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General
Chemistry
Module 15
Use Quantum Numbers to
Describe an Electron in an Atom

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Mechanical Structure of Atoms

➢ Erwin Schrödinger proposed the quantum mechanical model of the atom,
which treats electrons as matter waves.

➢ Schrödinger's equation, Hψ = Eψ, can be solved to yield a series of wave

function ψ, each of which is associated with an electron binding energy, E.

To understand the
electronic structure
of atoms, one must
understand the
nature of
electromagnetic

➢ The distance between corresponding points on adjacent waves is the

wavelength (λ)
➢ The number of waves passing a given point per unit of time is the frequency
(v).
➢ For waves traveling at the same velocity, the longer the wavelength, the
smaller the frequency.

Electromagnetic Radiation

➢ All electromagnetic radiation travels at the same velocity in a vacuum: the

speed of light (c), c = 3.00 x 108 m/s.
➢ The speed of a wave is the product of its wavelength (λ) and frequency (v).
c=λv

Quantums
Quantum numbers basically tells one to indicate probable location of
electrons in an atom. As such, scientists came into formulating possible electron
locators. These are presented below:

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THE PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER

The first quantum number describes the electron shell, or energy level, of an
atom. The value of n ranges from 1 to the shell containing the outermost electron of
that atom. For example, in caesium (Cs), the outermost valence electron is in the
shell with energy level 6, so an electron in caesium can have an n value from 1 to 6.
For particles in a time-independent potential, per the Schrödinger equation, it also
labels the nth eigenvalue of Hamiltonian (H) (i.e. the energy E with the contribution
due to angular momentum, the term involving J2, left out). This number therefore
has a dependence only on the distance between the electron and the nucleus (i.e. the
radial coordinate r). The average distance increases with n, thus quantum states with
different principal quantum numbers are said to belong to different shells.

THE AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER

The second quantum number, known as the angular or orbital quantum

number, describes the subshell and gives the magnitude of the orbital angular
momentum through the relation. In chemistry and spectroscopy, ℓ = 0 is called an s
orbital, ℓ = 1 a p orbital, ℓ = 2 a d orbital, and ℓ = 3 an f orbital. The value of ℓ ranges
from 0 to n − 1 because the first p orbital (ℓ = 1) appears in the second electron shell
(n = 2), the first d orbital (ℓ = 2) appears in the third shell (n = 3), and so on. In
chemistry, this quantum number is very important since it specifies the shape of an
atomic orbital and strongly influences chemical bonds and bond angles.

THE MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER

The magnetic quantum number describes the energy levels available within a
subshell and yields the projection of the orbital angular momentum along a specified
axis. The values of mℓ range from − to ℓ, with integer steps between them. The s
subshell (ℓ = 0) contains one orbital, and therefore the mℓ of an electron in an s
subshell will always be 0. The p subshell (ℓ = 1) contains three orbitals (in some
systems depicted as three “dumbbell-shaped” clouds), so the mℓ of an electron in a
p subshell will be −1, 0, or 1. The d subshell (ℓ = 2) contains five orbitals, with
mℓ values of −2, −1, 0, 1, and 2. The value of the m ℓ quantum number is associated
with the orbital orientation.

THE SPIN PROJECTION QUANTUM NUMBER

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The fourth quantum number describes the spin (intrinsic angular momentum)
of the electron within that orbital and gives the projection of the spin angular
momentum (s) along the specified axis. Analogously, the values of m s range from −s
to s, where s is the spin quantum number, an intrinsic property of particles. An
electron has spin s = ½, consequently m s will be ±, corresponding with spin and
opposite spin. Each electron in any individual orbital must have different spins
because of the Pauli exclusion principle, therefore an orbital never contains more
than two electrons.

Module 16
Describe the Magnetic Property of the
Atom Based on its Electronic
Configuration

What is It

What is an Electron Configuration

Table?

➢ An electron configuration table is

a type of code that describes how
many electrons are in each
energy level of an atom and how
the electrons are arranged within
each energy level

What do all those numbers and letters mean?

