichcontains
contains a collection
collection of of objects,
objects,eacheachmade
madeupup ofof a set
a set of of polygons.
polygons.
Three-dimensional
Three-dimensionalpolygons
polygons are orderedaccording
are ordered accordingtoto thethe farthest
farthest distance
distance fromfrom the sensor
the sensor up to
up to the
thenearest
nearest distance from
distance from it. According
it. According to Figure 4A, a polygon
to Figure which iswhich
4A, a polygon towards sensor and
is towards is located
sensor and is
in theinperformance
located the performance rangerangeof sensor, is figured
of sensor, on the
is figured perspective
on the perspective surface (which
surface (whichis aisflat plate
a flat plate
perpendiculartotothe
perpendicular thesight
sightdirection
direction of of sensor,
sensor, as as such
such that
that thethedistance
distanceofofthis
thisplate
plate toto
sensor
sensor is ais a
definite
definite andpredetermined
and predeterminedrate) rate) [37].
[37]. IfIfthe
thefigured
figuredpolygon
polygon is is
located
locatedin the perspective
in the perspective circle, it is it
circle,
super-positioned on the polygons existing in the new list. The polygons,
is super-positioned on the polygons existing in the new list. The polygons, which are hidden from which are hidden from
sensor’s
sensor’s sight
sight throughother
through otherpolygons,
polygons, should
should be be removed.
removed.Accordingly,
Accordingly,the thepolygons,
polygons, which
which passed
passed
the previous steps, and were not removed, are figured on perspective plate according to perspective
the previous steps, and were not removed, are figured on perspective plate according to perspective
geometry. The polygons figured on the two-dimensional plate of perspective are classified as
geometry. The polygons figured on the two-dimensional plate of perspective are classified as following:
following:
(1) The polygons that are totally located in the perspective circle are considered as visible polygons
(1) The polygons that are totally located in the perspective circle are considered as visible
(polygon A and B). (2) Polygons that are totally outside of the perspective circle are not in the range
polygons (polygon A and B). (2) Polygons that are totally outside of the perspective circle are not in
of sensor’s performance angle. (3) Polygons that interrupt the perspective circle have some visible
the range of sensor’s performance angle. (3) Polygons that interrupt the perspective circle have some
parts (polygon
visible C). The visible
parts (polygon C). The parts
visibleofparts
these ofpolygons are extracted
these polygons through
are extracted theirtheir
through interruptions
interruptions with
perspective circle (Figure 4B) [38]. Then, all figured polygons are transferred
with perspective circle (Figure 4B) [38]. Then, all figured polygons are transferred to three- to three-dimensional
space and theirspace
dimensional areasand
are their
computed.
areas are computed.
(A)
(B)
Figure
Figure 4.4.(A)
(A)Figuring
Figuringpolygons
polygonson
on perspective
perspective plate;
plate; and
and (B)
(B)perspective
perspectiveplate
plateand
andperspective
perspectivecircle.
circle.
J. J.
Sens.
Sens.Actuator
ActuatorNetw.
Netw.2018,
2018,7,7,
xx FOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 7 of 1919
7 of
Probability Coverage Model
Probability
ProbabilityCoverage
CoverageModel Model
The measurement model of sensor coverage basically depends on the distance, direction and
The
Themeasurement coverage model
measurement model
C(S ofofsensor
sensor coverage
coverage basically
basically depends
dependson isthe
on thedistance, by a direction
distance, directionfromandand
visibility. The i ,q) from sensor Si at point q in environment defined function
visibility.
visibility. The
The coverage
coverage C(S
C(S i,q) from
,q) from sensor
sensor S iSat atpoint
point q in
q inenvironment
environment
distance d(Si ,q) = k pi − qk, Pan angle p(Si ,q) = ∠ p (q − pi ) − θi , tilt angle t(Si ,q) = ∠t (q − pi ) − ξ i , and
i i isisdefined
defined bybya function
a function from
from
distance
distanced(S
visibility d(S
v(S i,q)i,q)=of
i ,q) =‖𝑝 ‖𝑝𝑖 −
sensor 𝑞‖,(Figure
𝑖 − 𝑞‖,
Pan Panangle 5): p(S
angle p(Si,q)i,q)= =∠∠ 𝑝 (𝑞 − 𝑝 ) − 𝜃 , tilt angle t(Si,q) = ∠𝑡 (𝑞
𝑝 (𝑞 − 𝑖𝑝𝑖 ) − 𝑖𝜃𝑖 , tilt angle t(Si,q) = ∠
− 𝑝 ) − 𝜉 , and
𝑡 (𝑞 − 𝑖𝑝𝑖 ) − 𝑖𝜉𝑖 , and
visibility
visibilityv(S v(S i,q)i,q) ofofsensor
sensor (Figure 5):
(Figure 5):
C (si , q) = f µd (k pi − qk), µ p ∠ p (q − pi ) − θi , µt (∠t (q − pi ) − ξ i ), v( pi , q) (4)
𝐶(𝑠𝐶(𝑠 𝑖 ,𝑖𝑞)
, 𝑞)==𝑓[𝜇 𝑓[𝜇𝑑 (‖𝑝
𝑑 (‖𝑝 𝑖 − 𝑞‖), 𝜇𝜇(∠
𝑖 − 𝑞‖), 𝑝 𝑝 (∠ 𝑝 (𝑞 − 𝑝 ) − 𝜃 ), 𝜇 (∠𝑡 (𝑞
𝑝 (𝑞 − 𝑖𝑝𝑖 ) − 𝑖𝜃𝑖 ), 𝑡𝜇𝑡 (∠
− 𝑝 ) − 𝜉 ), 𝑣(𝑝𝑖 ,𝑖𝑞)]
𝑡 (𝑞 − 𝑖𝑝𝑖 ) − 𝑖𝜉𝑖 ), 𝑣(𝑝 , 𝑞)] (4)
(4)