Each row of an electron configuration table is sort of like a sentence. Each 'sentence' is
made up of smaller 'words'. Each 'word' follows this format:

➢ The first number is the energy level. We can tell right away that an atom of gold
contains 6 energy levels.
➢ The lowercase letter is the sub-shell. The sub-shells are named s, p, d and f. The
number of available sub-shells increases as the energy level increases. For example,
the first energy level only contains an s sub-shell while the second energy level
contains both an s sub-shell and a p sub-shell.
➢ The number in superscript is the number of electrons in a sub-shell. Each sub-shell
can hold only a certain number of electrons.
- The s sub-shell can hold no more than 2 electrons
- The p sub-shell can hold 6 electrons
How
- can
TheI duse the electron
sub-shell can holdconfiguration
10 electrons table to tell me...
- The f sub-shell can hold as many as 14 electrons.
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How many energy levels does an atom have?

Since the electron configuration table lists each energy level by row, you can
tell how many energy levels there are by seeing how many rows there are. As an
example, an atom of gold contains six energy levels, as shown below:

How many electrons are in each

energy level?

The total number of electrons in an energy level is the sum of the electrons in
each sub-shell of that energy level. Just add the numbers in superscript together to
find the number of electrons in an energy level. The number of electrons in each
energy level in an atom of gold is shown below:

How many electrons are in an atom's outer energy level?

This is just a combination of the previous two examples. Use the electron
configuration to find that atom's highest energy level and then add up the numbers
in superscript to find the number of electrons that are in it. There is one electron in
the outer energy level of an atom of gold, as shown below:

T/N: Atomic number is always the same as the number of superscript needed in the
electron configuration. Lessen the number of the last letter in the configuration table
to exact needed number of superscript.

DIAMAGNETISM

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➢ Diamagnetic atoms repel magnetic fields.

➢ The unpaired electrons of paramagnetic atoms realign in response to

external magnetic fields and are therefore attracted.

➢ Paramagnets do not retain magnetization in the absence of a magnetic

field, because thermal energy randomizes electron spin orientations.

FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2 FIGURE 3

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

➢ The Magnetic moment of every atom is zero.

➢ They are weakly repelled by an external magnetic field
➢ When placed in a non- uniform magnetic field, they tend to move from the
stronger to the weaker part of the field.
➢ In an external magnetic field, they get weakly magnetized in the direction
opposite to that of the field.
➢ When a rod of diamagnetic substance is suspended in a uniform magnetic
field, it comes to rest with its length perpendicular to the directions of the field
(see Figure 1).
➢ For diamagnetic substances, magnetic susceptibility is negative.
➢ In the absence of an external magnetic field, the net magnetic moment of
diamagnetic substance is zero.
➢ On removal of the external magnetic field, diamagnetic substances lose their
magnetism.
➢ If a watch glass containing a small quantity of diamagnetic liquid is placed on
two dissimilar magnetic poles, the liquid shows a depression in the middle
(see Figure 2).
➢ If a magnetic field is applied to a diamagnetic liquid in one arm of U- Tube, the
liquid level in that arm is lowered (see Figure 3).

EXPLANATION FOR DIAMAGNETISM

The orbital motion of electrons gives rise to an orbital magnetic moment. In

additional, the electrons spin about its own axis constituting a spin magnetic moment.
The resultant magnetic moment of an atom is the vector sum of the orbital and spin
magnetic moment. In an atom, electrons can have clockwise or anticlockwise spin.
Similarly, the electrons can revolve around the nucleus in a clockwise or anticlockwise
direction.

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In a diamagnetic substance, the orbital magnetic moments and magnetic

moments of atoms are oriented in such a way that the vector sum of the magnetic
moment of an atom is zero.

When a diamagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field, the

induced E.M.F. (electromagnetic force field) in each atom increased. As a result, the
speed of electrons revolving in one direction increases and those revolving in opposite
direction decreases. Thus, the substance as a whole acquires a net magnetic moment
in a direction opposite to the applied field.