where
where𝑝(𝑞
where (q −
p𝑝(𝑞 −−𝑝p𝑖i𝑝))𝑖 )= ==arctan
arctan
arctan y𝑞q−−−𝑦y𝑝𝑦p/𝑥
(𝑦(𝑦 /x𝑞 q−−
i /𝑥 − 𝑥 x𝑝𝑥p)i )isisisthe
the angle
theangle between𝑆S𝑖𝑆i 𝑖sensor
between sensor and the pointqqqalong
point alongxxx
along
𝑞 𝑖𝑝𝑖 𝑞 𝑖𝑝𝑖 angle between sensorand andthethepoint
axis, and
and tiltangle angle t(q − pi)) )= = arctan
arctan(𝑧zq − −𝑧z pi/‖𝑝 /k pi−−𝑞‖) qk is theangleangle between 𝑆Si sensor sensor and point point q
axis,
axis, andtilt tilt angle𝑡(𝑞 𝑡(𝑞−−𝑝𝑖𝑝 𝑖 = arctan(𝑧 𝑞𝑞 − 𝑝𝑧𝑖𝑝 /‖𝑝
𝑖
𝑖 𝑖 − 𝑞‖)isisthe the anglebetweenbetween 𝑖𝑆𝑖 sensorand and pointq q
along
along the z axis. In other words, the computation of measurement range, measurement angle and
alongthe thez zaxis.axis.InInother otherwords,
words,the thecomputation
computationofofmeasurement measurementrange, range,measurement
measurementangle angleand and
visibility are needed for point q which is covered by sensor S . Estimation of coverage in binary
visibility
visibilityare areneeded neededfor forpoint
pointq qwhich whichisiscovered coveredby sensor 𝑆i𝑖𝑆. 𝑖 .Estimation
bysensor Estimationofofcoverage coverageininbinary binary
model is
model is moreunrealistic
unrealistic than what what happensin in reality. In In probability model, model, two main main distancesare are
model ismore more unrealisticthan than whathappens happens inreality. reality. Inprobability
probability model,two two maindistances
distances are
considered for the sensor. The first distance R (radius of sensor performance) is like binary model.
considered
consideredfor forthe thesensor.
sensor.The Thefirst distance𝑅𝑅
firstdistance s
𝑠 𝑠(radius
(radiusofofsensor sensorperformance)
performance)isislike likebinary
binarymodel.
model.
If the distance of objective to sensor is less than R , the objective is traced with probability of 1. The
IfIfthe
thedistance
distanceofofobjective objectivetotosensor sensorisisless lessthan than𝑅𝑅 s
𝑠 ,𝑠the
, theobjective
objectiveisistraced
tracedwith withprobability
probabilityofof1.1.The The
second distance
second isisRu. This distance specifies the uncertainty range. If the If
distance to sensor issensor
between
second distance is Ru. This distance specifies the uncertainty range. If the distance to sensorisis
distance Ru. This distance specifies the uncertainty range. the distance to
Rs and Rs𝑅+ R u , the 𝑅𝑅 probability that the objective is traced by sensor depends on the distance between
between 𝑅
between 𝑠 𝑠and and 𝑠 𝑠++𝑅𝑅𝑢 ,𝑢 ,the theprobability
probabilitythat thatthe theobjective
objectiveisistraced tracedby bysensor
sensordepends
dependson onthe the
them. If the distance between the objective and sensor is more than R + R , the objective will not be
distance
distancebetween
betweenthem. them.IfIfthe thedistance
distancebetween betweenthe theobjective
objectiveand andsensor s u
sensorisismore morethanthan𝑅𝑅 𝑠 𝑠++ 𝑅𝑅𝑢 ,𝑢 the
, the
traced bywill
objective sensor. Regarding the range of direction, whatever the direction between sensorsdirection
towards
objective willnot notbebetracedtracedby bysensor.
sensor.Regarding
Regardingthe therange
rangeofofdirection,
direction,whatever
whateverthe the direction
objectivesensors
between makes more angle with the direction of sensor, the direction
probability of traceability is reduced.
between sensorstowards towardsobjective
objectivemakes makesmore moreangle anglewith withthe the directionofofsensor, sensor,thetheprobability
probabilityofof
Figure 6
traceability shows the probability measurement model.
traceabilityisisreduced. reduced.Figure Figure6 6shows showsthe theprobability
probabilitymeasurementmeasurementmodel. model.
Figure
Figure5.5.5.Free
Figure Freeparameters
Free parameters(𝑥(x
parameters 𝑖 ,i𝑖𝑦
(𝑥 ,,y𝑖𝑦,i𝑖𝜃
,,θ𝑖𝜃,i 𝑖,𝜉,ξ𝑖𝜉)i𝑖)for
forthe
)for the sensor𝑆S𝑖𝑆i 𝑖in
thesensor
sensor ininenvironment
environment[24].
environment [24].
[24].
Figure
Figure6.6.6.The
Figure Theprobability
The probabilitymeasurement
probability measurementmodel
measurement modelof
model ofofaaasensor
sensorwith
sensor withlimited
with limiteddistance
limited distancerange
distance rangeand
range andangle
and angle[24].
angle [24].
[24].
Equations
Equations(5)(5)shows
showsthe
thedistance
distanceprobability
probabilityand
andEquation
Equation(6)
(6)shows
showsthe
theequation
equationofofdirection
direction
probability,
probability,and
andthe
theperformance
performanceofofthis
thismodel.
model.
Equations (5) shows the distance probability and Equation (6) shows the equation of direction
probability, and the performance of this model.


 1, Dts ≤ Rs
1
Pd ,Rs < Dts Rs + Ru (5)
 1+exp[−( λa +ß)]
0, Rs + Ru < Dts

ω
cos( a − θ) + 1

Pa = (6)
2
In the probability coverage model, the distance and directional probability for each pixel in the
region towards one sensor have been computed, respectively, by Equations (5) and (6), and they are
multiplied together. The obtained probability indicates the coverage probability that one sensor covers
one pixel [39].
Ps¡t = Pa¡ × Pd¡ (7)
where Pd¡ and Pa are distance probability and directional probability of pixel i, respectively.
4. Implementation and Evaluation of Results

In this section, the evolutionary global optimization algorithms consider the network coverage as
the objective function for the problem of sensor network deployment. Two- and three-dimensional
raster models with different resolutions, and the two- and three-dimensional vector models, as more
accurate models, are considered. Moreover, the binary omni-directional model has been considered
for sensor model in two-dimensional environment model and binary directional model has been
considered for sensor model in three-dimensional environment model. The purpose is to achieve
the maximum coverage of sensors, which is obtained by regarding to the coverage percentage of all
sensors of the region. In this research, algorithms update their own solutions regarding the coverage
percent (objective function), which is the proportion of covered area to the maximum coverage power
of sensors in the region. For the problem of wireless sensor network deployment, the amount of
optimal coverage, the accuracy (by computing coverage in vector model), and convergence speed are
considered as the criteria to assess the algorithms. In addition, the solutions of global optimization
algorithms are upgraded based on the coverage probability objective function. The criteria of the
probability coverage percentage and convergence speed are related to their assessment. The models
considered for the sensor and environment are omni-directional sensor model in two-dimensional
environment model, and directional model of sensor in three-dimensional environment model. The
sensors in this evaluation are considered as CCD cameras, and the sensing and setting parameters were
set as a sample CCD sensor. The probability parameters of sensor are, respectively, considered as β = 1
and α = 10 for the distance probability performance and ω = 3 for the direction probability performance
of sensor. These values were set based on real sensor parameters, which meet the intended purpose of
considered CCD sensors.
To evaluate algorithms in two-dimensional environment model, a point with dimensions of
180 m × 200 m was considered. In addition, raster and vector models were used as evaluators of
environmental model in two-dimensional model (Figure 7). In this region, buildings were considered
as obstacles in environment model that their dimensions in various resolutions are different due to
their diverse accuracy.
Figure 7. (A) vector model; and (B) raster model with resolution of 100 cm.
cm.
Figure 7. (A) vector model; and (B) raster model with resolution of 100 cm.
While the three-dimensional model was used for the environment of sensors’ deployment, from
While
While the
the three-dimensional
three-dimensionalmodel modelwas wasused
usedfor
forthe
theenvironment
environmentofofsensors’
sensors’deployment,
deployment, from
froma
a region with dimensions of 200 m × 200 m, a vector three-dimensional dataset with City GML model
region
a region with
withdimensions
dimensions ofof200 mm
200 ××200200m,m,aavector
vectorthree-dimensional
three-dimensionaldataset
datasetwith
withCity
City GML
GML model
model
with two levels of details, and raster model (DSM) were used for different resolutions (spatial features
with
withtwo
two levels
levels of
of details,
details, and
and raster
raster model (DSM) were used for different resolutions
resolutions (spatial
(spatial features
features
that are structured in five subsequent levels of details in which (LoD0) define a vast regional model
that
that are
are structured
structured in in five
five subsequent
subsequent levels
levels of
of details
details in
in which
which (LoD0)
(LoD0) define
define aa vast
vast regional
regional model
model
and (LoD4) with the most details includes the complications inside the building) (Figure 8). All these
and
and (LoD4) with the most details includes the complications inside the building) (Figure 8). All these
(LoD4) with the most details includes the complications inside the building) (Figure 8). All these
regions and study samples were extracted from a real city’s (Delft, The Netherlands) topography [40].
regions
regions and
and study
study samples
samples werewere extracted
extracted from
from a real city’s (Delft, The Netherlands) topography [40].
This region, besides land topography, contains buildings and trees, which were considered as
This
Thisregion,
region,besides
besidesland topography,
land topography,contains buildings
contains and trees,
buildings and which
trees, were
whichconsidered as obstacles.
were considered as
obstacles. Number of network sensors, as one of the parameters in wireless sensor networks’
Number of network sensors, as one of the parameters in wireless sensor networks’
obstacles. Number of network sensors, as one of the parameters in wireless sensor networks’ deployment, was
deployment, was considered 20. The distance of sensor performance was constant and equaled 15 m.
considered
deployment, 20.was
Theconsidered
distance of20.sensor performance
The distance was constant
of sensor and equaled
performance 15 m.and
was constant Theequaled
performance
15 m.
The performance angle of directional sensors was 120 degrees. The interval of sensor height in three-
angle of directionalangle
The performance sensors was 120 degrees.
of directional sensorsThewasinterval of sensor
120 degrees. Theheight in three-dimensional
interval of sensor height inmodel
three-
dimensional model for deployment problem as considered as 10 m height (greater height of sensor
for deployment
dimensional problem
model as consideredproblem
for deployment as 10 m as
height (greater as
considered height
10 mofheight
sensor(greater
leads toheight
bigger of
visibility
sensor
leads to bigger visibility range due to presence of obstacles). The resolution of two-dimensional and
range
leads todue to presence
bigger of obstacles).
visibility range due to The resolution
presence of two-dimensional
of obstacles). and three-dimensional
The resolution of two-dimensional raster
and
three-dimensional raster models as the environment model of wireless sensor networks’ deployment
models as the environment model of wireless sensor networks’ deployment were
three-dimensional raster models as the environment model of wireless sensor networks’ deployment assumed as 100, 200,
were assumed as 100, 200, 300 and 500 cm.
300
wereand 500 cm.as 100, 200, 300 and 500 cm.
assumed
(A) (B)
(A) (B)
Figure 8. (A) CityGML model with level of details two; and (B) DSM model with resolution of 200 cm.
Figure
Figure 8.
8. (A)
(A) CityGML
CityGML model
model with
with level of details
level of details two;
two; and
and (B)
(B) DSM
DSMmodel
modelwith
withresolution
resolutionofof200
200cm.
cm.
The convergence diagram for binary and probability models in raster environment model with
The convergence diagram for binary and probability models in raster environment model with
different separation models
The convergence arefor
diagram shown based
binary andon global algorithms
probability models in inraster
Figures 9–16. In Tables
environment 1–4,with
model the
different separation models are shown based on global algorithms in Figures 9–16. In Tables 1–4, the
final coverage
different amount,
separation vector
models amount,
are shown accuracy
based onofglobal
coverage and time,
algorithms computation
in Figures 9–16. ofIncoverage by
Tables 1–4,
final coverage amount, vector amount, accuracy of coverage and time, computation of coverage by
global
the algorithms
final coverageare shown. vector
amount, All termination
amount, conditions andcoverage
accuracy of setting parameters
and time, for different four
computation of
global algorithms are shown. All termination conditions and setting parameters for different four
applied global
coverage optimization
by global algorithmsalgorithms
are shown.were
All set based onconditions
termination literature and
[22,25,26,30] and authors’
setting parameters for
applied global optimization algorithms were set based on literature [22,25,26,30] and authors’
experiments.
experiments.