PARAMAGNETISM

➢ A paramagnetic electron is an unpaired electron.

➢ An atom is considered paramagnetic if even one orbital has a net spin.

➢ An atom could have ten diamagnetic electrons, but as long as it also has
one paramagnetic electron, it is still considered a paramagnetic atom.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
PARAMAGNETISM

➢ Every atom is a
magnetic diploe having
a resultant magnetic
moment. FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
➢ They are weakly
attracted by an
➢ They
external are weakly
magnetic field.attracted by an external magnetic field.
➢ When place
➢ When place in a non- in a non- uniform magnetic field, they get weakly magnetized in
themagnetic
uniform same directionfield, to that of the field.
➢ When
they get weakly a rod of a paramagnetic substance is suspended in a uniform magnetic
field, it comes
magnetized in the to rest with its length parallel to the directions of the field.
➢
same direction toofthat
In absence an external magnetic field, the magnetic moments of atomic
of themagnets
field. are randomly arranged; hence the net magnetic moment of the
➢ When a rod of a substance is zero.
paramagnetic
➢ On removal of the external magnetic field, paramagnetic substance loses their
paramagnetic
magnetism.
substance is
➢ If a watch
suspended in aglass
uniform containing small quantity of paramagnetic liquid is placed on
two dissimilar
magnetic field, it magnetic poles, the liquid shows an elevation in the middle (see
Figure
comes to rest 1).with its
➢ If parallel
length a magnetic to thefield is applied to the paramagnetic liquid in one arm of U- tube,
the liquid level
directions of the field. in that arm rises (see Figure 2).
➢ Magnetic susceptibility is positive and small.
➢ The susceptibility decreases with an increase in temperature.

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EXPLANATION FOR PARAMAGNETISM

In paramagnetic substance, the orbital and spin

magnetic moments of atoms are oriented in such a
way that, each atom has a permanent magnetic dipole
moment.

However, due to thermal motion (vibration), the direction of the magnetic moments
of the atoms has random orientations. As a result of this, the net magnetic moment of
a paramagnetic substance is zero.

When a paramagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field, each

atomic magnets tend to align in the direction of the field. Thus, a paramagnetic
substance acquires a net magnetic moment (magnetization).

However, the degree of alignment depends directly on the strength of the external
field and inversely on the temperature of the specimen.

When the paramagnetic substance is removed from the magnetic field, the
alignment is once again disturbed by thermal vibrations and it gets demagnetized. For
this reason, paramagnetic substance cannot be used as permanent magnets.

EXPLANATION FOR PARAMAGNETISM

In paramagnetic substance, the orbital

and spin magnetic moments of atoms are
oriented in such a way that, each atom has
a permanent magnetic dipole moment.

Module 17
Writing Lewis Structure

The Lewis Structure History

The subject of chemical bonding is at the heart of chemistry. In 1916 Gilbert

Newton Lewis (1875–1946) published his seminar paper suggesting that a chemical
bond is a pair of electrons shared by two atoms.
Once physicists studying the structure of the atom began to realize that the
electrons surrounding the nucleus had a special arrangement, chemists began to
investigate how these theories corresponded to the known chemistry of the elements
and their bonding abilities. Lewis was instrumental in developing a bonding theory
based on the number of electrons in the outermost “valence” shell of the atom.

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bio-lewis-atomicmodels-crop.jpeg

Gilbert Newton Lewis’s memorandum of 1902 showing his speculations about

the role of electrons in atomic structure. From Valence and the Structure of Atoms
and Molecules (1923), p. 29. Science History Institute
Shared Electrons and Chemical Bonds

In 1902, while Lewis was trying to explain valence to his students, he depicted
atoms as constructed of a concentric series of cubes with electrons at each corner.
This “cubic atom” explained the eight groups in the periodic table and represented
his idea that chemical bonds are formed by electron transference to give each atom
a complete set of eight outer electrons (an “octet”). Lewis’s theory of chemical bonding
continued to evolve and, in 1916, he published his seminar article suggesting that a
chemical bond is a pair of electrons shared by two atoms. (General Electric
researcher Irving Langmuir subsequently elaborated on this idea and introduced the
term covalent bond.) For cases where no sharing was involved, Lewis in 1923
redefined an acid as any atom or molecule with an incomplete octet that was thus
capable of accepting electrons from another atom; bases were, of course, electron
donors.