4.1. Genetic Algorithm
The solutions of genetic algorithms were considered as decimal numbers. Two-dimensional
different four applied global optimization algorithms were set based on literature [22,25,26,30] and
model was implemented by considering the omni-directional sensor model. At first, the omni-
authors’ experiments.
directional sensor model was implemented in two-dimensional environment for genetic algorithm.
In this
4.1. case,Algorithm
Genetic the solutions were considered as chromosome form. In these solutions, the sensors’
position was assumed as varying parameters. Then, the optimization process of genetic algorithm for
The solutions of
three-dimensional genetic
model wasalgorithms
implemented wereby considered
directional assensor
decimal numbers.
model. The Two-dimensional
number of population model
was implemented by considering the omni-directional sensor model. At first,
members in genetic algorithm was considered as 50. The racing selection operator was considered to the omni-directional
sensor
choosemodel was implemented
the optimal solution in in two-dimensional
this algorithm. In the environment
algorithm,for thegenetic algorithm.
parameter In this case,
of integration the
rate,
solutions were considered as chromosome form. In these solutions, the sensors’
which is used to determine the percentage of present population as the parents for production of new position was assumed
as varying parameters.
generation, was considered Then, theItoptimization
as 70. means that 70% process of geneticinalgorithm
of population for three-dimensional
each repetition are integrated
model
togetherwas implemented
to produce by directional
the next generation.sensor model. The number of population members in genetic
algorithm was
In fact, considered
this parameterasspecifies
50. The racing selection
the effect rate ofoperator was considered
last generation on newtogeneration.
choose theIn optimal
this
solution
research, inthethis algorithm.
parameter In the algorithm,
of mutation the parameter
rate was considered of integration
as 30%. rate, which
The termination is used
condition wasto
determine
assumed tothe percentage
be 100 of present
repetitions. The final population
coverage as of the parents
genetic for production
algorithm of newwith
of raster model generation,
resolution was
considered as 70. It towards
of 100 cm increases means thatthe70%modelof population
with resolutionin each repetition
of 500 cm. This areisintegrated
because the together to produce
searching space
of model
the gets smaller by reducing the resolution of model. The convergence diagram of coverage
next generation.
optimization is shown
In fact, this in Figure
parameter 9, and
specifies the the coverage
effect values
rate of last in Tableon
generation 1. new generation. In this research,
The optimal method of research was implemented
the parameter of mutation rate was considered as 30%. The termination for the case in whichcondition
the directional sensor isto
was assumed
deployed
be in three-dimensional
100 repetitions. The final coverageenvironment
of geneticmodel; withofthis
algorithm difference,
raster model with their solutions
resolution werecm
of 100
considered
increases as suchthe
towards thatmodel
a partwith
of it was relatedofto500
resolution position
cm. Thisparameters
is becauseand the
the other part
searching was of
space related
model
to directional parameters of sensor. In this case, height enters chromosomes
gets smaller by reducing the resolution of model. The convergence diagram of coverage optimization as the third variable of
position.
is shown in Figure 9, and the coverage values in Table 1.
Figure
Figure 9.
9. Convergence
Convergence diagram based
diagram on genetic
based algorithm
on genetic for: two-dimensional
algorithm (A); and(A);
for: two-dimensional three-
and
dimensional (B) raster model.
three-dimensional (B) raster model.
Table 1. Values
Table obtained
1. Values based
obtained on genetic
based algorithm
on genetic for two-
algorithm and three-dimensional
for two- models.
and three-dimensional models.
Dimension of Resolution Coverage Vector Coverage Accuracy of Coverage Time