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The Lewis Structure

• An atom can be viewed as a positively charged ‘Kernel’ (the nucleus plus the
inner electrons) and the outer shell.
• The outer shell can accommodate a maximum of eight electrons only.
• The eight electrons present in the outer shell occupy the corners of a cube
which surround the ‘Kernel’.
• The atoms having octet configuration, i.e. 8 electrons in the outermost shell,
thus symbolize a stable configuration.
• Atoms can achieve this stable configuration by forming chemical bonds with
other atoms. This chemical bond can be formed either by gaining or losing an
electron(s) (NaCl, MgCl2) or in some cases due to the sharing of an electron
(F2).
• Only the electrons present in the outer shell, also known as the valence
electrons take part in the formation of chemical bonds. Gilbert Lewis used
specific notations better known as Lewis symbols to represent these valence
electrons.
• Generally, the valency of an element is either equal to the number of dots in
the corresponding Lewis symbol or 8 minus the number of dots (or valence
electrons).
• Lewis symbols for lithium (1 electron), oxygen (6 electrons), neon (8 electrons)
are given below:

Here, the number of dots that surround the respective symbol represents the
number of valence electrons in that atom.

Writing Lewis Structures

The following steps are adopted for writing the Lewis dot structures or Lewis
structures:

Step 1: Calculate the number of electrons required for drawing the structure by
adding the valence electrons of the combining atoms. For Example, in methane,

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CH4 molecule, there are 8 valence electrons (in which 4 belongs to carbon while other
4 to H atoms).

Step 2: Each negative charge i.e. for anions, we add an electron to the valence
electrons and for each positive charge i.e. for cations we subtract one electron from
the valence electrons.

Step 3: Using the chemical symbols of the combining atoms and constructing a
skeletal structure of the compound, divide the total number of electrons as bonding
shared pairs between the atoms in proportion to the total bonds.

Step 4: The central position in the molecule is occupied by the least electronegative
atom. Hydrogen and fluorine generally occupy the terminal positions.

Step 5: After distributing the shared pairs of electrons for single bonds, the
remaining electron pairs are used for multiple bonds or they constitute lone pairs.
The basic requirement is that each bonded atom gets an octet of electrons.

Example 1: Lewis formula for carbon monoxide, CO

Step 1: Counting the total number of valence electrons of carbon and oxygen
atoms: C (2s22p2) + O (2s22p4) 4 + 6 = 10 that is, 4(C) + 6(O) = 10

• Step 2: The skeletal structure of carbon monoxide is written as CO

• Step 3: Drawing a single bond between C and O and completing octet on O,

the remaining two electrons are lone pair on C.

Step 4: This does not complete the octet of carbon, and hence we have a triple
bond.

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Example 2: Lewis Structure of nitrite, NO2

• Step 1: Counting the total number of valence electrons of one nitrogen atom,
two oxygen atoms and the additional one negative charge (equal to one
electron). Total Number of valence electrons is: N (2s22p3) + 2O (2s22p4) + 1
(negative charge) => 5+ 2(6) +1=18e–

• Step 2: The skeletal structure of nitrite ion is written as O-N-O

• Step 3: Drawing a single bond between nitrogen and each oxygen atom: O –
N–O

Step 4: Complete the octets of atoms.

This structure does not complete octet on N if the remaining two electrons
constitute of a lone pair on it. Therefore, we have a double bond between one N and
one of the two O atoms. The Lewis structure is

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Module 18
Polarity and Geometry of Simple
Compounds

Two factors that determine the polarity of molecules.

1) The polarity of the bonds between atoms which can be studied based on electronegativity, and
2) The geometrical shape of the molecule which can be predicted via the valence shell electron pair
repulsion (VSEPR) theory.