Dimension of Resolution Coverage Vector Accuracy of
Environment (cm) (%) (%) (%) Time (s)(s)
Environment (cm) (%) Coverage (%) Coverage (%)
100 90.039 90.024 0.014 87.858
100
200 90.039
91.334 90.024
91.117 0.014
0.216 87.858
24.808
Two-dimensional
200
300 91.334
92.437 91.117
91.008 0.216
1.429 24.808
13.508
Two-dimensional
300
500 92.437
93.724 91.008
90.975 1.429
2.549 13.5087.288
500
100 93.724
39.159 90.975
38.682 2.549
0.477 7.288
122.764
200 41.932 40.526 1.405 34.883
Three-dimensional 100 39.159 38.682 0.477 122.764
300 43.083 40.850 2.232 18.152
200 41.932 40.526 1.405 34.883
300 43.083 40.850 2.232 18.152
500 44.328 36.921 7.407 9.508
The optimal method of research was implemented for the case in which the directional sensor
is deployed in three-dimensional environment model; with this difference, their solutions were
considered as such that a part of it was related to position parameters and the other part was related
to directional parameters of sensor. In this case, height enters chromosomes as the third variable
of position.
According to the presented convergence diagrams, the convergence trend of genetic algorithm
for two-dimensional
J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2018,model
7, x FORisPEER
quicker than three-dimensional model, which is due to presence
REVIEW 11 ofof
19
more parameters in three-dimensional model. The convergence trend of genetic algorithm in all raster
models According to theresolutions
with different presented convergence
is the same. diagrams, the convergence trend of genetic algorithm
for two-dimensional
In the following, model is quicker of
the optimization than three-dimensional
probability model,
coverage has beenwhich is duetotoevaluate
considered presencetheof
more parameters in three-dimensional model. The convergence trend
algorithms. Hence, with this purpose, the two and three-dimensional environment models andof genetic algorithm in all
raster models
directional andwith different resolutions
all-direction model of sensoris the were
same.implemented for assessment. The convergence
trendIn of the following,
coverage the optimization
optimization of probability
trend is shown in Figurecoverage
10. has been considered to evaluate the
algorithms.
The convergence diagram of this case also greatly specifies theenvironment
Hence, with this purpose, the two and three-dimensional difference ofmodels
two- andand
directional and all-direction
three-dimension models trend. model of sensorcoverage
The obtained were implemented
percentage for assessment.
reduced The convergence
in comparison to binary
trend of coverage optimization trend is shown in Figure 10.
case. It is due to computing the coverage probability, which is lower than binary mood.
(A) (B)
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Convergence
Convergence diagram
diagram of
of probability
probability coverage
coveragebased
basedon
on genetic
genetic algorithm
algorithm for
for raster
raster models
models
in 100 cm resolution: (A) two-dimensional; and (B) three-dimensional.
in 100 cm resolution: (A) two-dimensional; and (B) three-dimensional.
The convergence diagram of this case also greatly specifies the difference of two- and three-
4.2. CMA-ES Algorithm
dimension models trend. The obtained coverage percentage reduced in comparison to binary case. It
CMA-ES
is due algorithm
to computing is an evolutionary
the coverage algorithm
probability, based than
which is lower on population
binary mood.methods. In CMAE-S
algorithm, the population parameter λ was considered as 3 + 4 [ln (n)], in which n is the number of
variables.
4.2. CMA-ES To optimize
Algorithmthe solutions, CMAE-S algorithm considers the covariance matrix of solutions.
Covariance matrix and mean of desirable solutions (the generative solution) specify the new space
CMA-ES algorithm is an evolutionary algorithm based on population methods. In CMAE-S
for exploration. Therefore, the parameter that affects the formation of solutions’ mean is the number
algorithm, the population parameter λ was considered as 3 + 4 [ln (n)], in which n is the number of
of generative solutions considered as λ/2. Among the other parameters related to this algorithm,
variables. To optimize the solutions, CMAE-S algorithm considers the covariance matrix of solutions.
there is the parameter σ that specifies the direction of the algorithm. This parameter was assumed as
Covariance matrix and mean of desirable solutions (the generative solution) specify the new space
0.167. This parameter was considered as 1 for two-dimensional positions. Ultimately, the termination
for exploration. Therefore, the parameter that affects the formation of solutions’ mean is the number
condition of this algorithm was considered as 300 repetitions, since it has less population than genetic
of generative solutions considered as λ/2. Among the other parameters related to this algorithm, there
algorithms. The convergence diagram of coverage optimization is shown in Figure 11, and the coverage
is the parameter σ that specifies the direction of the algorithm. This parameter was assumed as 0.167.
values in Table 2.
This parameter was considered as 1 for two-dimensional positions. Ultimately, the termination
The convergence speed of CMAE-ES algorithm in two-dimensional model is more than in
condition of this algorithm was considered as 300 repetitions, since it has less population than genetic
three-dimensional model. The dispersion of convergence diagram in three-dimensional model is
algorithms. The convergence diagram of coverage optimization is shown in Figure 11, and the
more than that of two-dimensional model. From repetition 177 onwards, the improvement trend
coverage values in Table 2.
in two-dimensional model is reduced while in three-dimensional model the convergence diagram
continues its trend with a small balance. The results show that coverage amount in all models have
J. Sens.maximized,
been Actuator Netw.which
2018, 7, indicates
x FOR PEER REVIEW
the superiority of this algorithm to other previous algorithms.12 of 19
(A) (B)
Figure11. Convergence diagram based on CMA-ES algorithm for raster models: (A) two dimensions;
and (B) three dimensions.
Table 2. Values obtained based on CMA-ES algorithm for two- and three-dimensional models.
(A) (B)
Dimension of Resolution Coverage Vector Coverage Accuracy of Coverage Time
Figure11.
11. Convergence
Environment
Figure diagram based on
(cm) based
Convergence diagram on (%)
CMA-ES algorithm
CMA-ES algorithm for raster
(%)for raster models:
models: (A)
(A) two dimensions;
(%)two dimensions;(s)
and(B)
and (B)three
threedimensions.
dimensions. 100 97.792 97.494 0.297 79.038
200 98.237 97.851 0.385 17.851
Two-dimensional
Table2.2. Values
Valuesobtained 300
obtainedbased
basedon 98.527
onCMA-ES
CMA-ESalgorithm 94.843
algorithmfor
fortwo-
two-and 3.683
andthree-dimensional models.10.566
three-dimensionalmodels.
Table
500 99.630 95.794 3.836 6.188
Dimension of Resolution
100 Coverage
62.813 Vector Coverage
61.861 Accuracy of Coverage 103.638
0.951 Time
Dimension of
Environment Resolution
(cm)
200 Coverage
(%)
64.473 Vector
(%)
63.291 Accuracy 1.182
of(%) (s)
28.439
Three-dimensional Time (s)
Environment (cm)
100
300 (%)
97.792
68.839 Coverage (%)
97.494
65.796 Coverage (%) 0.297
3.043 79.038
14.143
200
500
100 98.237
75.451
97.792 97.851
65.690
97.494 0.385 79.038 10.628
0.297 9.761 17.851
Two-dimensional
300
200 98.527
98.237 94.843
97.851 0.385 3.683 17.851 10.566
Two-dimensional 500 99.630 95.794 3.836 10.566 6.188
The convergence speed of 300 98.527
CMAE-ES algorithm 94.843
in two-dimensional 3.683 is
model more than in three-
100
500 62.813
99.630 61.861
95.794 3.836 0.951 6.188 103.638
dimensional model. The dispersion 200 of convergence
64.473 diagram63.291 in three-dimensional model is more
1.182 than
28.439
that of two-dimensional model. 300 From repetition
68.839 177 onwards,
65.796 the improvement 3.043 trend in14.143 two-
200 64.473 63.291 1.182 28.439
Three-dimensional
dimensional model is reduced 500 75.451
while in three-dimensional 65.690 the convergence
model 9.761 10.628
diagram continues
300 68.839 65.796 3.043 14.143
its trend with a small balance.500 The results show that coverage
75.451 65.690 amount in all models
9.761 have been
10.628
The convergence speed of CMAE-ES algorithm in two-dimensional model
maximized, which indicates the superiority of this algorithm to other previous algorithms. is more than in three-
dimensional model.CMAE-ES
Regarding The dispersion of convergence diagramprobability
in three-dimensionalinmodel is more than
Regarding to
to CMAE-ES algorithm,
algorithm, deployment
deployment of of probability sensors
sensors in thethe region
region was
was
that of two-dimensional
implemented model.obstacles
From repetition 177higher
onwards, the improvement Totrend in two-
implementedby byconsidering
consideringthe the obstaclestotoreach the
reach the higher probability
probabilitycoverage.
coverage. compare
To comparethe
dimensional model
improvement trend isthis
of reduced while its
algorithm, in convergence
three-dimensional
diagram model
is the convergence
given in Figure 12. diagram continues
the improvement trend of this algorithm, its convergence diagram is given in Figure 12.
its trend with a small balance. The results show that coverage amount in all models have been
maximized, which indicates the superiority of this algorithm to other previous algorithms.
Regarding to CMAE-ES algorithm, deployment of probability sensors in the region was
implemented by considering the obstacles to reach the higher probability coverage. To compare the
improvement trend of this algorithm, its convergence diagram is given in Figure 12.
Figure
Figure 12.
12. Convergence
Convergence diagram
diagram of of probability
probability coverage
coverage based
based on
on CMAE-ES
CMAE-ES algorithm
algorithm for
for raster
raster
models with 100 cm resolution of: (A) two-dimensional; and (B) three-dimensional.
Figure 12. Convergence diagram of probability coverage based on CMAE-ES algorithm for raster
Regarding the convergence diagram, the appropriate performance of this algorithm was
J. Sens. Actuator
specified. Netw. 2018,
Hence, the 7,coverage
x FOR PEER REVIEW in two-dimensional model of this algorithm was 13
obtained of 19
more
than genetic algorithm.
Regarding the convergence diagram, the appropriate performance of this algorithm was
specified.
4.3. L-BFGS Hence, the coverage obtained in two-dimensional model of this algorithm was more than
Algorithm
genetic algorithm.
L-BFGS algorithm is a basic gradient algorithm. This algorithm, unlike other algorithms, does
not have many parameters, and it just uses its previous m memories to make Hessian covariance
4.3. L-BFGS Algorithm
matrix. M was considered as 20. To compute gradient numerically, the motion step ε equal to 1 was
chosen L-BFGS algorithm is a basic
for two-dimensional gradient
positions algorithm.
of sensor. This algorithm,
Moreover, the motionunlike other
step for algorithms,
height variable does
and
not have many parameters, and it just uses its previous m memories to make
directional variable were considered as 0.0056 and 0.0028, respectively. The termination condition Hessian covarianceof
matrix.
this M was was
algorithm considered as 20.
considered asTo
200,compute
since itgradient numerically,
uses a solution the motion of
for optimization step ε equalfunction.
objective to 1 was
chosen
To comparefor two-dimensional
the raster models positions of sensor.
with different Moreover,L-BFGS
resolutions, the motion step for
algorithm was height variable and
implemented for
directional
two- variable were considered
and three-dimensional models. as 0.0056 and 0.0028, respectively. The termination condition of
this algorithm was considered
Their convergence model withas 200,
thesince it uses acondition
termination solution of
for200
optimization
repetition isofshown
objective function.
in Figure 13.
To compare the raster models with different resolutions, L-BFGS algorithm was
The results show that, despite previous methods, the overall coverage is reduced by reducing of the implemented for
two- and three-dimensional
resolution. The reason is thatmodels.
it has more discrete spaces in high resolution models. Table 3 shows the
Their convergence
obtained values based on LBFGS model with the termination condition of 200 repetition is shown in Figure 13.
algorithm.
The results show that, despite
L-BFGS algorithm was used for two-previous methods, the overall coverage
and three-dimensional is reduced
models by reducing
to evaluate of the
the coverage
resolution. The
probability reason is that
assessment. it has more
To better discrete
evaluate this spaces in high
method, resolution models.
the convergence diagram Tablefor3 shows
two- andthe
obtained values based on LBFGS algorithm.
three-dimensional models is shown in Figure 14.
(A) (B)
Figure 13.
Convergencediagram based
diagram on LBFGS
based algorithm
on LBFGS for: (A)for:
algorithm two-dimensional; and (B) three-
(A) two-dimensional; and
dimensional models.
(B) three-dimensional models.
Table 3.
Table 3. Values
Values obtained
obtained based
based on
on LBFGS
LBFGS algorithm
algorithmfor
fortwo-
two-and
andthree-dimensional
three-dimensionalmodels.
models.
Dimension of Resolution Coverage Vector Accuracy of Time

Dimension of
Environment Resolution
(cm) Vector (%) Accuracy of
Coverage(%)
(%) Coverage Coverage (%) Time (s)(s)
Environment (cm) Coverage (%) Coverage (%)
100 96.914 96.584 0.330 92.196
100 96.914 96.584 0.330 92.196
200 96.709 93.971 2.738 41.304
Two-dimensional 200 96.709 93.971 2.738 41.304
Two-dimensional
300 300 95.110
95.110 85.759
85.759 9.352 9.352 22.542
22.542
500 500 88.24
88.24 74.484
74.484 13.75813.758 12.312
12.312
100 100 50.651
50.651 48.805
48.805 1.845 1.845 132.301
132.301
200 200 45.784
45.784 42.710
42.710 3.070 3.070 40.030
40.030
Three-dimensional
Three-dimensional
300 300 43.413 37.686 5.727 5.727 23.800
43.413 37.686 23.800
500 36.332 25.915 10.416 16.682
500 36.332 25.915 10.416 16.682
L-BFGS algorithm was used for two- and three-dimensional models to evaluate the coverage
probability assessment. To better evaluate this method, the convergence diagram for two- and three-
dimensional models is shown in Figure 14.
(A) (B)
Figure 14.
Convergence diagram of probability
diagram coverage
of probability basedbased
coverage on L-BFGS algorithm
on L-BFGS for: (A) two-
algorithm for:
dimensional; and (B) three-dimensional raster models.
(A) two-dimensional; and (B) three-dimensional raster models.
In this scenario, the algorithm efficiency in comparison to three-dimensional model does not
In this scenario, the algorithm efficiency in comparison to three-dimensional model does not have
have proper certainty, because intensive fluctuations in the improvement trend of coverage reduces
proper certainty, because intensive fluctuations in the improvement trend of coverage reduces quick
quick reaching to optimal coverage value. In this algorithm for three-dimensional model, the
reaching to optimal coverage value. In this algorithm for three-dimensional model, the convergence
convergence process takes place slowly since there are many parameters, and to compute the
process takes place slowly since there are many parameters, and to compute the coverage for each
coverage for each parameter regarding previous algorithms.
parameter regarding previous algorithms.
VFCPSO algorithm has been made up of combination of VF and CPSO algorithms. CPSO
VFCPSO algorithm has been made up of combination of VF and CPSO algorithms. CPSO
algorithm is proper for problems in which there are many parameters, as it prevents from trapping
algorithm is proper for problems in which there are many parameters, as it prevents from trapping in
in local optima. VF algorithms as a complement algorithm is one of the local optimization algorithms
local optima. VF algorithms as a complement algorithm is one of the local optimization algorithms
which in the problem of sensor deployment, prevents sensor from getting near to obstacles and other
which in the problem of sensor deployment, prevents sensor from getting near to obstacles and
sensors.
other sensors.
In addition to parameters related to particles’ mass algorithm, the parameters of this algorithm
include a parameter as the effect coefficient of VF algorithm in motion speed of particles. This
coefficient was considered as 0.2. Since VFCPSO algorithm makes mass as the number of problem’s
parameters, the population of each mass was considered as 10. Moreover, its termination condition
parameters, the population of each mass was considered as 10. Moreover, its termination condition was
was considered as 10 iterations. The convergence diagram of coverage optimization is shown in
considered as 10 iterations. The convergence diagram of coverage optimization is shown in Figure 15,
Figure 15, and the obtained values in Table 4.
and the obtained values in Table 4.
Table 4. Values obtained based on VFCPSO algorithm for two- and three-dimensional models.
Environment Resolution Vector Accuracy of