Electronegativity
• Measure of the relative tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself when
chemically combined with another atom. The higher the value of
electronegativity, the more it tends to attract electrons toward itself.
Polar covalent and Non-polar covalent bonds

• Polar covalent bonds occur when electron pairs are unequally shared. The
difference in electronegativity between atoms is significant. Examples of compounds
having polar covalent bonds are:
HCl EN of H = 2.1 EN of Cl = 3.0 ΔEN = 0.9
HF EN of H = 2.1 EN of F = 4.0 ΔEN = 1.9

• The separation of charges makes the bond polar. It creates an electric dipole. Dipole
refers to “two poles,” meaning there is a positive and a negative pole within a molecule.
Elements with the higher EN value become the partial negative pole while elements with
the lower EN value become the partial positive pole. This makes the molecule a polar
• molecule.

• Non-polar covalent bonds occur when electron pairs are shared equally or the
difference in electronegativity between atoms is less than 0.5. Examples of
substances having non-polar covalent bonds are:
H2 EN of H = 2.1 ΔEN = 0.0 NON-POLAR MOLECULE; not a dipole
Cl2 EN of Cl = 3.0 ΔEN = 0.0 NON-POLAR MOLECULE; not a dipole
F2 EN of F = 4.0 ΔEN = 0.0 NON-POLAR MOLECULE; not a dipole
PRACTICE
Determine if the bond between elements are polar covalent or non-polar covalent.

CH4 CF4 O2 HBr

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Molecular Geometry
The valence shell electron pair repulsion theory or VSEPR theory helps predict the
spatial arrangement of atoms in a polyatomic molecule. The shapes are designed to
minimize the repulsion within a molecule.

Guidelines to determine the VSEPR shape of a molecule:

1. Determine the central atom of a molecule. The central atom is the least
electronegative element.
2. Count how many valence electrons the central atom has.
3. Count how many valence electrons the side atoms have. 4. Create the
appropriate Lewis structure of the molecule.
5. Using the Lewis structure as a guide, determine the appropriate VSEPR shape
for the molecule.
6. Note how many electrons are shared and unshared. This will help determine the
appropriate VSEPR shape.

• Polar molecule:

H2O Bent - polar due to two lone pairs

NH3 Trigonal pyramidal - polar due to one lone pair
NO Linear - polar due to unequal sharing of electrons

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Non-polar molecule
CO2 Linear
CH4 Tetrahedral
CCl4 Tetrahedral

Difference between bond polarity and molecular polarity.

The presence of polar bonds does not automatically make a molecule polar. The
geometry of the molecule also plays an important role. This can be seen in CO2
wherein the electronegativity difference of C and O is 1.0 which makes the bond
between them polar. However carbon is placed in the middle of two oxygen atoms
making the molecular structure linear. This equal distribution of polar bonds make
the molecule non-polar.

Written Work No. 5

Directions: Write the letter of the correct answer on a separate sheet of paper.

Directions: Loop 10 words that are related to the electronic configuration.

Looping can be horizontally, vertically or diagonally. List down all the words
that you have found below.

E L E C T R O N I C
C A S D F G H H J K
O S U B S T A N C E
N Q W E R T Y U S R
F L E V E L U U E
I E V V D L G H B B
G L Q Z E X C V S M
U E G H N M D F H U
R C S R G N N Y E N
A T O M S R G T L C
T R A S D R F H L I
I O Q W E F G H S M
O N X N Q W E R T O
N S E P G R T Y U T
P M A G N E T I C A

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Written Work No. 6

Define the words given. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Ionic Bonding.
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. Cation.
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. Anion.
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. Valence.
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
5. Compounds.
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Performance Task No. 5

Directions: Justify your answer to the question given.
“What makes electron configuration important”?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Performance Task No. 6
Directions: Explain the importance of Ionic Bonding. Write your answer on a
separate sheet of paper.

“Why is ionic bonding important”?

___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________

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