Coverage (%) Time (s)
Dimension (cm) Coverage (%) Coverage (%)
100 98.407 98.057 0.349 77.290
200 98.580 98.464 0.084 17.419
Two-dimensional
300 99.207 96.404 2.802 9.301
500 100.585 97.174 3.411 7.365
100 52.400 52.184 0.215 101.580
200 61.370 61.141 0.228 28.769
Three-dimensional
300 62.624 57.707 4.916 13.698
500 67.906 56.819 11.086 11.173
(A) (B)
Figure 15. Convergence diagram based on VFCPSO algorithm for: (A) two-dimensional; and (B)
three-dimensional raster models.
parameters, the population of each mass was considered as 10. Moreover, its termination condition
was considered as 10 iterations. The convergence diagram of coverage optimization is shown in
Figure 15, and the obtained values in Table 4.
Table 4. Values obtained based on VFCPSO algorithm for two- and three-dimensional models.
Environment Resolution Coverage Vector Accuracy of Time

Dimension (cm) (%) Coverage (%) Coverage (%) (s)
100 98.407 98.057 0.349 77.290
200 98.580 98.464 0.084 17.419
Two-dimensional
300 99.207 96.404 2.802 9.301
500 100.585 97.174 3.411 7.365
(A) 100 52.400 52.184 (B) 0.215 101.580
200 61.370 61.141 0.228 28.769
Three-dimensional
Figure 15.
15. Convergence
Figure Convergence diagram
diagrambased
300 on
onVFCPSO
VFCPSOalgorithm
based62.624 57.707 for:
algorithm for:(A)(A)
two-dimensional; andand
two-dimensional;
4.916 (B)
13.698
(B) three-dimensional raster models.
500 67.906 56.819 11.086 11.173
This algorithm
This algorithm quickly
quickly gets
gets near
near to
to optimal
optimal value.
value. As such, itit goes
goes through
through aa proper
proper growth
growth in
in
two iterations,
two iterations, and,and, after
after that,
that, the
the improvement
improvement trend
trend moves
moves slowly.
slowly. The
The dispersion
dispersion of
of convergence
convergence
diagram is
diagram is high
high inin three-dimensional
three-dimensionalmodel.
model.
In this
In this part,
part, VFCPSO
VFCPSO algorithm
algorithm was
was used
used to
to consider
consider the
the effect
effect of
of sensor
sensor probability
probability model
model for
for
two- and
two- and three-dimensional
three-dimensionalraster rastermodels.
models. In
In this respect,
respect, convergence
convergence diagrams
diagrams are
are presented
presented based
based
on two-
on two- and
and three-dimensional
three-dimensional models
models (Figure
(Figure 16)
16) to
to better
better compare
compare the the performance
performance of of VFCPSO
VFCPSO
algorithm in
algorithm in the
the proposed
proposedscenario.
scenario.
(A) (B)
Figure 16.
Convergencediagram
diagrambased
basedononVFCPSO
VFCPSOalgorithm
algorithmfor: (A)(A)
for: two-dimensional; andand
two-dimensional; (B)
(B) three-dimensional raster models.
Implementation of this scenario based on VFCPSO algorithm and the obtained coverage values
Implementation of this scenario based on VFCPSO algorithm and the obtained coverage values
show the superiority of this method in terms of reaching a better coverage than other algorithms. In
show the superiority of this method in terms of reaching a better coverage than other algorithms.
two-dimensional model of this scenario, the algorithm converged quickly, whereas the convergence
In two-dimensional model of this scenario, the algorithm converged quickly, whereas the convergence
trend in three-dimensional model has taken place slowly.
trend in three-dimensional model has taken place slowly.
In addition to the raster modeling above, the environment of sensor networks was modeled
In addition to the raster modeling above, the environment of sensor networks was modeled based
based on the vector coverage for each of the two- and three-dimensional raster models, and their
on the vector coverage for each of the two- and three-dimensional raster models, and their results are
results are shown in Figure 17.
shown in Figure 17.
The obtained results of applying different global optimization algorithms indicate that using the
proposed models leads to significant accuracy of coverage, which confirms the initial hypothesis of
this paper. All four applied algorithms parameters are adapted to enable convergence based on
previous simulations. Results show that VFCPSO has the best performance among other proposed
optimization methods. Increasing the resolution in both raster and vector models lightly increase the
coverage value in all optimization methods. L-BFGS performs slightly worst among other methods,
especially when the resolution is low. The other advantage of VFCPSO algorithm is the number of
(A)
(B)
Figure
Figure 17.
17. Comparison of final
Comparison vector
of final coverage
vector of eachofofeach
coverage global
of optimization algorithms:
global optimization (A) two-
algorithms:
dimensional model; and (B) three-dimensional model.
(A) two-dimensional model; and (B) three-dimensional model.
5. Conclusions and Suggestions

The obtained results of applying different global optimization algorithms indicate that using the
In this
proposed research,
models thetoperformance
leads of evolutionary
significant accuracy global
of coverage, optimization
which confirms thealgorithms were evaluated
initial hypothesis of this
and compared
paper. to makealgorithms
All four applied the maximum coverage
parameters areofadapted
wirelesstosensor
enable networks
convergence with the approach
based on previous of
increasing coverage value. Moreover, comparing the results obtained
simulations. Results show that VFCPSO has the best performance among other proposed optimization from implementations
indicates
methods. that, although
Increasing the examined
the resolution in bothoptimization algorithms
raster and vector modelsinlightly
two-dimensional
increase the model
coveragereached
value
the
in allsame results in
optimization estimation
methods. L-BFGSof probability coverage,
performs slightly worsttheir
among final coverage
other methods, dropped in three-
especially when
dimensional
the resolutionmodelis low.due
Theto highadvantage
other number ofofparameters in this model.
VFCPSO algorithm is the number of iteration to converge
to theMoreover, due to twofold
optimum coverage comparedlocalotherand global approach, VFCPSO algorithm has the best
methods.
performance among all the implemented algorithms. Since CMA-ES algorithm considers the
5. Conclusions
correlation among and solutions’
Suggestions positions, it has more power in optimizing the coverage value in
comparison to its peer, genetic
In this research, the performance algorithm. L-BFGS algorithm
of evolutionary has the most
global optimization coverage were
algorithms valueevaluated
in raster
model with higher resolution, and, in this case, it has a great convergence
and compared to make the maximum coverage of wireless sensor networks with the approach speed. The running time
of
to compute coverage in three-dimensional model is more than that of two-dimensional
increasing coverage value. Moreover, comparing the results obtained from implementations indicates model of
environment.
that, although VFCPSOthe examinedalgorithm possesses
optimization shorter in
algorithms running time of coverage
two-dimensional computation
model reached the same in
comparison to other algorithms.
results in estimation of probability coverage, their final coverage dropped in three-dimensional model
due to The other
high resultofisparameters
number that considering
in thisthe environment with more resolution does not necessarily
model.
lead Moreover,
to a betterdue deployment in terms of coverage,
to twofold local and global approach, since increasing
VFCPSO resolution
algorithm has themay increase the
best performance
exploration
among all the space of globalalgorithms.
implemented optimization algorithms
Since CMA-ES and cause considers
algorithm that, besides endangering
the correlation amongthe
algorithm to become trapped the local optima, the resolved optima has less
solutions’ positions, it has more power in optimizing the coverage value in comparison to its peer, coverage. Moreover,
increasing the resolution
genetic algorithm. L-BFGS of environment
algorithm has model, the coverage
the most coverage computation
value in rasterprocessing
modeltime
withfor each
higher
algorithm decreases. In addition, the final coverage value in three-dimensional model in comparison
to two-dimensional model reaches lower value in all algorithms. The reason is the existence of
resolution, and, in this case, it has a great convergence speed. The running time to compute coverage
in three-dimensional model is more than that of two-dimensional model of environment. VFCPSO
algorithm possesses shorter running time of coverage computation in comparison to other algorithms.
The other result is that considering the environment with more resolution does not necessarily lead
to a better deployment in terms of coverage, since increasing resolution may increase the exploration
space of global optimization algorithms and cause that, besides endangering the algorithm to become
trapped the local optima, the resolved optima has less coverage. Moreover, increasing the resolution
of environment model, the coverage computation processing time for each algorithm decreases.
In addition, the final coverage value in three-dimensional model in comparison to two-dimensional
model reaches lower value in all algorithms. The reason is the existence of topography, and more
parameters of sensor, i.e., height of sensor and direction of component z of sensor in three-dimensional
model. By reducing the resolution in raster models, the effect of environmental factors such as obstacles
and topography are declined and it makes more errors in coverage computation.
In next steps of this research, the deployment problem will be integrated with the other goals of the
network such as communications’ topography, minimum consuming energy, and maximum lifetime.
Moreover, the efficiency of global optimization algorithms will be compared by using these aims in
more complex environment models. In addition, for future research, we can consider assessment
of global optimization algorithms in vector environment model and review the global optimization
algorithms in a fixed period together with possessing environment spatial parameters in animated
mood and as well as their evaluation by time-spatial approach of spatial information systems.
Author Contributions: The main idea of this research was proposed by M.A. and F.K. The research was carried
out by all authors. The paper is also written by M.A. F.K., F.M. and A.A. helped the main author to finish this
work, and also proofreading of the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Journal of

J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2018, 7, 20; doi:10.3390/jsan7020020 www.mdpi.com/journal/jsan

2. Previous Research and Some of Evolutionary Global Optimization Algorithms of Sensor

2.1. Genetic Algorithm

2.2. CMA-ES Algorithm

2.3. L-BFGS Algorithm

2.4. VFCPSO Algorithm

3. Coverage Computation Model in Sensors and Models of Problem

J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19

Area = number of covered pixels ×(size of pixel)2 (2)

Area = number of covered pixels ×(size of pixel)2 (2)

4. Implementation and Evaluation of Results

J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2018, 7, 20 10 of 19

Dimension of Resolution Coverage Vector Coverage Accuracy of Coverage Time

J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2018, 7, 20 12 of 19

Dimension of Resolution Coverage Vector Accuracy of Time

Environment Resolution Vector Accuracy of

J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19

Environment Resolution Coverage Vector Accuracy of Time

5. Conclusions and Suggestions

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